Bridge Design Specification (CALTRANS)

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004
CONTENTS - DIVISION I - DESIGN

Section 1 - General Provisions
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL ..........................................................

INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES ....................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-1
Design Analysis ....................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-1
Structural Integrity ................................................................. April 2000 ................... 1-1
1.2
BRIDGE LOCATION ................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-1
1.3
WATERWAYS .............................................................................. April 2000
1.3.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000
1.3.2
Hydraulic Studies .................................................................... April 2000
1.3.2.1
Site Data ............................................................................. April 2000
1.3.2.2
Hydrologic Analysis ............................................................ April 2000
1.3.2.3
Hydraulic Analysis ............................................................. April 2000
................... 1-1
................... 1-1
................... 1-2
................... 1-2
................... 1-2
................... 1-2
1.4
CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND .................................................................................

WATERWAY OPENINGS ........................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-2
1.5
ROADWAY DRAINAGE .............................................................. April 2000 ................... 1-2
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
RAILROAD OVERPASSES ......................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-2

Clearances ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 1-2
Blast Protection ....................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3
1.7
SUPERELEVATION .................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3
1.8
FLOOR SURFACES ..................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3
1.9
UTILITIES .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3
Section 2 - General Features of Design

2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 2-1

Notations .................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 2-1
Width of Roadway and Sidewalk .......................................... April 2000 ................... 2-1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES - GENERAL .............. April 2000

Navigational ............................................................................. April 2000
Roadway Width ....................................................................... April 2000
Vertical Clearance ................................................................... April 2000
Other ........................................................................................ April 2000
Curbs and Sidewalks ............................................................... April 2000
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES .............................. April 2000 ................... 2-2

Width ....................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 2-2
Vertical Clearance ................................................................... April 2000 ................... 2-2
CONTENTS
................... 2-1
................... 2-1
................... 2-1
................... 2-1
................... 2-1
................... 2-2
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES .................... April 2000

Width ....................................................................................... April 2000
Vertical Clearances .................................................................. April 2000
Curbs ........................................................................................ April 2000
2.5
2.5.1
HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS ............................. April 2000 ................... 2-2

Roadway Width ....................................................................... April 2000 ................... 2-2
2.7
RAILINGS ..................................................................................... April 2000
2.7.1
Vehicular Railing ..................................................................... April 2000
2.7.1.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000
2.7.1.2
Geometry ............................................................................. April 2000
2.7.1.3
Loads ................................................................................... April 2000
2.7.2
Bicycle Railing ......................................................................... April 2000
2.7.2.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000
2.7.2.2
Geometry and Loads .......................................................... April 2000
2.7.3
Pedestrian Railing .................................................................. April 2000
2.7.3.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000
2.7.3.2
Geometry and Loads .......................................................... April 2000
2.7.4
Structural Specifications and Guidelines ............................. April 2000
................... 2-2
................... 2-2
................... 2-2
................... 2-2
................... 2-2
................... 2-3
................... 2-3
................... 2-3
................... 2-3
................... 2-4
................... 2-4
................... 2-4
................... 2-6
................... 2-6
................... 2-6
................... 2-7
Section 3 - Loads
Part A - Types of Loads
II
3.1
NOTATIONS ................................................................................. February 2004 ............ 3-1
3.2
GENERAL ..................................................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-2
3.3
DEAD LOAD ................................................................................ February 2004 ............ 3-3
3.4
LIVE LOAD .................................................................................. February 2004 ............ 3-3
3.5
OVERLOAD PROVISIONS ......................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-3
3.6
TRAFFIC LANES ......................................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-3
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.5
3.7.6
3.7.7
HIGHWAY LOADS ...................................................................... February 2004

Standard Truck and Lane Loads ........................................... February 2004
Classes of Loading .................................................................. February 2004
Designation of Loadings ......................................................... February 2004
Minimum Loading .................................................................. February 2004
H Loading ................................................................................ February 2004
HS Loading .............................................................................. February 2004
P Loading ................................................................................ February 2004
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-4
............ 3-6
3.8
IMPACT ........................................................................................ February 2004
3.8.1
Application ............................................................................... February 2004
3.8.1.1
Group A-Impact Shall be Included ................................... February 2004
3.8.1.2
Group B-Impact Shall Not be Included ............................ February 2004
3.8.2
Impact Formula ....................................................................... February 2004
3.8.2.3
For Culverts see "Section 6, Culverts" .............................. February 2004
............ 3-6
............ 3-6
............ 3-6
............ 3-6
............ 3-9
............ 3-9
3.9
LONGITUDINAL FORCES ......................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-9
3.10
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES ........................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-9
CONTENTS
3.11
APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD ................................................ February 2004
3.11.1
Traffic Lane Units ................................................................... February 2004
3.11.2
Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units ......................... February 2004
3.11.3
Lane Loads on Continuous Spans ......................................... February 2004
3.11.4
Loading for Maximum Stress ................................................ February 2004
3.11.4.3
Loading for Load Factor Design ...................................... February 2004
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
3.12
REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY ......................................... February 2004 .......... 3-10
3.13
ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS ................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-10
3.14
3.14.1
3.14.2
3.14.3
SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING ...................... February 2004

Sidewalk Loading .................................................................... February 2004
Curb Loading ........................................................................... February 2004
Railing Loading ....................................................................... February 2004
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-10
.......... 3-11
.......... 3-11
3.15
WIND LOADS .............................................................................. February 2004
3.15.1
Superstructure Design ............................................................ February 2004
3.15.1.1
Group II and Group V Loadings ...................................... February 2004
3.15.1.2
Group III and Group VI Loadings ................................... February 2004
3.15.2
Substructure Design ................................................................ February 2004
3.15.2.1
Forces from Superstructure .............................................. February 2004
3.15.2.2
Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure ................... February 2004
3.15.3
Overturing Forces ................................................................... February 2004
.......... 3-11
.......... 3-11
.......... 3-11
.......... 3-12
.......... 3-12
.......... 3-12
.......... 3-12
.......... 3-13
3.16
THERMAL FORCES .................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13
3.17
UPLIFT ......................................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13
3.18
FORCE FROM STREAM CURRENT, .....................................................................................

FLOATING ICE AND DRIFT ..................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13
3.18.1
Force of Stream Current on Piers ......................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13
3.18.1.1
Steam Pressure .................................................................. February 2004 .......... 3-13
3.18.1.2
Pressure Components ........................................................ February 2004 .......... 3-14
3.18.1.3
Drift Lodged Against Pier ................................................ February 2004 .......... 3-14
3.18.2
Force of Ice on Piers .............................................................. February 2004 .......... 3-14
3.19
BUOYANCY .................................................................................. February 2004 .......... 3-14
3.20
EARTH PRESSURE ..................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-14
3.21
EARTHQUAKES ........................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-15
Part B - Combinations of Loads

3.22
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS .................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-15
Part C - Distribution of Loads

3.23
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, ......................................................................

LONGITUDINAL BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS ................... February 2004 .......... 3-18
3.23.1
Position of Loads for Shear ................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-18
3.23.2
Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams ... February 2004 .......... 3-18
3.23.2.1
General ................................................................................ February 2004 .......... 3-18
3.23.2.2
Interior Stringers and Beams ........................................... February 2004 .......... 3-18
CONTENTS
III
3.23.2.3
3.23.3
3.23.4
3.24
3.24.1
3.24.2
3.24.3
3.24.3.1
3.24.3.2
3.24.4
3.24.5
3.24.5.1
3.24.5.2
3.24.6
3.24.7
3.24.8
3.24.9
3.24.10
3.25
3.25.1
3.25.2
3.25.3
3.25.3.1
3.25.3.2
3.25.3.3
3.25.3.4
3.25.4
3.26
3.26.1
3.26.2
3.26.3
3.27
3.27.1
3.27.2
3.27.3
3.28
IV
Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams ........................... February 2004 ..........3-19

Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) .................. February 2004 ..........3-19
Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks ........... February 2004 ..........3-20
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF ...................................................................
CONCRETE SLABS ..................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-22
Span Lengths ........................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-22
Edge Distance of Wheel Loads .............................................. February 2004 ..........3-22
Bending Moment ..................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-22
Case A-Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic .................................................
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) ......................................... February 2004 ..........3-23
Case B-Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic ............... February 2004 ..........3-23
Shear ........................................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-23
Cantilever Slabs ....................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-23
Truck Loads ........................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-23
Railing Loads ...................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-23
Slabs Supported on Four Sides ............................................. February 2004 ..........3-23
Median Slabs ........................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-24
Longitudinal Edge Beams ...................................................... February 2004 ..........3-24
Unsupported Transverse Edges ............................................. February 2004 ..........3-24
Distribution Reinforcement ................................................... February 2004 ..........3-24
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON .............................................................................
TIMBER FLOORING .................................................................. February 2004 ..........3-24
Transverse Flooring ................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-25
Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring ............... February 2004 ..........3-26
Longitudinal Glued Laminate Timber Deck ......................... February 2004 ..........3-27
Bending Moment ................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-27
Shear ................................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-27
Deflections .......................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-27
Stiffener Arrangement ....................................................... February 2004 ..........3-27
Continuous Flooring ............................................................... February 2004 ..........3-27
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF ....................................................
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS ......................... February 2004 ..........3-27
Distribution of Concentrated Loads for .............................................................................
Bending Moment and Shear .................................................. February 2004 ..........3-27
Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans .... February 2004 ..........3-28
Design ...................................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-28
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON .............................................................................
STEEL GRID FLOORS ............................................................... February 2004 ..........3-28
General ..................................................................................... February 2004 ..........3-28
Floors Filled with Concrete ................................................... February 2004 ..........3-28
Open Floors ............................................................................. February 2004 ..........3-28
3.28.1
3.28.2
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT ....................................................

IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS ....................................................... February 2004 ..........3-29
Interior Beams ........................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-29
Exterior Beams ........................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-29
3.29
MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS ................................. February 2004 ..........3-29
3.30
TIRE CONTACT AREA ................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-29
CONTENTS
Section 3 Commentary - Loads

3.10.4
Centrifugal Forces ................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-30
Section 4 - Foundations
Part A - General Requirements and Materials
4.1
GENERAL ..................................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2
FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY .................................... November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.1
Selection of Foundation Type ................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.2
Foundation Capacity ............................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.2.1
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.2.2
Settlement ........................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.2.3
Overall Stability .................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.2.3
Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions ........................... November 2003 ........... 4-1
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND .....................................................................................

TESTING PROGRAMS ................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-1
General Requirements ............................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-2
Minimum Depth ...................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-3
Minimum Coverage ................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-3
Laboratory Testing .................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-3
Scour ......................................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-3
Part B - Service Load Design Method Allowable Stress Design

4.4
SPREAD FOOTING ..................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1
General ..................................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1.1
Applicability ........................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1.2
Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns ..........................................................
or Piers ................................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1.3
Footings in Fill ................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1.4
Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments ................ November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.1.5
Distribution of Bearing Pressure ..................................... November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.2
Notations .................................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-4
4.4.3
Design Terminology ................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-6
4.4.4
Soil and Rock Property Selection .......................................... November 2003 ........... 4-6
4.4.5
Depth ........................................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-7
4.4.5.1
Minimum Embedment and Bench Width ........................ November 2003 ........... 4-7
4.4.5.2
Scour Protection ................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-7
4.4.5.3
Footing Excavations ........................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-8
4.4.5.4
Piping .................................................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-8
4.4.6
Anchorage ................................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-8
4.4.7
Geotechnical Design on Soil .................................................. November 2003 ........... 4-8
4.4.7.1
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ November 2003 ........... 4-8
4.4.7.2
Settlement ........................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-17
4.4.7.3
Deleted ................................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-21
4.4.8
Geotechnical Design on Rock ................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-21
4.4.8.1
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-22
CONTENTS
4.4.8.2
4.4.9
4.4.10
4.4.11
4.4.11.1
4.4.11.2
4.4.11.3
4.4.11.4
4.4.11.5
4.4.11.6
Settlement ........................................................................... November 2003 .........4-23

Overall Stability ....................................................................... November 2003 .........4-26
Deleted ...................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-27
Structural Design .................................................................... November 2003 .........4-27
Loads and Reactions .......................................................... November 2003 .........4-27
Moments .............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-27
Shear ................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-27
Development of Reinforcement......................................... November 2003 .........4-28
Transfer of Force at Base of Column ............................... November 2003 .........4-28
Unreinforced Concrete Footings ....................................... November 2003 .........4-29
4.5
DRIVEN PILES............................................................................ November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1
General ..................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.1
Application .......................................................................... November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.2
Materials ............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.3
Deleted ................................................................................. November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.4
Lateral Tip Restraint ......................................................... November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.5
Estimated Lengths ............................................................. November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.6
Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation .......................... November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.1.7
4.5.1.8
Test Piles ............................................................................ November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.2
Pile Types ................................................................................ November 2003 .........4-29
4.5.2.1
Friction Piles ...................................................................... November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.2.2
End Bearing Piles .............................................................. November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.2.3
Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles ................. November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.2.4
Batter Piles ......................................................................... November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.3
Notations .................................................................................. November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.4
Design Terminology ................................................................ November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.5
Selection of Soil and Rock Properties ................................... November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.6
Selection of Design Pile Capacity .......................................... November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.6.1
Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity ........................................ November 2003 .........4-30
4.5.6.2
Factor of Safety Selection .................................................. November 2003 .........4-32
4.5.6.3
4.5.6.4
Group Pile Loading ........................................................... November 2003 .........4-32
4.5.6.5
Lateral Loads on Piles ....................................................... November 2003 .........4-32
4.5.6.6
Uplift Loads on Pile ........................................................... November 2003 .........4-33
4.5.6.7
Vertical Ground Movement ............................................... November 2003 .........4-33
4.5.6.8
4.5.7
Structural Capacity of Pile Section ........................................ November 2003 .........4-34
4.5.7.1
Load Capacity Requirements ............................................ November 2003 .........4-33
4.5.7.2
Piles Extending Above Ground Surface ........................... November 2003 .........4-34
4.5.7.3
Allowable Stresses in Piles ................................................ November 2003 .........4-34
4.5.7.4
4.5.7.5
Scour .................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.8
Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion ......................... November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.9
Wave Equation Analysis ......................................................... November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.10
Dynamic Monitoring ............................................................... November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.11
Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses ................................... November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.12
Tolerable Movement ................................................................ November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.13
Buoyancy .................................................................................. November 2003 .........4-35
4.5.14
Protection Against Deterioration ........................................... November 2003 .........4-35
VI
CONTENTS
4.5.14.1
4.5.14.2
4.5.14.3
4.5.15
4.5.15.1
4.5.15.2
4.5.16
4.5.16.1
4.5.16.2
4.5.16.3
4.5.16.4
4.5.16.5
4.5.16.6
4.5.16.7
4.5.16.8
4.5.16.9
4.5.17
4.5.17.1
4.5.17.2
4.5.17.3
4.5.17.4
4.5.17.5
4.5.17.6
4.5.17.7
4.5.17.8
4.5.17.9
4.5.18
4.5.18.1
4.5.18.2
4.5.18.3
4.5.18.4
4.5.18.5
4.5.19
4.5.19.1
4.5.19.2
4.5.19.3
4.5.19.4
4.5.20
4.5.20.1
4.5.20.2
4.5.20.3
4.5.20.4
4.5.20.5
4.5.21
4.5.21.1
4.5.21.2
4.5.21.3
Steel Piles ........................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-35

Concrete Piles ..................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Timber Piles ....................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment ................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Pile Footings ...................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Bent Caps ........................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Precast Concrete Piles ............................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-36
Size and Shape ................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Minimum Area ................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles .............................. November 2003 ......... 4-36
Driving Points .................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Vertical Reinforcement ...................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-36
Spiral Reinforcement ......................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-37
Reinforcement Cover ......................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-37
Splices ................................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-37
Handling Stresses ............................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-37
Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles .................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-37
Materials ............................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-37
Shape................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-37
Minimum Area ................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-37
General Reinforcement Requirements ............................. November 2003 ......... 4-37
Reinforcement into Superstructure .................................. November 2003 ......... 4-37
Shell Requirements ............................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-37
Reinforcement Cover ......................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Spacing Limitations ........................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Steel H-Piles ............................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-38
Metal Thickness .................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-38
Caps ..................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers ........................................ November 2003 ......... 4-38
Point Attachments .............................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-38
Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles ................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Metal Thickness .................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-38
Driving ................................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-38
Column Action .................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Prestressed Concrete Piles ..................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Size and Shape ................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-38
Main Reinforcement .......................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
Vertical Reinforcement ...................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
Hollow Cylinder Piles ........................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-39
Timber Piles ............................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-39
Materials ............................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-39
Limitations on Untreated Timber Pile Use ..................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use ......................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
4.6
DRILLED SHAFTS ...................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
4.6.1
General ..................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
4.6.1.1
Application .......................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-39
CONTENTS
VII
4.6.1.2
4.6.1.3
4.6.1.4
4.6.1.5
4.6.1.6
4.6.1.7
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.4.1
4.6.4.2
4.6.5
4.6.5.1
4.6.5.2
4.6.5.3
4.6.5.4
4.6.5.5
4.6.5.6
4.6.5.7
4.6.6
4.6.6.1
4.6.6.2
4.6.6.3
4.6.6.4
4.6.7
4.6.7.1
4.6.7.2
4.6.7.3
Materials ............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-40

Construction ....................................................................... November 2003 .........4-40
Embedment ......................................................................... November 2003 .........4-40
Shaft Diameter ................................................................... November 2003 .........4-40
Batter Shafts ....................................................................... November 2003 .........4-40
Shafts Through Embankment Fill ..................................... November 2003 .........4-40
Notations .................................................................................. November 2003 .........4-40
Design Terminology ................................................................ November 2003 .........4-41
Seletion of Soil and Rock Properties ..................................... November 2003 .........4-41
Presumptive Values ........................................................... November 2003 .........4-41
Measured Values ................................................................ November 2003 .........4-42
Geotechnical Design ................................................................ November 2003 .........4-42
Axial Capacity in Soil ........................................................ November 2003 .........4-42
Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil .......................... November 2003 .........4-45
Axial Capacity in Rock ....................................................... November 2003 .........4-47
Factors of Safety ................................................................. November 2003 .........4-48
Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts ............................. November 2003 .........4-48
Lateral Loading .................................................................. November 2003 .........4-50
Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions ............... November 2003 .........4-52
General ................................................................................ November 2003 .........4-52
Reinforcement .................................................................... November 2003 .........4-52
Enlarged Bases ................................................................... November 2003 .........4-53
Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing......................................... November 2003 .........4-53
Load Testing ............................................................................ November 2003 .........4-53
Load Testing Procedures ................................................... November 2003 .........4-53
Load Test Method Selection.............................................. November 2003 .........4-54
Part C - Strength Design Method Load Factor Design

4.8
SCOPE........................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-54
4.9
DEFINITIONS ............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-54
4.10
LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND ................................................................................

RESISTANCE FACTORS ............................................................. November 2003 .........4-55
General ..................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-55
Serviceability Limit States ..................................................... November 2003 .........4-55
Strength Limit States ............................................................. November 2003 .........4-55
Strength Requirement............................................................. November 2003 .........4-55
Load Combinations and Load Factors .................................. November 2003 .........4-55
Performance Factors ............................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
4.10.1
4.10.2
4.10.3
4.10.4
4.10.5
4.10.6
4.11
SPREAD FOOTINGS ................................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1
General Considerations .......................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1.1
4.11.1.2
Depth ................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1.3
Scour Protection ................................................................. November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1.4
Frost Action ........................................................................ November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1.5
Anchorage ........................................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
4.11.1.6
Groundwater....................................................................... November 2003 .........4-56
VIII
CONTENTS
4.11.1.7
4.11.1.8
4.11.1.9
4.11.2
4.11.3
4.11.3.1
4.11.3.2
4.11.3.3
4.11.3.4
4.11.4
4.11.4.1
4.11.4.2
4.11.4.3
4.11.4.4
4.11.5
4.11.6
4.11.6.1
4.11.6.2
4.11.6.3
Uplift ................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-57

Deterioration ...................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-57
Nearby Structures .............................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-57
Notations .................................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-57
Movement Under Serviceability Limit States ...................... November 2003 ......... 4-57
General ................................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-57
Loads ................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-57
Movement Criteria ............................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-58
Settlement Analyses ........................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-58
Safety Against Soil Failure .................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-58
Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils .............................. November 2003 ......... 4-58
Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock....................... November 2003 ......... 4-59
Failure by Sliding .............................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-61
Loss of Overall Stability .................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-61
Structural Capacity ................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-61
Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations ....... November 2003 ......... 4-61
General ................................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-61
Excavation Monitoring ....................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-61
Compaction Monitoring ..................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-61
4.12
DRIVEN PILES ........................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-61
4.12.1
4.12.2
4.12.3
Selection of Design Pile Capacity .......................................... November 2003 ......... 4-63
4.12.3.1
Factors Affecting Axial Capacity ....................................... November 2003 ......... 4-63
4.12.3.2
Movement Under Serviceability Limit State ................... November 2003 ......... 4-64
4.12.3.3
Resistance at Strength Limit States ................................. November 2003 ......... 4-64
4.12.4
Structural Design .................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-67
4.12.4.1
Buckling of Piles ................................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-67
4.12.5
Deleted ...................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-67
4.13
DRILLED SHAFTS ...................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-67
4.13.1
4.13.2
4.13.3
Geotechnical Design ................................................................ November 2003 ......... 4-68
4.13.3.1
Factors Affecting Axial Capacity ....................................... November 2003 ......... 4-68
4.13.3.2
Movement Under Serviceability Limit State ................... November 2003 ......... 4-69
4.13.3.3
Resistance at Strength Limit States ................................. November 2003 ......... 4-69
4.13.4
Structural Design .................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-70
4.13.4.1
Buckling of Drilled Shafts ................................................. November 2003 ......... 4-70
Section 5 - Retaining Walls

5.1
GENERAL ..................................................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-1
5.2
WALL TYPES .............................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-1
5.2.1
Selection of Wall Type ............................................................ August 2003 ................ 5-1
5.2.1.1
Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls ............................. August 2003 ................ 5-1
5.2.1.2
Non-Gravity Cantilevered Walls ....................................... August 2003 ................ 5-2
5.2.1.3
Anchored Walls .................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-3
CONTENTS
IX
5.2.1.4
5.2.1.5
5.2.2
5.2.2.1
5.2.2.2
5.2.2.3
5.2.2.4
5.2.3
5.3
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ................................ August 2003 ................ 5-4

Prefabricated Modular Walls ............................................ August 2003 ................ 5-5
Wall Capacity ........................................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-6
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ August 2003 ................ 5-6
Settlement ........................................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-6
Overall Stability .................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-6
Tolerable Deformations ...................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-6
Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions ........................... August 2003 ................ 5-7
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING

PROGRAMS .................................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-7
General Requirements ............................................................ August 2003 ................ 5-7
Minimum Depth ...................................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-8
Minimum Coverage ................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-8
Laboratory Testing .................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-8
Scour ......................................................................................... August 2003 ................ 5-8
5.4
NOTATIONS ................................................................................. August 2003 ................ 5-8

5.5
EARTH PRESSURE ..................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-15
5.5.1
General ..................................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-15
5.5.2
Compaction .............................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-16
5.5.3
Presence of Water ................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-16
5.5.4
Effect of Earthquake ............................................................... August 2003 ..............5-17
5.5.5
Earth Pressure ........................................................................ August 2003 ..............5-17
5.5.5.1
Basic Lateral Earth Pressure ............................................ August 2003 ..............5-17
5.5.5.2
At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ko ..................... August 2003 ..............5-18
5.5.5.3
Active Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ka ....................... August 2003 ..............5-18
5.5.5.4
Passive Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, kp .................... August 2003 ..............5-23
5.5.5.5
Trial Wedge Method of Analysis for the Determination
of the Resultant Lateral Earth Pressure .......................... August 2003 ..............5-25
5.5.5.6
Lateral Earth Pressures for Non-Gravity
Cantilevered Walls ............................................................. August 2003 ..............5-28
5.5.5.7
Lateral Earth Pressures for Anchored Walls ................... August 2003 ..............5-33
5.5.5.8
Lateral Earth Pressures for Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls ......................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-36
5.5.5.9
LateralEarthPressuresforPrefabricatedModularW alls.August2003..............
5-39
5.5.5.10
5.5.5.11
5.5.5.12
5.6
SurchargeLoads..............................................................
August
...
2003..............
5-39
LateralEarthPressuresforRestrainedAbutments........August2003..............
5-44
ReductionDuetoEarthPressure...................................
August
.
2003..............
5-45
RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY W ALL

DESIGN ...................................................................................
August
..... 2003..............
5-46
5.6.1
DesignTerminology.............................................................
August
...
2003..............
5-46
5.6.2
FootingEmbedment.............................................................
August
...
2003..............
5-46
5.6.3
EarthPressure,W aterPressureandSurchargeLoadings.August2003..............
5-47
5.6.4
StructureDimensionsandExternalStability.......................
August2003..............
5-47
5.6.4.1
SlidingStability...............................................................
August
...
2003..............
5-47
5.6.4.2
Overturning....................................................................August
.... 2003..............
5-49
5.6.4.3
W allFoundations............................................................
August
...
2003..............
5-51
X
CONTENTS
5.6.5
5.6.5.1
5.6.5.2
5.6.5.3
5.6.5.4
5.6.5.5
5.6.5.6
5.6.5.7
5.6.5.8
Structure Design ..................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-51

Wall Footings ...................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-51
Rooting Keys ...................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-52
Wall Stems .......................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-52
Counterforts and Buttresses ............................................. August 2003 .............. 5-52
Reinforcement .................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-52
Expansion and Contraction Joints ................................... August 2003 .............. 5-52
Backfill ................................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-52
Overall Stability .................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-52
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2
5.7.3
5.7.4
5.7.5
5.7.6
5.7.7
5.7.8
5.7.9
5.7.10
NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN .................. August 2003 .............. 5-52

Design Terminology ................................................................ August 2003 .............. 5-52
Loading .................................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-54
Wall Movement ....................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-54
Water Pressure and Drainage ............................................... August 2003 .............. 5-54
Passive Resistance .................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-54
Structure Dimensions and External Stability ....................... August 2003 .............. 5-54
Traffic Barrier ......................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-55
Overall Stability ....................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-55
Corrosion Protection ............................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-56
5.8
ANCHORED WALL DESIGN ..................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-56
5.8.1
Design Terminology ................................................................ August 2003 .............. 5-56
5.8.2
Loading .................................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.2.1
Walls with Structural Anchors .......................................... August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.2.2
Walls with Ground Anchors .............................................. August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.3
Wall Movement ....................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.4
Water Pressure and Drainage ............................................... August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.5
Passive Resistance .................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.6.1
General ................................................................................ August 2003 .............. 5-60
5.8.6.2
Walls with Structural Anchors .......................................... August 2003 .............. 5-61
5.8.6.3
Wall with Ground Anchors ................................................ August 2003 .............. 5-69
5.8.7
5.8.8
Traffic Barrier ......................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.9
Overall Stability ....................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.10
Corrosion Protection ............................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.10.1
Tie Rods .............................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.10.2
Ground Anchors ................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.10.3
Wall Members ..................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.11
Load Testing and Lock Off .................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.11.1
Structural Anchors ............................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.8.11.2
Ground Anchors ................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-76
5.9
MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL ...................... August 2003 .............. 5-77
5.9.1
Structure Dimensions ............................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-78
5.9.2
External Stability ..................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-78
5.9.2.1
Sliding Stability .................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-79
5.9.2.2
Overturning Stability ......................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-79
5.9.2.3
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ August 2003 .............. 5-79
5.9.2.4
Overall Stability .................................................................. August 2003 .............. 5-79
5.9.3
Internal Stability ..................................................................... August 2003 .............. 5-80
CONTENTS
XI
5.9.3.1
5.9.3.2
Determination of Maximum Soil Reinforcement Loads . August 2003 ..............5-81

Determination of Maximum Soil Reinforcement Load
at the Wall Face ................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-82
Determination of Soil Reinforcement Length for
Internal Stability ................................................................ August 2003 ..............5-82
Reinforcement Strength Design ........................................ August 2003 ..............5-86
Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection Strength
Design ................................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-91
Design of Facing Elements ............................................... August 2003 ..............5-92
Drainage .............................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-94
Special Loading Conditions .............................................. August 2003 ..............5-94
Placement of Soil Reinforcement ...................................... August 2003 ..............5-95
5.9.3.3
5.9.3.4
5.9.3.5
5.9.3.6
5.9.3.7
5.9.3.8
5.9.3.9
5.10
PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN ...................... August 2003 ..............5-95
5.10.1
Structure Dimensions ............................................................. August 2003 ..............5-95
5.10.2
External Stability ..................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-95
5.10.2.1
Sliding Stability .................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-97
5.10.2.2
Overturning Stability ......................................................... August 2003 ..............5-97
5.10.2.3
Tiered Walls ....................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-98
5.10.2.4
Bearing Capacity ................................................................ August 2003 ..............5-98
5.10.2.5
Overall Stability .................................................................. August 2003 ..............5-98
5.10.2.6
Prefabricated Modular Walls with "T" Shaped Modules August 2003 ..............5-98
5.10.3
Internal Security ..................................................................... August 2003 ..............5-98
5.10.4
Module Design ........................................................................ August 2003 ..............5-99
5.10.4.1
Crib Member Design .......................................................... August 2003 ..............5-99
Section 6 - Culverts
6.1
CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, ..........................................................................................

AND WATERWAY OPENINGS .................................................. April 2000 ................... 6-1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
DEAD LOADS .............................................................................. April 2000 ................... 6-1

Culvert in Trench, or Culvert Untrenched on ...................................................................
Yielding Foundation ............................................................... April 2000 ................... 6-1
Culvert Untrenched on Unyielding Foundation .................. April 2000 ................... 6-1
6.3
LIVE LOADS ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 6-1
6.4
FOOTINGS ................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 6-1
6.5
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ....................................................................................

THROUGH EARTH FILLS .......................................................... April 2000 ................... 6-1
6.6
DESIGN ........................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 6-2
Section 7 - Substructures
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
XII
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-1

Definition................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-1
Loads ........................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-1
CONTENTS
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.2
Settlement ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-1

Foundation and Retaining Wall Design ............................... April 2000 ................... 7-1
NOTATIONS ................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-1

7.3
PIERS ............................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-1
7.3.1
Pier Types ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-1
7.3.1.1
Pier Walls ........................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-1
7.3.1.2
Double Wall Piers .............................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-1
7.3.1.3
Bents .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-1
7.3.1.4
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.3.2
Pier Protection ........................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.3.2.1
Collision .............................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.3.2.2
Collision Walls .................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.3.2.3
Scour .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.3.2.4
Facing .................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
TUBULAR PIERS ........................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-2

Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-2
Configuration ........................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5
ABUTMENTS ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.1
Abutment Types ...................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.1.1
Seat Type Abutment ........................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.1.2
Partial-Depth Abutment ..................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.1.3
Full-Depth Abutment ......................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.1.4
Diaphragm Abutment ........................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.2
Loading .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-2
7.5.2.1
Stability ............................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.2.2
Reinforcement for Temperature ....................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.2.3
Drainage and Backfilling ................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.3
Diaphragm Abutments ............................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.4
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.5
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.6
Wingwalls ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.6.1
Length ................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 7-3
7.5.6.2
Reinforcement .................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
Part C - Strength Design Method Load Factor Design

7.6
Deleted ........................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 7-3
Section 8 - Reinforced Concrete

8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
APPLICATION ............................................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-1

General ..................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-1
Notations .................................................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-1
Definitions ............................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-4
CONTENTS
XIII
8.2
CONCRETE ................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-5
8.3
REINFORCEMENT ...................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-5
Part B - Analysis
8.4
GENERAL ..................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-6
8.5
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION .......................................... September 2003 .......... 8-6
8.6
STIFFNESS .................................................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-6
8.7
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSON'S RATIO .......... September 2003 .......... 8-6
8.8
SPAN LENGTH ............................................................................ September 2003 .......... 8-6
8.9
8.9.1
8.9.2
8.9.3
CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS .................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-7

General ..................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-7
Superstructure Depth Limitations ........................................ September 2003 .......... 8-7
Superstructure Deflection Limitations .................................. September 2003 .......... 8-7
8.10
8.10.1
8.10.2
COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH ............................................ September 2003 .......... 8-7

T-Girder .................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-7
Box Girders ............................................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-7
8.11
SLABS AND WEB THICKNESS ................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-8
8.12
DIAPHRAGMS ............................................................................. September 2003 .......... 8-8
8.13
COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS ........................................ September 2003 .......... 8-8
Part C - Design
8.14
8.14.1
8.14.2
8.14.3
GENERAL ..................................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-9

Design Methods....................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-9
Composite Flexural Members ................................................ September 2003 .......... 8-9
Concrete Arches ....................................................................... September 2003 .......... 8-9
8.15
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD......................................................................................

(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN) ............................................. September 2003 ........8-10
General Requirements ............................................................ September 2003 ........8-10
Allowable Stresses ................................................................... September 2003 ........8-10
Concrete .............................................................................. September 2003 ........8-10
Reinforcement .................................................................... September 2003 ........8-11
Flexure ..................................................................................... September 2003 ........8-11
Compression Members ............................................................ September 2003 ........8-11
Shear ........................................................................................ September 2003 ........8-11
Shear Stress ........................................................................ September 2003 ........8-11
Shear Stress Carried by Concrete .................................... September 2003 ........8-12
Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement................ September 2003 ........8-12
Shear Friction .................................................................... September 2003 ........8-13
Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete........................................................
Flexural Members .............................................................. September 2003 ........8-14
Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings ....................... September 2003 ........8-15
Deleted ................................................................................. September 2003 ........8-15
Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels ................... September 2003 ........8-15
8.15.1
8.15.2
8.15.2.1
8.15.2.2
8.15.3
8.15.4
8.15.5
8.15.5.1
8.15.5.2
8.15.5.3
8.15.5.4
8.15.5.5
8.15.5.6
8.15.5.7
8.15.5.8
XIV
CONTENTS
8.16
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD ..............................................................................................

(LOAD FACTOR DESIGN) ......................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-16
8.16.1
Strength Requirements ........................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-16
8.16.1.1
Required Strength .............................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-16
8.16.1.2
Design Strength ................................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-16
8.16.2
Design Assumptions ................................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-17
8.16.3
Flexure ..................................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-17
8.16.3.1
Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members .............. September 2003 ........ 8-17
8.16.3.2
Rectangular Sections with ..............................................................................................
Tension Reinforcement Only ............................................. September 2003 ........ 8-17
8.16.3.3
Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only ...... September 2003 ........ 8-18
8.16.3.4
Rectangular Sections with Compression .......................................................................
Reinforcement .................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-18
8.16.3.5
Flanged Sections with Compression Reinforcement ...... September 2003 ........ 8-19
8.16.3.6
Other Cross Sections .......................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-19
8.16.4
Compression Members ............................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-19
8.16.4.1
General Requirements ....................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-19
8.16.4.2
Compression Member Strengths ....................................... September 2003 ........ 8-20
8.16.4.3
Biaxial Loading .................................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-20
8.16.4.4
Hollow Rectangular Compression Members ..................... September 2003 ........ 8-20
8.16.4.5
Probable Plastic Moment ................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-21
8.16.4.6
Special Provisions for Column and Pier Wall Hinges .... September 2003 ........ 8-21
8.16.5
Slenderness Effects in Compression Members .................... September 2003 ........ 8-22
8.16.5.1
General Requirements ....................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-22
8.16.5.2
Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects ............. September 2003 ........ 8-22
8.16.6
Shear ........................................................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-24
8.16.6.1
Shear Strength ................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-24
8.16.6.2
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete .............................. September 2003 ........ 8-24
8.16.6.3
Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement ......... September 2003 ........ 8-25
8.16.6.4
Shear Friction .................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-25
8.16.6.5
Horizontal Shear Strength for Composite Concrete .....................................................
Flexural Members .............................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-26
8.16.6.6
Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings ....................... September 2003 ........ 8-27
8.16.6.7
Special Provisions for Box Culverts ................................. September 2003 ........ 8-28
8.16.6.8
Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels ................... September 2003 ........ 8-28
8.16.6.9
Special Provision for Pier Walls ....................................... September 2003 ........ 8-29
8.16.6.10
Compression Member Connection to Caps ...................... September 2003 ........ 8-29
8.16.6.11
Special Seismic Provisions for Columns, ......................................................................
Pier Walls and Piles .......................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-29
8.16.7
Bearing Strength ..................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-30
8.16.8
Serviceability Requirements .................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-30
8.16.8.1
Application .......................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-30
8.16.8.2
Service Load Stresses ........................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-30
8.16.8.3
Fatique Stress Limits ........................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-30
8.16.8.4
Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement ........................... September 2003 ........ 8-31
Part D - Reinforcement
8.17
8.17.1
REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS ..................... September 2003 ........ 8-31

Minimum Reinforcement ....................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-31
CONTENTS
XV
8.17.2
8.17.2.1
Distribution of Reinforcement ............................................... September 2003 ........8-31

Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of ...............................................................
Maximum Tension ............................................................. September 2003 ........8-31
Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in T-Girders and ..............................................
Box Girders ........................................................................ September 2003 ........8-32
Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box Girders ................... September 2003 ........8-32
Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members ........................ September 2003 ........8-32
Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular ...............................................................................
Compression Members ............................................................ September 2003 ........8-33
8.17.2.2
8.17.2.3
8.17.3
8.17.4
8.18
REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS ............. September 2003 ........8-33
8.18.1
Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement ...... September 2003 ........8-33
8.18.2
Lateral Reinforcement ............................................................ September 2003 ........8-34
8.18.2.1
General ................................................................................ September 2003 ........8-34
8.18.2.2
Spiral or Hoops .................................................................. September 2003 ........8-34
8.18.2.3
Ties ...................................................................................... September 2003 ........8-35
8.18.2.4
Deleted ................................................................................. September 2003 ........8-36
8.19
8.19.1
8.19.2
8.19.3
LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ................................ September 2003 ........8-36

Minimum Shear Reinforcement ............................................ September 2003 ........8-36
Types of Shear Reinforcement ............................................... September 2003 ........8-36
Spacing of Shear Reinforcement ........................................... September 2003 ........8-36
8.20
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT ....... September 2003 ........8-36
8.21
SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT ........................... September 2003 ........8-36
8.22
PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION .................................... September 2003 ........8-37
8.23
8.23.1
8.23.2
HOOKS AND BENDS .................................................................. September 2003 ........8-40

Standard Hooks ....................................................................... September 2003 ........8-40
Minimum Bend Diameters ..................................................... September 2003 ........8-40
8.24
8.24.1
8.24.2
8.24.3
DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT ........... September 2003 ........8-40

General ..................................................................................... September 2003 ........8-40
Postitive Moment Reinforcement .......................................... September 2003 ........8-41
Negative Moment Reinforcement .......................................... September 2003 ........8-41
8.25
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS ..............................................................................

AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION .................................... September 2003 ........8-41
8.26
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS ..............................................................................

IN COMPRESSION ..................................................................... September 2003 ........8-42
8.27
DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ................... September 2003 ........8-43
8.28
DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS .................................... September 2003 ........8-43
8.29
DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION ...... September 2003 ........8-43
8.29.3.1
Bar Yield Strength ............................................................. September 2003 ........8-44
8.29.3.2
Concrete Cover ................................................................... September 2003 ........8-44
8.29.3.3
Ties or Stirrups .................................................................. September 2003 ........8-44
8.29.3.4
Excess Reinforcement ........................................................ September 2003 ........8-44
8.30
8.30.1
XVI
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC ...................................................................

IN TENSION ................................................................................ September 2003 ........8-45
Deformed Wire Fabric ............................................................ September 2003 ........8-45
CONTENTS
8.30.2
8.31
Smooth Wire Fabric ................................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-45

MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE .................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-45
8.32
SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT .............................................. September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.1
Lap Splices .............................................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.2
Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections ...................... September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.2.2
Deleted ................................................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32 2.3
8.32.2.4
8.32.3
Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.3.3
8.32.3.4
8.32.4
Splices of Bars in Compression ............................................. September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.4.1
Lap Splices in Compression ............................................. September 2003 ........ 8-46
8.32.4.2
8.32.4.3
8.32.5
Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension ......... September 2003 ........ 8-47
8.32.6
Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension ............. September 2003 ........ 8-47
8.32.6.1
8.32.6.2
Section 8 Commentary - Reinforced Concrete

8.15.5.6
8.16.1.2
8.16.3.5
8.16.4.5
8.16.4.5
8.16.6.6
8.16.6.7
8.16.8.4
8.16.6.9
8.16.6.10
8.16.6.11
8.16.8.4
8.18.1.4
8.18.2.2
8.18.2.3
Design Strength ................................................................. September 2003 ........ 8-49
Flanged Sections with Compression Reinforcement ...... September 2003 ........ 8-49
Probable Plastic Moment ................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-49
Special Provisions for Column and Pier Wall Hinges .... September 2003 ........ 8-52
Special Provisions for Box Culverts ................................. September 2003 ........ 8-52
Special Provision for Pier Walls ....................................... September 2003 ........ 8-52
Compression Member Connection to Caps ...................... September 2003 ........ 8-53
Special Seismic Provision for Columns, ........................................................................
Pier Walls and Piles .......................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-53
Interlocking Spirals ............................................................ September 2003 ........ 8-54
Spiral Reinforcement ......................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-54
Ties ...................................................................................... September 2003 ........ 8-56
8.21
SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT ........................... September 2003 ........ 8-57
8.22
PROTECTION AGAINST CORRISION ...................................... September 2003 ........ 8-57
Section 9 - Prestressed Concrete

9.1
9.1.1
APPLICATION ............................................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-1

General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-1
CONTENTS
XVII
9.1.2
9.1.3
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-1

Definitions ............................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-3
9.2
CONCRETE ................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-4
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
REINFORCEMENT ...................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-4

Prestressing Steel .................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-4
Non-Prestressed Reinforcement ............................................. April 2000 ................... 9-4
Part B - Analysis
9.4
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-5
9.5
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION .......................................... April 2000 ................... 9-5
9.6
SPAN LENGTH ............................................................................ April 2000 ................... 9-5
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION .................... April 2000 ................... 9-5

Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges .................................... April 2000 ................... 9-5
Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast .......................................................................
Prestressed Girders Made Continuous ................................. April 2000 ................... 9-5
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 9-5
Positive Moment Connection at Piers .............................. April 2000 ................... 9-5
Negative Moments ............................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-5
Segmental Box Girders ........................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-5
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 9-5
Flexure ................................................................................ April 2000 ................... 9-6
Torsion................................................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-6
9.7.2.1
9.7.2.2
9.7.2.3
9.7.3
9.7.3.1
9.7.3.2
9.7.3.3
XVIII
9.8
9.8.1
9.8.2
9.8.3
EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH .................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-6

T-Beams .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-6
Box Girders ............................................................................. April 2000 ................... 9-6
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with ........................................................................
Wide Top Flanges ................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-6
9.9
9.9.1
9.9.2
9.9.3
FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS - BOX GIRDERS ............... April 2000

Top Flange ............................................................................... April 2000
Bottom Flange ......................................................................... April 2000
Web........................................................................................... April 2000
................... 9-6
................... 9-6
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
9.10
9.10.1
9.10.2
9.10.3
DIAPHRAGMS ............................................................................. April 2000

General ..................................................................................... April 2000
T-Beams, Precast I and Bulb-tee Girders .............................. April 2000
Box Girders ............................................................................. April 2000
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
9.11
9.11.1
9.11.2
9.11.3
DEFLECTIONS ............................................................................ April 2000

General ..................................................................................... April 2000
Segmental Box Girders ........................................................... April 2000
Superstructure Deflection Limitations .................................. April 2000
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
................... 9-7
9.12
9.12.1
9.12.2
DECK PANELS ............................................................................ April 2000 ................... 9-7

General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-7
Bending Moment ..................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-8
CONTENTS
Part C - Design
9.13
9.13.1
9.13.2
9.13.3
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000

Design Theory and General Considerations ......................... April 2000
Basic Assumptions .................................................................. April 2000
Composite Flexural Members ................................................ April 2000
................... 9-9
................... 9-9
................... 9-9
................... 9-9
9.14
LOAD FACTORS .......................................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-9
9.15
ALLOWABLE STRESSES ........................................................... April 2000 ................... 9-9
9.15.1
Prestressing Steel .................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-10
9.15.2
Concrete ................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-10
9.15.2.1
Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to ....................................................................
Creep and Shrinkage ......................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-10
9.15.2.2
Stress at Service Load After Losses Have Occurred ...... April 2000 ................. 9-10
9.15.2.3
Cracking Stress (Refer to Article 9.18) ............................ April 2000 ................. 9-10
9.15.2.4
Anchorage Bearing Stress .................................................. April 2000 ................. 9-11
9.16
LOSS OF PRESTRESS ................................................................ April 2000
9.16.1
Friction Losses ........................................................................ April 2000
9.16.2
Prestress Losses ...................................................................... April 2000
9.16.2.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000
9.16.2.2
Estimated Losses ................................................................ April 2000
................. 9-11
................. 9-11
................. 9-11
................. 9-11
................. 9-14
9.17
9.17.1
9.17.2
9.17.3
9.17.4
FLEXURAL STRENGTH ............................................................. April 2000

General ..................................................................................... April 2000
Rectangular Sections ............................................................... April 2000
Flanged Sections ..................................................................... April 2000
Steel Stress .............................................................................. April 2000
................. 9-14
................. 9-14
................. 9-14
................. 9-15
................. 9-15
9.18
9.18.1
9.18.2
DUCTILITY LIMITS ................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-16

Maximum Prestressing Steel ................................................. April 2000 ................. 9-16
Minimum Steel ........................................................................ April 2000 ................. 9-16
9.19
NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT ................................ April 2000 ................. 9-16
9.20
9.20.1
9.20.2
9.20.3
9.20.4
SHEAR .......................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-17

General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-17
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete ................................... April 2000 ................. 9-17
Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement ................ April 2000 ................. 9-18
Horizontal Shear Design - ...................................................................................................
Composite Flexural Members ................................................ April 2000 ................. 9-18
9.21
POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES ............................... April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.1
Geometry of the Anchorage Zone ......................................... April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.2
General Zone and Local Zone ................................................ April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.2.1
General Zone ...................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.2.2
Local Zone ........................................................................... April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.2.3
Responsibilities .................................................................. April 2000 ................. 9-19
9.21.3
General Zone and Local Zone ................................................ April 2000 ................. 9-20
9.21.3.1
Design Methods ................................................................. April 2000 ................. 9-20
9.21.3.2
Nominal Material Strengths .............................................. April 2000 ................. 9-20
9.21.3.3
Use of Special Anchorage Devices .................................... April 2000 ................. 9-20
9.21.3.4
General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements April 2000 ................. 9-20
9.21.3.5
Intermediate Anchorages .................................................. April 2000 ................. 9-21
CONTENTS
XIX
9.21.3.6
9.21.3.7
9.21.4
Diaphragms ........................................................................ April 2000 .................9-22

Multiple Slab Anchorages .................................................. April 2000 .................9-22
Application to Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of ......................................................
Anchorage Zones ..................................................................... April 2000 .................9-23
General ................................................................................ April 2000 .................9-23
Nodes ................................................................................... April 2000 .................9-23
Struts ................................................................................... April 2000 .................9-23
Ties ...................................................................................... April 2000 .................9-24
Elastic Stress Analysis............................................................. April 2000 .................9-24
Approximate Methods............................................................. April 2000 .................9-24
Limitations ......................................................................... April 2000 .................9-24
Compressive Stresses ......................................................... April 2000 .................9-24
Bursting Forces .................................................................. April 2000 .................9-25
Edge-Tension Forces .......................................................... April 2000 .................9-25
Design of the Local Zone ........................................................ April 2000 .................9-25
Dimensions of the Local Zone .......................................... April 2000 .................9-25
Bearing Strength ................................................................ April 2000 .................9-26
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 .................9-27
9.21.4.1
9.21.4.2
9.21.4.3
9.21.4.4
9.21.5
9.21.6
9.21.6.1
9.21.6.2
9.21.6.3
9.21.6.4
9.21.7
9.21.7.1
9.21.7.2
9.21.7.3
9.22
PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES .................................. April 2000 .................9-27
9.23
CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER ................... April 2000 .................9-27
9.24
DECK PANELS ............................................................................ April 2000 .................9-27
Part D - Detailing
9.25
FLANGE REINFORCEMENT ..................................................... April 2000 .................9-28
9.26
9.26.1
9.26.2
9.26.3
9.26.4
COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL .......................................... April 2000

Minimum Cover ...................................................................... April 2000
Minimum Spacing ................................................................... April 2000
Bundling ................................................................................... April 2000
Size of Ducts ............................................................................ April 2000
9.27
POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS .......... April 2000 .................9-28
9.28
EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED STRAND ........................... April 2000 .................9-29
9.29
BEARINGS .................................................................................... April 2000 .................9-29
.................9-28
.................9-28
.................9-28
.................9-28
.................9-28
Section 10 - Structural Steel

XX
10.1
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
APPLICATION ............................................................................. February 2004

General ..................................................................................... February 2004
Notations .................................................................................. February 2004
Definition................................................................................. February 2004
..........10-1
..........10-1
..........10-1
..........10-8
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4
MATERIALS ................................................................................. February 2004

Structural Steels ...................................................................... February 2004
Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers .................. February 2004
Fasteners ................................................................................. February 2004
........10-10
........10-10
........10-10
........10-10
........10-10
CONTENTS
10.2.5
10.2.6
10.2.6.1
10.2.6.2
10.2.6.3
Weld Metal .............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-10

Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings .......................................................
and Cast Iron ........................................................................... February 2004 ........10-13
Cast Steel and Ductile Iron ............................................... February 2004 ........10-13
Malleable Castings .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-13
Cast Iron ............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-13
Part B - Design Details

10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.3.5
REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS ........................................................................

CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................... February 2004 ........10-14
Allowable Fatigue Stress Range ............................................. February 2004 ........10-14
Load Cycles .............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-20
Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements .................................. February 2004 ........10-20
Shear ........................................................................................ February 2004 ........10-20
Loading .................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-20
10.4
EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN ............................................... February 2004 ........10-20
10.5
DEPTH RATIOS ........................................................................... February 2004 ........10-20
10.6
DEFLECTION .............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-21
10.7
LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS ...................................... February 2004 ........10-21
10.8
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL........................................ February 2004 ........10-22
10.9
EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TENSION MEMBERS .............. February 2004 ........10-22
10.10
OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES ........................................ February 2004 ........10-23
10.11
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION .......................................... February 2004 ........10-23
10.12 MEMBERS .................................................................................... February 2004

10.12.1
Flexural Members ................................................................... February 2004
10.12.2
Compression Members ............................................................ February 2004
10.12.3
Tension Members .................................................................... February 2004
........10-23
........10-23
........10-23
........10-23
10.13
COVER PLATES .......................................................................... February 2004 ........10-23
10.14
CAMBER ....................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-24
10.15
HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND ................................................................................

WELDED PLATE GIRDERS ...................................................... February 2004 ........10-24
10.15.1
Scope ........................................................................................ February 2004 ........10-24
10.15.2
Minimum Radius of Curvature ............................................. February 2004 ........10-24
10.15.3
Camber ..................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-25
10.16 TRUSSES ...................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-25
10.16.1
General ..................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-25
10.16.2
Truss Members ........................................................................ February 2004 ........10-25
10.16.3
Secondary Stresses .................................................................. February 2004 ........10-26
10.16.4
Diaphragms ............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-26
10.16.5
Camber ..................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-26
10.16.6
Working Lines and Gravity Axes .......................................... February 2004 ........10-26
10.16.7
Portal and Sway Bracing ........................................................ February 2004 ........10-26
10.16.8
Perforated Cover Plates .......................................................... February 2004 ........10-27
CONTENTS
XXI
10.16.9
10.16.10
10.16.11
10.16.12
10.16.13
10.16.14
Stay Plates ............................................................................... February 2004 ........10-27

Lacing Bars .............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-27
Gusset Plates ........................................................................... February 2004 ........10-28
Half-Through Truss Spans ...................................................... February 2004 ........10-28
Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression Members .............. February 2004 ........10-28
Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength ...........................................................................
Bolted Tension Members ........................................................ February 2004 ........10-28
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS ................................................................ February 2004

10.17.1
10.17.2
Single Bents ............................................................................. February 2004
10.17.3
Batter ........................................................................................ February 2004
10.17.4
Bracing ..................................................................................... February 2004
10.17.5
Bottom Struts ........................................................................... February 2004
........10-29
........10-29
........10-29
........10-29
........10-29
........10-29
10.18 SPLICES ....................................................................................... February 2004

10.18.1
10.18.1.1
Design Strength.................................................................. February 2004
10.18.1.2
Fillers .................................................................................. February 2004
10.18.1.3
Design Force for Flange Splice Plates ............................. February 2004
10.18.1.4
Truss Chords and Column ................................................. February 2004
10.18.2
Flexural Members ................................................................... February 2004
10.18.2.1
General ................................................................................ February 2004
10.18.2.2
Flange Splices ..................................................................... February 2004
10.18.2.3
Web Splices ........................................................................ February 2004
10.18.3
Compression Members ............................................................ February 2004
10.18.4
Tension Members .................................................................... February 2004
10.18.5
Welding Splices ....................................................................... February 2004
........10-29
........10-29
........10-29
........10-30
........10-30
........10-30
........10-30
........10-30
........10-31
........10-32
........10-34
........10-34
........10-35
10.19 CONNECTIONS ........................................................................... February 2004

10.19.1
10.19.2
End Connections of Floor Beams and Stringers .................. February 2004
10.19.3
End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross Frames ........... February 2004
10.19.4
Block Shear Rupture Strength ............................................... February 2004
10.19.4.1
10.19.4.2
Allowable Block Shear Rupture Stress .............................. February 2004
10.19.4.3
Design Block Shear Rupture Strength ............................. February 2004
........10-35
........10-35
........10-35
........10-35
........10-36
........10-36
........10-36
........10-36
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES ..................................... February 2004 ........10-36

10.20.1
10.20.2
Horizontal Force ...................................................................... February 2004 ........10-37
10.21
LATERAL BRACING ................................................................... February 2004 ........10-37
10.22
CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS ....................................... February 2004 ........10-37
10.23 WELDING .................................................................................... February 2004

10.23.1
10.23.2
Effective Size of Fillet Welds ................................................. February 2004
10.23.2.1
Maximum Size of Fillet Welds ......................................... February 2004
10.23.2.2
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds .......................................... February 2004
10.23.3
Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds.......................... February 2004
10.23.4
Fillet Weld End Returns ........................................................ February 2004
10.23.5
Seal Welds ............................................................................... February 2004
XXII
CONTENTS
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
........10-38
10.24 FASTENERS ................................................................................. February 2004

10.24.1
10.24.2
Hole Types ............................................................................... February 2004
10.24.3
Washer Requirements ............................................................ February 2004
10.24.4
Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-Strength Bolts) ............... February 2004
10.24.5
Spacing of Fasteners ............................................................... February 2004
10.24.5.1
Pitch and Gage of Fasteners ............................................. February 2004
10.24.5.2
Minimum Spacing of Fasteners ........................................ February 2004
10.24.5.3
Minimum Clear Distance Between Holes ........................ February 2004
10.24.5.4
Maximum Spacing of Fasteners ....................................... February 2004
10.24.6
Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch Fasteners ............ February 2004
10.24.6.1
Sealing Fasteners ............................................................... February 2004
10.24.6.2
Stitch Fasteners ................................................................. February 2004
10.24.7
Edge Distance of Fasteners ................................................... February 2004
10.24.7.1
10.24.8
Long Rivets .............................................................................. February 2004
........10-39
........10-39
........10-40
........10-40
........10-41
........10-41
........10-41
........10-41
........10-41
........10-41
........10-42
........10-42
........10-42
........10-42
........10-42
........10-42
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS .............................................................. February 2004

10.25.1
Net Section .............................................................................. February 2004
10.25.2
Location of Pins ...................................................................... February 2004
10.25.3
Size of Pins .............................................................................. February 2004
10.25.4
Pin Plates ................................................................................ February 2004
10.25.5
Pins and Pin Nuts .................................................................. February 2004
........10-42
........10-42
........10-43
........10-43
........10-43
........10-43
10.26
UPSET ENDS ............................................................................... February 2004 ........10-43
10.27 EYEBARS ...................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-43

10.27.1
Thickness and Net Section ..................................................... February 2004 ........10-43
10.27.2
Packing of Eyebars .................................................................. February 2004 ........10-43
10.28
FORKED ENDS ........................................................................... February 2004 ........10-43
10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS ..................................... February 2004

10.29.1
10.29.2
Deleted ...................................................................................... February 2004
10.29.3
10.29.4
Sole Plate and Masonry Plates .............................................. February 2004
10.29.5
Masonry Bearings ................................................................... February 2004
10.29.6
Anchor Rods ............................................................................ February 2004
10.29.7
Pedestals and Shoes ................................................................ February 2004
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
........10-44
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM ......................................................................... February 2004

10.30.1
Stringers .................................................................................. February 2004
10.30.2
Floor Beams ............................................................................. February 2004
10.30.3
Cross Frames ........................................................................... February 2004
10.30.4
Expansion Joints ..................................................................... February 2004
10.30.5
End Floor Beams ..................................................................... February 2004
10.30.6
End Panel of Skewed Bridges ............................................... February 2004
10.30.7
Sidewalk Brackets ................................................................... February 2004
10.30.8
Stay-in-Place Deck Forms ....................................................... February 2004
10.30.8.1
Concrete Deck Panels ........................................................ February 2004
10.30.8.2
Metal Stay-in-Place Forms ................................................. February 2004
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
........10-45
CONTENTS
XXIII
Part C - Service Load Design Method - Allowable Stress Design

10.31
SCOPE........................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-46
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES ........................................................... February 2004 ........10-46

10.32.1
Steel .......................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-46
10.32.2
Weld Metal .............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-46
10.32.3
Fasteners ................................................................................. February 2004 ........10-46
10.32.3.1
General ................................................................................ February 2004 ........10-46
10.32.3.3
Applied Tension, Combined Tension and Shear ............. February 2004 ........10-52
10.32.3.4
Fatigue ................................................................................ February 2004 ........10-53
10.32.4
Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers ................................... February 2004 ........10-53
10.32.5
Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings,......................................................
and Cast Iron ........................................................................... February 2004 ........10-54
10.32.5.1
Cast Steel and Ductile Iron ............................................... February 2004 ........10-54
10.32.5.2
Malleable Castings .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-54
10.32.5.3
Cast Iron ............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-54
10.32.5.4
Deleted ................................................................................. February 2004 ........10-54
10.32.5.6
Bearing on Masonry ........................................................... February 2004 ........10-55
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS ......................................................................... February 2004 ........10-55
10.33.1
10.33.2
Bearing Stiffeners ................................................................... February 2004 ........10-55
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS ........................................................................ February 2004
10.34.1
10.34.2
Flanges ..................................................................................... February 2004
10.34.2.1
Welded Girders .................................................................. February 2004
10.34.2.2
Riveted or Bolted Girders ................................................. February 2004
10.34.3
Web Plates ............................................................................... February 2004
10.34.3.1
Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally .............................. February 2004
10.34.3.2
Girders Stiffened Longitudinally ..................................... February 2004
10.34.4
Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners ....................................... February 2004
10.34.5
Longitudinal Stiffeners ........................................................... February 2004
10.34.6
Bearing Stiffeners ................................................................... February 2004
10.34.6.1
Welded Girders .................................................................. February 2004
10.34.6.2
Riveted or Bolted Girders ................................................. February 2004
........10-55
........10-55
........10-56
........10-56
........10-58
........10-58
........10-58
........10-58
........10-60
........10-62
........10-63
........10-63
........10-64
10.35 TRUSSES ...................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-64

10.35.1
Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars ............................. February 2004 ........10-64
10.35.2
Compression Members ............................................................ February 2004 ........10-64
10.36
XXIV
COMBINED STRESSES .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-66
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES ................................................................... February 2004

10.37.1
Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress ........................ February 2004
10.37.2
10.37.3
Flange Plates ........................................................................... February 2004
........10-67
........10-67
........10-68
........10-68
10.38 COMPOSITE BEAMS AND GIRDERS ...................................... February 2004

10.38.1
10.38.2
Shear Conectors ....................................................................... February 2004
10.38.3
Effective Flange Width ........................................................... February 2004
10.38.4
Stresses ..................................................................................... February 2004
........10-70
........10-70
........10-70
........10-71
........10-71
CONTENTS
10.38.5
Shear ........................................................................................ February 2004
10.38.5.1
Horizontal Shear ................................................................. February 2004
10.38.5.2
Vertical Shear ..................................................................... February 2004
10.38.6
Deflection ................................................................................. February 2004
........10-71
........10-71
........10-74
........10-74
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS ..................................................... February 2004 ........10-74

10.39.1
10.39.2
Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment ............ February 2004 ........10-74
10.39.3
Web Plates ............................................................................... February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.3.1
Vertical Shear ..................................................................... February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.3.2
Secondary Bending Stresses ............................................. February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.4
Bottom Flange Plates .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.4.1
General ................................................................................ February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.4.2
Compression Flanges Unstiffened .................................... February 2004 ........10-75
10.39.4.3
Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally .............. February 2004 ........10-76
10.39.4.4
Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally ...........................................................
and Transversely ................................................................ February 2004 ........10-79
10.39.4.5
Compression Flange Stiffeners, General ......................... February 2004 ........10-80
10.39.5
Flange to Web Welds .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-80
10.39.6
Diaphragms ............................................................................. February 2004 ........10-80
10.39.7
Lateral Bracing ........................................................................ February 2004 ........10-80
10.39.8
Access and Drainage ............................................................... February 2004 ........10-80
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS ...................................................................... February 2004
10.40.1
10.40.2
Allowable Stresses ................................................................... February 2004
10.40.2.1
Bending ............................................................................... February 2004
10.40.2.2
Shear ................................................................................... February 2004
10.40.2.3
Fatigue ................................................................................ February 2004
10.40.3
Plate Thickness Requirements ............................................... February 2004
10.40.4
Bearing Stiffener Requirements ............................................ February 2004
........10-80
........10-80
........10-80
........10-80
........10-81
........10-81
........10-81
........10-81
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES ......................... February 2004

10.41.1
10.41.2
Wheel Load Contact Area ....................................................... February 2004
10.41.3
Effective Width of Deck Plate ............................................... February 2004
10.41.3.1
Ribs and Beams .................................................................. February 2004
10.41.3.2
Girders ................................................................................ February 2004
10.41.4
Allowable Stresses ................................................................... February 2004
10.41.4.1
Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate .............................. February 2004
10.41.4.2
Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs ............................ February 2004
10.41.4.3
Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams ........................... February 2004
10.41.4.4
Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and Girders ...................... February 2004
10.41.4.5
Thickness of Plate Elements ............................................. February 2004
10.41.4.6
Maximum Slenderness of Longitudinal Ribs .................. February 2004
10.41.4.7
Diaphragms ........................................................................ February 2004
10.41.4.8
Stiffness Requirements ...................................................... February 2004
10.41.4.9
Wearing Surface................................................................. February 2004
10.41.4.10
Closed Ribs ......................................................................... February 2004
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-82
........10-83
........10-83
........10-83
........10-83
........10-83
........10-83
........10-83
........10-84
........10-84
CONTENTS
XXV
Part D - Strength Design Method - Load Factor Design

10.42
SCOPE........................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-85
10.43
LOADS .......................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-85
10.44
DESIGN THEORY ....................................................................... February 2004 ........10-85
10.45
ASSUMPTIONS............................................................................ February 2004 ........10-85
10.46
DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL ......................... February 2004 ........10-85
10.47
MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS ..................................................... February 2004 ........10-85
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS .............................................................. February 2004

10.48.1
Compact Sections .................................................................... February 2004
10.48.2
Braced Members with Non-Compact Sections ...................... February 2004
10.48.3
Transitions ............................................................................... February 2004
10.48.4
Partially Braced Sections Members ....................................... February 2004
10.48.5
Transversely Stiffened Girders .............................................. February 2004
10.48.6
Longitudinally Stiffened Girders .......................................... February 2004
10.48.7
Bearing Stiffeners ................................................................... February 2004
10.48.8
Shear ........................................................................................ February 2004
10.49
10.49.1
10.49.2
10.49.3
10.49.4
10.49.5
........10-85
........10-86
........10-87
........10-88
........10-88
........10-90
........10-91
........10-92
........10-92
FLEXURAL MEMBERS WITH SINGLY SYMMETRIC........................................................

SECTIONS .................................................................................... February 2004 ........10-93
Transversly Stiffened Sections ............................................... February 2004 ........10-93
Longitudinally Stiffened Sections ......................................... February 2004 ........10-94
Braced Non-Compact Sections ............................................... February 2004 ........10-94
Partially Braced Sections ........................................................ February 2004 ........10-94
10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS ............................................................ February 2004

10.50.1
Positive Moment Sections ...................................................... February 2004
10.50.1.1
Compact Sections ............................................................... February 2004
10.50.1.2
Non-Compact Sections ........................................................ February 2004
10.50.2
Negative Moment Sections ..................................................... February 2004
10.50.2.1
10.50.2.2
Non-Compact Sections ........................................................ February 2004
........10-94
........10-95
........10-95
........10-97
........10-97
........10-97
........10-98
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS ..................................................... February 2004 ........10-98

10.51.1
Design Bending Strength ....................................................... February 2004 ........10-98
10.51.2
Live Load Moment Distribution ............................................ February 2004 ........10-98
10.51.3
Web Plates ............................................................................... February 2004 ........10-98
10.51.4
Tension Flanges ....................................................................... February 2004 ........10-99
10.51.5
Compression Flanges .............................................................. February 2004 ........10-99
10.51.6
Diaphragms ............................................................................. February 2004 ..... 10-100
10.51.7
Flange to Web Welds .............................................................. February 2004 ..... 10-100
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS ............................................................... February 2004
10.52.1
10.52.2
Number of Connectors ............................................................ February 2004
10.52.3
Maximum Spacing .................................................................. February 2004
..... 10-100
..... 10-100
..... 10-100
..... 10-100
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS ...................................................................... February 2004 ..... 10-100

10.53.1
Non-Composite Sections ......................................................... February 2004 ..... 10-101
XXVI
CONTENTS
10.53.1.1
10.53.1.2
Braced Non-Compact Sections .......................................... February 2004
10.53.1.3
Partially Braced Sections .................................................. February 2004
10.53.1.4
Transversely Stiffened Girders ......................................... February 2004
10.53.2
Composite Sections ................................................................. February 2004
..... 10-101
..... 10-101
..... 10-101
..... 10-102
..... 10-102
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS ....................................................... February 2004

10.54.1
Axial Loading .......................................................................... February 2004
10.54.1.1
Design Axial Strength ........................................................ February 2004
10.54.1.2
Effective Length ................................................................. February 2004
10.54.2
Combined Axial Load and Bending ...................................... February 2004
10.54.2.1
Deleted ................................................................................. February 2004
10.54.2.2
Deleted ................................................................................. February 2004
..... 10-102
..... 10-102
..... 10-102
..... 10-103
..... 10-103
..... 10-103
..... 10-103
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES ................................................................... February 2004

10.55.1
Moment Amplification and Allowable Stresses .................... February 2004
10.55.2
10.55.3
Flange Plates ........................................................................... February 2004
..... 10-103
..... 10-103
..... 10-103
..... 10-105
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS ............................ February 2004

10.56.1
Connectors ............................................................................... February 2004
10.56.1.1
10.56.1.2
Welds ................................................................................... February 2004
10.56.1.3
Fasteners ............................................................................ February 2004
10.56.1.4
Slip-Critical Joints .............................................................. February 2004
10.56.2
Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by Connected Parts ......... February 2004
10.56.3
Rigid Connections ................................................................... February 2004
..... 10-105
..... 10-105
..... 10-105
..... 10-105
..... 10-105
..... 10-107
..... 10-107
..... 10-107
10.57 OVERLOAD .................................................................................. February 2004

10.57.1
Non-Composite Sections ......................................................... February 2004
10.57.2
Composited Sections ............................................................... February 2004
10.57.3
Slip-Critical Joints ................................................................... February 2004
..... 10-107
..... 10-108
..... 10-108
..... 10-108
10.58 FATIGUE ...................................................................................... February 2004

10.58.1
10.58.2
Composite Construction .......................................................... February 2004
10.58.2.1
Slab Reinforcement ............................................................ February 2004
10.58.2.2
Shear Connectors ............................................................... February 2004
10.58.3
Hybrid Beams and Girders .................................................... February 2004
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
10.59
DEFLECTION .............................................................................. February 2004 ..... 10-109
10.60
ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES ..................................... February 2004 ..... 10-109
10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY .................................................................. February 2004

10.61.1
Web .......................................................................................... February 2004
10.61.2
10.61.3
Cross Section ........................................................................... February 2004
10.61.4
Compression Flange ................................................................ February 2004
..... 10-109
..... 10-109
..... 10-110
..... 10-110
..... 10-110
Section 11 - Aluminum Design

11.1
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 11-1
11.2
BRIDGES ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 11-1
CONTENTS
XXVII
11.3
SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION SYSTEMS .................... April 2000 .................11-1
11.4
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY SIGNS, ...........................................................

LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS ................................ April 2000 .................11-1
11.5
BRIDGE RAILING....................................................................... April 2000 .................11-1
Section 12 - Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Systems

12.1
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.1
Scope ........................................................................................ April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.2
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.3
Loads ........................................................................................ April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.4
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.5
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 .................12.1
12.1.6
Soil Design ............................................................................... April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.6.1
Soil Parameters .................................................................. April 2000 .................12-1
12.1.6.2
Pipe Arch Design ............................................................... April 2000 ............... 12-2
12.1.6.3
Arch Design ........................................................................ April 2000 .................12-2
12.1.7
Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions .......................................... April 2000 .................12-2
12.1.8
Minimum Spacing ................................................................... April 2000 .................12-2
12.1.9
End Treatment ........................................................................ April 2000 .................12-2
12.1.10
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 .................12-2
12.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN ........................................................... April 2000 .................12-2
12.3
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN ............................................................ April 2000

Wall Area ................................................................................. April 2000
Buckling .................................................................................... April 2000
Seam Strength ......................................................................... April 2000
Handling and Installation Strength ....................................... April 2000
.................12-2
.................12-3
.................12-3
.................12-3
.................12-3
12.4
CORRUGATED METAL PIPE .................................................... April 2000
12.4.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000
12.4.1.2
Service Load Design- Safety Factor, SF:.......................... April 2000
12.4.1.3
Load Factor Design - Capacity Modification Factor, .. April 2000
12.4.1.4
Flexibility Factor ................................................................ April 2000
12.4.1.5
Minimum Cover ................................................................. April 2000
12.4.2
Seam Strength ......................................................................... April 2000
12.4.3
Section Properties ................................................................... April 2000
12.4.3.1
Steel Conduits .................................................................... April 2000
12.4.3.2
Aluminum Conduits ........................................................... April 2000
12.4.4
Chemical and Mechanical Requirements .............................. April 2000
12.4.5
Smooth Lined Pipe ................................................................. April 2000
.................12-3
.................12-3
.................12-3
.................12-4
.................12-4
.................12-4
.................12-4
.................12-5
.................12-5
.................12-5
.................12-6
.................12-6
12.5
SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE ........................................................ April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.2
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.2.1
Load Factor Design ............................................................ April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.2.2
Flexibility Factor ................................................................ April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.2.3
Minimum Cover ................................................................. April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.3
Section Properties ................................................................... April 2000 .................12-6
12.5.3.1
Steel Conduits .................................................................... April 2000 .................12-6
XXVIII
CONTENTS
12.5.3.2
12.5.4
12.5.4.1
12.5.4.2
12.5.5
Aluminum Conduits ........................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-7

Chemical and Mechanical Requirements .............................. April 2000 ................. 12-7
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe - ...................................................................................
Arch Requirements - AASHTO M 218 ............................. April 2000 ................. 12-7
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe - ..........................................................................
Arch Requirements - AASHTO M 197 ............................. April 2000 ................. 12-7
Construction Requirements .................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-7
12.6
STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES ............................ April 2000 ................. 12-7
12.6.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-7
12.6.1.2
Service Load Design - Safety Factor, SF ......................... April 2000 ................. 12-7
12.6.1.3
Load Factor Design Capacity Modification Factor ......... April 2000 ................. 12-7
12.6.1.4
Flexiblility Factor ............................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-8
12.6.1.5
Minimum Cover ................................................................. April 2000 ................. 12-8
12.6.2
Seam Strength ......................................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-8
12.6.3
Section Properties ................................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.3.1
Steel Conduits .................................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.3.2
Aluminum Conduits ........................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.4
Chemical and Mechanical Properties .................................... April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.4.1
Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch ........................................................
Material Requirements - AASHTO M167 ........................ April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.4.2
Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and ........................................................
Arch Material Requirements - ........................................................................................
AASHTO M 219, Alloy 5052 ............................................. April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.6.5
Structural Plate Arches ........................................................... April 2000 ................. 12-9
12.7
LONG SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE STRUCTURES ............... April 2000
12.7.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000
12.7.2
Structure Design ..................................................................... April 2000
12.7.2.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000
12.7.2.2
Acceptable Special Features .............................................. April 2000
12.7.3
Foundation Design ................................................................. April 2000
12.7.3.1
Settlement Limits ............................................................... April 2000
12.7.3.2
Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) ................................ April 2000
12.7.3.3
Footing Design ................................................................... April 2000
12.7.4
Soil Envelope Design .............................................................. April 2000
12.7.5
End Treatment ........................................................................ April 2000
12.7.6
Multiple Structures ................................................................. April 2000
12.8
................. 12-9
................. 12-9
...............12-10
...............12-10
...............12-10
...............12-10
...............12-10
...............12-11
...............12-13
...............12-13
...............12-14
...............12-14
STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERT .................................... April 2000 ...............12-14
Section 13 - Wood Structures

13.1
13.1.1
13.1.2
13.1.3
13.1.4
GENERAL AND NOTATIONS .................................................... April 2000

General ..................................................................................... April 2000
Net Section .............................................................................. April 2000
Impact ...................................................................................... April 2000
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000
................. 13-1
................. 13-1
................. 13-1
................. 13-1
................. 13-1
13.2
MATERIALS ................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 13-2
13.2.1
Sawn Lumber .......................................................................... April 2000 ................. 13-2
13.2.1.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ................. 13-2
CONTENTS
XXIX
13.2.1.2
13.2.2
13.2.2.1
13.2.2.2
13.2.3
13.2.3.1
13.2.3.2
13.2.3.3
13.2.3.4
13.2.4
Dimensions ......................................................................... April 2000

Glued Laminated Timber ....................................................... April 2000
General ................................................................................ April 2000
Structural Composite Lumber ................................................ April 2000
General ................................................................................ April 2000
Laminated Veneer Lumber ............................................... April 2000
Parallel Strand Lumber ..................................................... April 2000
Piles .......................................................................................... April 2000
.................13-2
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
13.3
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.3.4
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT .................................................. April 2000

Requirement for Treament ..................................................... April 2000
Treatment Chemicals .............................................................. April 2000
Field Testing............................................................................ April 2000
Fire Retardant Treatments .................................................... April 2000
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-3
.................13-4
13.4
DEFLECTION .............................................................................. April 2000 .................13-4
13.5
DESIGN VALUES ........................................................................ April 2000 .................13-4
13.5.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000 .................13-4
13.5.2
Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber ...................................... April 2000 .................13-4
13.5.2.2
Stress Grades in Flexure ................................................... April 2000 .................13-4
13.5.3
Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated Timber ................... April 2000 .................13-4
13.5.4
Tablulated Values for Structural Composite Lumber ........... April 2000 ...............13-13
13.5.5
Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values .............................. April 2000 ...............13-13
13.5.5.1
Wet Service Factor, C M .................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-13
13.5.5.2
Load Duration Factor, C D ............................................................... April 2000 ...............13-13
13.5.5.3
Adjustment for Preservative Treatment ........................... April 2000 ...............13-21
13.6
BENDING MEMBERS ................................................................. April 2000 ...............13-21
13.6.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-21
13.6.2
Notching ................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-21
13.6.3
Modulus of Elasticity .............................................................. April 2000 ...............13-22
13.6.4
Bending .................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-22
13.6.4.1
Allowable Stress .................................................................. April 2000 ...............13-22
13.6.4.2
Size Factor, C F ..................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-22
13.6.4.3
Volume Factor, C V .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............13-22
13.6.4.4
Beam Stability Factor, C L ............................................................... April 2000 ...............13-23
13.6.4.5
Form Factor, C f .................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-23
13.6.5
Shear Parallel to Grain ........................................................... April 2000 ...............13-24
13.6.5.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ...............13-24
13.6.5.2
Actual Stress ....................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-24
13.6.5.3
13.6.6
Compression Perpendicular to Grain.................................... April 2000 ...............13-24
13.6.6.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ...............13-24
13.6.6.2
13.6.6.3
Bearing Area Factor, C b ................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-25
13.6.7
Bearing on Inclined Surfaces ................................................. April 2000 ...............13-25
13.7
13.7.1
13.7.2
XXX
COMPRESSION MEMBERS ....................................................... April 2000 ...............13-25

General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ...............13-25
Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses .............................. April 2000 ...............13-25
CONTENTS
13.7.3
13.7.3.1
13.7.3.2
13.7.3.3
13.7.3.4
13.7.3.5
13.7.4
13.8
13.8.1
Compression ............................................................................ April 2000

Net Section ......................................................................... April 2000
Allowable Stress .................................................................. April 2000
Column Stability Factor, C P ........................................................... April 2000
Tapered Columns ............................................................... April 2000
Round Columns .................................................................. April 2000
Bearing Parallel to Grain ....................................................... April 2000
...............13-26
...............13-26
...............13-26
...............13-26
...............13-27
...............13-27
...............13-27
TENSION MEMBERS ................................................................. April 2000 ...............13-28

Tension Parallel to Grain ....................................................... April 2000 ...............13-28
Section 14 - Bearings
14.1
SCOPE .......................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-1
14.2
DEFINITIONS ............................................................................. April 2000 ................. 14-1
14.3
NOTATIONS ................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 14-2
14.4
14.4.1
MOVEMENTS AND LOADS ....................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-3

Design Requirements .............................................................. April 2000 ................. 14-3
14.5
14.5.1
14.5.2
14.5.3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS ....................... April 2000 ................. 14-3

Load and Movement Capabilities .......................................... April 2000 ................. 14-3
Characteristics ......................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-3
Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint of ................................................................
Movement at the Bearing ....................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-6
14.5.3.1
Horizontal Force ................................................................. April 2000 ................. 14-6
14.5.3.2
Bending Moment ................................................................ April 2000 ................. 14-6
14.6
SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR BEARINGS ................ April 2000 ................. 14-6
14.6.1
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-6
14.6.2
PTFE Sliding Surfaces ............................................................ April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.1
PTFE Surface ..................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.2
Mating Surface ................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.3
Minimum Thickness Requirements .................................. April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.4
Contact Pressure ................................................................ April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.5
Coefficient of Friction ....................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-7
14.6.2.6
Attachment .......................................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-8
14.6.3
Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces ................................ April 2000 ................. 14-9
14.6.3.1
Geometric Requirements ................................................... April 2000 ................. 14-9
14.6.3.2
Resistance to Lateral Load ................................................ April 2000 ................. 14-9
14.6.4
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............14-10
14.6.5
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings - Method B ............. April 2000 ...............14-10
14.6.5.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ...............14-10
14.6.5.2
Material Properties ............................................................ April 2000 ...............14-10
14.6.5.3
Design Requirements ......................................................... April 2000 ...............14-10
14.6.6
Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced .............................................................................
Elastomeric Bearings - Method A .......................................... April 2000 ...............14-13
14.6.6.1
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ...............14-13
14.6.6.2
Material Properties ............................................................ April 2000 ...............14-13
14.6.6.3
Design Requirements ......................................................... April 2000 ...............14-13
14.6.6.4
Resistance to Deformation ................................................ April 2000 ...............14-14
14.6.7
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............14-14
CONTENTS
XXXI
14.6.8
14.6.9
14.6.9.1
14.6.9.2
14.6.9.3
14.6.9.4
14.6.9.5
14.6.9.6
14.6.10
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000

Guides and Restraints ............................................................ April 2000
General ................................................................................ April 2000
Design Loads ...................................................................... April 2000
Materials ............................................................................. April 2000
Geometric Requirements ................................................... April 2000
Design Basis ....................................................................... April 2000
Attachment of Low-Friction Material ............................... April 2000
Other Bearing System ............................................................. April 2000
...............14-14
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
...............14-15
14.7
14.7.1
14.7.2
14.7.3
LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR BEARINGS ............ April 2000

Plates for Load Distribution .................................................. April 2000
Tapered Plates ......................................................................... April 2000
Anchorage ................................................................................ April 2000
...............14-16
...............14-16
...............14-16
...............14-16
14.8
CORROSION PROTECTION ....................................................... April 2000 ...............14-16
Section 15 - TFE Bearing Surface

Section 15 has been replaced by Section 14, "Bearings".
Section 16 - Steel Tunnel Liner Plates

16.1
16.1.1
16.1.2
GENERAL AND NOTATIONS .................................................... April 2000 .................16-1

General ..................................................................................... April 2000 .................16-1
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000 .................16-1
16.2
LOADS .......................................................................................... April 2000 .................16-1
16.3
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4
16.3.5
DESIGN ........................................................................................ April 2000

Criteria ..................................................................................... April 2000
Joint Strength .......................................................................... April 2000
Minimum Stiffness for Installation ....................................... April 2000
Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall .................................... April 2000
Deflection or Flattening .......................................................... April 2000
16.4
16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS .............. April 2000 .................16-4

Chemical Composition ............................................................ April 2000 .................16-4
Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Plate before .....................................................
Cold Forming ........................................................................... April 2000 .................16-4
Dimensions and Tolerances ................................................... April 2000 .................16-4
16.5
SECTION PROPERTIES ............................................................. April 2000 .................16-4
16.6
COATINGS .................................................................................... April 2000 .................16-4
16.7
BOLTS ........................................................................................... April 2000 .................16-4
16.8
SAFETY FACTORS ...................................................................... April 2000 .................16-5
.................16-2
.................16-2
.................16-2
.................16-3
.................16-3
.................16-4
Section 17 - Soil Reinforced Concrete Structure Interaction Systems

17.1
17.1.1
XXXII
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 .................17-1

Scope ........................................................................................ April 2000 .................17-1
CONTENTS
17.1.2
17.1.3
17.1.4
17.1.5
17.1.6
17.1.7
17.1.8
17.1.9
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000

Loads ........................................................................................ April 2000
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000
Soil ............................................................................................ April 2000
Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions .......................................... April 2000
End Structures ........................................................................ April 2000
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000
................. 17-1
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
................. 17-3
17.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN ........................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN ............................................................ April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4
REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE .............................................. April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.1
Application ............................................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.2
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.2.1
Concrete .............................................................................. April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.2.2
Reinforcement .................................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.2.3
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement ................................... April 2000 ................. 17-3
17.4.3
Installations ............................................................................. April 2000 ................. 17-4
17.4.3.1
Standard Installations ........................................................ April 2000 ................. 17-4
17.4.3.2
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 17-4
17.4.4
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-4
17.4.4.1
General Requirements ....................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-4
17.4.4.2
Loads ................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-5
17.4.4.3
Minimum Fill ..................................................................... April 2000 ................. 17-5
17.4.4.4
Design Methods ................................................................. April 2000 ................. 17-5
17.4.5
Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength and .....................................................
Load-Carrying Capacity .......................................................... April 2000 ...............17-10
17.4.5.1
Loads ................................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-10
17.4.5.2
Bedding Factor ................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-11
17.4.6
Direct Design Method for Precast Reinforced ..................................................................
Concrete Circular Pipe ........................................................... April 2000 ...............17-12
17.4.6.1
Application .......................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-12
17.4.6.2
General ................................................................................ April 2000 ...............17-12
17.4.6.3
Strength-Reduction Factors ............................................... April 2000 ...............17-13
17.4.6.4
Process and Material Factors ............................................ April 2000 ...............17-13
17.4.6.5
Orientation Angle ............................................................... April 2000 ...............17-13
17.4.7
Development of Quadrant Mat Reinforcement .................... April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5
REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH, CAST-IN-PLACE .............. April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5.1
Application ............................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5.2
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5.2.1
Concrete .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5.2.2
Reinforcement .................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-19
17.5.3
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
17.5.3.1
General Requirements ....................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
17.5.3.2
Minimum Cover ................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-20
17.5.3.3
Strength-Reduction Factors ............................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
17.5.3.4
Splices of Reinforcement ................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
17.5.3.5
Footing Design ................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
17.6
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, CAST-IN-PLACE ................ April 2000 ...............17-20
CONTENTS
XXXIII
17.6.1
17.6.2
17.6.2.1
17.6.2.2
17.6.3
17.6.4
17.6.4.1
17.6.4.2
17.6.4.3

Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-20
Concrete .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-20
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement ........................................ April 2000 ...............17-20
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-20
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects to 20 .........................................................
Bottom Slab ......................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed
Culverts ............................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-20
Span Length ....................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-21
Strength Reduction Factors .............................................. April 2000 ...............17-21
Crack Control ...................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-21
Minimum Reinforcement................................................... April 2000 ...............17-21
17.6.4.4
17.6.4.5
17.6.4.6
17.6.4.7
17.6.4.8
17.7
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, PRECAST ............................ April 2000 ...............17-21
17.7.1
17.7.2
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-21
17.7.2.1
Concrete .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-21
17.7.2.2
17.7.3
17.7.4
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.1
17.7.4.2
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.3
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects in ..............................................................
Sides and Bottoms ............................................................. April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.4
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed
Culverts ............................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.5
Span Length ....................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.6
Strength Reduction Factors .............................................. April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.7
Crack Control ...................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.8
Minimum Reinforcement................................................... April 2000 ...............17-22
17.7.4.9
Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints Between .............................................................
Culvert Sections .................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-22
17.8
17.8.1
17.8.2
17.8.2.1
17.8.2.2
17.8.3
17.8.4
17.8.5
17.8.5.1
17.8.5.2
17.8.5.3
17.8.5.4
XXXIV
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE THREE-SIDED ........................................................

STRUCTURES .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-23
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-23
Concrete .............................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-23
Geometric Properties .............................................................. April 2000 ...............17-23
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-23
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects in Side ........ April 2000 ...............17-23
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in .........................................................................
Skewed Culverts ................................................................. April 2000 ...............17-23
Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints Between .............................................................
Culvert Section ................................................................... April 2000 ...............17-23
CONTENTS
17.8.5.5
17.8.5.6
17.8.5.7
17.8.5.8
17.8.5.9
17.8.5.10
17.8.5.11
17.8.5.12
Span Length ....................................................................... April 2000

Strength Reduction Factor ................................................ April 2000
Crack Control ...................................................................... April 2000
Minimum Reinforcement .................................................. April 2000
Deflection Control .............................................................. April 2000
Footing Design ................................................................... April 2000
Structure Backfill ................................................................ April 2000
Scour Protection ................................................................. April 2000
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
...............17-24
Section 18 - Soil-Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems

18.1
GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.1
Scope ........................................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.2
Notations .................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.3
Loads ........................................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.4
Design ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.5
Materials .................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.6
Soil Design ............................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.6.1
Soil Parameters .................................................................. April 2000 ................. 18-1
18.1.7
Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions .......................................... April 2000 ................. 18-2
18.1.8
Minimum Spacing ................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-2
18.1.9
End Treatment ........................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-2
18.1.10
Deleted ...................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-2
18.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN ........................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-2
18.3
18.3.1
18.3.2
18.3.3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN ............................................................ April 2000

Wall Area ................................................................................. April 2000
Buckling .................................................................................... April 2000
Handling and Installation Strength ....................................... April 2000
................. 18-2
................. 18-2
................. 18-2
................. 18-3
18.4
PLASTIC PIPE ............................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1
General ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.2
Deleted ................................................................................. April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.3
Load Factor Design - Capacity Modification Factor, : . April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.4
Flexibility Factor ................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.5
Minimum Cover ................................................................. April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.6
Maximum Strain ................................................................ April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.1.7
Local Buckling .................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.2
Section Properties ................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-3
18.4.2.1
PE Corrugated Pipes (AASHTO M 294) ......................... April 2000 ................. 18-4
18.4.2.2
PE Ribbed Pipes (ASTM F 894) ...................................... April 2000 ................. 18-4
18.4.2.3
Profile Wall (Ribbed) PVC Pipes (AASHTO M 304) ...... April 2000 ................. 18-4
18.4.3
Chemical and Mechanical Requirements .............................. April 2000 ................. 18-4
18.4.3.1
Polyethylene ....................................................................... April 2000 ................. 18-4
18.4.3.2
Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) .............................................. April 2000 ................. 18-5
Appendix A
Deleted February 2004 (Live Load Tables)
CONTENTS
XXXV
Appendix B
Truck Train Loadings ................................................................................. April 2000 ...................B-1
Appendix C
Columns ....................................................................................................... April 2000 ...................C-1
Appendix D
Computation of Plastic Section Modulus Z* ............................................. April 2000 .................. D-1
XXXVI
CONTENTS
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS APRIL 2000
SECTION 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1
DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL
1.3
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY FOR

BRIDGES
1.3.1
The intent of these specifications is to produce integrity of design in bridges.
1.1.1
Design Analysis
When these Specifications provide for empirical formulae, alternate rational analyses, based on theories or
tests and accepted by the authority having jurisdiction,
will be considered as compliance with these Specifications.
1.1.2
Structural Integrity
Designs and details for new bridges should address

structural integrity by considering the following:
(a) The use of continuity and redundancy to provide
one or more alternative load paths.
(b) Structural members and bearing seat widths that
are resistant to damage or instability.
(c) External protection systems to minimize the effects of reasonably conceived severe loads.
1.1
BRIDGE LOCATIONS
The general location of a bridge is governed by the

route of the highway it carries, which, in the case of a new
highway, could be one of several routes under consideration. The bridge location should be selected to suit the
particular obstacle being crossed. Stream crossings
should be located with regard to initial capital cost of
bridgeworks and the minimization of total cost including
river channel training works and the maintenance measures necessary to reduce erosion. Highway and railroad
crossings should provide for possible future works such
as road widening.
WATERWAYS
General
1.3.1.1
Selecting favorable stream crossings
should be considered in the preliminary route determination to minimize construction, maintenance, and replacement costs. Natural stream meanders conditions should
be studied and, if necessary, channel changes, river
training works, and other construction that would reduce
erosion problems and prevent possible loss of the structure should be considered. The foundations of bridges
constructed across channels that have been realigned
should be designed for possible deepening and widening
of the relocated channel due to natural causes. On wide
flood plains, the lowering of approach embankments to
provide overflow sections that would pass unusual floods
over the highway is a means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief bridges are needed to maintain the
natural flow distribution and reduce backwater, caution
must be exercised in proportioning the size and in locating such structures to avoid undue scour or changes in the
course of the main river channel.
1.3.1.2
Usually, bridge waterways are sized to
pass a design flood of a magnitude and frequency consistent with the type of class of highway. In the selection of
the waterway opening, consideration should be given to
the amount of upstream ponding, the passage of ice and
debris, and possible scour of the bridge foundatons.
Where floods exceeding the design flood have occurred,
or where superfloods would cause extensive damage to
adjoining property or the loss of a costly structure, a
larger waterway opening may be warranted. Due consideration should be given to any federal, state, and local
requirements.
1.3.1.3
Relief openings, spur-dikes, and channel training works should be used where needed to
minimize the effect of adverse flood flow conditions.
Where scour is likely to occur, protection against damage
from scour should be provided in the design of bridge
piers and abutments. Embankment slopes adjacent to
SECTION 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS MARCH 1999
structures subject to erosion should be adequately protected by riprap, flexible mattresses, retards, spur dikes or
other appropriate construction. Clearing of brush and
trees along embankments in the vicinity of bridge openings should be avoided to prevent high flow velocities
and possible scour. Borrow pits should not be located in
areas which would increase velocities and the possibility
of scour at bridges.
1.4
Culvert location, length, and waterway openings

should be in accordance with the AASHTO Guide on the
Hydraulic Design of Culverts in Highway Drainage
Guidelines.
1.5
1.3.2
Site Data
(a) Maps, stream cross sections aerial photographs.

(b) Complete data on existing bridges, including dates
of construction and performance during past
floods.
(c) Available high water marks with dates of occurrence.
(d) Information on ice debris, and channel stability.
(e) Factors affecting water stages such as high water
from other streams, reservoirs, flood control
projects, and tides.
(f) Geomorphic changes in channel flow.
1.3.2.2
Hydrologic Analysis
(a) Flood data applicable to estimating floods at site,

including both historical floods and maximum
floods of record.
(b) Flood-frequency curve for site.
(c) Distribution of flow and velocities at site of flood
discharges to be considered in design of structure.
(d) Stage-discharge curve for site.
1.3.2.3
Hydraulic Analysis
(a) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening

for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges.
(b) Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of
proposed structures.
(c) Effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern
changes on the proposed structure.
1-2
ROADWAY DRAINAGE
Hydraulic Studies
Hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part

of the preliminary design of a bridge and reports of such
studies should include applicable parts of the following
outline:
1.3.2.1
CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH,

AND WATERWAY OPENINGS
The transverse drainage of the roadway should be

provided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and
longitudinal drainage by camber or gradient. Water
flowing downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and not permitted to run onto the bridge. Short,
continuous span bridges, particularly overpasses, may be
built without inlets and the water from the bridge roadway carried downslope by open or closed chutes near the
end of the bridge structure. Longitudinal drainage on
long bridges should be provided by scuppers or inlets
which should be of sufficient size and number to drain the
gutters adequately. Downspouts, where required, should
be made of rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than
4 inches in least dimension and should be provided with
cleanouts. The details of deck drains should be such as to
prevent the discharge of drainage water against any
portion of the structure or on moving traffic below, and
to prevent erosion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck
drains may be connected to conduits leading to storm
water outfalls at ground level. Overhanging portions of
concrete decks should be provided with a drop bead or
notch.
1.6
1.6.1
RAILROAD OVERPASSES
Clearances
Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in

accordance with standards established and used by the
affected railroad in its normal practice. These overpass
structures shall comply with applicable Federal, State,
and local laws.
Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a minimum, meet the specifications and design standards of the
American Railway Engineering Association, the Association of American Railroads, and AASHTO.
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS MARCH 1999
1.6.2
Blast Protection
On bridges over railroads with steam locomotives,

metal likely to be damaged by locomotive gases, and all
concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks, shall
be protected by blast plates. The plates shall be placed to
take account of the direction of blast when the locomotive
is on level or superelevated tracks by centering them on
a line normal to the plane of the two rails at the centerline
of the tracks. The plates shall be not less than 4 feet wide
and shall be cast-iron, a corrosion and blast resisting
alloy, or asbestos-board shields, so supported that they
may be readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other
parts in direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not
less than 3/4 inch for cast iron, 3/8 inch for alloy, 1/2 inch
for plain asbestos-board and 7/16 inch for corrugated
asbestos-board. Bolts shall be not less than 5/8 inch in
diameter. Pocket which may hold locomotive gases shall
be avoided as far as practical. All fastenings shall be
galvanized or made of corrosion resistant material.
1.7
SUPERELEVATION
The superelevation of the floor surface of a bridge on

a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with
the standard practice of the commission for the highway
construction, except that the superelevation shall not
exceed 0.10 foot per foot width of roadway.
1.8
FLOOR SURFACES
All bridge floors shall have skid-resistant characteristics.
1.9
UTILITIES
Where required, provisions shall be made for trolley

wire supports and poles lighting pillars, electric conduits,
telephone conduits, water pipes, gas pipes, sanitary sewers, and other utility appurtenances.
1-3
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS MAY 2006
SECTION 2 - GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1
GENERAL
2.1.1
b
b'
d
Fa
Fb
Fv
Fy
fa
h
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
L
P
=
=
P'
t
w
=
=
truss, girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway curb,

the width shall be measured to the extreme walk side of
these members.
Notations
flat width of square or rectangular tube (Article
2.7.4.3[b])
width of projecting flange element (Article
2.7.4.3)
modification factor for concentrated load, P,
used in the design of rail members (Article
2.7.1.3.1)
clear unsupported distance between flange
components (Article 2.7.4.3)
depth of W or I section (Article 2.7.4.3)
allowable axial stress (Article 2.7.4.3)
allowable bending stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
allowable shear stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
minimum yield stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
axial compression stress (Article 2.7.4.3)
height of top rail above reference surface
(Figure 2.7.4B)
post spacing (Figure 2.7.4B)
railing design loading = 54 kips (Article 2.7.1.3
and Figure 2.7.4B)
railing design loading equal to P, P/2 or P/3
(Article 2.7.1.3.5)
web thickness (Article 2.7.4.3)
pedestrian or bicycle loading (Article 2.7.4.3)
2.2
2.2.1
Navigational
Permits for the construction of crossings over navigable streams must be obtained from the U.S. Coast
Guard and other appropriate agencies. Requests for such
permits from the U.S. Coast Guard should be addressed
to the appropriate District Commander. Permit exemptions are allowed on non-tidal waterways which are not
used as a means to transport interstate or foreign commerce, and are not susceptible to such use in their natural
condition or by reasonable improvement.
2.2.2
Roadway Width
For recommendations on roadway widths for various

volumes of traffic see Caltrans Highway Design Manual,
Index 102.1 and Chapter 300.
2.2.3
2.1.2
STANDARD HIGHWAY
CLEARANCESGENERAL
Vertical Clearance
For Vertical Clearance requirements, see Caltrans

Highway Design Manual, Index 309.2 and Index 204.6.
Width of Roadway and Sidewalk
The width of roadway shall be the clear width measured at right angles to the longitudinal centerline of the
bridge between the bottoms of curbs. If brush curbs or
curbs are not used, the clear width shall be the minimum
width measured between the nearest faces of the bridge
railing.
The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width,
measured at right angles to the longitudinal centerline of
the bridge, from the extreme inside portion of the handrail to the bottom of the curb or guardtimber. If there is a
2.2.4
Other
The channel openings and clearances shall be acceptable to agencies having jurisdiction over such matters.
Channel openings and clearances shall conform in width,
height, and location to all Federal, State, and local requirements.
SECTION 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2-1
2.4.1
HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR

UNDERPASSES
Width
The provisions of Article 2.3.1 shall be used.

Horizontal Clearance
Face of curb or barrier
9" (max.) brush curb (optional)

or sidewalk if warranted
Roadway Width
vertical clearance
The face of the curb is defined as the vertical or sloping

surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
measurements of roadway curbs are from the bottom of
the face, or, in the case of stepped back curbs, from the
bottom of the lower face. Maximum width of brush curbs,
if used, shall be 9 inches.
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the roadway approach, at either or both ends of the bridge, the
curb height on the bridge may equal or exceed the curb
height on the roadway approach. Where no curbs are used
on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge curb
above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches, and
preferably not more than 10 inches.
Where sidewalks are used for pedestrian traffic on
urban expressways, they shall be separated from the
bridge roadway by the use of a combination railing as
shown in Figure 2.7.4B.
In those cases where a New Jersey type parapet or a
curb is constructed on a bridge, particularly in urban
areas that have curbs and gutters leading to a bridge, the
same widths between curbs on the approach roadways
will be maintained across the bridge structure. A parapet
or other railing installed at or near the curb line shall have
its ends properly flared, sloped, or shielded.
2.4
Crown
Curbs and Sidewalks
Curb
2.2.5
Figure 2.3.1 Clearance diagram for bridges.
2.4.2
Vertical Clearance
2.3

BRIDGES
2.4.3
2.3.1
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and

the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.3.1.
The roadway width shall generally equal the width of
the approach roadway section including shoulders. Where
curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the same
section shall be carried across the structure.
For Roadway Width requirements, see Caltrans Highway Design Manual, Index 208.1, 309.1, and Chapter
300.
Curbs, if used, shall match those of the approach

roadway section.
2.5
2.5.1
Roadway Width
RAILINGS
Vertical Clearance
2-2

TUNNELS
2.7
2.3.2
Curbs
Width
SECTION 2
Railings shall be provided along the edges of structures for protection of traffic and pedestrians. Other
suitable applications may be warranted on bridge-length
culverts as addressed in the 1989 AASHTO Roadside
Design Guide.
Except on urban expressways, a pedestrian walkway

may be separated from an adjacent roadway by a traffic
railing or barrier with a pedestrian railing along the edge
of the structure. On urban expressways, the separation
shall be made by the use of a combination railing.
2.7.1
2.7.1.1
Vehicular Railing
2.7.1.2.2
Traffic railings and traffic portions of
combination railings shall not be less than 2 feet 3 inches
from the top of the reference surface. Parapets designed
with sloping traffic faces intended to allow vehicles to
ride up them under low angle contacts shall be at least 2
feet 8 inches in height.
General
2.7.1.1.1
Although the primary purpose of traffic railing is to contain the average vehicle using the
structure, consideration should also be given to (a) protection of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the
railing, (b) protection of other vehicles near the collision,
(c) protection of vehicles or pedestrians on roadways
underneath the structure, and (d) appearance and freedom of view from passing vehicles.
2.7.1.1.2
Materials for traffic railings shall be
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof. Metal
materials with less than 10 percent tested elongation shall
not be used.
2.7.1.1.3
Traffic railings should provide a
smooth continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the
posts set back from the face of rail. Structural continuity
in the rail members, including anchorage of ends, is
essential. The railing system shall be able to resist the
applied loads at all locations.
2.7.1.1.4
Protrusions or depressions at rail joints
shall be acceptable provided their thickness or depth is no
greater than the wall thickness of the rail member or
3/8 inch, whichever is less.
2.7.1.1.5
Careful attention shall be given to the
treatment of railings at the bridge ends. Exposed rail
ends, posts, and sharp changes in the geometry of the
railing shall be avoided. A smooth transition by means of
a continuation of the bridge barrier, guardrail anchored to
the bridge end, or other effective means shall be provided
to protect the traffic from direct collision with the bridge
rail ends.
2.7.1.2
is anticipated, or the top of curb when the curb projection

is greater than 9 inches from the traffic face of the railing.
2.7.1.2.3
The lower element of a traffic or combination railing should consist of either a parapet projecting at least 18 inches above the reference surface or a rail
centered between 15 and 20 inches above the reference
surface.
2.7.1.2.4
For traffic railings, the maximum clear
opening below the bottom rail shall not exceed 17 inches
and the maximum opening between succeeding rails
shall not exceed 15 inches. For combination railings,
accommodating pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the maximum opening between railing members shall be governed by Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1 respectively.
2.7.1.2.5
The traffic faces of all traffic rails must
be within 1 inch of a vertical plane through the traffic face
of the rail closest to traffic.
2.7.1.3
Loads
2.7.1.3.1
When the height of the top of the top
traffic rail exceeds 2 feet 9 inches, the total transverse
load distributed to the traffic rails and posts shall be
increased by the factor C. However, the maximum load
applied to any one element need not exceed P, the
transverse design load.
2.7.1.3.2
Rails whose traffic face is more than 1
inch behind a vertical plane through the face of the traffic
rail closest to traffic or centered less than 15 inches above
the reference surface shall not be considered to be traffic
rails for the purpose of distributing P or CP, but may be
considered in determining the maximum clear vertical
opening, provided they are designed for a transverse
loading equal to that applied to an adjacent traffic rail or
P/2, whichever is less.
Geometry
2.7.1.2.1
The heights of rails shall be measured
relative to the reference surface which shall be the top of
the roadway, the top of the future overlay if resurfacing
2.7.1.3.3
Transverse loads on posts, equal to P,
or CP, shall be distributed as shown in Figure 2.7.4B. A
load equal to one-half the transverse load on a post shall
simultaneously be applied longitudinally, divided among
SECTION 2
2-3
not more than four posts in a continuous rail length. Each

traffic post shall also be designed to resist an independently applied inward load equal to one-fourth the outward
transverse load.
2.7.1.3.4
The attachment of each rail required in
a traffic or combination railing shall be designed to resist
a vertical load equal to one-fourth of the transverse
design load of the rail. The vertical load shall be applied
alternately upward or downward. The attachment shall
also be designed to resist an inward transverse load equal
to one-fourth the transverse rail design load.
2.7.1.3.5
Rail members shall be designed for a
moment, due to concentrated loads, at the center of the
panel and at the posts of P'L/6 where L is the post spacing
and P' is equal to P, P/2, or P/3, as modified by the factor
C where required. The handrail members of combination
railings shall be designed for a moment at the center of the
panel and at the posts of 0.1wL2.
2.7.1.3.6
The transverse force on concrete parapet and barrier walls shall be spread over a longitudinal
length of 10 feet.
2.7.1.3.7
Railings other than those shown in
Figure 2.7.4B are permissible provided they meet the
requirements of this Article. Railing configurations that
have been successfully tested by full scale impact tests
are exempt from the provisions of the Article.
2.7.2
2.7.2.1
Bicycle Railing
General
2.7.2.2
2.7.2.2.1
The minimum height of a railing used
to protect a bicyclist shall be 1.37 m (54 inches), measured
from the top of the surface on which the bicycle rides to
the top of the upper rail member.
2.7.2.2.2
Within a band bordered by the bikeway
surface and a line 27 inches above it, all elements of the
railing assembly shall be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere
will not pass through any opening. Within a band bordered by lines 27 and 54 inches, elements shall be spaced
such that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any
opening. Chain link fence is exempt from the rail spacing
requirements listed above. Rails should be flush or
project beyond the face of posts and/or pickets. If not, post
or picket protrusion will be accepted with a rubrail placed
at 42 inches (1060 mm) measured from the top of the
riding surface.
2.7.2.2.3
The minimum design loadings for bicycle railing shall be w = 50 pounds per linear foot
transversely and vertically, acting simultaneously on
each rail.
2.7.2.2.4
Design loads for rails located more
than 54 inches above the riding surface shall be determined by the designer.
2.7.2.2.5
Posts shall be designed for a transverse
load of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the
center of gravity of the upper rail, but at a height not
greater than 54 inches.
2.7.2.2.6
Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
2.7.2.1.1
Bicycle railing shall be used on bridges
specifically designed to carry bicycle traffic, and on
bridges where specific protection of bicyclists is deemed
necessary.
2.7.2.1.2
Railing components shall be designed
with consideration to safety, appearance, and when the
bridge carries mixed traffic freedom of view from passing vehicles.
2-4
SECTION 2
Geometry and Loads
wL
w
w
3'-6" minimum
w
wL
3'-6" minimum
3'-6" minimum
w
w
wL
w
Walking surface
(To be used adjacent to a sidewalk when highway traffic is seperate from

pedestrian traffic by a traffic railing.)
PEDESTRIAN RAILING
w
w
w
w
w
w
Bikeway
Surface
w
w
w
w
w
3'-6" Rubrail Top
wL
3'-6" Rubrail Top
4'-6" minimum
4'-6" minimum
wL
4'-6" minimum
4'-6" minimum
BICYCLE RAILING
Note:
If screening or solid face is presented, number of rails may be reduced; wind loads must
be added if solid face is utilized.
Notes:
1. Loadings on left are applied to rails.
2. Loads on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes of rail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of
materials listed in Article 2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacings illustrated are maximum values. Rail elements spacings shall conform
to Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1
Nomenclature:
w = Pedestrian or bicycle loading per unit length of rail
L = Post spacing
Figure 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing
SECTION 2
2-5
inches above it, all elements of the railing assembly shall

be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere will not pass through
any opening. For elements between 27 and 42 inches
above the walking surface, elements shall be spaced such
that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any opening.
Pedestrian Railing
General
2.7.3.1.1
Railing components shall be proportioned commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated pedestrian traffic. Consideration should be given to
appearance, safety and freedom of view from passing
vehicles.
2.7.3.2.2
The minimum design loading for pedestrian railing shall be w = 50 pounds per linear foot,
transversely and vertically, acting simultaneously on
each longitudinal member. Rail members located more
than 5 feet 0 inches above the walkway are excluded from
these requirements.
2.7.3.1.2
Materials for pedestrian railing may be
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof.
2.7.3.2.3
Posts shall be designed for a transverse
load of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the
center of gravity of the upper rail or, for high rails, at 5
feet 0 inches maximum above the walkway.
Geometry and Loads
2.7.3.2.1
The minimum height of a pedestrian
railing shall be 42 inches measured from the top of the
walkway to the top of the upper rail member. Within a
band bordered by the walkway surface and a line 27
P/2
P/2
wL
P/2
P/2
w
wL
Walkway surface
(typ.)
3'-6" minimum
P/2
w
wL
2'-8" min.
P/2
w
wL
3'-6" minimum
2'-3" min.
1'-3"
max.
P/2
1'-6" min.
P/2
3'-6" minimum
1'-3"
max.
P/2
1'-3" max.
P/2
1'-8" max.
1'-3" min.
3'-6" minimum
2'-3" min.
P/2
wL
2'-3" min.
2.7.3.2.4
Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
1'-0"
max.
2.7.3.2
2'-3" min.
2.7.3.1
3'-6" minimum
2'-8" min.
2.7.3
(To be used when curb projects more than 9" from the traffic face of railing.)
COMBINATION TRAFFIC AND PEDESTRIAN RAILING
9" max.
P/2
1'-0"
max.
2'-3" min.
P/2
P/2
Top of future resurfacing

(typ.)
P/2
2'-8" min.
P/2
Roadway surface (typ.)
1'-3" max.
P/2
1'-5" max.
P/3
2'-3" min.
P/3
P/2
1'-8" max.
1'-3" min.
P/3
1'-3"
max.
P/3
P/3
1'-8" max.
1'-3" min.
1'-5"
max.
2'-3" min.
1'-3"
max.
P/3
9" max.
2'-3" min.
1'-3"
1'-6" min.
max.
9" max.
(To be used where there is no curb or curb project 9" or less from traffic face of railing.)
TRAFFIC RAILING
Figure 2.7.4B Traffic Railing
2-6
SECTION 2
P/2
P/2
P/2
P/2
P/2
10"
10"
P/2
wL
w
w
w
wL
w
2'-8" min.
P/2
1'-0"
max.
P/2
w
w
w
w
4'-6" minimum
P/2
P/2
w
wL
2'-3" min.
P/2
P/2
w
wL
4'-6" minimum
10"
2'-8" min.
P/2
4'-6" minimum
1'-3"
w
w
w
4'-6" minimum
1'-3"
wL
2'-3" min.
2'-3" min.
1'-6" min. 1'-3"
max.
Bikeway surface
(typ.)
1'-8"
1'-3"
1'-3" max.
1'-3"
max.
2'-3" min.
4'-6" minimum
1'-3"
COMBINATION TRAFFIC AND PEDESTRIAN RAILING
Notes:
1. Loadings on left are applied to rails.
2. Loads on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes of rail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of
materials listed in Article 2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacings illustrated are maximum values. Rail elements spacings shall conform
to Article 2.7.1.2.4.
Nomenclature:
P = Highway design loading = 54 kips
h = Height of top of top rail above reference surface (in.)
L = Post spacing (ft.)
w = Pedestrian or bicycle loading per unit length of rail
C =1+
h 33
18
Figure 2.7.4B (continued)
2.7.4
Structural Specifications and

Guidelines
2.7.4.1
Railings shall be designed by the elastic method to the allowable stresses for the appropriate
material.
For aluminum alloys the design stresses given in the
Specifications for Aluminum Structures Fifth Edition,
December 1986, for Bridge and Similar Type Structures published by the Aluminum Association, Inc. for
alloys 6061-T6 (Table A.6), 6351-T5 (Table A.6) and
6063-T6 (Table A.6) shall apply, and for cast aluminum
alloys the design stresses given for alloys A444.0-T4
(Table A.9), A356.0-T61 (Table A.9) and A356.0-T6
(Table A.9) shall apply.
For fabrication and welding of aluminum railing see
Article 11.5.
2.7.4.2
The allowable unit stresses for steel
shall be as given in Article 10.32, except as modified
below.
For steels not generally covered by the Standard
Specifications, but having a guaranteed yield strength,
Fy, the allowable unit stress, shall be derived by applying
the general formulas as given in the Standard Specifications under Unit Stresses except as indicated below.
The allowable unit stress for shear shall be Fv = 0.33Fy.
Round or oval steel tubes may be proportioned using
an allowable bending stress, Fb = 0.66Fy, provided the
R/t ratio (radius/thickness) is less than or equal to 40.
Square and rectangular steel tubes and steel W and I
sections in bending with tension and compression on
extreme fibers of laterally supported compact sections
having an axis of symmetry in the plane of loading may
be designed for an allowable stress Fb = 0.60Fy.
SECTION 2
2-7
2.7.4.3
are as follows:
The requirements for a compact section
(a) The width to thickness ration of projecting elements of the compression flange of W and I sections
shall not exceed
b
t
1,600
(2-1)
Fy
(b) the width to thickness ratio of the compression

flange of square or rectangular tubes shall not exceed
b
t
6,000
(2-2)
Fy
(c) The D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
D
t
13,000
(2-3)
Fy
(d) If subject to combined axial force and bending, the

D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
D
t
f
13,300 1 - 1.43 a
F
(2-4)
Fy
but need not be less than
D
t
7,000
(2-5)
Fy
(e) The distance between lateral supports in inches of

W or I sections shall not exceed
2,400b
(2-6)
Fy
or
2-8
20,000,000 A
dFy
SECTION 2
(2-7)
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FEBRUARY 2004
SECTION 3
LOADS
Part A
Type of Loads
3.1
A
NOTATIONS
= maximum expected acceleration of bed rock

at the site
a
= length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B
= buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b
= width of pier or diameter of pile (Article
3.18.2.2.4)
b
= length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C
= combined response coefficient
C
= stiffness parameter = K(W/L) (Article
3.23.4.3)
C
= centrifugal force in percent of live load
(Article 3.10.1)
CF = centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination (Article
3.18.2.2.1)
CM = steel bending stress coefficient (Article
3.25.1.5)
CR = steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
D
= parameter used in determination of load
fraction of wheel load (Article 3.23.4.3)
D
= degree of curve (Article 3.10.1)
D
= dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F. = fraction of wheel load applied to beam
(Article 3.28.1)
DL = contribution dead load
E
= width of slab over which a wheel load is
distributed (Article 3.24.3)
E
= earth pressure (Article 3.22)
EQ = equivalent static horizontal force applied at
the center of gravity of the structure
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article
3.26.3)
Es
= modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
Ew = modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
F
= horizontal ice force on pier (Article
3.18.2.2.1)
F
= framing factor
Fb = allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
Fv
g
I
ICE
J
=
=
=
=
=
K
K
K
=
=
=
L
L
L
L
LF
=
=
=
=
=
MD =
Mx =
My =
NB
NL
n
P
P
P
=
=
=
=
=
=
P
P
P15
P20
p
p
=
=
=
=
=
=
R
R
=
=
allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.3)

32.2 ft./sec.2
impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
ice pressure (Article 3.22)
gross Saint-Venant torsional constant of the
precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
stream flow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)
wheel load distribution constant for timber
flooring (Article 3.25.1.3)
live load distribution constant for spread box
girders (Article 3.28.1)
loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2)
load length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
live load (Article 3.22)
span length (Article 3.23.4)
longitudinal force from live load (Article
3.22)
moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3)
total transferred secondary moment (Article
3.25.1.4)
number of beams (Article 3.28.1)
number of traffic lanes (Article 3.23.4)
number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4)
live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
stream flow pressure (Article 3.18.1)
total uniform force required to cause unit
horizontal deflection of whole structure
load on one rear wheel of truck (Article
3.24.3)
wheel load (Article 3.24.5)
design wheel load (Article 3.25.1)
12,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
16,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
effective ice strength (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
proportion of load carried by short span (Ar
ticle 3.24.6.1)
radius of curve (Article 3.10.1)
normalized rock response
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-1
R
RD
Rx
Ry
=
=
=
=
S
S
S
S
S
S
=
=
=
=
=
=
S
S
S
s
SF
T
T
t
t
V
V
W
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
W
W
W
We
W
W
WL
w
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
PL =
B
3-2
rib shortening (Article 3.22)

shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
primary shear (Article 3.25.1.3)
total secondary shear transferred (Article
3.25.1.4)
design speed (Article 3.10.1)
soil amplification spectral ratio
shrinkage (Article 3.22)
average stringer spacing (Article 3.23.2.3.1)
spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3)
parameter used in determining the load frac
tion to be applied to precast concrete beams
(Article 3.23.4.3)
effective span length (Article 3.24.1)
span length (Article 3.24.8.2)
beam spacing (Article 3.28.1)
effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
stream flow (Article 3.22)
period of vibration
temperature (Article 3.22)
thickness of ice (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.3A)
velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
combined weight on the first two axles of a
standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.3A)
width of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
total dead weight of the structure
width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft
pier at the level of ice action (Article
3.18.2.2.1)
distance from load to point of support (Ar
ticle 3.24.5.1)
subscript denoting direction perpendicular
to longitudinal stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
reduction for ductility and risk assessment
(with appropriate script) coefficient applied
to loads for service load and load factor
designs (Article 3.22)
load factor (Article 3.22)
proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain
(Article 3.25.1.4)
load combination coefficient for buoyancy
(Article 3.22.1)
load combination coefficient for centrifugal
force (Article 3.22.1)
SECTION 3 LOADS
D
E
EQ
ICE
L
R
S
W
WL
3.2
= load combination coefficient for dead load

(Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for earth pres
sure (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for earthquake
(Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for ice (Article
3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for live load
(Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for rib shorten
ing, shrinkage and temperature (Article
3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for stream flow
(Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for wind
(Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for wind on live
load (Article 3.22.1)
= Poisson's ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
GENERAL
3.2.1
Structures shall be designed to carry

the following loads and forces:
Dead load.
Live load.
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load.
Wind loads.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows:
Longitudinal forces, centrifugal force, thermal forces,
earth and drift pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses,

rib shortening, erection stresses, ice and current
pressure, earthquake stresses, prestressing and
friction forces.
3.2.2
Members shall be proportioned using +

the allowable stresses permitted by the design procedure +
+
and the limitations imposed by the material.
3.2.3
When stress sheets are required, a dia

gram or notation of the assumed loads shall be shown and
the stresses due to the various loads shall be shown
separately.
3.2.4
Where required by design conditions,

the concrete placing sequence shall be indicated on the
plans or in the special provisions.
3.2.5
The loading combination shall be in

accordance with Article 3.22.
3.2.6
When a bridge is skewed, the loads and

forces carried by the bridge through the deck system to
pin connections and hangers should be resolved into
vertical, lateral, and longitudinal force components to be
considered in the design.
3.3
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast ........... 120

Loose sand, earth, and gravel .............................. 100
Macadam or gravel, rolled .................................. 140
Cinder filling ......................................................... 60
Pavement, other than wood block ...................... 150
Railway rails, guard rails, and fastenings
(per linear foot of track) ................................. 200
Stone masonry ..................................................... 170
Asphalt plank, 1 in. thick ......................... 9 lb. sq. ft.
DEAD LOAD
3.4
LIVE LOAD
3.3.1
The dead load shall consist of the weight

of the entire structure, including the roadway, sidewalks,
car tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility
services.
The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied

moving load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrians.
3.3.2
3.5
The snow and ice load is considered to

be offset by an accompanying decrease in live load and
impact and shall not be included except under special
conditions.
3.3.2.1
If differential settlement is anticipated
in a structure, consideration should be given to stresses
resulting from this settlement.
3.3.3
If a separate wearing surface is to be

placed when the bridge is constructed, or is expected to be
placed in the future, adequate allowance shall be made for
+ its weight in the design dead load.
3.3.4
Special consideration shall be given to

the necessity for a separate wearing surface for those
regions where the use of chains on tires or studded snow
tires can be anticipated.
OVERLOAD PROVISIONS
Structures which carry vehicular traffic shall be ana

lyzed for overloads that are represented by P loads as
described in Article 3.7, and other specific loads where
applicable. Application shall be in accordance with Ar
ticle 3.22.
3.6
+
+
+
+
TRAFFIC LANES
3.6.1
The lane loading or standard truck

shall be assumed to occupy a width of 10 feet.
3.6.2
The loads shall be placed in 12-foot

wide design traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge
roadway width measured between curbs.
3.6.3
3.3.5
Where the abrasion of concrete is not

expected, the traffic may bear directly on the concrete
slab. If considered desirable, 1/4 inch or more may be
added to the slab for a wearing surface.
Fractional parts of design lanes shall

not be used, but roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall
have two design lanes each equal to one-half the roadway
width.
3.6.4
3.3.6
The following weights are to be used in

computing the dead load:
#/cu. ft
Steel or cast steel ................................................. 490
Cast iron ............................................................... 450
Aluminum alloys ................................................. 175
Timber (treated or untreated) ................................ 50
Concrete, plain or reinforced .............................. 150
The traffic lanes shall be placed in such

numbers and positions on the roadway, and the loads
shall be placed in such positions within their individual
traffic lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the
member under consideration.
3.6.5
These provisions shall not apply to

those superstructure members for which wheel load ap
plication without regard to placement in traffic lanes is
specified in Articles 3.23 thru 3.28, 6.4 and 10.39.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-3
+
+
+
+
3.7
3.7.1
HIGHWAY LOADS
Standard Truck and Lane Loads*
The highway live loadings on the road

3.7.1.1
ways of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of
standard trucks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck
+ trains. Three systems of loading are provided. The H
loadings and the HS loadings-the HS loadings being
+ heavier than the corresponding H loadings and P loads
+ based on permit vehicles for regulation of overloads.
3.7.1.2
Each lane load shall consist of a uni
form load per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a
single concentrated load (or two concentrated loads in the
case of continuous spans-see Article 3.11.3), so placed on
the span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated
load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
distributed over a 10 foot width on a line normal to the
centerline of the lane.
3.7.1.3
For the computation of moments and
shears, different concentrated loads shall be used as
indicated in Figure 3.7.6B. The lighter concentrated
loads shall be used when the stresses are primarily bend
ing stresses, and the heavier concentrated loads shall be
used when the stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
3.7.2
Classes of Loading
There are four standard classes of highway loading: H

20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Loading H 15 is 75 percent
of loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75 percent of Loading
HS 20. If loadings other than those designated are de
sired, they shall be obtained by proportionately changing
the weights shown for both the standard truck and the
corresponding lane loads.
3.7.3
The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify

them was instituted with the publication of the 1944
edition in the following manner:
H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated ................................................ H 15-44
H 20 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated ................................................ H 20-44
H 15-S 12 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated ............................................. HS 15-44
H 20-S 16 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated ............................................. HS 20-44
The affix shall remain unchanged until such time as
the loading specification is revised. The same policy for
identification shall be applied, for future reference, to
loadings previously adopted by the American Associa
tion of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
3.7.4
3-4
SECTION 3 LOADS
Minimum Loading
Bridges shall be designed for HS 20-44 loading or an

Alternate Military Loading of two axles four feet apart
with each axle weighing 24,000 pounds, whichever pro
duces the greatest stress.
Transverse Reinforced Slabs shall be designed with a
single 32k axle.
3.7.5
H Loading
The H loadings consist of a two-axle truck or the

corresponding lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A
and 3.7.6B. The H loadings are designated H followed by
a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the
standard truck.
3.7.6
*Note: The system of lane loads defined here (and illustrated in
Figure 3.7.6.B) was developed in order to give a simpler method of
calculating moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of
the truck.
Appendix B shows the truck train loadings of the 1935
Specifications of AASHTO and the corresponding lane loadings.
In 1944, the HS series of trucks was developed. These
approximate the effect of the corresponding 1935 truck preceded
and followed by a train of trucks weighing three-fourths as much
as the basic truck.
Designation of Loadings
HS Loading
The HS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semi

trailer or the corresponding lane load as illustrated in
Figures 3.7.7A and 3.7.6B. The HS loadings are desig
nated by the letters HS followed by a number indicating
the gross weight in tons of the tractor truck. The variable
axle spacing has been introduced in order that the spacing
of axles may approximate more closely the tractor trailers
now in use. The variable spacing also provides a more
+
+
+
+
**
FIGURE 3.7.6A
Standard H Trucks
In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 loading, one axle
load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever produces
the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
** For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2)
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-5
Concentrated Load -
18,000 lbs. for Moment*

26,000 lbs. for Shear
Uniform Load 640 lbs per linear foot of load lane
H20 - 44 LOADING
HS20 - 44 LOADING
Concentrated Load -
13,500 lbs. for Moment*

19,500 lbs. for Shear
Uniform Load 480 lbs per linear foot of load lane
H15 - 44 LOADING
HS15 - 44 LOADING
FIGURE 3.7.6B
*
Lane Loading
For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 which provides for an
additional concentrated load.
satisfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy

axle loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to
produce maximum negative moments.
loads transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or

columns that are below ground.
3.8.1.1
+
3.7.7
+
+
+
+
P loads (permit design live loads) are special vehicular

loads that shall be applied at the factored level in Load
Factor Design and at service level for fatigue consider
ations in steel structures. See Figure 3.7.7B.
3.8
(1)
(2)
(3)
Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.

Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of
type) excluding footings and those portions be
low the ground line.
The portions above the ground line of concrete
or steel piles that support the superstructure.
IMPACT
3.8.1.2
3.8.1
Application
Highway live loads shall be increased for those struc

tural elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic,
vibratory and impact effects. Impact allowances shall not
be applied to items in Group B. It is intended that impact
be included as part of the loads transferred from super
structure to substructure, but shall not be included in
3-6
Group A-Impact Shall be Included
P Loading
SECTION 3 LOADS
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Group B-Impact Shall Not be

Included
Abutments, retaining walls, piers, piles, except

as specified in 3.8.1.1 (3).
Foundation pressures and footings.
Timber structures.
Sidewalk loads.
Culverts and structures having 3 feet or more
cover.
**
FIGURE 3.7.7A
Standard HS Trucks
In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 loading, one axle
load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever produces
the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
** For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2)
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
FIGURE 3.7.7B Permit Design Live Loads
3-8
SECTION 3 LOADS
3.8.2
Impact Formula
The amount of the impact allowance or

3.8.2.1
increment is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress,
and shall be determined by the formula:
I=
50
L + 125
(3-1)
in which,
I
L
=
=
3.10
impact fraction (maximum 30 percent);
length in feet of the portion of the span that is
loaded to produce the maximum stress in the
member as defined in 3.8.2.2..
directional in the future. The load used, without impact,

shall be the lane load plus the concentrated load for
moment specified in Article 3.7, with reduction for mul
tiple-loaded lanes as specified in Article 3.12. The center
of gravity of the longitudinal force shall be assumed to be
located 6 feet above the floor slab and to be transmitted
to the substructure through the superstructure.
3.10.1
Structures on curves shall be designed

for a horizontal radial force equal to the following per
centage of the live load, without impact, in all traffic
lanes:
3.8.2.2
For uniformity of application, in this
formula, the loaded length, L, shall be as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
+
(e)
+
+
+
+
(f)
For roadway floors: The design span length.

For transverse members, such as floor beams:
the span length of member center to center of
supports.
For computing truck load moments: the span
length, or for cantilever arms the length from the
moment center to the farthermost axle.
For shear due to truck loads: the length of the
loaded portion of span from the point under
consideration to the far reaction. For cantilever
arms use a 30 percent impact factor.
For continuous spans: the length of span under
consideration for positive moment, and the av
erage of two adjacent loaded spans for negative
moment and reaction.
For culverts and other underground structures
with cover of less than three feet use an impact
fraction of 0.30.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
C = 0.00117S 2 D =
6.68S 2
R
(3-2)
where,
C = the centrifugal force in percent of the live load,
without impact;
S = the design speed in miles per hour;
D = the degree of curve;
R = the radius of the curve in feet.
3.10.2
The effects of superelevation shall be

taken into account.
3.10.3
The centrifugal force shall be applied 6

feet above the roadway surface, measured along the
centerline of the roadway. The design speed shall be
determined with regard to the amount of superelevation
provided in the roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded
+
in accordance with the provisions of Article 3.7.
3.10.4
+
3.8.2.3
3.9
3.9.1
For Culverts See "SECTION 6

CULVERTS".
LONGITUDINAL FORCES
Provision shall be made for the effect of

a longitudinal force of 5 percent of the live load in all
lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direction. All
lanes shall be loaded for bridges likely to become one
The loads and the number and posi

tions of lanes loaded for centrifugal force shall be the
same as for live load in the case under consideration.
Design speed for P loads shall be 25 mph (max.).
3.10.5
When a reinforced concrete floor slab

or a steel grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting
members, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within
its plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces
acting on the live load.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-9
+
+
+
+
3.11
APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
3.11.1
Traffic Lane Units
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane load or single

standard truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractions
of load lane widths or trucks shall not be used.
3.11.2
Number and Position of Traffic

Lane Units
The number and position of the lane load or truck loads

shall be as specified in Article 3.7 and, whether lane or
truck loads, shall be such as to produce maximum stress,
subject to the reduction specified in Article 3.12.
3.11.3
3.12
REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
3.12.1
Where maximum stresses are produced

in any member by loading a number of traffic lanes
simultaneously, the following percentages of the live
loads shall be used in view of the improbability of
coincident maximum loading:
Lane Loads on Continuous Spans
For the determination of maximum negative moment

in the design of continuous spans, the lane load shown in
Figure 3.7.6B shall be modified by the addition of a
second, equal weight concentrated load placed in one
other span in the series in such position to produce the
maximum effect. For maximum positive moment, only
one concentrated load shall be used per lane, combined
with as many spans loaded uniformly as are required to
produce maximum moment.
3.11.4
Apply P loads for strength considerations only in all

materials, and for serviceability under fatigue in struc
tural steel. In Load Combination Ipc, distribution follows
the same rules as Load Combination IH. In Load Combi
nation Ipw, the P load shall be used alone or in conjunc
tion with one HS or Alternate Military Loading in a
separate traffic lane depending upon which is most se
vere.
Percent
One or two lanes .................................................. 100
Three lanes ............................................................. 90
Four lanes or more ................................................. 75
3.12.2
The reduction in intensity of loads on

transverse members such as floor beams shall be deter
mined as in the case of main trusses or girders, using the
number of traffic lanes across the width of roadway that
must be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the floor
beam.
Loading for Maximum Stress

3.13
ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS
3.11.4.1
On both simple and continuous spans,

the type of loading, whether lane load or truck load, to be
used shall be the loading which produces the maximum
stress. The moment and shear tables given in Appendix A
show which type of loading controls for simple spans.
3.11.4.2
For continuous spans, the lane loading
shall be continuous or discontinuous; only one standard
H or HS truck per lane shall be considered on the
structure.
+
+
+
+
+
3.11.4.3
Loading for Load Factor

Design
Apply H, HS, and Alternate Military Loadings, inter

changeably, one per lane, for both strength and service
ability considerations in all materials.
3-10
SECTION 3 LOADS
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the

railway loads shall be determined from the class of traffic
which the bridge may be expected to carry. The possibil
ity that the bridge may be required to carry railroad
freight cars shall be given consideration.
3.14
3.14.1
SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING

LOADING
Sidewalk Loading
Sidewalk floors, stringers and their

3.14.1.1
immediate supports, shall be designed for a live load of
85 pounds per square foot of sidewalk area. Girders,
trusses, arches and other members shall be designed for
the following sidewalk live loads:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Spans 0 to 25 feet in length ..........................85 lb./ft.2
Spans 26 to 100 feet in length ......................60 lb./ft.2

Spans over 100 feet in length according to the formula
3,000
55
-
W
P
=
30
+
L
50

(3-3)
in which,
P = live load per square foot, max. 60-lb. per sq. ft.;
L = loaded length of sidewalk in feet;
W = width of sidewalk in feet.
3.14.2
3.14.2.1
Curbs shall be designed to resist a lat
eral force of not less than 500 pounds per linear foot of
curb, applied at the top of the curb, or at an elevation 10
inches above the floor if the curb is higher than 10 inches.
3.14.2.2
Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail
form an integral system, the traffic railing loading shall
be applied and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.
3.14.3
3.14.1.2
In calculating stresses in structures that
support cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be
fully loaded on only one side of the structure if this
condition produces maximum stress.
+
+
+
+
3.14.1.3
Bridges for pedestrian, equestrian and/
or bicycle traffic shall be designed for a live load of 85
PSF. Check equestrian bridge for 0.5(H20) = (H10)
loading.
3.14.1.4
Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges
are expected to be used by maintenance vehicles, special
design consideration should be made for these loads. The
following loads shall be used:
+
+
Clear deck width from 6 ft to 10 ft:

0.25(H20) = (H5) loading
+
+
Clear deck width over 10 ft:

0.5(H20) = (H10)
+
+
+
Clear deck widths of less than 6 ft:

need not be designed for a maintenance vehicle
load.
+
+
+
+
In all cases, a single truck shall be positioned to

produce the maximum load effect. The maintenance
vehicle live load shall not be placed in combination with
the pedestrian live load.
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.14.1.5
The frequency of pedestrian footfall
loads in either the vertical or lateral direction shall not
resonate with the natural frequencies of the structure. The
fundamental frequency shall be a minimum of 3 Hz in the
vertical direction and 1.3 Hz in the lateral direction,
unless detailed analysis justifies otherwise.
Curb Loading
Railing Loading
For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.
3.15
WIND LOADS
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly

distributed loads applied to the exposed area of the
structure. The exposed area shall be the sum of the areas
of all members, including floor system and railing, as seen
in elevation at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the
structure. The forces and loads given herein are for a base
wind velocity of 100 mile per hour. For Group II and
Group V loading, but not for Group III and Group VI
loadings, they may be reduced or increased in the ratio of
the square of the design wind velocity to the square of the
base wind velocity provided that the maximum probable
wind velocity can be ascertained with reasonable accu
racy, or provided that there are permanent features of the
terrain which make such changes safe and advisable. If a
change in the design wind velocity is made, the design
wind velocity shall be shown on the plans.
3.15.1
Superstructure Design
3.15.1.1
Group II and Group V
Loadings
3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity

shall be applied horizontally at right angles to the longi
tudinal axis of the structure:
For trusses and arches ...... 75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams ..... .50 pounds per square foot
SECTION 3
LOADS
3-11
3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than

300 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the windward
chord and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the
leeward chord on truss spans, and not less than 300
pounds per linear foot on girder spans.
3.15.1.2
Group III and Group VI

Loadings
Group III and Group VI loadings shall comprise the

loads used for Group II and Group V loadings reduced by
70 percent and a load of 100 pounds per linear foot
applied at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the
structure and 6 feet above the deck as a wind load on a
moving live load. When a reinforced concrete floor slab
or a steel grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting
members, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within
its plane, the shear resulting from the wind load on the
moving live load.
3.15.2
Substructure Design
Forces from Superstructure
3.15.2.1.1 For unusual or major structures the

transverse and longitudinal forces transmitted by the
+ superstructure to the substructure for various angles of
wind direction shall be as set forth in the following table.
The skew angle is measured from the perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis and the assumed wind direction shall be
that which produces the maximum stress in the substruc
ture. The transverse and longitudinal forces shall be
applied simultaneously at the elevation of the center of
gravity of the exposed area of the superstructure.
Trusses
Skew Angle
of Wind
Degrees
0
15
30
45
60
Lateral
Load
PSF
75
70
65
47
24
Longitudinal
Load
PSF
0
12
28
41
50
Girders
Lateral
Load
PSF
50
44
41
33
17
Longitudinal
Load
PSF
0
6
12
16
19
The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and

Group V loading as given in Article 3.22.
3-12
Skew Angle
of Wind
Degrees
0
15
30
45
60
SECTION 3 LOADS
Lateral Load
lb./ft.
100
88
82
66
34
Longitudinal Load
lb./ft.
0
12
24
32
38
This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the

deck.
3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges

+
the following wind loading may be used.
W
Forces transmitted to the substructure by the super

structure and forces applied directly to the substructure
by wind loads shall be as follows:
3.15.2.1
3.15.2.1.2 For Group III and Group VI loadings,

the loads may be reduced by 70 percent and a load per
linear foot added as a wind load on a moving live load,
as given in the following table:
(wind load on structure)

50 pounds per square foot, transverse;
12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal;
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
WL (wind load on live load)

100 pounds per linear foot, transverse;
40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal;
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
3.15.2.2
Forces Applied Directly to the
Substructure
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied

directly to the substructure for a 100-mile per hour wind
shall be calculated from an assumed wind force of 40
pounds per square foot. For wind directions assumed
skewed to the substructure this force shall be resolved
into components perpendicular to the end and front
elevations of the substructure. The component perpen
dicular to the end elevation shall act on the exposed
substructure area as seen in end elevation and the compo
nent perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on the
exposed areas and shall be applied simultaneously with
the wind loads from the superstructure. The above loads
are for Group II and Group V loadings and may be reduced
by 70 percent for Group III and Group VI loadings, as
indicated in Article 3.22.
3.15.3
Overturning Forces
Prestressed Structures - See Division 1, Section 9 of

this volume.
The effect of forces tending to overturn structures shall

be calculated under Groups II, III, V, and VI of Article 3.22
assuming that the wind direction is at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the structure. In addition, an upward
force shall be applied at the windward quarter point of the
transverse superstructure width. This force shall be 20
pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk plan area for
Group II and group V combinations and 6 pounds per
square foot for Group III and Group VI combinations.
3.16 THERMAL FORCES

Provisions shall be made for stresses or movements
resulting from variations in temperature. The rise and fall
in temperature shall be fixed for the locality in which the
structure is to be constructed and shall be computed from
an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due
consideration shall be given to the lag between air tem
perature and the interior temperature of massive concrete
members or structures.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The range of temperature shall generally be as

follows:
Air Temperature
Range
Extreme: 120 o F
Certain mountain
and
desert locations
Design Range
Concrete
Rise or Fall 60o F
Rise or Fall 40o F
Movement/Unit
Movement/Unit
Length
Length
.00039
.00024
Steel
Moderate: 100o F
Interior Valleys
and most
mountain locations
Rise or Fall 50o F

Movement/Unit
Length
.00033
Rise or Fall 35o F

Movement/Unit
Length
.00021
Mild: 80o F
Coastal Areas, Los
Angeles, and San
Francisco Bay Area
Rise or Fall 40o F

Movement/Unit
Length
.00026
Rise or Fall 30o F

Movement/Unit
Length
.00018
Other Structures - The temperature fall from a normal +

temperature as given above provides adequately for +
stress and movement caused by shrinkage.
+
3.17 UPLIFT
3.17.1
Provision shall be made for adequate

attachment of the superstructure to the substructure by
ensuring that the calculated uplift at any support is
resisted by tension members engaging a mass of masonry
equal to the largest force obtained under one of the
following conditions:
(a)
100 percent of the calculated uplift caused by

any loading or combination of loadings in which
the live plus impact loading is increased by 100
percent.
(b) 150 percent of the calculated uplift at working
load level.
(c) 100 percent of the calculated uplift for load
factor design.
3.17.2
Anchor bolts subject to tension or other

elements of the structures stressed under the above con
ditions shall be designed at 150 percent of the allowable
basic stress.
3.18 FORCE FROM STREAM CURRENT,

FLOATING ICE AND DRIFT
All piers and other portion so structures that are
subject to the force of flowing water, floating ice, or drift
shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced
thereby.
3.18.1
Force of Stream Current on Piers
3.18.1.1
+
+
+
+
Provisions shall be made in concrete structures for

stresses and movements resulting from shrinkage, as
follows:
Arches - Shrinkage Coefficient ...................... 0.0002
+
+
Stream Pressure
3.18.1.1.1 The effect of flowing water on piers and

drift build-up, assuming a second degree parabolic veloc
ity distribution and thus a triangular pressure distribu
tion, shall be calculated by the formula:
Pavg = K (Vavg )2
SECTION 3 LOADS
(3-4)
3-13
+
+
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers
where:
Pavg
Vavg
= average steam pressure, in pounds per square

foot;
= average velocity of water in feet per second;
computed by dividing the flow rate by the
flow area,
= a constant, being 1.4 for all piers subjected to
drift build-up and square-ended piers, 0.7 for
circular piers, and 0.5 for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be

equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg,
computed by Equation 3-4. Stream flow pressure shall be
a triangular distribution with Pmax located at the top of
water elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow
line.
3.18.1.1.2
The stream flow forces shall
be computed by the product of the stream flow pressure,
taking into account the pressure distribution, and the
exposed pier area. In cases where the corresponding top
of water elevation is above the low beam elevation,
stream flow loading on the superstructure shall be inves
tigated. The stream flow pressure acting on the super
structure may be taken as Pmax with a uniform distribu
tion.
3.18.1.2
Pressure Components
When the direction of stream flow is other than normal

to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects
of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
3.18.1.3
Drift Lodged Against Pier
Where a significant amount of drift lodged against a

pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift buildup shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the
bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
buildup shall reflect the selected pier locations, site
conditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is
anticipated that the flow area will be significantly
blocked by drift buildup, increases in high water eleva
tions, stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the
potential increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
3-14
SECTION 3 LOADS
Pressure of ice on piers shall be calculated at 400

pounds per square inch. The thickness of ice and height
at which it applies shall be determined by investigation at
the site of the structure.
3.19
+
+
+
+
BUOYANCY
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the

design of either substructure, including piling, or the
superstructure.
3.20
EARTH PRESSURE
3.20.1
Structures which retain level fills shall

be proportioned to withstand pressure as given by
Rankine's formula, or by other expressions given in Sec
tion 5, "Retaining Walls"; provided, however, that no
vertical wall structure shall be designed for less than an
equivalent fluid unit weight of 36 pounds per cubic foot,
except that the maximum load on the heels of wall footings
shall be determined by using an equivalent fluid unit
weight of 27 pounds per cubic foot.
3.20.2
For rigid frames a maximum of one-half

of the moment caused by earth pressure (lateral) may be
used to reduce the positive moment in the beams, in the
top slab, or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be.
3.20.3
When highway traffic can come within

a horizontal distance from the top of the structure equal to
one-half its height, the pressure shall have added to it a live
load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of the
earth.
3.20.4
Where an adequately designed rein

forced concrete approach slab supported at one end by
the bridge is provided, no live load surcharge need be
considered.
3.20.5
All designs shall provide for the thor

ough drainage of the back-filling material by means of
weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or gravel drains,
or by perforated drains.
+
+
+
+
3.21
+
+
+
+
+
+
Part B
Combinations of Loads
EARTHQUAKES
All structures shall be designed to resist earthquake

motions by considering the relationship of the site to
active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site,
and the dynamic response characteristics of the total
structure and its individual components in accordance
with the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria.
3.22
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22.1
The following Groups represent vari

ous combination of loads and forces to which a structure
may be subjected. Each component of the structure, or the
foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to
withstand safely all group combinations of these forces
that are applicable to the particular site or type. Group
loading combinations for Service Load Design and Load
Factor Design are given by:
Group (N) = [DD + L (L + I) + CCF + EE + BB
+ SSF + WW + PSPS + WLWL + LLF
+ R(R + S + T) + EQEQ + ICEICE + CTCT]
(3-10)
where
N
D
L
I
E
B
W
WL
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
LF
CF
R
S
T
EQ
SF
ICE
PS
CT
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
group number;
load factor, see Table 3.22.1A and B;

coefficient, see Table 3.22.1A and B;
dead load;
live load;
live load impact;
earth pressure;
buoyancy;
wind load on structure;
wind load on live load-100 pounds per
linear foot;
longitudinal force from live load;
centrifugal force;
rib shortening;
shrinkage;
temperature;
earthquake;
stream flow pressure;
ice pressure;
prestress.
truck collision
3.22.2
For service load design, the percentage +

of the basic unit stress for the various groups is given in
+
Table 3.22.1B.
The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as
appropriate from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum
section required shall be used.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-15
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
TABLE 3.22.1A Factors for Load Factor Design
Group
Gamma
Factor D
(L+I)H (L+I)P CF
Beta Factors
SF
W
WL LF
PS R+S+T EQ
ICE
CT
IH
1.30
1.67
0.77
IPC
1.30
0.77
IPW
1.30
1.15
0.77
IP3D
1.30
1.25
0.77
II
1.30
0.77
III
1.30
0.3
0.77
IV
1.30
0.77
1.25
0.80
VI
1.25
0.3
0.80
VII
1.00
1.00
VIII
1.30
0.77
IX
1.20
0.83
X*
1.30
1.67
0.67
XI
1.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
H denotes H loads.
PC denotes P loads on closely spaced girders used only for superstructures.
PW denotes P loads on widely spaced girders and substructures.
P3D denotes P loads only on superstructures when three-dimensional analysis is used for load distribution.
D = 0.75 when checking columns for maximum moment or maximum eccentricities and associated axial
load; and when Dead Load effects are of opposite sign to the net effects of other loads in a Group.
D = 1.00 when checking columns for maximum axial load and associated moment.
D = 1.00 for flexural and tension members and for culverts.
E = 0.50 for checking positive moments in rigid frames.
E = 1.00 for vertical earth pressure and for rigid culverts.
E = 1.30 for lateral earth pressure. (Not for culverts.)
E = 1.50 for flexible culverts.
* Group X applies only to culverts. Other Groups do not apply to culverts.
3-16
SECTION 3 LOADS
TABLE 3.22.1B Factors for Service Load Design*
Group
Gamma
Factor
1.0
II
1.0
III
1.0
IV
L+I CF
Beta Factors
W WL LF
SF
100
125
0.3
125
1.0
125
1.0
140
VI
1.0
0.3
140
VIII
1.0
140
IX
1.0
150
Not applicable for culvert design. Use Load Factor Design.
Indicates percentage of basic unit stress.
PS
R+S+T ICE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind loads only
P Loads apply in Service Load design only for checking serviceability under fatigue in structural steel.
When EQ loads are applied, Load Factor Design shall be used to analyze their effects.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-17
+
+
+
+
+
+
For load factor design, the gamma and

beta factors given in Table 3.22.1A are only intended for
designing structural members by the load factor concept.
The load factors are not intended to be used when check
ing the foundation stability (safety factors against over
turning, sliding, etc.) of a structure.
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO

STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL
BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS*
3.22.4
3.23.1
When long span structures are being

designed by load factor design, the gamma and beta
factors specified for Load Factor Design represent general
conditions and should be increased if, in the Engineer's
judgment, expected loads, service conditions, or materi
als of construction are different from those anticipated by
the specifications.
+
+
+
+
+
Position of Loads for Shear
In calculating end shears and end reac

3.23.1.1
tions in transverse floor beams and longitudinal beams
and stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
load shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent
to the end at which the stress is being determined.
3.22.5
At the factored level all structures shall

be analyzed for the effect of both HS and P Loads as
defined in Article 3.7 using the group loading combina
tions of Table 3.22.1A. P Loads shall be considered as
follows:
+
+
+
+
Group IPC applies only for P Load application to

superstructures for which Footnote f to Table 3.23.1
does not apply. The distribution follows the same
rules as applies to H Loads, Article 3.23.
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group IPW applies for P Load application for which

Footnote f to Table 3.23.1 applies. Group IPW also
applies to all substructures including bents and pier
caps entirely contained within the superstructure.
Load combination IPW is to be applied in accor
dance with Article 3.11.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group IP3D applies only for P load application to

superstructures for which a three dimensional analy
sis for live loads has been conducted that explicitly
considers the lateral stiffness and load transfer
characteristics of the superstructure elements. Load
combination IP3D is to be applied in accordance
with Article 3.11.
+
+
+
+
+
+
Part C
Distribution of Loads
3.22.3
3.22.6
Load factor design methods of

AASHTO using Load Group IB shall be used for the
analysis of specific loads that do not conform to any
design loading specified herein. Distribution of such
loads shall be consistent with the nature of the load and
provisions of these specifications.
3.23.1.2
Lateral distribution of the wheel load
shall be that produced by assuming the flooring to act as
a simple span between stringers or beams. For loads in
other positions on the span, the distribution for shear shall
be determined by the method prescribed for moment,
except that the calculations of horizontal shear in rectan
gular timber beams shall be in accordance with Article
13.3.
3.23.2
Bending Moments in Stringers and

Longitudinal Beams**
3.23.2.1
General
In calculating bending moments in longitudinal

beams or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the
wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined as follows.
3.23.2.2
Interior Stringers and Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior

stringer shall be determined by applying to the stringer
Provisions in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck

bridges.
** In view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved

in the distribution of wheel loads to stringers, the empirical
method herein described is authorized for the design of normal
highway bridges.
3-18
SECTION 3 LOADS
the fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) deter

mined in Table 3.23.1.
+
+
+
+
+
3.23.2.2.1 The dead load bending moments for

each interior stringer shall be determined by applying the
panel load to the stringer. Box girders designed as whole
width units shall have the dead load applied uniformly to
the whole cross-section.
+
+
+
+
+
3.23.2.2.2 Curbs, sidewalks, railings, and wearing

surface may be considered equally distributed to all
roadway stringers or beams, but shall not be distributed
beyond a longitudinal expansion joint in the roadway
slab.
+
+
+
+
3.23.2.2.3
The weight of each utility to be carried

on a structure shall be distributed to supporting longitu
dinal members assuming a simple beam between longitu
dinal members.
3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway

beam or stringer supports the sidewalk live load as well
as traffic live load and impact and the structure is to be
designed by the service load method, the allowable stress
in the beam or stringer may be increased by 25 percent for
the combination of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic
live load, and impact, providing the beam is of no less
carrying capacity than would be required if there were no
sidewalks. When the combination of sidewalk live load
and traffic live load plus impact governs the design and
the structure is to be designed by the load factor method,
1.25 may be used as the beta factor in place of 1.67.
3.23.2.3.1.4 In no case shall an exterior
stringer have less carrying capacity than an interior
stringer.
3.23.2.3.1.5
3.23.2.3.2
3.23.2.3
3.23.2.3.1
Outside Roadway Stringers

and Beams
Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams
3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by

the outside roadway stringer or beam shall be that portion
of the floor slab carried by the stringer or beam. Curbs,
railings, and wearing surface, if placed after the slab has
cured, may be distributed equally to all roadway stringers
or beams.
+
+
+
3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending mo

ment for outside roadway stringers or beams shall be
determined by applying to the stringer or beam the
fraction of a wheel line determined by multiplying the
value of the interior stringers or beams by
We /S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
We
= The top slab width as measured from the

outside face of the slab to the midpoint
between the exterior and interior stringer or
beam. The cantilever dimension of any slab
extending beyond the exterior girder shall
not exceed S/2, measured from the centerline
of the exterior beam.
+
+
= average stringer spacing in feet. If S exceeds

values given in Table 3.23.1 use footnote f.
Deleted
Concrete Box Girders
Dead load and live load distribution to exterior girders +

shall be included in whole-width unit designs as given in +
Article 3.23.2.2.
+
3.23.2.3.3
Total Capacity of Stringers and

Beams
The combined design load capacity of all the beams

and stringers in a span shall not be less than required to
support the total live and dead load in the span.
3.23.3
Bending Moments in Floor Beams

(Transverse)
In calculating bending moments in

3.23.3.1
floor beams, no transverse distribution of the wheel loads
shall be assumed.
3.23.3.2
If longitudinal stingers are omitted and
the floor is supported directly on floor beams, the beams
shall be designed for loads determined in accordance
with Table 3.23.3.1.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-19
TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in
Longitudinal Beams
Kind of Floor
+
+
+
+
+
Overall deck width

7.0
3.23.4
Bridge Designed
Bridge Designed for for Two or more
One Traffic Lane
Traffic Lanes
Timbera:
S/4.0
Plankb
Nail laminatedc
4" thick or multiple
layerd floors over
5" thick
S/4.5
Nail laminatedc
6" or more thick S/5.0
If S exceeds 5'
use footnote f.
Glued Laminatede
Panels on glued
Laminated Stringers
4" thick
S/4.5
6" or more thick
S/6.0
If S exceeds 6'
use footnote f.
On Steel Stringers
4" thick
S/4.5
6" or more thick
S/5.25
If S exceeds 5.5'
use footnote f.
Concrete:
On Steel I-Beam
Stringersg and
Prestressed
Concrete Girders
S/7.0
If S exceeds 10'
use footnote f.
On Concrete
T-Beamsk
S/6.5
If S exceeds 6'
use footnote f.
On Timber
Stringers
S/6.0
If S exceeds 6'
use footnote f.
Concrete box girdersh,j:
Designed as whole width units.
Do not apply Article 3.12.
On Steel Box Girders
On Prestressed Concrete
Spread Box Beams
S/3.75
S/4.0
S/4.25
If S exceeds 6.5'
use footnote f.
S/4.0
S/5.0
If S exceeds 7.5'
use footnote f.
S/4.0
S/4.5
If S exceeds 7'
use footnote f.
S/5.5
If S exceeds 14'
use footnote f.
S/6.0
If S exceeds 15'
use footnote f.
Precast Concrete Beams Used in

Multi-Beam Decks
See Article 10.39.2.

See Article 3.28.
Steel Grid:
(Less than 4" thick) S/4.5
(4" or more)
S/6.0
If S exceeds 6'
use footnote f.
Steel Bridge
Corrugated Planki
(2" min. depth)
S/5.5
3-20
S/5.0
If S exceeds 10'
use footnote f.
S = average stringer spacing in feet.

a
Timber dimensions shown are for nominal thickness.
bPlank floors consist of pieces of lumber laid edge to edge with
the wide faces bearing on the supports. (See Article 16.3.11-Division II).
c
Nail laminated floors consist of pieces of lumber laid face to
face with the narrow edges bearing on the supports, each piece
being nailed to the preceding piece. (See Article 16.3.12-Division II).
dMultiple layer floors consist of two or more layers of planks,
each layer being laid at an angle to the other. (See Article 16.3.11
Division II).
e
Glued laminated panel floors consist of vertically glued laminated
members with the narrow edges of the laminations bearing on the
supports. (See Article 16.3.13-Division II).
fIn this case the load on each stringer shall be the reaction of the
wheel loads, assuming the flooring between the stringers to act as a
simple beam.
g
"Design of I-Beam Bridges" by N. M. Newmark-Proceedings,
ASCE, March 1948.
hThe sidewalk live load (see Article 3.14) shall be omitted for
interior and exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel
load distribution indicated herein.
i
Distribution factors for Steel Bridge Corrugated Plank set forth
above are based substantially on the following reference:
Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 67, No. 2, 1977
"Wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge Plank," by Conrad P. Heins,
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland.
These distribution factors were developed based on studies using
6" x 2" steel corrugated plank. The factors should yield safe results for
other corrugation configurations provided primary bending stiffness is
the same as or greater than the 6" x 2" corrugated plank used in the
studies.
j
Unusual plan layouts may be designed as individual girders, using
S/7. If S exceeds 16' use footnote f.
k"Design of Slab and Stringer Highway Bridges", by N.M. Newmark
and C.P. Siess - Public Roads, January-February-March 1943. "Distri
bution of Loads to Girders in Slab-and-Girder Bridges; Theoretical
Analyses and Their Relation to Field Tests" by C.P. Siess and A.S.
Veletsos - Highway Research Board Report 14-B, 1952.
SECTION 3 LOADS
S/4.0
S/5.0
If S exceeds 10.5'
use footnote f.
S/4.5
A multi-beam bridge is constructed

3.23.4.1
with precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that
are placed side by side on the supports. The interaction
between the beams is developed by continuous longitu
dinal shear keys used in combination with transverse tie
assemblies which may, or may not, be prestressed, such as
bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, or other mechanical
means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to
ensure proper load distribution for channel, single- and
multi-stemmed tee beams.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads

in Transverse Beams
Fraction of
Wheel Load
to Each
Floor Beam
Kind of Floor
Planka,b
S
4
Nail laminatedc or glued laminatede,

4 inches in thickness, or multiple layerd
floors more than 5 inches thick
S
4.5
Nail laminatedc or glued laminatede,

6 inches or more in thickness
Sf
5
Concrete
Sf
6
Steel grid (less than 4 inches thick)
S
4.5
where,
S
D
= width of precast member;
= (5.75 - 0.5NL) + 0.7NL (1 - 0.2C)2
when C 5
(3-12)
(3-13)
= (5.75 - 0.5NL) when C > 5
= number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
= K(W/L)
(3-14)
D
NL
C
where,
W = overall width of bridge measured perpendicu

lar to the longitudinal girders in feet;
L
= span length measured parallel to longitudinal

girders in feet; for girders with cast-in-place
and diaphragms, use the length between end
diaphragms;
{(1+ )I/J}1/2
S
6
Steel grid (4 inches or more)

Steel bridge corrugated plank (2 inches
minimum depth)
If the value of I/J exceeds 5.0, the live load distri

bution should be determined using a more precise
method, such as the Articulate Plate Theory or Grillage
Analysis.
S
5.5
Note:
S = spacing of floor beams in feet.
where,
a-e
For footnotes a through e, see Table 3.23.1.
f If
S exceeds denominator, the load on the beam shall be the

reaction of the wheels loads assuming the flooring between beams
to act as a simple beam.
I =
J =
m =
moment of inertia;
Saint-Venant torsion constant;
Poisson's ratio for girders.
In lieu of more exact methods, "J" may be estimated

using the following equations:
For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee
Beams:
In calculating bending moments in

multi-beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or
prestressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load
shall be assumed.
3.23.4.3
The live load bending moment for each
section shall be determined by applying to the beam the
fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined
by the following equation:
S
Load Fraction = D
(3-11)
J= (1/3) bt3 (1- 0.630t/b)
3.23.4.2
where,
b =
t
the length of each rectangular component

within the section.
the thickness of each rectangular component
within the section.
The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections

are considered as separate rectangular components whose
values are summed together to calculate "J". Note that for
SECTION 3
LOADS
3-21
"Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids" the value of "J"

can usually be approximated by using the equation
above for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.
3.24.1.2
The following effective span lengths
shall be used in calculating the distribution of loads and
bending moments for slabs continuous over more than
two supports:
For Box-Section Beams:

(a)
J=
2tt f (b t )2 (d t f
)
2
bt + dt f t 2 t 2 f
where
b
d
t
tf
=
=
=
=
(b)
the overall width of the box,
the overall depth of the box,
the thickness of either web,
the thickness of either flange.
The formula assumes that both flanges are the same

thickness and uses the thickness of only one flange. The
same is true of the webs.
For preliminary design, the following values of K may
be used.
Bridge Type
Multi-beam
Beam Type
Non-voided rectangular beams
Rectangular beams with circular voids
Box section beams
Channel, single and multi-stemmed tee beams
K
0.7
0.8
1.0
2.2
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND

DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLABS*
3.24.1
Span Lengths (See Article 8.8)
For simple spans the span length shall

3.24.1.1
be the distance center to center of supports but need not
exceed clear span plus thickness of slab.
(c)
3.24.2
3-22
SECTION 3 LOADS
Slabs supported on timber stringers. "S" shall be

the clear span plus one-half thickness of stringer.
Edge Distance of Wheel Loads
In designing sidewalks, supporting

3.24.2.1
members, and slabs including cantilever overhangs, the
center line of the wheel load shall be 1 foot from the face
of the rail. However, a wheel load need not be applied on
sidewalks protected by a vehicle barrier rail. (See Com
mentary)
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.24.2.2
In service load design, the combined
permanent, pedestrian, vehicular and impact stresses for
the loading described in 3.24.2.1 shall not be greater than
150 percent of the allowable stresses. In load factor design
for combined permanent, pedestrian, vehicular, and im
pact loads, 1.0 may be used as the beta factor in place of
1.67 for the design of deck slabs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.24.3
* The slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially
on the "Westergaard" theory. The following references are
furnished concerning the subject of slab design.
Public Roads, March 1930, "Computation of Stresses in
Bridge Slabs Due to Wheel Loads," by H.M. Westergaard.
University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 303, "Solutions for
Certain Rectangular Slabs Continuous over Flexible Supports,"
by Vernon P. Jensen; Bulletin 304, "A Distribution Procedure
for the Analysis of Slabs Continuous over Flexible Beams," by
Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315, "Moments in Simple Span
Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges," by Vernon P. Jensen; and
Bulletin 346, "Highway Slab Bridges with Curbs; Laboratory
Tests and Proposed Design Method."
Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs mono

lithic with walls without haunches and rigid top
flange prestressed beams with top flange width
to minimum thickness ratio less than 4.0. "S"
shall be the clear span.
Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs sup
ported on thin top flange prestressed beams with
top flange width to minimum thickness ratio
equal to or greater than 4.0. "S" shall be the
distance between edges of top flange plus onehalf of stringer top flange width.
Bending Moment
The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be

calculated according to methods given under Cases A
and B, unless more exact methods are used considering
tire contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact
methods is given in Article 3.30.
In Cases A and B:
S
= effective span length, in feet, as defined un

der "Span Lengths" Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8;
E
+
P
P20
= width of slab in feet over which a wheel load

is distributed;
= load on one rear wheel of truck
= 16,000 pounds for H 20 loading.
3.24.3.1
Case A-Main Reinforcement

Perpendicular to Traffic
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive)
The live load moment for simple spans shall be deter

mined by the following formula (impact not included):
HS 20 Loading:
( S + 2)
P
32 20 = Moments in foot - pounds
+
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a

continuity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above
formulas for both positive and negative moment.
3.24.3.2
Case B-Main Reinforcement

Parallel to Traffic
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, shall be

(4+0.06S) but shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loads are
distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinally reinforced
+ slabs shall be designed for the appropriate live loading.
+
3.24.4
Shear
Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance

with Article 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in
+ shear.
3.24.5
Cantilever Slabs
3.24.5.1
Truck Loads
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads

on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the
load independently of the effects of any edge support
along the end of the cantilever. The distribution given
includes the effect of wheels on parallel elements.
3.24.5.1.1 Case A-Reinforcement
Perpendicular to Traffic
Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic

shall be distributed over a width according to the follow
ing formula:
E = 0.8X + 3.75
(3-17)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E)X footpounds, in which X is the distance in feet from load to
point of support.
3.24.5.1.2 Case B-Reinforcement Parallel

to Traffic
The distribution width for each wheel load on the
element parallel to traffic shall be as follows:
E = 0.35X + 3.25 , but shall not exceed 7.0 feet

(3-18)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E)X footpounds.
3.24.5.2
Railing Loads
A horizontal load of 54K shall be applied to the barrier

in the tranverse direction at the uppermost point, and in
accordance with Article 3.22, Group XI loading. The
effective length of slab resisting collision loadings shall
be equal to E = 10 feet where a solid parapet is used, and
based on yield line theory for all other cases.
3.24.6
Slabs Supported on Four Sides
3.24.6.1
For slabs supported along four edges
and reinforced in both directions, the proportion of the
load carried by the short span of the slab shall be given by
the following equations:
For uniformly, distributed load,
p=
b4
(3-19)
a 4 + b 4
For concentrated load at center,
p=
b3
(3-20)
a + b 3
3
SECTION 3
LOADS
3-23
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.24.9
where,
p = proportion of load carried by short span;
a = length of short span of slab;
b = length of long span of slab.
3.24.6.2
Where the length of the slab exceeds
11/2 times its width, the entire load shall be carried by the
transverse reinforcement.
3.24.6.3
The distribution width, E, for the load
taken by either span shall be determined as provided for
other slabs. The moments obtained shall be used in
designing the center half of the short and long slabs. The
reinforcement steel in the outer quarters of both short and
long spans may be reduced by 50 percent. In the design
of the supporting beams, consideration shall be given to
the fact that the loads delivered to the supporting beams
are not uniformly distributed along the beams.
3.24.7
Median Slabs
Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance

with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so
placed as to produce maximum stresses. Combined dead,
live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150
percent of the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs
shall be designed without overstress.
3.24.8
Longitudinal Edge Beams
Edge beams shall be provided for all

3.24.8.1
slabs having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The
beam may consist of a slab section additionally rein
forced, a beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or
an integral reinforced section of slab and curb.
3.24.8.2
The edge beam of a simple span shall be
designed to resist a live load moment of 0.10PS, where
+
P = wheel load in pounds;

S = span length in feet.
3.24.8.3
For continuous spans, the moment may
be reduced by 20 percent unless a greater reduction
results from a more exact analysis.
Unsupported Transverse Edges
The design assumptions of this article do not provide

for the effect of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore,
at the ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where
the continuity of the slab is broken, the edges shall be
supported by diaphragms or other suitable means. The
diaphragms shall be designed to resist the full moment
and shear produced by the wheel loads which can come
on them.
3.24.10
Distribution Reinforcement
3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution

of the concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be
placed transverse to the main steel reinforcement in the
bottoms of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where
the depth of fill over the slab exceeds 2 feet.
3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforce
ment shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement
steel required for positive moment as given by the follow
ing formulas:
For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
100
Percentage =
Maximum 50%
(3-21)
For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,

220
Percentage =
Maximum 67%
(3-22)
where S = the effective span length in feet.
3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular

to traffic, the specified amount of distribution reinforce
ment shall be used in the middle half of the slab span, and
not less than 50 percent of the specified amount shall be
used in the outer quarters of the slab span.
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
ON TIMBER FLOORING
For the calculation of bending moments in timber
flooring each wheel load shall be distributed as follows.
3-24
SECTION 3 LOADS
3.25.1
Transverse Flooring
3.25.1.1
In direction of span, the wheel load
shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in
Article 3.30.
+
moment and shear.* The maximum shear is for a wheel

position assumed to be 15 inches or less from the
centerline of the support. The maximum moment is for a
wheel position assumed to be centered between the
supports.
Normal to direction of span, the wheel load shall be

distributed as follows:
Plank floor:
the width of plank.
Non-interconnected* nail laminated panel floor:

15 inches, but not to exceed panel width.
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor:
15 inches plus thickness of floor, but not to
exceed panel width.
Continuous nail laminated floor and interconnected
nail laminated panel floor, with adequate shear trans
fer between panels**:
15 inches plus thickness of floor, but not to
exceed panel width.
Interconnected glued laminated panel floor, with
adequate shear transfer between panels**, not less
than 6 inches thick:
15 inches plus twice thickness of floor, but not
to exceed panel width.
3.25.1.2
For transverse flooring the span shall
be taken as the clear distance between stringers plus onehalf the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the
clear span plus the floor thickness.
3.25.1.3
One design method for interconnected
glued laminated panel floors is as follows: For glued
laminated panel decks using vertically laminated lumber
with the panel placed in a transverse direction to the
stringers and with panel interconnected using steel dow
els, the determination of the deck thickness shall be based
on the following equations for maximum unit primary
*
The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer
to the joints between the individual nail laminated or glued
laminated panels.
**
This shear transfer may be accomplished using me
chanical fasteners, splines, or dowels along the panel joint or
other suitable means.
The equations are developed for deck panel spans equal

to or greater than the width of the tire (as specified in Article
3.30), but not greater than 200 inches.
Thus,
M x = P(.51 log 10 s - K)
(3-23)
R x = .034P
(3-24)
t=
6M x
Fb
(3-25)
or,
t=
3R x
whichever is greater
2Fv
(3-26)
where,
M x = primary bending moment in inch-pounds per
inch;
Rx = primary shear in pounds per inch;
x = denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal
stringers;
P = design wheel load in pounds;
s = effective deck span in inches;
t = deck thickness, in inches, based on moment or
shear, whichever controls;
K = design constant depending on design load as
follows:
H 15
K = 0.47
H 20
K = 0.51
Fb = allowable bending stress, in pounds per square

inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations, (see Tables 13.2.2A
and B);
Fv = allowable shear stress, in pounds per square
inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations, (see Tables 13.2.2A
and B).
*
The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer
to the joints between the individual nail laminated or glued
laminated panels.
SECTION 3
LOADS
3-25
3.25.1.4
The determination of the minimum

size and spacing required of the steel dowels required to
transfer the load between panels shall be based on the
following equation:
1,000 R y M y
n=

+
PL R D M D
in.
lb.
in.-lb.
1/in.2
1/in.3
600
850
36.9
81.5
8.50
800
1,340
22.3
41.7
10.00
.75
1,020
1,960
14.8
24.1
11.50
.875
1,260
2,720
10.5
15.2
13.00
1.0
1,520
3,630
7.75
10.2
14.50
1.125
1,790
4,680
5.94
7.15
15.50
1.25
2,100
5,950
4.69
5.22
17.00
1.375
2,420
7,360
3.78
3.92
18.00
1.5
2,770
8,990
3.11
3.02
19.50
.625
where
n
= number of steel dowels required for the given

spans;
PL = proportional limit stress perpendicular to
grain (for Douglas Fir or Southern pine, use
1,000 psi);
Ry = total secondary shear transferred, in pounds,
determined by the relationship:
R y = 6Ps/1,000 for s 50 inches
Diameter
of Dowel
Moment
Capacity
MD
0.5
(3-27)
(3-28)
=
P
(s 20) for s > 50 inches
2s
(3-29)
M y = total secondary moment transferred, in inchpound, determined by the relationship
Ps
M y =
(s 10) for s 50 inches (3-30)
1,600
M y =
Ps (s - 30)
for s > 50 inches
20 (s -10)
(3-31)
RD and MD = shear and moment capacities,
respectively, as given in the
following table:
Steel Stress
Coefficients
CR
CM
in.
3.25.1.5
In addition, the dowels shall be
checked to ensure that the allowable stress of the steel is
not exceeded using the following equation:
or,
Ry =
Total
Dowel
Length
Required
Shear
Capacity
RD
1
CR R y + CM M y
n
(3-32)
where,
= minimum yield point of steel pins in

pounds per square inch (see Table
10.32.1A);
n, Ry, My = as previously defined;
CR, CM = steel stress coefficients as given in
preceding table.
3.25.2
Plank and Nail Laminated

Longitudinal Flooring
In the direction of the span, the wheel

3.25.2.1
load shall be considered a point loading.
3.25.2.2
Normal to the direction of the span the
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor:
width of plank.
+
Non-interconnected nail laminated or glued
+
laminated panel floor:
width of tire plus thickness of floor, but not to
exceed panel width. Continuous nail
laminated floor and interconnected nail
laminated or glued laminated panel floor, with +
3-26
SECTION 3 LOADS
adequate shear transfer between panels*, not

less than 6 inches thick: width of tire plus twice
thickness of floor.
Wheel Load Fraction per Panel

=
3.25.2.3
For longitudinal flooring the span
shall be taken as the clear distance between floor beams
plus one-half the width of one beam but shall not exceed
the clear span plus the floor thickness.
3.25.3
Longitudinal Glued Laminate

Timber Deck
3.25.3.1
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES
WP
L
3.75 +
28
or
WP
, whichever is greater.
5.00
ONE TRAFFIC LANE

Load Fraction =
WP
L
4.25 +
28
or
WP
, whichever is greater.
5.50
where, WP = Width of Panel; in feet (3.5 WP 4.5)

L = Length of span for simple span bridges and the
length of the shortest span for continuous bridges in feet.
3.25.3.2
For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the

lateral distribution for shear shall be determined by the
method prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.3
Deflections
Bending Moment
In calculating bending moments in glued laminated

timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of
wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined as follows.
The live load bending moment for each panel shall be
determined by applying to the panel the fraction of a
wheel load determined from the following equations:
Load Fraction =
WP
but not less than 1.
4.00
Shear
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for

each panel, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution of the
wheel load at the supports shall be that determined by the
equation:
* This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical

fasteners, splines, or dowels along the panel joint or spreader beams
located at intervals along the panels or other suitable means.
The maximum deflection may be calculated by apply

ing to the panel the wheel load fraction determined by the
method prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.4
Stiffener Arrangement
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached

to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either
steel plates, thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets.
The stiffeners spacing required will depend upon the
spacing needed in order to prevent differential panel
movement; however, a stiffener shall be placed at
midspan with additional stiffeners placed at intervals not
to exceed 10 feet. The stiffness factor EI of the stiffener
shall not be less than 80,000 kip-in2.
3.25.4
Continuous Flooring
If the flooring is continuous over more than two spans,

the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being
80 percent of that obtained for a simple span.

AND DESIGN OF COMPOSITE
WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS
3.26.1
Distribution of Concentrated Loads

for Bending Moment and Shear
For freely supported or continuous slab

3.26.1.1
spans of composite wood-concrete construction, as de
scribed in Article 20.19.1 Division II, the wheel loads
shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for
bending moment and a width of 4 feet for shear.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-27
3.26.1.2
For composite T-beams of wood and
concrete, as described in Article 20.19.2-Division II, the
effective flange width shall not exceed that given in
Article 10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of
resisting both vertical and horizontal movement.
in which
3.26.2

ON STEEL GRID FLOORS*
Distribution of Bending Moments in

Continuous Spans
3.26.2.1
Both positive and negative moments
shall be distributed in accordance with the following
table:
Maximum Bending Moments-Percent of Simple
Span Moment
Maximum Uniform
Dead Load Moments
Wood
Subdeck
Span
Maximum Live
Load Moments
Composite
Slab
Concentrated
Load
Pos.
Neg.
Pos.
Neg.
Interior
50
50
55
45
75
End
70
60
70
60
2-Spana
65
70
60
75
aContinuous
Pos. Neg.
Uniform
Load
Pos.
Neg.
25
75
55
85
30
85
65
85
30
80
75
beam of 2 equal spans.
3.26.2.2
Impact should be considered in com
puting stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for
wood.
3.26.3
3.27.1 General
The grid floor shall be designed as
3.27.1.1
continuous, but simple span moments may be used and
reduced as provided in Article 3.24.
3.27.1.2
The following rules for distribution of
loads assume that the grid floor is composed of main
elements that span between girders, stringers, or cross
beams, and secondary elements that are capable of trans
ferring load between the main elements.
3.27.1.3
Reinforcement for secondary elements
shall consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel.
3.27.2
Ec
= 1 for slab in which the net concrete thickness
Ew
is less than half the overall depth of the
composite section
Ec
= 2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness
Ew
is at least half the overall depth of the
composite section
Es
= 18.75 (for Douglas fir and Southern pine)
Ew
SECTION 3 LOADS
Floors Filled with Concrete
The distribution and bending moment

3.27.2.1
shall be as specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The
following items specified in that article shall also apply to
concrete filled steel grid floors:
Longitudinal edge beams
Unsupported transverse edges
Span lengths
Design
The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete

members shall be based on assumptions that account for
the different mechanical properties of the components. A
suitable procedure may be based on the elastic properties
of the materials as follows:
3-28
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete;
Ew = modulus of elasticity of wood;
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel.
3.27.2.2
The strength of the composite steel and
concrete slab shall be determined by means of the "trans
formed area" method. The allowable stresses shall be as
set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1, and 10.32.
3.27.3
Open Floors
A wheel load shall be distributed, nor

3.27.3.1
mal to the main elements, over a width equal to 11/4
inches per ton of axle load plus twice the distance center
to center of main elements. The portion of the load
* Provisions in this article shall not apply to orthotropic

bridge superstructures.
assigned to each main element shall be applied uniformly

over a length equal to the rear tire width (20 inches for H
20, 15 inches for H 15).
3.27.3.2
The strength of the section shall be
determined by the moment of inertia method. The allow
able stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32.
3.27.3.3
Edges of open grid steel floors shall be
supported by suitable means as required. These supports
may be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be
required to support all edges properly.
3.27.3.4
When investigating for fatigue, the

minimum cycles of maximum stress shall be used.
3.28 DISTRIBUTING OF LOADS FOR

BENDING MOMENT IN SPREAD
BOX GIRDERS*
3.28.2
Exterior Beams
The live load bending moment in the exterior beams

shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction
of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the flooring to
act as a simple span (of length S) between beams, but shall
not be less than 2NL/NB.
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND

REACTIONS
Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given in
tables, Appendix A, for H 15, H 20, HS 15, and HS 20
loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or the
lane loading applied to a single lane on freely supported
spans. It is indicated in the table whether the standard
truck or the lane loadings produces the maximum stress.
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA

3.28.1 Interior Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior beam
in a spread box beam superstructure shall be determined
by applying to the beam the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel
load (both front and rear) determined by the following
equation:
D.F. =
2N L
S
+k
L
NB
The tire contact area shall be assumed as a rectangle

with an area in square inches of 0.01P, and a Length in
Direction of Traffic/Width of Tire ratio of 1/2.5, in which
P = wheel load in pounds.
(3-33)
where,
NL
NB
S
L
k
= number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6);

= number of beams (4 N B 10 ) ;
= beam spacing in feet (6.57 S 11.00 ) ;
= Span length in feet;
= 0.07W N L (0.10N L 0.26) 0.20N B 0.12 ;
(3-34)
W = numeric value of the roadway width between
curbs expressed in feet (32 W 66 ) .
* The provisions of Article 3.12, Reduction in Load Intensity,

were not applied in the development of the provisions presented in
3.28.1 and 3.28.2.
SECTION 3 LOADS
3-29
Section 3 Commentary
Loads
3.10.4
Centrifugal Forces
This specification has been revised to require a cen

trifugal force generated by the reaction due to the control
ling live load. This will eliminate inconsistency which
required a considerable increase in reinforcement and a
corresponding increase in the probable yield strength.
Single column bents were especially affected in the
transverse direction. For example, if one permit load
generated the critical moment, a significant centrifugal
moment, generated by HS trucks in all lanes, formerly
would have been added to it. For this example, the revised
specification will require adding only the centrifugal
moment generated by one permit truck traveling at a slow
speed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.14.1.6
Past experience has shown that "march
ing" can generate unacceptable movements at approxi
mately 2 Hz in the vertical direction and 1 Hz in the lateral
direction. Fundamental frequency is defined as vibra
tions on the predominant vertical mode of a bridge,
expressed in cycles per second, or the inverse of the
natural period. References"
+
+
"Guide Specification for Design of Pedestrian

Bridges", AASHTO, August 1977.
+
+
+
Bachmann, H. "Case Studies of Structures with

Man-Induced Vibrations", ASCE J. of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 118, No. 3, March 1992.
+
+
+
Dallard et. al. "The London Millennium Foot

bridge", The Structural Engineer, Vol. 79/No. 22,
20 November 2001.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3.24.2.1
The designer should consider whether
or not vehicular barrier railing will remain in place during
the lifespan of the structure. In anticipation of bridge
widenings, Article 3.23.2.3.1.4 prohibits the exterior
girder from having less capacity than the interior girders.
It may be more prudent to design the slab or supporting
member as if the barrier was removed. Note that a vehicu
lar barrier rail is an unmountable structure. A standard
sidewalk curb is mountable and should not be considered
a vehicular barrier rail.
3-30
SECTION 3 LOADS
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS NOVEMBER 2003
SECTION 4 - FOUNDATIONS
Part A
General Requirements and Materials
4.1
GENERAL
Foundations shall be designed to support all live and

dead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in
accordance with the general principles specified in this
section. The design shall be made either with reference to
service loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference
to load factors, and factored strength as provided in
STRENGTH DESIGN.
4.2
4.2.1
FOUNDATION TYPE AND

CAPACITY
Selection of Foundation Type
Selection of foundation type shall be based on an

assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading,
depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous
flooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining or scour,
swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of
construction.
4.2.2
Foundation Capacity
Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate

structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall
stability of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable level of structural deformation is controlled by the
type and span of the superstructure.
4.2.2.1
Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated

using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally accepted theories.
Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters
measured by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing

capacity may also be determined using load tests.
4.2.2.2
Settlement
The settlement of foundations may be determined

using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally acepted methodologies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters
measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ
and/or laboratory tests.
4.2.2.3
Overall Stability
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of foundations shall be considered as part of the design of
foundations.
4.2.3
Soil, Rock, and Other Problem

Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can influence

the performance of foundations and may require special
consideration during design. To the extent possible, the
presence and influence of such conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface exploration program. A
representative, but not exclusive, listing of problem conditions requiring special consideration is presented in
Table 4.2.3A for general guidance.
4.3
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND

TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing programs shall be the responsibility of the designer
based on the specifice requirements of the project and his
or her experience with local geologic conditions.
SECTION 4 FOUNDATIONS
4-1
TABLE 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration

Problem
Type
Soil
Description
Comments
Organic soil; highly plastic clay

Sensitive clay
Micaceous soil
Low strength and high compressibility

Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic)
Expansive clay/silt; expansive slag

Liquefiable soil
Potentially large expansion upon wetting

Complete strength loss and high deformations due to
earthquake loading
Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche; Loess)
Potentially large expansion upon oxidation
Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
Potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily
upon exposure to air/water
Expands upon exposure to air/water
Collapsible soil
Pyritic soil
Laminated rock
Expansive shale
Pyritic shale
Rock
Soluble rock
Cretaceous shale
Weak claystone (Red Beds)
Gneissic and Schistose Rock
Subsidence
Sinkholes/solutioning
Condition
4.3.1
Soluble in flowing and standing water (Limestone,

Limerock, Gypsum)
Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Highly distorted with irregular weathering profiles and steep
discontinuities
Typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock
strata
Negative skin friction/

expansion loading
Corrosive environments
Permafrost/frost
Capillary water
Additional compressive/uplift load on deep foundations due to

settlement/uplift of soil
Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soil/rock types
Typical in northern climates
Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss
General Requirements
Rock strata
Depth to rock
Identification and classification
Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering, if exposed, and solutioning)
Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compression, point load index)
Expansion potential
Ground water elevation
Ground surface elevation
Local conditions requiring special consideration
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing

programs shall define the following, where applicable:
Soil strata
Depth, thickness, and variability
Identification and classification
Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear
strength, compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expansion or collaspe potential, and frost
susceptibility)
4-2
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata

descriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or
qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPT hammer (i.e. safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any
unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be
noted on the exploration logs.
rock core, or a length of rock core equal to three times the

pile or shaft diameter below anticipated tip elevation,
whichever is greater, shall be obtained to insure the
exploration has not been terminated on a boulder. For
shaft group bearing on rock the exploration shall penetrate sufficient depth into competent rock to determine
the physical characteristics of rock within the zone of
foundation influence for design.
4.3.3
4.3.2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Minimum Coverage
Minimum Depth
Where substructure units will be supported on spread

footings, the minimum depth of the subsurface exploration shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a
minimum of two footing widths for isolated, individual
footings where L< 2B, and four footing widths for footings where L > 5B. For intermediate footing lengths, the
minimum depth of exploration may be estimated by
linear interpolation as a function of L between depths of
2B and 5B below the bearing level. Greater depths may
be required where warranted by local conditions.
Where substructure units will be supported on deep
foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall
extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be
used, the subsurface exploration shall penetrate sufficient depth into firm stable material to insure that significant settlement will not develop from compression of the
deeper soils due to loads imposed by the structure. For
piles or shafts bearing on rock, a minimum of 10 feet of
Unless the subsurface conditions of the site are known

to be uniform, a minimum of one soil boring shall be make
for each substructure unit. For substructure units over
100' in width, a minimum of two borings shall be required.
4.3.4
Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to

determine engineering properties including unit weight,
shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering
properties may be estimated based on published test
results or local experience.
4.3.5
Scour
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by

subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to
Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance
regarding hydraulic studies and design.
4-3
+
+
+
+
Part B
Service Load Design Method
Allowable Stress Design
4.4
SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.4.1
General
4.4.1.1
Applicability
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of

isolated footings, and to combined footings and mats
(footings supporting more than one column, pier, or
wall).
4.4.1.2
Footings Supporting NonRectangular Columns or Piers
Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-shaped

concrete columns or piers may be designed assuming that
the columns or piers act as square members with the same
area for location of critical sections for moment, shear,
and development of reinforcement.
4.4.1.3
+
+
+
+
+
Footings in Fill
Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing

capacity and settlement considerations as footings in
natural soil in accordance with Articles 4.4.7.1 through
4.4.7.2. The behavior of both the fill and underlying
natural soil shall be considered.
4.4.1.4
Footings in Sloped Portions of

Embankments
The earth pressure against the back of footings and

columns within the sloped portion of an embankment
shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in accordance
with Article 5.5.2. The resistance due to the passive earth
pressure of the embankment in front of the footing shall
be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of 3
feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action,
and/or trench excavation in front of the footing, whichever is greater.
4.4.1.5
Distribution of Bearing Pressure
Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil

and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent
unequal settlement, footings shall be designed to keep the
4-4
bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For footings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacing
between piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to
ensure nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements as
may be practical.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with
properties of the foundation materials and the structure,
and with the principles of geotechnical engineering.
4.4.2
Notations
The following notations shall apply for the design of

spread footings on soil and rock:
A
= Contact area of footing (ft2)
A'
= Effective footing area for computation of
bearing capacity of a footing subjected to
eccentric load (ft2); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
bc,b,bq = Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.8)
B
= Width of footing (ft); (Minimum plan dimension of footing unless otherwise noted)
B'
= Effective width for load eccentric in direction of short side, L unchanged (ft)
c
= Soil cohesion (ksf)
c'
= Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf)
c*
= Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for
punching shear (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
ca
= Adhesion between footing and foundation
soil or rock (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
cv
= Coefficient of consolidation (ft2/yr); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.3)
c1
= Shear strength of upper cohesive soil layer
below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
c2
= Shear strength of lower cohesive soil layer
below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
Cc
= Compression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
Ccr
= Recompression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
Cc
= Compression ratio (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
Co
= Uniaxial compressive strength of intact
rock (ksf)
Cr
= Recompression ration (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C
= Coefficient of secondary compression defined as change in height per log cycle of
time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
D
Df
e
ef
eo
ep
eB
eL
Eo
Em
Es
F
f c
FS
H
Hc
Hcrit
Hd
Hs
i
ic,i,iq
I
l
L
L'
= Influence depth for water below footing

(ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
= Depth to base of footing (ft)
= Void ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Void ratio at final vertical effective stress
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress
= Void ratio at maximum past vertical effective stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Eccentricity of load in the B direction
measured from centroid of footing (ft)
(See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
= Eccentricity of load in the L direction measured from centroid of footing (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
= Modulus of intact rock (ksf)
= Rock mass modulus (ksf) (See Article
4.4.8.2.2.)
= Soil modulus (ksf)
= Total force on footing subjected to an inclined load (k); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
= Unconfined compressive strength of concrete (ksf)
= Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
overturning or sliding shear failure (dim)
= Depth from footing base to top of second
cohesive soil layer for two-layer cohesive
soil profile below footing (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
= Height of compressible soil layer (ft)
= Critical thickness of the upper layer of a
two-layer system beyond which the underlying layer will have little effect on the
bearing capacity of footings bearing in the
upper layer (ft) (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
= Height of longest drainage path in compressible soil layer (ft)
= Height of slope (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
= Slope angle from horizontal of ground
surface below footing (deg)
= Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
= Influence coefficient to account for rigidity and dimensions of footing (dim); (See
Article 4.4.8.2.2)
= Center-to-center spacing between adjacent
Ll
footings (ft)
= Length of footing (ft)
= Effective footing length for load eccentric
in direction of long side, B unchanged (ft)
q ult
N
Nl
Nc,N,Nq
Nm
Nms
Ns
Ncq,Nq
P
Pmax
q
Q
qall
qc
qmax
Qmax
qmin
qn
qo
q os
q1
= Length (or width) of footing having positive contact pressure (compression) for
footing loaded eccentrically about one axis
(ft)
= Exponential factor relating B/L or L/B
ratios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
= Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
= Standard penetration resistance corrected
for effects of overburden pressure (blows/
ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
= Bearing capacity factors based on the value
of internal friction of the foundation soil
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
= Modified bearing capacity factor to account for layered cohesive soils below
footing (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
= Coefficient factor to estimate qult for rock
= Stability number (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.4)
= Modified bearing capacity factors for effects of footing on or adjacent sloping
ground (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
= Tangential component of force on footing
(k)
= Maximum resisting force between footing
base and foundation soil or rock for sliding
failure (k)
= Effective overburden pressure at base of
footing (ksf)
= Normal component of force on footing (k)
= Allowable uniform bearing capacity (ksf)
= Cone penetration resistance (ksf)
= Maximum footing contact pressure (ksf)
= Maximum normal component of load supported by foundation soil or rock at ultimate bearing capacity (k)
= Minimum magnitude of footing contact
pressure (ksf)
= Nominal bearing resistance (ksf)(see Article 4.4.7)
= Unfactored vertical pressure at base of
loaded area (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.2.1)
= Unfactored bearing pressure (ksf) causing
the maximum allowable elastic settlement
(see Article 4.4.7.2.2)
= Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bearing pressure (ksf)
= Ultimate bearing capacity of footing supported in the upper layer of a two-layer
system assuming the upper layer is infi-
4-5
q2
R
r
RQD
sc,s,sq
su
Sc
Se
Ss
St
t
t1,t2
T
zw
m
z
'
m
v
vf
vo
vp
4-6
nitely thick (ksf) (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)

= Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious
footing of the same size and shape as the
actual footing, but supported on surface of
the second (lower) layer of a two-layer
system (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
= Resultant of pressure on base of footing (k)
= Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square
footing (ft); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2)
= Rock Quality Designation (dim)
= Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.2)
= Undrained shear strength of soil (ksf)
= Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
= Elastic or immediate settlement (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.2)
= Secondary settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.4)
= Total settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2)
= Time to reach specified average degree
of consolidation (yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Arbitrary time intervals for determination
of Ss (yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
= Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Depth from footing base down to the highest anticipated ground water level (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
= Angle of inclination of the footing base
from the horizontal (radian)
= Reduction factor (dim); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2)
= Length to width ratio of footing (dim)
= Punching index = BL/[2(B+L)H] (dim);
= Factor to account for footing shape and
rigidity (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
= Total unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
= Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
= Moist unit weight of soil (kcf)
= Angle of friction between footing and foundation soil or rock (deg); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
= Vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Vertical strain at final vertical effective
stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
= Vertical strain at maximum past vertical
effective stress (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
'f
'o
'p
'
*
= Angle of load eccentricity (deg)

= Shear strength ratio (c2/c1) for two layered
cohesive soil system below footing (dim);
= Reduction factor to account for
three-dimensional effects in settlement
analysis (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Poissons ratio (dim)
= Final vertical effective stress in soil at
depth interval below footing (ksf); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Initial vertical effective stress in soil at
depth interval below footing (ksf); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Maximum past vertical effective stress in
soil at depth interval below footing (ksf);
(See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Angle of internal friction (deg)
= Effective stress angle of internal friction
(deg)
= Reduced effective stress soil friction angle
for punching shear (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1)
The notations for dimension units include the following: dim = Dimensionless; deg = degree; ft = foot; k = kip;
k/ft = kip/ft; ksf = kip/ft2; kcf = kip/ft3; lb = pound; in. =
inch; and psi = pound per square inch. The dimensional
units provided with each notation are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct combination of units for the footing capacity procedures
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
4.4.3
Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 4.4.3A for terminology used in the

design of spread footing foundations.
4.4.4
Soil and Rock Property Selection
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and

compressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are required for footing design. Foundation stability
and settlement analyses for design shall be conducted
using soil and rock properties based on the results of field
and/or laboratory testing.
FIGURE 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations
4.4.5
Depth
4.4.5.2
4.4.5.1
Minimum Embedment and

Bench Width
Footings not otherwise founded on sound, nondegradeable rock surfaces shall be embedded a sufficient
depth to provide adequate bearing, scour and frost heave
protection, or 3 feet to the bottom of footing, whichever
+ is greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a minimum horizontal distance of 4 feet, measured at the top of
footing, shall be provided between the near face of the
footing and the face of the finished slope.
Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata

shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour countermeasure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting
steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to
embed the footing below the rock surface.
4-7
+
+
+
+
+
+
Footings on piles may be located above the lowest

anticipated scour level provided the piles are designed
for this condition. Assume that all of the degradation
scour has occurred and none of the maximum anticipated
local scour (local pier and local contraction) has occurred
when designing for earthquake loading. Where footings
on piles are subject to damage by boulders or debris
during flood scour, adequate protection shall be provided. Footings shall be constructed so as to neither pose
an obstacle to water traffic nor be exposed to view during
low flow.
Abutment footings shall be constructed so as to be
stable if scour or meandering causes loss of approach fill.
4.4.5.3
Footing Excavations
Footing excavations below the ground water table,

particularly in granular soils having relatively high permeability, shall be made such that the hydraulic gradient
in the excavation bottom is not increased to a magnitude
that would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften
due to the upward flow of water. Further, footing excavations shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and
material removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seepage forces and gradients may be evaluated by
flow net procedures or other appropriate methods. Dewatering or cutoff methods to control seepage shall be used
where necessary.
Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered
moisture sensitive rocks shall be protected from weathering immediately after excavation with a lean mix concrete or other approved materials.
4.4.5.4
Anchorage
Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces

and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant
material shall be effectively anchored by means of rock
anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching or other
suitable means. Shallow keying or benching of large
footing areas shall be avoided where blasting is required
for rock removal.
4-8
Geotechnical Design on Soil
Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support

the design loads with adequate bearing and structural
capacity, and with tolerable settlements in conformance
with Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.11.
The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base
of the footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the
center of the footing.
The nominal bearing resistance, qn, shall be taken as
the lesser of the values qult and 3.0 qos.
4.4.7.1
Bearing Capacity
The ultimate bearing capacity (for general shear failure) may be estimated using the following relationship
for continuous footings (i.e., L > 5B):
qult = cNc + 0.5BN + qNq (4.4.7.1-1)
The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined
as:
qall = qn /FS
(4.4.7.1-2)
Refer to Table 4.4.7.1A for values of Nc, N and Nq.

If local or punching shear failure is possible, the value
of qult may be estimated using reduced shear strength
parameters c* and * in 4.4.7.1-1 as follows:
Piping
Piping failures of fine materials through rip-rap or

through drainage backfills behind abutments shall be
prevented by properly designed, graded soil filters or
geotextile drainage systems.
4.4.6
4.4.7
c* = 0.67c
(4.4.7.1-3)
= tan1(0.67tan)
(4.4.7.1-4)
Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear

strength parameters shall be used to determine bearing
capacity factors for drained loading conditions in all
soils. Additionally, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils
shall be checked for undrained loading conditions using
bearing capacity factors based on undrained shear
strength parameters.
4.4.7.1.1
Factors Affecting Bearing

Capacity
A modified form of the general bearing capacity

equation may be used to account for the effects of footing
shape, ground surface slope, base inclination, and inclined loading as follows:
+
+
+
+
TABLE 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Nc
5.14
5.38
5.63
5.90
6.19
6.49
6.81
7.16
7.53
7.92
8.35
8.80
9.28
9.81
10.37
10.98
11.63
12.34
13.10
13.93
14.83
15.82
16.88
18.05
19.32
20.72
Nq
1.00
1.09
1.20
1.31
1.43
1.57
1.72
1.88
2.06
2.25
2.47
2.71
2.97
3.26
3.59
3.94
4.34
4.77
5.26
5.80
6.40
7.07
7.82
8.66
9.60
10.66
N
0.00
0.07
0.15
0.24
0.34
0.45
0.57
0.71
0.86
1.03
1.22
1.44
1.69
1.97
2.29
2.65
3.06
3.53
4.07
4.68
5.39
6.20
7.13
8.20
9.44
10.88
qult = cNcscbcic + 0.5 BN = sbi + qNqsqbqiq

(4.4.7.1.1-1)
Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account
for the effects of eccentric loading.
4.4.7.1.1.1
Eccentric Loading
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the

footing, reduced footing dimensions (B' and L') shall be
used to determine bearing capacity factors and modifiers
(i.e., slope, footing shape, and load inclination factors),
and to calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing.
The reduced footing dimensions shall be determined as
follows:
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Nc
22.25
23.94
25.80
27.86
30.14
32.67
35.49
38.64
42.16
46.12
50.59
55.63
61.35
67.87
75.31
83.86
93.71
105.11
118.37
133.88
152.10
173.64
199.26
229.93
266.89
Nq
11.85
13.20
14.72
16.44
18.40
20.63
23.18
26.09
29.44
33.30
37.75
42.92
48.93
55.96
64.20
73.90
85.38
99.02
115.31
134.88
158.51
187.21
222.31
265.51
319.07
N
12.54
14.47
16.72
19.34
22.40
25.99
30.22
35.19
41.06
48.03
56.31
66.19
78.03
92.25
109.41
130.22
155.55
186.54
224.64
271.76
330.35
403.67
496.01
613.16
762.89
B' = B 2eB
(4.4.7.1.1.1-1)
L' = L 2eL
(4.4.7.1.1.1-2)
The effective footing area shall be determined as

follows:
A' = B'L'
(4.4.7.1.1.1-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions

and footing dimensions.
The value of qult obtained using the reduced footing
dimensions represents an equivalent uniform bearing
pressure and not the actual contact pressure distribution
beneath the footing. This equivalent pressure may be
multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimate
load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bearing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution
(i.e., trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a
4-9
rigid footing and a positive pressure along each footing

edge) shall be used for structural design of the footing.
The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid
footing with eccentric loading about one axis is shown in
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B. For an eccentricity (eL) in the L
direction, the actual maximum and minimum contact
pressures may be determined as follows:
for eL < L/6:
(4.4.7.1.1.1-4)
q min = Q[1 (6e L /L)]/BL
(4.4.7.1.1.3-1)
ic = 1 (nP/BLcNc) (for = 0)
iq = [1 P/(Q + BLc cot)]n
q max = 2Q/(3B[L/2) e L ])
(4.4.7.1.1.1-6)
q min = 0
(4.4.7.1.1.1-7)
L1 = 3[(L/2) e L ]
(4.4.7.1.1.1-8)
For an eccentricity (e) in the B direction, the maximum and minimum contact pressures may be determined
using Equations 4.4.7.1.1.1-4 through 4.4.7.1.1.1-8 by
replacing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled B by L.
Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccentricity of loading is less than 1/6 of the footing dimension
in any direction.
i = [1 P/(Q + BLc cot)](n+1)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-4)
n = [(2 + L/B)/(1+ L/B)]cos2

+ [(2 + B/L)/(1+ B/L)]sin2
(4.4.7.1.1.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions

and footing dimensions. For cases in which the loading is
eccentric, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L' and
B' respectively, in the above equations.
Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing
the tangential component of force on the footing (P) to the
maximum resisting force (Pmax) by the following:
Pmax = Qtan + BLca
(4.4.7.1.1.3-6)
FS = Pmax /P 1.5
(4.4.7.1.1.3-7)
In determining Pmax, the effect of passive resistance

provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL
shall represent the actual footing area in compression as
shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B or Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C.
4.4.7.1.1.4
s c = 1 + (B/L)(N q /N c )
(4.4.7.1.1.2-1)
sq = 1 + (B/L) tan
(4.4.7.1.1.2-2)
s = 1 0.4(B/L)
(4.4.7.1.1.2-3)
For circular footings, B equals L. For cases in which

the loading is eccentric, the terms L and B shall be
replaced by L' and B' respectively, in the above equations.
Inclined Loading
For inclined loads, the following inclination factors

shall be applied in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
4-10
(4.4.7.1.1.3-3)
Footing Shape
For footing shapes other than continuous footings

(i.e., L < 5B) the following shape factors shall be applied
to Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
4.4.7.1.1.3
(4.4.7.1.1.3-2)
(4.4.7.1.1.1-5)
for L/6 < eL < L/2:
4.4.7.1.1.2
ic = iq [(1 iq)/Nc tan ] (for > 0)
Ground Surface Slope
For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope

crest, qult may be determined using the following revised
version of Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
q ult = cN cqsc bci c + 0.5BN qs b i
(4.4.7.1.1.4-1)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4A for values of Ncq and Nq

for footings on slopes and Figures 4.4.7.1.1.4B for values
of Ncq and Nq for footings at the top of slopes. For
footings in or above cohesive soil slopes, the stability
number in the figures, Ns is defined as follows:
N s = H s /c
(4.4.7.1.1.4-2)
Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or

adjacent to sloping ground surfaces as described in Article 4.4.9.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings
Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads
Modified after EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About One Axis
4-11
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About Two Axes
Modified after AREA (1980)
4-12
600
8
Foundation depth/width
Df /B=O
D f /B=1
Df /B=O
D f /B=1
Linear interpolation
for intermediate depths
Effective Angle of Internal
friction f.
500
Slope stability
factor N s
Bearing capacity factor N gq
Bearing capacity factor Ncq
400
0
1
2
5.53
20
40
300
200
100
25
10
5
1
o
Inclination of slope
80
45
40 o
40 o
50
60
45 o
30 o
30 o
10 o
20 o
30 o
40
50
Inclination of slope i
Cohesionless Soil
Cohesive Soil
Hs
Df
B
Geometry
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.4A Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing on Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
4-13
8 Inclination of
slope i
o
30o
0
7
60
90
500
N s=0
400
0
5 30
60
90
90
30
60
60
Inclination of
slope i
0o
300
200
20
Df /B=O
D f /B=1
Linear interpolation
for intermediate depths
Effective Angle of Internal
friction f.
40
40 o
100
0o
40 o
20 o
0o
30
50
25
90
0
Slope stability
factor N s
0o
1 30
Df /B=O
D f /B=1
30
0o
40 o
30 o
10
5
1
0
5.53
1
2
6
3
4
5
Distance of foundation from edge of slope b/B
b/B (for Ns =0) or b/H (for Ns >0)
30 o
1
2
6
3
4
5
Distance of foundation from edge of slope b/B
Cohesionless Soil
Cohesive Soil
b
Df
B
Hs
I
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.4B Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
4-14
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth

The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is
neglected in determining qult using Equation 4.4.7.1.11. If other procedures are used, the effect of embedment
shall be consistent with the requirements of the procedure
followed.
4.4.7.1.1.6
Ground Water
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using

the highest anticipated ground water level at the footing
location. The effect of ground water level on the ultimate
bearing capacity shall be considered by using a weighted
average soil unit weight in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1. If
< 37o, the following equations may be used to determine
the weighted average unit weight:
for zw > B : use = m (no effect)
(4.4.7.1.1.6-1)
for zw < B : use = ' + (zw/B) (m ')

(4.4.7.1.1.6-2)
for zw< 0 : use = '
(4.4.7.1.1.6-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A for definition of terms

used in these equations. If 37o, the following equations
may be used to determine the weighted average unit
weight:
= (2D - zw) (zwm /D2)(zwm /D2) + '/D2)(D-zw)2
(4.4.7.1.1.6-4)
D = 0.5Btan(45 + /2)
4.4.7.1.1.7
(4.4.7.1.1.6-5)
Layered Soils
If the soil profile is layered, the general bearing capacity equation shall be modified to account for differences
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence of Ground Water Table on Bearing Capacity
4-15
in failure modes between the layered case and the homogeneous soil case assumed in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1.
Nm = (1/bm + kscNc) < scNc
(4.4.7.1.1.7-2)
Drained Loading
Undrained Loading
For undrained loading of a footing supported on the
upper layer of a two-layer cohesive soil system, qult may
be determined by the following:
qult = c1Nm + q
(4.4.7.1.1.7-1)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A for the definition of c1.

For undrained loading, c1 equals the undrained soil shear
strength sul, and 1=0.
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies
a stiffer cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B to
determine Nm. If the bearing stratum overlies a softer
layer, punching shear should be assumed and Nm may be
calculated by the following:
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7A
Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles
4-16
For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong

layer overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, qult
may be determined using the following:
qult = [q2 + (1/K)c1'cot1'] exp + {2[1
+ (B/L)]Ktan1'(H/B)} (1/K)c1' cot1'
(4.4.7.1.1.7-3)
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upper and lower
layers, respectively. K = (1 sin21')/(1 + sin21') and q2
equals qult of a fictitious footing of the same size and
shape as the actual footing but supported on the second
(or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength values shall be
used to determine q2 in accordance with Article 4.4.7. 1.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity

Factor for Two-Layer Cohesive Soil with Softer Soil
Overlying Stiffer Soil EPRI (1983)
If the upper layer is a cohesionless soil and ' equals

25 to 50, Equation 4.4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to:
qult = q2 exp{0.67[1 + (B/L)]H/B}
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A for definition sketch.

Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces,
refer to Article 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements.
(4.4.7.1.1.7-4)
4.4.7.1.2
The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the
bearing capacity will generally be unaffected by the
presence of the lower layer is given by the following:
Hcrit = [3B1n(q1/q2)]/[2(1 + B/L)]
Spread footings on soil shall be designed for Group 1

loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
against a bearing capacity failure.
(4.4.7.1.1.7-5)
4.4.7.2
In the equation, q1 equals the bearing capacity of the
upper layer assuming the upper layer is of infinite extent.
4.4.7.1.1.8
Inclined Base
Footings with inclined bases are generally not recommended. Where footings with inclined bases are necessary, the following factors shall be applied in Equation
4.4.7.1.1-1:
bq = b = (1 tan)2
Factors of Safety
(4.4.7.1.1.8-1)
bc = b (1 b)/(Nctan) (for > 0)

(4.4.7.1.1.8-2)
bc = 1 [2/( + 2)] (for = 0)
Settlement
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation,

and secondary components and may be determined using
the following:
St = Se + Sc + Ss
(4.4.7.2-1)
Elastic settlement shall be determined using the

unfactored dead load, plus the unfactored component of
live and impact loads assumed to extend to the footing
level. Consolidation and secondary settlement may be
determined using the full unfactored dead load only.
Other factors which can affect settlement (e.g., embankment loading, lateral and/or eccentric loading, and
for footings on granular soils, vibration loading from
dynamic live loads or earthquake loads) should also be
considered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, et al.,
(4.4.7.1.1.8-3)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination
4-17
(1987) for general guidance regarding static loading

conditions and Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance
regarding dynamic/seismic loading conditions.
4.4.7.2.1
Stress Distribution
Figure 4.4.7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distribution of vertical stress increase below circular (or
square) and long rectangular footings (i.e., where L >
5B). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and
Davis (1974).
Some methods used for estimating settlement of footings on sand include an integral method to account for the
effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to
Gifford, et al., (1987) for guidance regarding application
of these procedures.
4.4.7.2.2
Elastic Settlement
The elastic settlement of footings on cohensionless

soils and stiff cohesive soils may be estimated using the
following:
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings
Modified after Sowers (1979)
4-18
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils

Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982)
Estimating Es From Es From N(1)
Typical Range of Values
Soil Type
Clay:
Soft sensitive
Medium stiff
to stiff
Very stiff
Loess
Silt
50-300
300-1,000
1,000-2,000
300-1,200
40-400
Fine sand:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
Sand:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
Gravel:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
(1)N
(2)N
1
(3)s
u
(4)q
c
Youngs Modulus, Es
(ksf)
=
=
=
=
Poissons
Ratio, v
(dim)
0.4-0.5
(undrained)
0.1-0.3
0.3-0.35
Es
(ksf)
Soil Type
Silts, sandy silts, slightly
cohesive mixtures
Clean fine to medium sands
and slightly silty sands
Coarse sands and sands with
little gravel
8N1(2)
Sandy gravel and gravels
24N1
14N1
20N1
Estimating Es From su (3)

160-240
240-400
400-600
0.25
200-600
600-1,000
1,000-1,600
0.2-0.35
600-1,600
1,600-2,000
2,000-4,000
0.2-0.35
Soft sensitive clay

Medium stiff to stiff clay
Very stiff clay
400su-1,000su
1,500su-2,400su
3,000su-4,000su
Estimating Es From qc(4)
0.3-0.4
Sandy soils
4qc
0.3-0.4
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) resistance.

SPT corrected for depth.
Undrained shear strength (ksf).
Cone penetration resistance (ksf).
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2B Elastic Shape and Rigidity

Factors EPRI (1983)
L/B
Flexible (average)
Rigid
Circular
1
2
3
5
10
1.04
1.06
1.09
1.13
1.22
1.41
1.13
1.08
1.10
1.15
1.24
1.41
4-19
Se = q o (1 v 2 ) A / E s z (4.4.7.2.2-1)
Refer to Table 4.4.7.2.2A for approximate values of Es

and v for various soil types, and Table 4.4.7.2.2B for
values of z for various shapes of flexible and rigid
footings. Unless Es varies significantly with depth, Es
should be determined at a depth of about 1/2 to 2/3 of B
below the footing. If the soil modulus varies significantly
with depth, a weighted average value of Es may be used.
Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987) for general guidance
regarding the estimation of elastic settlement of footings
on sand.
For determining the nominal bearing resistance, qos
shall be the value of qo which produces elastic settlements
of
Se = 1 inch in structures with continuous spans or
multi-column bents
Se = 2 inches in simple span structures.
4.4.7.2.3
Consolidation Settlement
The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated

or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using
the following when laboratory test results are expressed in terms of void ratio (e):
For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., sp' > so'):
Sc = [Hc/(1 + eo)][(Ccr log{sp'/so'}
+ Cc log{sf'/sp'})]
(4.4.7.2.3-1)
For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., sp' =
so'):
Sc = [Hc/(1 + eo)][(Cc log(sf'/sp')]
(4.4.7.2.3-2)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of
vertical strain (ev) consolidation settlement may be estimated using the following:
For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., sp' > so'):
Sc = Hc[Crelog(sp' > so') + Cce log(sf' > sp')]
(4.4.7.2.3-3)
For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., sp' =
so'):
Sc = HcCcelog(sf'/sp')
(4.4.7.2.3-4)
Refer to Figures 4.4.7.2.3A and 4.4.7.2.3B for the
definition of terms used in the equations.
To account for the decreasing stress with increased
depth below a footing, and variations in soil compressibility with depth, the compressible layer should be
divided into vertical increments (i.e., typically 5 to 10
4-20
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation

Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil
Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress
EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation

Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil
Void Strain Versus Vertical Effective Stress
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account

for Effects of Three-Dimensional Consolidation
Settlement EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time Factor, T

EPRI (1983)
feet for most normal width footings for highway applications), and the consolidation settlement of each increment analyzed separately. The total value of Sc is the
summation of Sc for each increment.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness
of the compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional
(3-D) loading may be considered using the following:
Sc(3-D) = cSc(1-D)
(4.4.7.2.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3C for values of c.

The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total
estimated 1-D consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
t = THd2/cv
(4.4.7.2.3-6)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant
and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See
Winterkorn and Fang (1975) for values of T for other
excess pressure distributions. Values of cv may be estimated from the results of laboratory consolidation testing
of undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements
using devices such as a piezoprobe or piezocone.
4.4.7.2.4
Secondary Settlement
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may

be estimated using the following:
Sc = CHclog(t2/t1)
(4.4.7.2.4-1)
t1 is the time when secondary settlement begins (typically at a time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of
consolidation), and t2 is an arbitrary time which could
represent the service life of the structure. Values of C
may be estimated from the results of consolidation testing
of undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory.
4.4.7.2.5
4.4.7.3
4.4.8
Deleted
Deleted
Geotechnical Design on Rock
Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed

to support the design loads with adequate bearing and
structural capacity and with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. For footings on
rock, the location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the
base of footings shall be maintained within B/4 of the
center of the footing.
The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on
rock is influenced by the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities, weathering profiles, and other
similar features. The methods used for design of footings
on rock should consider these factors as they apply at a
particular site, and the degree to which they should be
incorporated in the design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple
and direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock is
defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are tight
4-21
+
+
+
+
or open not wider than 1/8 inch. For footings on less

competent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses should be used to account for the effects of weathering,
the presence and condition of discontinuities, and other
geologic factors.
4.4.8.1
Bearing Capacity
4.4.8.1.1
rock within a depth of B below the base of the footing,

where the RQD values are relatively uniform within that
interval. If rock within a depth of 0.5B below the base of
the footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the poorer rock
shall be used to determine qall.
4.4.8.1.2
Footings on Broken or Jointed

Rock
Footings on Competent Rock

The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must
account for the condition and spacing of joints and other
discontinuities. The ultimate bearing capacity of footings on broken or jointed rock may be estimated using the
following relationship:
qult = NmsCo
(4.4.8.1.2-1)
Allowable bearing capacity, qall (tsf)
The allowable bearing capacity for footings supported

on level surfaces in competent rock may be determined
using Figure 4.4.8.1.1 A (Peck, et al. 1974). In no instance
shall the maximum allowable bearing capacity exceed
the allowable bearing stress in the concrete. The RQD
used in Figure 4.4.8.1.1A shall be the average RQD for the
Note:
qall shall not exceed the unconfined compressive strength
of the rock or 0.595 f'c of the concrete.
FIGURE 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight Discontinuities
Peck, et al. (1974)
4-22
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient Nms for Estimation of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings on
Broken or Jointed Rock (Modified after Hoek, (1983))
Rock Mass
Quality
General Description
RMR(1)
Rating
NGI(2)
Rating
RQD(3)
(%)
Nms(4)
C
Excellent
Intact rock with joints spaced

> 10 feet apart
100
500
95-100
3.8
4.3
5.0
5.2
6.1
Very good
Tightly interlocking, undisturbed rock with rough

unweathered joints spaced 3 to
10 feet apart
85
100
90-95
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.0
2.3
Good
Fresh to slightly weathered

rock, slightly disturbed with
joints spaced 3 to 10 feet apart
65
10
75-90
0.28
0.32
0.38
0.40
0.46
Fair
Rock with several sets of moderately weathered joints spaced

1 to 3 feet apart
44
50-75
0.049
0.056
0.066
0.069
0.081
Poor
Rock with numerous weathered

joints spaced I to 20 inches
apart with some gouge
23
0.1
25-50
0.015
0.016
0.019
0.020
0.024
Very poor
Rock with numerous highly

weathered joints spaced < 2
inches apart
0.01
< 25
Use qult for an equivalent soil mass
(1)Geomechanics Rock Mass Rating (RMQ) SystemBieniawski, 1988.

(2)Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass Classification System, Barton, et al., 1974.
(3)Range of RQD values provided for general guidance only; actual determination of rock mass quality should be based on RMR or NGI
rating systems.
of Nms as a function of rock type; refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2B for typical range of values of Co for different rock type in each
category.
(4)Value
Refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2A for values of Nms. Values of

Co should preferably be determined from the results of
laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 2B of the
base of the footing. Where rock strata within this interval
are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity
should be used to determine qult. Alternatively, Table
4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate Co. For
rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of qult
should be determined as the value of qult for an equivalent
soil mass.
4.4.8.1.3
Factors of Safety
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group 1

loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
against a bearing capacity failure.
4.4.8.2
Settlement
4.4.8.2.1
Footings on Competent Rock
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements

will generally be less than 1/2 inch when footings are
designed in accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When
elastic settlements of this magnitude are unacceptable or
when the rock is not competent, an analysis of settlement
based on rock mass characteristics must be made. For
rock masses which have time-dependent settlement characteristics, the procedure in Article 4.4.7.2.3 may be
followed to determine the time-dependent component of
settlement.
4-23
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (Co) as a Function of

Rock Category and Rock Type
Rock
Category
Co(1)
General Description
Rock Type
(ksf)
(psi)
Carbonate rocks with welldeveloped crystal cleavage
Dolostone
Limestone
Carbonatite
Marble
Tactite-Skarn
7005008008002,700-
6,500
6,000
1,500
5,000
7,000
4,800- 45,000
3,500- 42,000
5,500- 10,000
5,500- 35,000
19,000- 49,000
Lithified argillaceous rock
Argillite
Claystone
Marlstone
Phyllite
Siltstone
Shale(2)
Slate
600301,0005002001503,000-
3,000
170
4,000
5,000
2,500
740
4,400
4,200- 21,000
200- 1,200
7,600- 28,000
3,500- 35,000
1,400- 17,000
1,000- 5,100
21,000- 30,000
Arenaceous rocks with strong

crystals and poor cleavage
Conglomerate
Sandstone
Quartzite
700- 4,600
1,400- 3,600
1,300- 8,000
4,800- 32,000
9,700- 25,000
9,000- 55,000
Fine-grained igneous
crystalline rock
Andesite
Diabase
2,100- 3,800
450-12,000
14,000- 26,000
3,100- 83,000
Coarse-grained igneous and

metamorphic crystalline rock
Amphibolite
Gabbro
Gneiss
Granite
Quartzdiorite
Quartzmonzonite
Schist
Syenite
2,5002,6005003002002,7002003,800-
17,000- 40,000
18,000- 45,000
3,500- 45,000
2,100- 49,000
1,400- 14,000
19,000- 23,000
1,400- 21,000
26,000- 62,000
(1)Range of Uniaxial Compressive

(2)Not including oil shale.
4.4.8.2.2
Strength values reported by various investigations.
Footings on Broken or Jointed

Rock
Where the criteria for competent rock are not met, the
influence of rock type, condition of discontinuities and
degree of weathering shall be considered in the settlement analysis.
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed
rock may be determined using the following:
For circular (or square) footings;
= qo (1 v2)rI/Em, with I = (
)/z
(4.4.8.2.2-1)
4-24
5,800
6,500
6,500
7,000
2,100
3,300
3,000
9,000
For rectangular footings;

= qo (1 v2)BI/Em, with I = (L/B)1/2/z
(4.4.8.2.2-2)
Values of I may be computed using the z values
presented in Table 4.4.7.2.2B from Article 4.4.7.2.2 for
rigid footings. Values of Poissons ratio () for typical
rock types are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of the rock mass modulus (Em) should be based on the
results of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of Em may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock
modulus (Eo) obtained from uniaxial compression tests
by a reduction factor (E) which accounts for frequency
of discontinuities by the rock quality designation (RQD),
using the following relationships (Gardner, 1987):
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poissons Ratio for Intact Rock

Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
Rock Type
No. of
Values
No. of
Rock
Types
Maximum
Granite
Gabbro
Diabase
Basalt
Quartzite
Marble
Gneiss
Schist
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Limestone
Dolostone
22
3
6
11
6
5
11
12
12
3
3
19
5
22
3
6
11
6
5
11
11
9
3
3
19
5
0.39
0.20
0.38
0.32
0.22
0.40
0.40
0.31
0.46
0.23
0.18
0.33
0.35
Poissons Ratio, v
Minimum
0.09
0.16
0.20
0.16
0.08
0.17
0.09
0.02
0.08
0.09
0.03
0.12
0.14
Mean
Standard
Deviation
0.20
0.18
0.29
0.23
0.14
0.28
0.22
0.12
0.20
0.18
0.09
0.23
0.29
0.08
0.02
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.08
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock

Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
Rock Type
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro
Diabase
Basalt
Quartzite
Marble
Gneiss
Slate
Schist
Phyllite
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Limestone
Dolostone
(1)1.0
Elastic Modulus, Eo
(psi x 106)(1)
No. of
Values
No. of
Rock
Types
Maximum
26
3
3
7
12
7
14
13
11
13
3
27
5
30
30
17
26
3
3
7
12
7
13
13
2
12
3
19
5
14
30
16
14.5
16.2
12.2
15.1
12.2
12.8
10.7
11.9
3.79
10.0
2.51
5.68
4.76
5.60
13.0
11.4
Minimum
Mean
Standard
Deviation
0.93
2.48
9.80
10.0
4.20
5.29
0.58
4.13
0.35
0.86
1.25
0.09
0.38
0.001
0.65
0.83
7.64
7.45
11.0
12.8
8.14
9.59
6.18
8.86
1.39
4.97
1.71
2.13
2.39
1.42
5.70
4.22
3.55
6.19
0.97
1.78
2.60
2.32
2.49
2.31
0.96
3.18
0.57
1.19
1.65
1.45
3.73
3.44
x 106 psi = 1.44 x 105 ksf.
4-25
Em = E Eo
E = 0.0231 (RQD) - 1.32 > 0.15
(4.4.8.2.2-3)
4.4.9
(4.4.8.2.2-4)
The overall stability of footings, slopes, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on
or near a slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analysis which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu,
Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope
stability analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and
ground water levels are based on in-situ and/or laboratory
tests, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5
where abutments are supported above a slope). Otherwise, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8
where abutments are supported above a retaining wall).
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data

cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of Eo
(such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure
4.4.8.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
final design when in-situ test results are not available, a
value of E = 0.15 should be used to estimate Em.
+
4.4.8.2.3
Deleted
Overall Stability
FIGURE 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and

Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock
Modified after Deere (1968)
4-26
4.4.10
Deleted
4.4.11
Structural Design
4.4.11.1
4.4.11.1.1
Loads and Reactions

Action of Loads and Reactions
Footings shall be considered as under the action of

downward forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation
materials and distributed over the area of the footings as
determined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the
downward forces. Where piles are used under footings,
the upward reaction of the foundation shall be considered
as a series of concentrated loads applied at the pile
centers, each pile being assumed to carry the computed
portion of the total footing load.
4.4.11.1.2
Isolated and Multiple Footing

Reactions
When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier

or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the actual
conditions of continuity and restraint.
4.4.11.2
4.4.11.2.1
Moments
Critical Section
External moment on any section of a footing shall be

determined by passing a vertical plane through the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over
the entire area of footing on one side of that vertical plane.
+ The critical section for bending shall be taken at the face
+ of column, pier, wall or at edge of hinge. In the case of
columns that are not square or rectangular, the critical
section shall be taken at the side of the concentric square
of equivalent area. For footings under masonry walls, the
critical section shall be taken as halfway between the
middle and edge of the wall. For footings under metallic
column bases, the critical section shall be taken as halfway between the column face and the edge of the metallic
+ base. Reinforcement for footing flexural moments shall
+ be in accordance with Article 8.16.3.
4.4.11.2.2
Distribution of Reinforcement
Reinforcement of one-way and two-way square footings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing.
In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall +
be distributed as follows:
+
Reinforcement in the long direction shall be distrib- +
uted uniformly across entire width of footing.
+
For reinforcement in the long direction, the area of
reinforcement to be placed shall be not less than 2L/ (L+S)
times the area of reinforcement required to resist the
applied moment and shall be distributed uniformily over
the entire width. L and S equal the lengths of the long side
and short side of the footing, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+
+
The minimum top flexural reinforcement for footings

shall be that required to resist loads which cause tension
in the top fiber, Article 8.17.1 or Article 8.20 whichever
controls.
+
+
+
+
4.4.11.3
Shear
4.4.11.3.1
Computation of shear in footings, and

location of critical section, shall be in accordance with
Article 8.15.5.6 or 8.16.6.6. Location of critical section
shall be measured from the face of column, pier, wall, or
at edge of hinge, for footings supporting a column, pier,
or wall. For footings supporting a column or pier with
metallic base plate, the critical section shall be measured
from the location defined in Article 4.4.11.2.1.
4.4.11.3.2
For footings supported on piles, shear

on the critical section shall be in accordance with the
following, where dp is the diameter of a round pile or depth
of H pile at footing base:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is
located dp/2 or more outside the critical section
shall be considered as producing shear on that
section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located
dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be
considered as producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the
portion of the pile reaction to be considered as
producing shear on the critical section shall be
based on linear interpolation between full value at
4-27
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
dp/2 outside the section and zero value at dp/2

inside the section.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4.4.11.3.3
Minimum Reinforcement
The minimum shear reinforcement for column footings shall be vertical No. 5 bars at 12 inch spacing in each
direction in a band between d of the footing from the
column surface and 6 inches maximum from the column
reinforcement. Shear bars shall be hooked around the top
and bottom flexure reinforcement in the footing.
4.4.11.4
4.4.11.4.1
Development of Reinforcement
4.4.11.5.3
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between supporting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles
8.15.2 or 8.16.7.
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be provided across interface between supporting and supported member either by extending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or
by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be sufficient to satisfy all of the following:
Development Length
Computation of development of reinforcement in

footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24
through 8.32.
4.4.11.4.2
Critical Section
Critical sections for development of reinforcement

shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in
Article 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes where
changes in section, or reinforcement occur. See also
Article 8.24.1.5.
4.4.11.5
4.4.11.5.1
Transfer of Force at Base of

Column
Transfer of Force
All forces and moments applied at base of column or

pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concrete and by reinforcement.
+
Fixed bases shall meet the requirements of this Ar+ ticle. Pinned bases shall meet the requirements of Article
+ 8.16.4.6.
4.4.11.5.2
Lateral Forces
Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting footing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Articles 8.15.5.4 or 8.16.6.4.
4-28
Bearing
Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all

force that exceeds concrete bearing strength in
supporting or supported member.
If required loading conditions include uplift, total
tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement.
Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005
times gross area of supported member, with a
minimum of four bars.
4.4.11.5.5
Dowel Size
Diameter of dowels, if used, shall not exceed diameter

of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0. 15 inch.
4.4.11.5.6
Development Length
For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of

reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall
be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
4.4.11.5.7
Splicing
At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal reinforcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with
footing dowels to provide the required area, but not less
than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not
be larger than No. 11 and shall extend into the column a
distance of not less than the development length of the
No. 14 or 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels,
whichever is greater; and into the footing a distance of not
less than the development length of the dowels.
The bars shall be terminated in the footings with a +
standard hook. Lap splices shall not be used.
+
4.4.11.6
4.4.11.6.1
Unreinforced Concrete Footings

Design Stress
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals

shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution.
For footings and pedestals cast against soil, effective
thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the
overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme fiber stress in
tension shall not exceed that specified in Article
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless projection of footing from face to support member exceeds
footing thickness.
4.4.11.6.2
Pedestals
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral

dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3.
4.5
DRIVEN PILES
4.5.1
General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design

of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or
extending through soil to rock.
4.5.1.1
Application
Piling may be considered when footings cannot be

founded on rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive soils
within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil conditions would normally permit the use of spread footings
but the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as a
protection against scour. Piles may also be used where an
unacceptable amount of settlement of spread footings
may occur.
4.5.1.2
Materials
Piles may be structural steel sections, steel pipe, precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed concrete, timber, or a combination of materials. In every
case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with the
provisions of this Article.
+
4.5.1.3
Deleted
4.5.1.4
Lateral Tip Restraint
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose

upper stratum overlying a hard or firm stratum unless the
piles penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a sufficient
distance to fix the ends against lateral movement of the
pile tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to
accomplish this penetration.
4.5.1.5
Estimated Lengths
Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be

shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful
evaluation of available subsurface information, static
and lateral capacity calculations, and/or past experience.
4.5.1.6
Estimated and Minimum Tip

Elevation
Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each

substructure should be shown on the contract plans.
Estimated pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation
where the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained.
Minimum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration
required to support lateral pile loads (including scour
considerations where appropriate) and/or penetration of
overlying, unsuitable soil strata.
4.5.1.7
Deleted
4.5.1.8
Test Piles
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure

unit (See Article 7. 1.1 for definition of substructure unit)
to determine pile installation characteristics, evaluate
pile capacity with depth and to establish contractor pile
order lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading,
dynamic testing, conducting driveability studies, or a
combination thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface conditions. The number of test piles required may
be increased in non-uniform subsurface conditions. Test
piles may not be required where previous experience
exists with the same pile type and ultimate pile capacity
in similar subsurface conditions.
4.5.2
Pile Types
Piles shall be classified as friction or end bearing

or a combination of both according to the manner in
which load transfer is developed.
4-29
4.5.2.1
Friction Piles
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the

major portion of support capacity is derived from soil
resistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
4.5.2.2
End Bearing Piles
A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if

the major portion of support capacity is derived from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
rests.
4.5.2.3
Combination Friction and End

Bearing Piles
Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile

materials, the bearing capacity of a pile may be considered as the sum of the resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft and that developed at the pile tip, even though
the forces that are mobilized simultaneously are not
necessarily maximum values.
Qult
rs
Rs
rt
Rt
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Ultimate pile capacity (k)

Unit side resistance (ksi)
Side resistance (ksi)
Unit tip resistance (ksi)
Tip resistance (k)
Percentage of reinforcement (dim)
Allowable stress (ksi)
The notations for dimension units include the following: dim = Dimensionless; ft = foot; square feet = ft2; k =
kip; ksi = kip/in2 and in. = inch. The dimensional units
provided with each notation are presented for illustration
only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct combination
of units for the footing capacity procedures presented
herein. If other units are used, the dimensional correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
4.5.4
Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 4.5.4A for terminology used in the

design of driven pile foundations.
4.5.5
4.5.2.4
Batter Piles
When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the

piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity
of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be
used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction
loads are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an
alternate method of providing lateral restraint should be
used.
4.5.3
Notations

driven pile foundations:
As
At
B
f'c
fpc
=
=
=
=
=
FS
Fy
L
Qall
QS
QT
=
=
=
=
=
=
4-30
Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
Area of pile circumference (ft2)

Area of pile tip (ft2)
Pile diameter or width (ft)
Concrete compression strength (ksi)
Concrete compression stress due to prestressing
after all losses (ksi)
Factor of safety (dim)
Yield strength of steel (ksi)
Pile length (ft)
Design capacity (k)
Ultimate shaft resistance (k)
Ultimate tip resistance (k)

compressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are required for driven pile design. Refer to Article
4.3 for guidelines for subsurface exploration to obtain
soil and rock properties.
4.5.6
Selection of Design Pile Capacity
The design pile capacity is the maximum load the pile

shall support with tolerable movement. In determining
the design pile capacity, the following items shall be
considered:
Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and

Structural capacity of the pile section.
4.5.6.1
Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be

determined from:
Qult = QS + QT
(4.5.6.1-1)
The allowable design axial capacity shall be determined from:

Qall = Qult/FS
(4.5.6.1-2)
FIGURE 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundatons
4-31
4.5.6.1.1
Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
In determining the design axial capacity, consideration shall be given to:
load test is recommended. Pile relaxation should be

considered in certain kinds of rock when performing load
tests.
4.5.6.2
The difference between the supporting capacity

of a single pile and that of a group of piles;
The capacity of an underlying strata to support the
load of the pile group;
The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or slopes;
The possibility of scour and its effect on axial and
lateral capacity;
The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag
loads from consolidating soil and the effects of
uplift loads from expansive or swelling soils;
The influence of construction techniques such as
augering or jetting on capacity; and
The influence of fluctuations in the elevation of
the ground water table on capacity.
4.5.6.1.2
Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils

may be calculated using a total stress method (e.g.,
Tomlinson, 1957) for undrained loading conditions, or
an effective stress method (e.g., Meyerhof, 1976) for
drained loading conditions. The axial capacity may also
be calculated from in-situ testing methods such as the
cone penetration (e.g., Schmertmann, 1978) or
pressuremeter tests (e.g., Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.3
Axial Capacity in Cohesionless

Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless

soils may be calculated using an empirical effective stress
method (e.g., Nordlund, 1963) or from in-situ testing
methods and analysis such as the cone penetration (e.g.,
Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.4
Axial Capacity on Rock
For piles driven to competent rock, the structural

capacity in Article 4.5.7 will generally govern the design
axial capacity. For piles driven to weak rock such as shale
and mudstone or poor quality weathered rock, a static
4-32
Factor of Safety Selection
The required nominal resistance is twice the design

service load. The Division of Structural Foundations will
determine the geotechnical capacity to meet or exceed
the required nominal resistance. The safety margin between the required nominal resistance and the ultimate
geotechnical capacity shall be determined by the Division of Structural Foundations considering the uncertainties of the ultimate soil capacity determination and
pile installation control.
4.5.6.3
Deleted
4.5.6.4
Group Pile Loading
Group pile capacity should be determined as the

product of the group efficiency, number of piles in the
group, and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group
efficiency value of 1.0 should be used; however, for
friction piles in cohesive soil, a group efficiency value
less than 1.0 may be required depending upon the centerto-center spacing of the piles. The Division of Structural
Foundations should be consulted to determine the efficiency factors for friction piles in cohesive soils.
4.5.6.5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Lateral Loads on Piles
The design of laterally loaded piles is usually governed by lateral movement criteria. The design of laterally loaded piles shall account for the effects of soil/rock
structure interaction between the pile and ground (e.g.,
Reese, 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate capacity or deflection of laterally loaded piles (e.g.,
Broms, 1964a and 1964b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be
used for preliminary design only as a means to evaluate
appropriate pile sections.
4.5.6.5.1
Lateral Resistance
Lateral resistance of piles fully embedded in soil with

standard penetration resistance value, N, of 10 and with
a 1/4 inch maximum horizontal deflection under Service
Load shall be:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
CIDH Concrete (16") ................................ 13 kips

Driven Concrete(15" or 14") ..................... 13kips
Driven Concrete (12") ................................ 5 kips
Steel (12" or 10" flange) ............................. 5 kips
Steel (8" flange) .......................................... 4 kips
Timber ......................................................... 5 kips
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The lateral resistance of piles not within these criteria

shall be determined by geotechnical analysis and structural adequacy of the pile.
At bent and pier footings the number of piles required
for lateral pile resistance shall not be governed by Group
VII loads.
The horizontal component of a battered piles axial
load may be added to the lateral resistance.
4.5.6.6
Uplift Loads on Pile
The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile

groups shall be determined in accordance with Articles
4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2 respectively. Proper provision
shall be made for anchorage of the pile into the pile cap.
4.5.6.6.1
+
+
+
+
+
+
Single Pile
Friction piles may be considered to resist an intermittent but not sustained uplift. Uplift resistance may be
equivalent to 40 percent of the allowable structural
compressive load capacity. Adequate pile anchorage,
tensile strength, and geotechnical capacity must be provided.
4.5.6.6.2
Pile Group
The uplift design capacity for a pile group shall be the

lesser of: (1) The single pile uplift design capacity multiplied by the number of piles in the group, or (2)
two-thirds of the effective weight of the pile group and the
soils contained within a block defined by the perimeter
of the group and the embedded length of the piles, or (3)
one-half the effective weight of the pile group and the soil
contained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
group and the embedded pile length plus one-half the
total soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.
+
4.5.6.6.3
4.5.6.7
Vertical Ground Movement
The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical

ground movements shall be considered as part of the
design. Vertical ground movements may result in negative skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of
compressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to
heave of expansive soils. For design purposes, the full
magnitude of maximum vertical ground movement shall
be assumed.
4.5.6.7.1
Negative Skin Friction
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible soil shall be considered as a part of the design.
Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a loadtransfer method of analysis to determine the neutral point
(i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and
ONeill, 1988). Due to the possible time dependence
associated with vertical ground movement, the analysis
shall consider the effect of time on load transfer between
the ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed
for the time period relating to the maximum axial load
transfer to the pile. If necessary, negative skin friction
loads that cause excessive settlement may be reduced by
application of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the
pile surfaces before installation.
4.5.6.7.2
Expansive Soil
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to

uplift forces in the zone of seasonal moisture change.
Piles shall extend a sufficient distance into moisturestable soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling
uplift forces. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be
provided between the ground surface and the underside
of pile caps or grade beams to preclude the application of
uplift loads at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reduced
by application of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the
pile surface in the swelling zone.
4.5.6.8
Deleted
Seal Course
In seals, the bond between timber, steel, or concrete

+
+ piles and surrounding concrete may be assumed to be 10
+ pounds per square inch. The total bond force used shall be
+ no greater than the resistance of the pile to uplift.
4-33
4.5.7
Structural Capacity of Pile Section
4.5.7.1
Load Capacity Requirements
Piles shall be designed as structural members capable

of safely supporting all loads imposed on them by the
structure or surrounding soil.
4.5.7.2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Allowable Stresses in Piles
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not

exceed the following limits in severe subsurface conditions.
Where pile damage or deterioration is possible, it may
be prudent to use a lower stress level than the maximum
allowable stress.
4-34
TABLE 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for

Round Timber Piles
Piles Extending Above Ground

Surface
For portions of piles in air or water, or in soil not

capable of providing adequate lateral support throughout the pile length to prevent buckling, the structural
design provisions for compression members of Sections
8, 9, 10, and 13 shall apply except: timber piles shall be
designed in accordance with Article 13.5 using the allowable unit stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in
Table 4.5.7.3A.
4.5.7.3
stress shall not exceed the values in Table 4.5.7.3A

for the pile tip area. For sawn timber piles, the
values applicable to wet condition for allowable compression parallel to grain shall be used in
Accordance with Article 13.2.
For steel H-piles, and unfilled steel pipe piles, the

maximum allowable stress shall not exceed 0.28Fy
over the net cross-sectional area of the pile, not
including the area of any tip reinforcement. Net
section equals gross section less 1/16 inch from all
surfaces.
For concrete filled steel pipe piles, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.28Fy + 0.40f 'c
applied over the net cross-sectional area of the
steel pipe and on the cross-sectional area of the
concrete, respectively.
For precast concrete piles, the maximum allowable stress shall not exceed 0.33 f'c on the gross
cross-sectional area of the concrete.
For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in
soils providing lateral support, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.33 f'c 0.27pe
on the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.
For round timber piles, the maximum allowable
Species
Ash, white
Beech
Birch
Chestnut
Cypress, Southern
Cypress, Tidewater red
Douglas Fir, coast type
Douglas Fir, inland
Elm, rock
Elm, soft
Gum, black and red
Hemlock, Eastern
Hemlock, West Coast
Hickory
Larch
Maple, hard
Oak, red and white
Pecan
Pine, Lodgepole
Pine, Norway
Pine, Southern
Pine, Southern, dense
Poplar, yellow
Redwood
Spruce, Eastern
Tupelo
Allowable Unit Working

Stress Compression
Parallel to Grain for
Normal Duration of
Loading a (psi)
1,200
1,300
1,300
900
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,100
1,300
850
850
800
1,000
1,650
1,200
1,300
1,100
1,650
800
850
1,200
1,400
800
1,100
850
850
4.5.7.4
Deleted
4.5.7.5
Scour

subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies as described in Article 4.3.5. If heavy scour is expected,
consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
the pile that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,
the pile length shall be determined such that the design
structural load may be safely supported entirely below
the probable scour depth. The pile shall be of adequate
cross-section to withstand the driving necessary to penetrate through the anticipated scour depth to the design
embedment.
4.5.8
Protection Against Corrosion and

Abrasion
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete encasement or other corrosion protection shall be used on
steel piles and steel shells. Exposed steel piles or steel
shells shall not be used in salt or brackish water, and only
with caution in fresh water. Where the piling is exposed
to the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the
section shall be increased in thickness or positive protection shall be provided.
4.5.9
Wave Equation Analysis
The constructability of the pile foundation design

should be evaluated using a wave equation computer
program. The wave equation should be used to confirm
that the design pile section can be installed to the desired
depth, ultimate capacity, and within the allowable driving stress levels specified in Article 4.5.11 using an
appropriately sized driving system.
4.5.10
Dynamic Monitoring
Dynamic monitoring may be specified for piles installed in difficult subsurface conditions such as soils
with obstructions and boulders, or a steeply sloping
bedrock surface to evaluate compliance with structural
pile capacity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for geotechnical capacity verification where the size
of the project or other limitations deter static load testing.
4.5.11
Maximum Allowable Driving

Stresses
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material

for top driven piles shall not exceed the following limits:
Steel piles
Concrete piles
Prestressed concrete piles

Normal environments
0.90Fy (Compression)
0.90Fy (Tension)
0.85 f'c (Compression)
0.70Fy of Steel Rein
forcement (Tension)
0.85 f'c fpe (Compression)
3 f c + fpe (Tension)
(f'c and fpe must be in psi.
The resulting max stress is
also in psi.)
Severe corrosive
environments
Timber piles
fpe (Tension)
3a (Compression)
3a (Tension)
Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave

equation analyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and
acceleration at the pile head during pile driving.
4.5.12
Tolerable Movement
Tolerable axial and lateral displacement criteria for

driven pile foundations shall be developed by the structural engineer consistent with the function and type of
structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated service life, and
consequences of unacceptable displacements on the
structural performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize the load deformation behavior of the foundation materials.
4.5.13
Buoyancy
The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered

in the design as provided in Article 3.19.
4.5.14
Protection Against Deterioration
4.5.14.1
Steel Piles
A steel pile foundation design shall consider that steel

piles may be subject to corrosion, particularly in fill soils,
low ph soils (acidic) and marine environments. A field
SECTION 4
FOUNDATIONS
4-35
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
electric resistivity survey, or resistivity testing and ph

testing of soil and ground water samples should be used
to evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting steel piling in corrosive environments include use of
protective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased
pile steel area.
4.5.15.1.2
Timber Piles
A timber pile foundation design shall consider that

deterioration of timber piles can occur due to decay from
wetting and drying cycles or from insects or marine
borers. Methods of protecting timber piling include pressure treating with creosote or other wood preservers.
4.5.15
Spacing, Clearances, and

Embedment
4.5.15.1
Pile Footings
+
Footings shall be proportioned to provide the required
+ minimum spacing, clearance and embedment of piles.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4.5.15.1.1
Pile Spacing
The minimum center to center spacing of piles shall be

two times either the diameter or the maximum dimension
of the pile, but not less than 3 feet. The spacing shall be
increased when required by subsurface conditions.
The minimum distance from the center of the pile to the
nearest edge of the footing shall be equal to either the
diameter or the maximum dimension of the pile, but not
less than 1 foot 6 inches.
4-36
Bent Caps
Concrete Piles
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider that

deterioration of concrete piles can occur due to sulfates in
soil, ground water, or sea water; chlorides in soils and
chemical wastes; acidic ground water and organic acids.
Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterioration potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and
ground water samples is recommended when chemical
wastes are suspected. Methods of protecting concrete
piling can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate
resisting portland cement, minimum cover requirements
for reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins, or other
protective coatings.
4.5.14.3
Piles shall be embedded into concrete footings as +

follows: concrete piles 3 inches; steel piles 5 inches; +
timber piles 8 inches.
+
4.5.15.2
4.5.14.2
Minimum Projection into CAP
Piles shall be embedded into concrete bent caps as +

follows: concrete piles 1 inch; steel piles 5 inches; +
timber piles 8 inches.
+
4.5.16
Precast Concrete Piles
4.5.16.1
Size and Shape
Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and

shape but may be either of uniform section or tapered. In
general, tapered piling shall not be used for trestle construction except for the portion of the pile which lies
below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in
any location where the piles are to act as columns.
4.5.16.2
Minimum Area
In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional

area, measured above the taper, of not less than 98 square
inches. In saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of
140 square inches shall be used. If a square section is
employed, the corners shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
4.5.16.3
Minimum Diameter of Tapered

Piles
The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point

shall be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter
shall be considered as the least dimension through the
center.
4.5.16.4
Driving Points
Piles preferably shall be cast with a driving point and,

for hard driving, preferably shall be shod with a metal
shoe of approved pattern.
4.5.16.5
Vertical Reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than

four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the
pile, except that if more than four bars are used, the
number may be reduced to four in the bottom 4 feet of the
pile. The amount of reinforcement shall be at least 1 1/2

percent of the total section measured above the taper.
4.5.16.6
Spiral Reinforcement
The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with

spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral
reinforcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of
3 inches and gage of not less than No. 5 (U.S. Steel Wire
Gage). In addition, the top 6 inches of the pile shall have
five turns of spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the
remainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a
No. 5 gage spiral with not more than 6-inch pitch, or 1/4inch round hoops spaced on not more than 6-inch centers.
4.5.16.7
Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance

from the face of the pile of not less than 2 inches and,
when piles are used in saltwater or alkali soils, this clear
distance shall not be less than 3 inches.
4.5.16.8
Splices
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops

the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on
the contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing
that provides equal results may be considered for approval.
4.5.16.9
Handling Stresses
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads

shall be increased by 50 percent as an allowance for
impact and shock.
4.5.17
Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles
4.5.17.1
Materials
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, in general, cast

in metal shells that shall remain permanently in place.
However, other types of cast-in-place piles, plain or
reinforced, cased or uncased, may be used if the soil
conditions permit their use and if their design and method
of placing are satisfactory.
4.5.17.2
Shape
4.5.17.3
Minimum Area
The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 100

inches and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile
shall be 8 inches. Above the butt or taper, the minimum
size shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.17.4
General Reinforcement
Requirements
Cast-in-place piles, carrying axial loads only where

the possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles
is insignificant, need not be reinforced where the soil
provides adequate lateral support. Those portions of castin-place concrete piles that are not supported laterally
shall be designed as reinforced concrete columns in
accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and the
reinforcing steel shall extend 10 feet below the plane
where the soil provides adequate lateral restraint. Where
the shell is smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in
thickness, it may be considered as load carrying in the
absence of corrosion. Where the shell is corrugated and
is at least 0.075 inch in thickness, it may be considered
as providing confinement in the absence of corrosion.
4.5.17.5
Reinforcement into
Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into
the cap shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.17.6
Shell Requirements
The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength

so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven
and the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The
plans shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell
must be approved by the Engineer before any driving is
done.
4.5.17.7
Splices
Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the

full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing providing equal results may be considered for approval.
Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform crosssection or may be tapered over any portion.
4-37
4.5.17.8
Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of

not less than 2 inches from the cased or uncased sides.
When piles are in corrosive or marine environments, or
when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 3
inches for uncased piles and piles with shells not sufficiently corrosion resistant.
4.5.17.9
Steel H-Piles
4.5.18.1
Metal Thickness
Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of web of

0.400 inch. Splice plates shall not be less than 1/8 in. thick.
4.5.18.2
Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.

The flanges and web shall be either spliced by butt
welding or with plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans. Prefabricated splicers may be used if the splice can develop the
net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear, and
bending.
4.5.18.3
Caps
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embedded in concrete.
4.5.18.4
Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers
These devices may be used to increase the bearing

capacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of
structural shapeswelded, riveted, or boltedof plates
welded between the flanges, or of timber or concrete
blocks securely fastened.
4.5.18.5
Point Attachments
If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris

fill or obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be rein-
4-38
4.5.19
Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles
4.5.19.1
Metal Thickness
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than

indicated in the following table:
Spacing Limitations
+
The spacing limitation for reinforcement shall be
+ considered in the design as provided in Article 8.21.7.
4.5.18
forced with structural shapes or with prefabricated cast

steel points. Cast steel points shall meet the requirements
of ASTM A27.
Outside Diameter
Less than
14 inches
14 inches
and over
Wall Thickness
0.25 inch
0.375 inch
4.5.19.2
Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the full section of the

pile. The piles shall be spliced either by butt welding or
by the use of welded sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on
the contract plans.
4.5.19.3
Driving
Tubular steel piles may be driven either closed or open

ended. Closure plates should not extend beyond the
perimeter of the pile.
4.5.19.4
Column Action
Where the piles are to be used as part of a bent structure

or where heavy scour is anticipated that would expose a
portion of the pile, the pile will be investigated for
column action. The provisions of Article 4.5.8 shall apply
to unfilled tubular steel piles.
4.5.20
Prestressed Concrete Piles
4.5.20.1
Size and Shape
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal, square or circular shall be of approved size and shape.
Air entrained concrete shall be used in piles that are
subject to freezing and thawing or wetting and drying.
Concrete in prestressed piles shall have a minimum
compressive strength, f 'c of 5,000 psi at 28 days. Prestressed concrete piles may be solid or hollow. For
hollow piles, precautionary measures should be taken to
prevent breakage due to internal water pressure during

driving, ice pressure in trestle piles, and gas pressure due
to decomposition of material used to form the void.
4.5.20.2
Main Reinforcement
Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as

to provide a compressive stress on the pile after losses,
fpe, general not less than 700 psi to prevent cracking
during handling and installation. Piles shall be designed
to resist stresses developed during handling as well as
under service load conditions. Bending stresses shall be
investigated for all conditions of handling, taking into
account the weight of the pile plus 50-percent allowance
for impact, with tensile stresses limited to 5 f c .
4.5.20.3
Vertical Reinforcement
The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be

enclosed within spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 24
inches in diameter, spiral wire shall be No. 5 (U.S. Steel
Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these
piles shall have a pitch of 3 inches for approximately 16
turns. In addition, the top 6 inches of pile shall have five
turns of spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the remainder
of the pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral
reinforcement with not more than 6-inch pitch. For piles
having diameters greater than 24 inches, spiral wire shall
be No. 4 (U.S. Steel Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at
the end of these piles shall have a pitch of 2 inches for
approximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 6 inches of
pile shall have four turns of spiral winding at 1 1 /2 inches.
For the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall be
enclosed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 4inch pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
distance from the face of the prestressed pile of not less
than 2 inches.
4.5.20.4
Hollow Cylinder Piles
+
Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of ap+ proved size and shape. The wall thickness for cylinder
+ piles shall not be less than 5 inches.
4.5.20.5
Splices
When prestressed concrete piles are spliced, the splice

shall be capable of developing the full section of the pile.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
4.5.21
Timber Piles
4.5.21.1
Materials
Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the

Specifications for Wood Products, AASHTO M 168.
Timber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on
the contract plans. Preservative treatment shall conform
to the requirements of Section 16, Preservative Treatments for Lumber.
4.5.21.2
Limitations on Untreated Timber

Pile Use
Untreated timber piles may be used for temporary

construction, revetments, fenders, and similar work, and
in permanent construction under the following conditions:
For foundation piling when the cutoff is below

permanent ground water level.
For trestle construction when it is economical to
do so, although treated piles are preferable.
They shall not be used where they will, or may, be
exposed to marine borers.
They shall not be used where seismic design
considerations are critical.
4.5.21.3
Limitations on Treated Timber

Pile Use
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic

design considerations are critical.
4.6
DRILLED SHAFTS
4.6.1
General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design

of axially and laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or
extending through soil to or into rock.
4.6.1.1
Application
Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings

cannot be founded on suitable soil or rock strata within
a reasonable depth and when piles are not economically
viable due to high loads or obstructions to driving.
Drilled shafts may be used in lieu of spread footings as a
SECTION 4
FOUNDATIONS
4-39
protection against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation tolerances are small.
4.6.1.2
Materials
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include

deformed bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections, and/or permanent steel casing as required by design. In every case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provisions of this Standard.
4.6.1.3
Construction
Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing, or wet method of construction, or a combination of
methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement, and all other aspects of shaft construction shall be
performed in conformance with the provisions of this
Standard.
4.6.1.4
Embedment
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on vertical and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and
subsurface materials.
4.6.1.5
Shaft Diameter
For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through

the overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at
least 6 inches less than the inside diameter of the casing
to facilitate drill tool insertion and removal through the
casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring casing
through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be
equal to the shaft diameter through the soil.
4.6.1.6
Fill used for embankment construction shall be random

fill material having adequate capacity which shall not
obstruct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative skin friction loads due to settlement and consolidation of embankment or underlying soils shall be evaluated for shafts in embankments. (See Article 4.6.5.2.5.)
4.6.2

drilled shaft foundations in soil and rock:
a
A
At
b
B
Bb
B1
Br
Bt
Cm
Co
D
Dr
Ec
Eo
Em
FS
fsi
Batter Shafts
H
The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capacity of foundations is not recommended due to their
difficulty of construction and high cost. Instead, consideration should first be given to increasing the shaft
diameter to obtain the required lateral capacity.
4.6.1.7
Shafts Through Embankment

Fill
Shafts extending through embankments shall extend

a minimum of 10 feet into original ground unless bedrock
or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration.
4-40
Notations
i
Ips
Ipu
N
N'
= Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter

shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
= Area of shaft (ft2)
= Area of shaft tip (ft2)
= Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
= Shaft diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
= Diameter of enlarged base (ft); (See Article
4.6.3)
= Least width of shaft group (ft); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
= Diameter of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
= Tip diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
= Uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass
(ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.3. 1)
= Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock
(ksf)
= Shaft length (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
= Length of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
= Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced
shaft (ksf)
= Elastic modulus of intact rock (ksf)
= Elastic modulus of rock mass (ksf)
= Factor of safety (dim)
= Ultimate load transfer along shaft (ksf); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
= Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer
(ft); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
= Depth interval (dim); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1
and 4.6.5.1.2)
= Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed shafts loaded in compression (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.5.2)
= Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed shafts loaded in uplift (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.5.2)
= Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
= Standard penetration test blow count corrected
for effects of overburden (blows/ft)
Nc
= Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article

4.6.5.1.3)
Ni
= Number of depth intervals into which shaft is
divided for determination of side resistance
(dim); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
P
= Lateral load on shaft (k)
Q
= Total axial compression load applied to shaft
butt (k)
qE
= Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent
shaft for a group of shafts supported in strong
layer overlying weaker layer (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
q Lo
= Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in weaker underlying soil layer (ksf);
Qu
= Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (k)
q UP = Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in stronger upper soil layer (ksf); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
QS
= Ultimate side resistance in soil (k); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
q SR = Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft/rock
interface (psi); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
QS R = Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.1)
qT
= Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (ksf);
(See Articles 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
q TR = Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced
for size effects (ksf); (See Equations 4.6.5.1.33 and 4.6.5.1.4-2)
QT
= Ultimate tip resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Q TR = Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.2)
Qult = Ultimate axial load capacity (k); (See Article
4.6.5.1)
RQD = Rock Quality Designation (dim)
sui
= Incremental undrained shear strength as a function over ith depth interval (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.1.1)
sut
= Undrained shear strength within 2B below shaft
tip (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
W
= Weight of shaft (k)
zi
= Depth to midpoint of ith interval (ft); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.2)
= Adhesion factor (dim)

i
= Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth
interterval (dim); (See Article 4.6.5. 1.1)
E
= Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus and uniaxial strength from the modulus and
' 1
z i =
=
=
=
'v i
uniaxial strength of intact rock (dim); (See

Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Load transfer factor in the ith interval (dim);
Effective soil unit weight in ith interval (kcf);
ith increment of shaft length (ft)
Factor to account for reduced individual capacity of closely spaced shafts in group (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.1)
Elastic shortening of shaft (ft); (See Articles
4.6.5.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.5.1.2)
Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft
with rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2)
Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with
rock socket (ft); (See Equation 4.6.5.5.2)
3.1415 (dim)
Poissons ratio (dim)
Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass
or concrete, whichever is weaker (psi); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth
interval (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2)
The notations for dimension units include the following: dim = Dimensionless; deg = degree; ft = foot; k = kip;
k/ft = kip/ft; ksf = kip/ft 2 and kcf = kip/ft 3 . The dimensional units provided with each notation are presented for
illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct
combination of units for the shaft capacity and settlement
procedures presented below. If other units are used, the
dimensional correctness of the equations should be confirmed.
4.6.3
Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 4.6.3A for terminology used in design

of drilled shafts.
4.6.4
Selection of Soil and Rock Properties

compressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are required for drilled shaft design.
4.6.4.1
Presumptive Values
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on

soil and rock may be used only for guidance, preliminary
design or design of temporary structures. The use of
presumptive values shall be based on the results of
SECTION 4
FOUNDATIONS
4-41
FIGURE 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations
subsurface exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall be confirmed by
field and/or laboratory testing.
4.6.4.2
Measured Values
Foundation stability and settlement analyses for final

design shall be performed using soil and rock properties
based on the results of field and/or laboratory testing.
4.6.5
Geotechnical Design
+
Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design
+ loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and
+ with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles
+ 4.6.5 and 4.6.6.
Shaft design shall be based on working stress prin-
4-42
ciples using maximum unfactored loads derived from

calculations of dead and live loads from superstructures,
substructures, earth (i.e., sloping ground), wind and traffic. Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined
by separate methods of analysis.
The design methods presented herein for determining
axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform crosssection, with vertical alignment, concentric axial loading
and a relatively horizontal ground surface. The effects of
an enlarged base, group action, and sloping ground are
treated separately.
4.6.5.1
Axial Capacity in Soil
The ultimate axial capacity (Qult) of drilled shafts shall

be determined in accordance with the following for
4.6.5.1.1
compression and uplift loading, respectively:

Qult = QS + QT W
(4.6.5.1-1)
Qult < 0.7 QS + W
(4.6.5.1-2)
Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained

loading conditions, the ultimate side resistance may be
estimated using the following:
N
QS = B iSui zi
The allowable or working axial load shall be determined as:
i =1
(4.6.5.1.1-1)
Qall = Qult /FS
(4.6.5.1-3)
Shafts in cohesive soils may be designed by total and

effective stress methods of analysis, for undrained and
drained loading conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohesionless soils shall be designed by effective stress methods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any

depth f si is equal to the product of i and s ui. Refer to Table
4.6.5. 1. 1 A for guidance regarding selection of i and
limiting values of fsi for shafts excavated dry in open or
cased holes. Environmental, long-term loading or construction factors may dictate that a depth greater than 5
feet should be ignored in estimating QS. Refer to Figure
Top Five Feet

Noncontributing
Bottom One Diameter *

of Stem
Noncontributing
Bottom One Diameter
Noncontributing
Straight Shaft
Periphery of Bell
Noncontributing
Belled Shaft
* Two Diameters in Stiff Fissured Clay.
FIGURE 4.6.5.1.1A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of Drilled Shaft
Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
Reese and O'Neill (1988)
SECTION 4
FOUNDATIONS
4-43
4.6.5.1.1A for identification of portions of drilled shaft

not considered in contributing to the computed value of
QS. For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading
conditions, QS may be determined using the procedure in
Article 4.6.5.1.2.
Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength
may occur (e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag
from a consolidating clay), effective stress methods
(Article 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to compute QS in the
zone where such changes may occur.
4.6.5.1.2
Side Resistance in Cohesionless

Soil
For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress

analysis of shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading
conditions, the ultimate side resistance of axially loaded
drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
N
B i z11z1
i =1
(4.6.5.1.2-1)
The value of i may be determined using the following:

i = 1.5 - 0.5 - 0.135 z, ;1.2>i > 0.25
(4.6.5.1.2-2)
The value of 'i should be determined from measurements from undisturbed samples along the length of the
shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other insitu test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer in side
resistance at any depth, fsi is equal to the product of i and
'vi. The limiting value of fsi for shafts in cohesionless soil
is 4 ksf.
TABLE 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of and

fsi for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in
Cohesive Soil Reese and ONeill (1988)
Location Along Drilled Shaft
Limiting
Value of Load
Value Transfer, fsi
of
(ksf)
From ground surface to depth

along drilled shaft of 5 ft*
Bottom 1 diameter of the

0
drilled shaft or 1 stem diameter
above the top of the bell (if skin
friction is being used)
All other points along the

sides of the drilled shaft
0.55
5.5
*The depth of 5 ft may need adjustment if the drilled shaft is

installed in expansive clay or if there is substantial groundline
deflection from lateral loading.
4.6.5.1.3
Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to

undrained loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance
of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
QT = qTAt = NcsutAt
(4.6.5.1.3-1)
Values of the bearing capacity factor Nc may be

determined using the following:
Nc = 6.0[1+0.2(D/Bt)];Nc 9
(4.6.5.1.3-2)
The limiting value of unit end bearing (qT=Ncsut) is 80
ksf.
The value of Sut should be determined from the results
of in-situ and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples
obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the
value of Nc should be reduced by one-third.
If Bt > 6.25 feet (75 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR
as follows:
qTR = FrqT = (2.5/[aBt/12 + 2.5b])qT
4-44
(4.6.5.1.3-3)
a = 0.0071 + 0.0021(D/Bt); a < 0.015
(4.6.5.1.3-4)
b = 0.45(sut)0.5; 0.5< b < 1.5(4.6.5.1.3-5)

The limiting value of qTR is 80 ksf.
For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading
conditions, QT may be estimated using the procedure
described in Article 4.6.5.1.4.
4.6.5.1.4
Tip Resistance in Cohesionless

Soil
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils

or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled
shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip resistance may be
estimated using the following:
QT = qTAt
(4.6.5.1.4-1)
The value of qT may be determined from the results of

standard penetration testing using uncorrected blow count
readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.4A for recommended values of qT.
If Bt > 4.2 feet (50 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR
as follows:
qTR = (50/12Bt)qT
4.6.5.2
4.6.5.2.1
(4.6.5.1.4-2)

in Soil
Soil Layering and Variable Soil
Strength with Depth
The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil

deposits having variable strength with depth requires
evaluation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective layers or depths. QS in such soil deposits may be
estimated by dividing the shaft into layers according to
soil type and properties, determining QS for each layer,
and summing values for each layer to obtain the total QS.
If the soil below the shaft tip is of variable consistency, QT
may be estimated using the predominant soil strata within
2B below the shaft tip.
For shafts extending through soft compressible layers
to tip bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be
given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article
4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils
surrounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on
a thin firm soil layer underlain by a softer soil unit, the

shaft shall be extended through the softer soil unit to
eliminate the potential for a punching shear failure into
the softer deposit.
TABLE 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT* for
Estimation of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in
Cohesionless Soil after Reese and ONeill (1988)
Standard
Penetration Resistance
N
(Blows/Foot)
(uncorrected)
Value of qT
(ksf)
0 to 75
Above 75
1.20 N
90
*Ultimate value or value at settlement of 5 percent of base

diameter.
4.6.5.2.2
Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for

design.
4.6.5.2.3
Enlarged Bases
An enlarged base (bell or underream may be used at

the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip
bearing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, or
to provide additional resistance to uplift loads.
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be determined assuming that the entire base area is effective in
transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the
enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of
the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be
acceptably completed before concrete placement.
4.6.5.2.4
Group Action
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects

of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible.
4.6.5.2.4.1
Cohesive Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil

shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the
ground, Qult may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum
4-45
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or

(2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the
perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, the
shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor
(e.g., 1 to determine the Qs component of Qult the total
base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine
the QT component of Qult, and the additional capacity of
the cap shall be ignored.
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if
the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual
capacity of each shaft should be reduced to times QT for
an isolated shaft, where = 1.0 for a center-to-center
(CTC) spacing of 6B or greater, for a CTC of less than 6B
the Division of Structural Foundations should be consulted to determine the value of . The group capacity
may then be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the
modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group,
or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier as described
above.
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
+
+
+
+
+
+
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless

soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft should be reduced to times QT for
(CTC) spacing of 8B or greater, for a CTC of less than 8B
the Division of Structural Foundations should be consulted to determine the value of . The group capacity
may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the
modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group
or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing
the group, including resistance over the entire perimeter
and base areas.
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil

strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential for large settlements in the weaker layer.
4.6.5.2.5
The potential for external loading on a shaft by vertical ground movement (i.e., negative skin friction/
downdrag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift
due to heave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a
part of design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed
that the full magnitude of maximum potential vertical
ground movement occurs.
Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a
load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral
point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load
distribution along shaft (e.g., Reese and ONeill, 1988).
Due to the possible time dependence associated with
vertical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the
effect of time on load transfer between the ground and
shaft and the analysis shall be performed for the time
period relating to the maximum axial load transfer to the
shaft.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend to a sufficient depth into moisture-stable
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift movement. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided
between the ground surface and underside of caps or
beams connecting shafts to preclude the application of
uplift loads at the shaft/cap connection from swelling
ground conditions. Uplift capacity shall rely only on side
resistance in conformance with Article 4.6.5.1. If the
shaft has an enlarged base, QS shall be determined in
conformance with Article 4.6.5.2.3.
4.6.5.2.6
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying
Weaker Soil
If a group of shafts is embedded in a strong soil deposit
which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohesive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for
a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata.
For this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft
(qE) may be determined using the following:
qE = qLO + (H/10B1)(qup) < qup
(4.6.5.2.4.3-1)
4-46
Vertical Ground Movement
Method of Construction
The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled

shafts can be greatly affected by the quality and method(s)
of construction. The effects of construction methods are
incorporated in design by application of a factor of safety
consistent with the expected construction method(s) and
level of field quality control measures (Article 4.6.5.4).
Where the spacing between shafts in a group is restricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft
construction operations on recently constructed shafts.
4.6.5.3
Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial

displacements, increase load capacity and/or provide
fixity for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the
axial capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side
resistance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
Typically, axial compression load is carried solely by
the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a
total shaft settlement (s) on the order of 0.4 inches occurs.
At this displacement, the ultimate side resistance, QSR is
mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete and rock.
As a result of this slip, any additional load is transferred
to the tip.
The design procedures assume the socket is constructed in reasonably sound rock that is little affected by
construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excavation and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned
prior to concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and other
debris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or
reduced socket capacities should be considered.
4.6.5.3.1
QSR = BrDr(0.144qSR)
Axial Capacity in Rock
Side Resistance
The ultimate side resistance (QSR) for shafts socketed

into rock may be determined using the following:
(4.6.5.3.1-1)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3. 1 A for values of qSR. For uplift

loading Qult of a rock socket shall be limited to 0.7QSR.
The design of rock sockets shall be based on the
unconfined compressive strength of the rock mass (Cm) or
concrete, whichever is weaker (c). Cm may be estimated
using the following relationship:
Cm = ECo
(4.6.5.3.1-2)
Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to determine E as a function of RQD.
4.6.5.3.2
Tip Resistance
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (QTR) for rocksocketed drilled shafts shall consider the influence of
rock discontinuities. QTR for rock-socketed drilled shafts
may be determined using the following:
QTR = NmsCoAt
(4.6.5.3.2-1)
Preferably, values of Co should be determined from the

results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within
2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata within this
interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
FIGURE 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts
Horvath, et al. (1983)
4-47
capacity should be used to determine QTR. Alternatively,

Table 4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate Co.
For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of QTR
cannot be less than the value of QT for an equivalent soil
mass.
4.6.5.3.3
4.6.5.3.3.1

in Rock
Rock Stratification
Rock stratification shall be considered in the design of

rock sockets as follows:
Sockets embedded in alternating layers of weak
and strong rock shall be designed using the strength
of the weaker rock.
The side resistance provided by soft or weathered
rock should be neglected in determining the required socket length where a socket extends into
more competent underlying rock. Rock is defined
as soft when the uniaxial compressive strength of
the weaker rock is less than 20 percent of that of the
stronger rock, or weathered when the RQD is less
than 20 percent.
Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid
rock strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft
shall be extended into or through the weaker unit
(depending on load capacity or deformation requirements) to eliminate the potential for failure
due to flexural tension or punching failure of the
thin rigid stratum.
Shafts designed to bear on strata in which the rock
surface is inclined should extend to a sufficient
depth to ensure that the shaft tip is fully bearing on
the rock.
Shafts designed to bear on rock strata in which
bedding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft
axis shall extend a minimum depth of 2B into the
dipping strata to minimize the potential for shear
failure along natural bedding planes and other
slippage surfaces associated with stratification.
4.6.5.3.3.2
Rock Mass Discontinuities
The strength and compressibility of rock will be affected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and
fractures). The influence of discontinuities on shaft behavior will be dependent on their attitude, frequency and
condition, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis
as necessary.
4-48
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction

The effect of the method of construction on the engineering properties of the rock and the contact between the
rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design
process.
4.6.5.4
Factors of Safety
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be

designed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against
bearing capacity failure (end bearing, side resistance or
combined). The minimum recommended factors of safety
are based on an assumed normal level of field quality
control during shaft construction. If a normal level of field
quality control cannot be assured, higher minimum factors of safety shall be used.
4.6.5.5
Deformation of Axially Loaded

Shafts
The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or

allowable loads shall be estimated using elastic or load
transfer analysis methods. For most cases, elastic analysis will be applicable for design provided the stress levels
in the shaft are moderate relative to Qult. Where stress
levels are high, consideration should be given to methods
of load transfer analysis.
4.6.5.5.1
Shafts in Soil
Settlements should be estimated for the design or

working load.
4.6.5.5.1.1
Cohesive Soil
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil

may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1A and
4.6.5.5.1.1B. The curves presented indicate the proportions of the ultimate side resistance (QS) and ultimate tip
resistance (QT) mobilized at various magnitudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
sum of the mobilized side resistance (QS) and mobilized
tip resistance (Qt).
The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A incorporates the
effects of elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft
is of typical length (i.e., D < 100 ft). For longer shafts, the
effects of elastic shortening may be estimated using the
following:
e = PD/AEc
(4.6.5.5.1.1-1)
+
+
+
+
For a shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the

diameter of the shaft at the base (B b ) should be used in
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B to estimate shaft settlement at the tip.
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures to estimate
the consolidation settlement component for shafts extending into cohesive soil deposits.
4.6.5.5.1.2
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile

The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil
profile may be estimated by summing the proportional
settlement components from layers of cohesive and cohesionless soil comprising the subsurface profile.
Cohesionless Soil
4.6.5.5.2
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesionless

soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.2A and
4.6.5.5.1.2B. The curves presented indicate the proportions of the ultimate side resistance (QS) and ultimate tip
resistance (QT) mobilized at various magnitudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
sum of the mobilized side resistance (QS) and mobilized
tip resistance (Qt ). Elastic shortening of the shaft shall be
estimated using the following relationship:
e = PD/AEc
Shafts Socketed into Rock
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled

shafts, the resistance to deformation provided by overlying soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load
transfer to soil as a function of displacement may be
estimated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1.
The butt settlement ( s ) of drilled shafts fully socketed
into rock may be determined using the following which
is modified to include elastic shortening of the shaft:
e = Q
(4.6.5.5.1.2-1)
(I
ps
/ Br Em ) + ( D r /AEc )
(4.6.5.5.2-1)
1.0
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.7
End Bearing
0.8
0.6
Range of Results
0.4
Ultimate End Bearing
Side Load Transfer
Ultimate Side Load Transfer
1.0
0.6
0.5
0.4
Range of Results
0.3
Trend Line
Trend Line
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2 0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Settlement
Diameter of Shaft
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
, %
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in

Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesive Soil
After Reese and ONeill (1988)
0.0
0
10
Settlement of Base , %
Diameter of Base
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in

Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesive Soil
After Reese and ONeill (1988)
SECTION 4
FOUNDATIONS
4-49
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in Side

Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesionless Soil After Reese and O'Neill (1988)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2A to determine Is.

The uplift displacement (u) at the butt of drilled shafts
fully socketed into rock may be determined using the
following which is modified to include elastic shortening
of the shaft:
u = Q u
(I
/ Br E m ) + ( D r / AE c )
(4.6.5.5.2-2)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine Ipu.
The rock mass modulus (Em) should be determined
based on the results of in-situ testing (e.g., pressuremeter) or estimated from the results of laboratory tests in
which Em is the modulus of intact rock specimens, and (Eo)
is estimated in accordance with Article 4.4.8.2.2.
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data
cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of
Eo, such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure
4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
final design when in-situ test results are not available, a
value of E = 0.15 should be used to estimate Em.
4-50
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in Tip

Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesionless Soil After Reese and O'Neill (1988)
4.6.5.5.3
Tolerable Movement
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft

foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity
of bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable displacements on the structure performance. Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foundation materials.
4.6.5.6
Lateral Loading
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall

account for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction
between the shaft and ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden
and Gabr, 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the
ultimate capacity or deflection of laterally loaded shafts
(e.g., Broms, 1964a, b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used for
preliminary design only as a means to determine approximate shaft dimensions.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2B Influence Coefficient for

Elastic Uplift Displacement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts Modified after Pells and Turner
(1979)
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for

Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts
Modified after Pells and Turner (1979)
4.6.5.6.1
Factors Affecting Laterally

Loaded Shafts
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering

The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered
soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters
characteristic of the respective layers.
4.6.5.6.1.2
Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for

design.
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour
The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour
shall be considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2
and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hydraulic studies and design. If heavy scour is expected,
consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,

the shaft length shall be determined such that the design
structural load can be safely supported entirely below the
probable scour depth.
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action

There is no reliable rational method for evaluating the
group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded shafts.
Therefore, as a general guide, drilled shafts in a group
may be considered to act individually when the center-tocenter (CTC) spacing, is greater than 2.5B in the direction
normal to loading, and CTC > 8B in the direction parallel
to loading. For shaft layouts not conforming to these
criteria, the effects of shaft interaction shall be considered in the design.
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic +

cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of later- +
ally loaded drilled shafts shall be considered during +
design. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic
loading may be considered in the COM624 analysis
(Reese, 1984).
4-51
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral

Loading
The effects of lateral loading in combination with
axial loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis
of drilled shafts subjected to combined loading may be
considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984).
4.6.5.6.1.7
Sloping Ground
For drilled shafts which extend through or below

sloping ground, the potential for additional lateral loading shall be considered in the design. The general method
of analysis developed by Borden and Gabr (1987) may be
used for the analysis of shafts in stable slopes. For shafts
in marginally stable slopes, additional consideration
should be given for low factors of safety against slope
failure or slopes showing ground creep, or when shafts
extend through fills overlying soft foundation soils and
bear into more competent underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable ground, detailed explorations, testing
and analysis are required to evaluate potential additional
lateral loads due to slope movements.
the socket. The diameter of columns supported by shafts +

+
shall be less than or equal to B.
4.6.6.2
Where the potential for lateral loading is insignificant,

drilled shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only.
Those portions of drilled shafts that are not supported
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and
the reinforcing steel shall extend a minimum of 10 feet
below the plane where the soil provides adequate lateral
restraint.
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell is
smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may
be considered as load carrying in the absence of corrosion.
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement
shall be in conformance with the requirements of Articles
8.18.1 and 8.18.2.2, respectively. Development of deformed reinforcement shall be in conformance with the
requirements of Articles 8.24, 8.26, and 8.27.
4.6.6.2.1
4.6.5.6.2
4.6.5.7
4.6.6
4.6.6.1
Deleted
Structural Design and General Shaft

Dimensions
General
Drilled shafts shall be designed to insure that the shaft

will not collapse or suffer loss of serviceability due to
excessive stress and/or deformation. Shafts shall be designed to resist failure following applicable procedures
presented in Section 8.
+
The diameter of shafts with rock sockets should be
+ sized a minimum of 6 inches larger than the diameter of
4-52
Spacing Limitation
Tolerable Lateral Movements
Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft

foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity
of bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable displacements on the structure performance. Drilled shaft lateral displacement analysis shall
be based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing
to characterize the load-deformation behavior of the
foundation materials.
+
Reinforcement
The spacing limitation for reinforcement shall be +

considered in the design as provided in Article 8.21.7
+
4.6.6.2.2
Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in

tension and compression. The location of splices shall be
staggered around the perimeter of the reinforcing cage so
as not to occur at the same horizontal plane. Splices may
be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved
connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the
requirements of Article 8.32.
4.6.6.2.3
Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist

stresses caused by fresh concrete flowing from inside the
cage to the side of the excavated hole. Transverse reinforcement may be constructed of hoops or spiral steel.
4.6.6.2.4
Handling Stresses
Reinforcement cages shall be designed to resist handling and placement stresses.
4.6.6.2.5
Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of

not less than 2 inches from the permanently cased or 3
inches from the uncased sides. When shafts are constructed in corrosive or marine environments, or when
concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
+ methods, the clear distance should not be less than 4
inches for uncased shafts and shafts with permanent
casings not sufficiently corrosion resistant.
The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole
using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall
be epoxy coated.
4.6.6.2.6
Reinforcement into Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into
the cap shall be in conformance with Articles 8.24 and
8.25.
4.6.6.3
Enlarged Bases
Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain

concrete is not overstressed. The enlarged base shall
slope at a side angle not less than 30 degrees from the
vertical and have a bottom diameter not greater than 3
times the diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the
bottom edge of the enlarged base shall not be less than 6
inches.
4.6.6.4
Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing
The center-to-center spacing of drilled shafts should

be 3B or greater to avoid interference between adjacent
shafts during construction. If closer spacing is required,
the sequence of construction shall be specified and the
interaction effects between adjacent shafts shall be evaluated by the designer.
4.6.7
tion shafts into the materials planned for support. Load

testing should be conducted whenever special site conditions or combinations of load are encountered, or when
structures of special design or sensitivity (e.g., large
bridges) are to be supported on drilled shaft foundations.
4.6.7.2
Load Testing Procedures
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed

written procedures which have been developed from
accepted standards (e.g., ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988)
and modified, as appropriate, for the conditions at the
site. Standard pile load testing procedures developed by
the American Society for Testing and Materials which
may be modified for testing drilled shafts include:
ASTM D1143, Standard Method of Testing Piles

Under Static Axial Compressive Load;
ASTM D3689, Standard Method of Testing Individual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and
ASTM D3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles
Under Lateral Loads.
A simplified procedure for testing drilled shafts permitting determination of the relative contribution of side
resistance and tip resistance to overall shaft capacity is
also available (Osterberg, 1984).
As a minimum, the written test procedures should
include the following:
Apparatus for applying loads including reaction

system and loading system.
Apparatus for measuring movements.
Apparatus for measuring loads.
Procedures for loading including rates of load
application, load cycling and maximum load.
Procedures for measuring movements.
Safety requirements.
Data presentation requirements and methods of
data analysis.
Drawings showing the procedures and materials
to be used to construct the load test apparatus.
Load Testing
4.6.7.1
General
Where necessary, a full scale load test (or tests) should

be conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to confirm
response to load. Load tests shall be conducted using a
test shaft(s) constructed in a manner and of dimensions
and materials identical to those planned for the produc-
As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall

provide the load-deformation response at the butt of the
shaft. When appropriate, information concerning ultimate load capacity, load transfer, lateral load-displacement with depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the
degree of fixity provided by caps and footings, and other
data pertinent to the anticipated loading conditions on the
production shafts shall be obtained.
4-53
4.6.7.3
Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be

based on an evaluation of the anticipated types and
duration of loads during service, and shall include consideration of the following:
4-54
Part C
Strength Design Method
Load Factor Design
Load Test Method Selection
The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof

load the foundation and verify design capacity).
The loads expected to act on the production foundation (compressive and/or uplift, dead and/or
live) and the soil conditions predominant in the
region of concern.
The local practice or traditional method used in
similar soil/rock deposits.
Time and budget constraints.
Note to User: Article Number 4.7 has been omitted

intentionally.
4.8
SCOPE
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design of

spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft foundations.
4.9
DEFINITIONS
Batter Pile A pile driven at an angle inclined to the

vertical to provide higher resistance to lateral loads.
Combination End-Bearing and Friction Pile - Pile that
derives its capacity from the contributions of both end
bearing developed at the pile tip and resistance mobilized
along the embedded shaft.
Deep Foundation A foundation which derives its
support by transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth
below the structure by end bearing, by adhesion or
friction or both.
Design Load All applicable loads and forces or their
related internal moments and forces used to proportion a
foundation. In load factor design, design load refers to
nominal loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design Strength The maximum load-carrying capacity of the foundation, as defined by a particular limit state.
In load factor design, design strength is computed as the
product of the nominal resistance and the appropriate
performance factor.
Drilled Shaft A deep foundation unit, wholly or
partly embedded in the ground, constructed by placing
fresh concrete in a drilled hole with or without steel
reinforcement. Drilled shafts derive their capacities from
the surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata
below their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to as caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or
drilled piers.
End-Bearing Pile A pile whose support capacity is
derived principally from the resistance of the foundation
material on which the pile tip rests.
Factored Load Load, multiplied by appropriate load
factors, used to proportion a foundation in load factor
design.
Friction Pile A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from soil resistance mobilized along the
side of the embedded pile.
Limit State A limiting condition in which the foundation and/or the structure it supports are deemed to be
unsafe (i.e., strength limit state), or to be no longer fully
useful for their intended function (i.e., serviceability
limit state).
Load Effect The force in a foundation system (e.g.,
axial force, sliding force, bending moment, etc.) due to
the applied loads.
Load Factor A factor used to modify a nominal load
effect, which accounts for the uncertainties associated
with the determination and variability of the load effect.
Load Factor Design A design method in which
safety provisions are incorporated by separately accounting for uncertainties relative to load and resistance.
Nominal Load A typical value or a code-specified
value for a load.
Nominal Resistance The analytically estimated loadcarrying capacity of a foundation calculated using nominal dimensions and material properties, and established
soil mechanics principles.
Performance Factor A factor used to modify a
nominal resistance, which accounts for the uncertainties
associated with the determination of the nominal resistance and the variability of the actual capacity.
Pile A relatively slender deep foundation unit, wholly
or partly embedded in the ground, installed by driving,
drilling, augering, jetting, or otherwise, and which derives its capacity from the surrounding soil and/or from
the soil or rock strata below its tip.
Piping Progressive erosion of soil by seeping water,
producing an open pipe through the soil, through which
water flows in an uncontrolled and dangerous manner.
Shallow Foundation A foundation which derives its
support by transferring load directly to the soil or rock at
shallow depth. If a single slab covers the supporting
stratum beneath the entire area of the superstructure, the
foundation is known as a combined footing. If various
parts of the structure are supported individually, the
individual supports are known as spread footings, and the
foundation is called a footing foundation.
4.10
4.10.1
LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS,

AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
General
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the

design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability.
4.10.2
Serviceability Limit States
Service limit states for foundation design shall include:

settlements, and
lateral displacements.
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon
rideability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
4.10.3
Strength Limit States
Strength limit states for foundation design shall include:

bearing resistance failure,
excessive loss of contact,
sliding at the base of footing,
loss of overall stability, and
structural capacity.
Foundations shall be proportioned such that the factored resistance is not less than the effects of factored
loads specified in Section 3.
4.10.4
Strength Requirement
Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods

specified in Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design
strengths are at least equal to the required strengths.
The required strength is the combined effect of the
factored loads for each applicable load combination
stipulated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, Rn or qn, multiplied by an appropriate performance
(or resistance) factor, . Methods for calculating nominal
resistance are provided in Articles 4.11 through 4.13, and
values of performance factors are given in Article 4.10.6.
4.10.5
Load Combinations and Load

Factors
Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely

all load combinations stipulated in Article 3.22 which are
applicable to the particular site or foundation type. With
4-55
the exception of the portions of concrete or steel piles that

are above the ground line and are rigidly connected to the
superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous structures,
impact forces shall not be considered in foundation
design. (See Article 3.8.1.)
Values of and coefficients for load factor design, as
given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state
considerations; while those for service load design (also
given in Table 3.22.1B) shall apply to serviceability
considerations.
+ 4.10.6
Performance Factors
+
The performance (or resistance) factor, f, shall be as
+ follows:
+
+
+
Soil Bearing Pile Capacity

Pressure
= 0.50
= 0.75
Group Loads I through VI
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group Loads VII
= 1.00
= 1.00
Structure Design will determine the required nominal

resistance for piles based on the above performance
factors. Geotechnical Services will determine the
geotechnical capacity to meet or exceed the required
nominal resistance. The safety margin between the required nominal resistance and the ultimate geotechnical
capacity shall be determined by the Geotechnical Services considering the reliability of the ultimate soil
capacity determination and pile installation control.
4.11
4.11.1
SPREAD FOOTINGS
General Considerations
4.11.1.1
General
Provisions of this Article shall apply to design of

isolated footings, and where applicable, to combined
footings. Special attention shall be given to footings on
fill.
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure as
nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil
pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil and
the structure, and with established principles of soil
mechanics.
4-56
4.11.1.2
Depth
The depth of footings shall be determined with respect

to the character of the foundation materials and the
possibility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings
shall be founded at depth below the maximum anticipated depth of scour as specified in Article 4.11.1.3.
Footings not exposed to the action of stream current
shall be founded on a firm foundation and below frost
level.
Consideration shall be given to the use of either a
geotextile or graded granular filter layer to reduce susceptibility to piping in rip rap or abutment backfill.
4.11.1.3
Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata

shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour counter-measure. Footings supported on massive, competent rock formations
which are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly
on the cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional
lateral resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting
to embed the footing below the rock surface.
4.11.1.4
Frost Action
In regions where freezing of the ground occurs during

the winter months, footings shall be founded below the
maximum depth of frost penetration in order to prevent
damage from frost heave.
4.11.1.5
Anchorage
Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid

rock surfaces and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant material shall be effectively anchored by
means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other
suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
4.11.1.6
Groundwater
Footings shall be designed for the highest anticipated

position of the groundwater table.
The influence of the groundwater table on bearing
capacity of soils or rocks, and settlements of the structure
shall be considered. In cases where seepage forces are
present, they should also be included in the analyses.
4.11.1.7
Uplift
Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces,

they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.11.1.8
Deterioration
Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by sulfate, chloride, and acid attack should be investigated.
Laboratory testing of soil and groundwater samples for
sulfates, chloride and pH should be sufficient to assess
deterioration potential. When chemical wastes are suspected, a more thorough chemical analyses of soil and
groundwater samples should be considered.
4.11.1.9
Nearby Structures
In cases where foundations are placed adjacent to

existing structures, the influence of the existing structures on the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of
the foundation on the existing structures, shall be investigated.
4.11.2
Notations
B
B'
c
Cw1, Cw2
Df
Dw
Em
i
L'
Li
N
Nm, Ncm, Nqm
qc
qmax
qn
= footing width (in length units)

= reduced effective footing width (see
Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
= soil cohesion (in units of force/length2)
= correction factors for groundwater effect (dimensionless)
= depth to footing base (in length units)
= depth to groundwater table (in length
units)
= elastic modulus of rock masses (in units
of force/length2)
= type of load
= reduced effective length (see Article
4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
= load type i
= average value of standard penetration
test blow count (dimensionless)
= modified bearing capacity factors used
in analytic theory (dimensionless)
= cone resistance (in units of force/
length2)
= maximum factored footing contact pressure (in units of force/length2)
= nominal bearing resistance (in units of
force/length2)
q ult
= ultimate bearing capacity (in units of

force/length2)
= reduction factor due to the effect of load
inclination (dimensionless)
= nominal resistance
= rock quality designation
= span length (in length units)
= undrained shear strength of soil (in units
of force/length2)
= load factor coefficient for load type i
(see Article C 4.10.4)
= load factor (see Article C 4.10.4)
= total (moist) unit weight of soil (see
Article C 4.11.4.1.1)
= differential settlement between adjacent footings
= performance factor
= friction angle of soil
R1
Rn
RQD
s
su
i
4.11.3
Movement Under Serviceability

Limit States
4.11.3.1
General
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement

and lateral displacement directions shall be investigated
at service limit states.
Lateral displacement of a foundation shall be evaluated when:
horizontal or inclined loads are present,
the foundation is placed on an embankment slope,
possibility of loss of foundation support through
erosion or scour exists, or
bearing strata are significantly inclined.
4.11.3.2
Loads
Immediate settlement shall be determined using the

service load combinations given in Table 3.22.1B. Time
dependent settlement shall be determined using only the
permanent loads.
Settlement and horizontal movements caused by embankment loadings behind bridge abutments should be
investigated.
In seismically active areas, consideration shall be
given to the potential settlement of footings on sand
resulting from ground motions induced by earthquake
loadings.
4-57
+
+
+
+
4.11.3.3
Movement Criteria
The vertical settlement criteria in Article 4.4.7.2.2

represents general conditions and should be modified if,
in the Engineer's judgement, expected loads, service
conditions, or foundation materials are different from
those anticipated by the specifications.
4.11.3.4.3
The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settlements in rock masses containing soft seams shall be
estimated by applying procedures discussed in Article
4.11.3.4.2.
4.11.4
+
+
+
+
+
+
Vertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings

shall be developed consistent with the function and type
of structure, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements on structure performance. The
tolerable movement criteria shall be established by empirical procedures or structural analyses.
4.11.3.4
Settlement Analyses
Foundation settlements shall be estimated using deformation analyses based on the results of laboratory or
in-situ testing. The soil parameters used in the analyses
shall be chosen to reflect the loading history of the
ground, the construction sequence and the effect of soil
layering.
Both total and differential settlements, including time
effects, shall be considered.
4.11.3.4.1
Settlement of Footings on
Cohesionless Soils
Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall

make allowance for the fact that settlements in these soils
can be highly erratic.
No method should be considered capable of predicting settlements of footings on sand with precision.
Settlements of footings on cohesionless soils may be
estimated using empirical procedures or elastic theory.
4.11.3.4.2
Settlement of Footings on
Cohesive Soils
For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate

and consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If
the footing width is small relative to the thickness of a
compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional loading shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic
clay, secondary settlements are significant and shall be
included in the analysis.
4-58
Settlements of Footings on Rock
Safety Against Soil Failure
4.11.4.1
Bearing Capacity of Foundation

Soils
Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate

bearing capacity of foundation soils. The calculated
value of ultimate bearing capacity shall be multiplied by
an appropriate performance factor, as given in Article
4.10.6, to determine the factored bearing capacity.
Footings are considered to be adequate against soil
failure if the factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect
of factored design loads ( qn > qmax).
4.11.4.1.1
Theoretical Estimation
The bearing capacity should be estimated using accepted soil mechanics theories based on measured soil
parameters. The soil parameter used in the analysis shall
be representative of the soil shear strength under the
considered loading and subsurface conditions.
4.11.4.1.2
Semi-empirical Procedures
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be

estimated from the results of in-situ tests or by observing
foundations on similar soils. The use of a particular insitu test and the interpretation of the results shall take
local experience into consideration. The following insitu tests may be used:
Standard penetration test (SPT)
Cone penetration test (CPT), and
Pressuremeter test.
4.11.4.1.3
Plate Loading Test
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests

providing that adequate subsurface explorations have
been made to determine the soil profile below the foundation.
The bearing capacity determined from a load test may
be extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface
profile is similar.
Plate load test shall be performed in accordance with

the procedures specified in ASTM Standard D 1194-87 or
AASHTO Standard T 235-74.
4.11.4.1.4
Presumptive Values
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on

soil and rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1, shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of temporary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
The values given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 are applicable
directly for working stress procedures. When these values
are used for preliminary design, all load factors shall be
taken as unity.
4.11.4.1.5
discontinuities, weathering profiles and other similar

profiles as they apply at a particular site, and the degree
to which they shall be incorporated in the design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple
and direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock
shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that
are tight or open not wider than one-eighth inch. For
footings on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses shall be performed to account for the
effects of weathering, and the presence and condition of
discontinuities.
Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate
against bearing capacity failure if the product of the
ultimate bearing capacity determined using procedures
described in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through 4.11.4.2.3 and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
design loads.
Effect of Load Eccentricity

4.11.4.2.1
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a

reduced effective footing area (B' x L') shall be used in
design. The reduced effective area is always concentrically loaded, so that the design bearing pressure on the
reduced effective area is always uniform.
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to
ensure that: (1) the product of the bearing capacity and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
vertical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of loading,
evaluated based on factored loads, is less than 1/4 of the
footing dimension in any direction for footings on soils.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distribution based on factored loads shall be used.
4.11.4.1.6
Effect of Groundwater Table
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based

on the highest anticipated position of groundwater level
at the footing location. In cases where the groundwater
table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the footing width
below-the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing
capacity, as a result of submergence effects, shall be
considered.
4.11.4.2
Bearing Capacity of
Foundations on Rock
The bearing capacity of footings on rock shall consider the presence, orientation and condition of
Semi-empirical Procedures
Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be

determined using empirical correlation with RQD or
other systems for evaluating rock mass quality, such as
the Geomechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, or
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
Classification System. The use of these semi-empirical
procedures shall take local experience into consideration.
4.11.4.2.2
Analytic Method
The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock

shall be determined using established rock mechanics
principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall
also be considered.
4.11.4.2.3
Load Test
Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to

determine the bearing capacity of foundations on rock.
4.11.4.2.4
Presumptive Bearing Values
For simple structures on good quality rock masses,

values of presumptive bearing pressure given in Table
4.11.4.2.4-1 may be used for preliminary design. The use
of presumptive values shall be based on the results of
subsurface exploration to identify rock conditions. All
4-59
TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
(Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982)
Allowable Bearing Pressure (tsf)
Type of Bearing Material

Massive crystalline igneous and
metamorphic rock: graphite,
diorite, basalt, gneiss,
thoroughly cemented
conglomerate (sound
condition allows minor
cracks)
Foliated metamorphic rock:
slate, schist (sound condition
allows minor cracks)
Sedimentary rock: hard cemented
shales, siltstone, sandstone,
limestone without cavities
Weathered or broken bedrock of
any kind except highly
argillacous rock (shale)
Compaction shale or other highly
argillacous rock in sound
condition
Well-graded mixture of fine- and
coarse-grained soil: glacial till,
hardpan, boulder clay
(GW-GC, GC, SC)
Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures,
boulder-gravel mixtures
(GW, GP, SW, SP)
Coarse to medium sand, sand
with little gravel (SW, SP)
Consistency in Place
Ordinary Range
Recommended Value
for Use
Very hard, sound rock
60 to 100
80
Hard sound rock
30 to 40
35
Hard sound rock
15 to 25
20
Medium hard rock
8 to 12
10
Medium hard rock
8 to 12
10
Very dense
8 to 12
10
Homogeneous inorganic clay,

sandy or silty clay (CL, CH)
Very dense
Medium dense to dense
Loose
Very dense
Loose
Very dense
Loose
Very dense
Loose
Very stiff to hard
Medium stiff to stiff
6 to 10
4 to 7
2 to 6
4 to 6
2 to 4
1 to 3
3 to 5
2 to 4
1 to 2
3 to 5
2 to 4
1 to 2
3 to 6
1 to 3
7
5
3
4
3
1.5
3
2.5
1.5
3
2.5
1.5
4
2
Inorganic silt, sandy or clayey silt,

varved silt-clay fine sand
Soft
Very stiff to hard
Medium stiff to stiff
0.5 to 1
2 to 4
1 to 3
0.5
3
1.5
Soft
0.5 to 1
0.5
Fine to medium sand, silty or

clayey medium to coarse sand
(SW, SM, SC)
Fine sand, silty or clayey medium
to fine sand (SP, SM, SC)
(ML, MH)
4-60
values used in design shall be confirmed by field and/or

laboratory testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.41 are directly applicable to working stress procedure, i.e.,
all the load factors shall be taken as unity.
4.11.4.2.5
qualified engineers. Records of the control investigations should be kept as part of the final project data,
among other things, to permit a later assessment of the
foundation in connection with rehabilitation, change of
neighboring structures, etc.
Effect of Load Eccentricity

4.11.6.2
If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than

1/ of the footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure
6
shall be used in evaluating the bearing capacity. If the
eccentricity is between 1/6 and 1/4 of the footing width, a
triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The maximum
bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the
ultimate bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable performance factor. The eccentricity of loading evaluated using
factored loads shall not exceed 3/8 (37.5%) of the footing
dimensions in any direction.
4.11.4.3
Failure by Sliding
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings

that support inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes.
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a
shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall
be considered. If passive resistance is included as part of
the shear resistance required for resisting sliding, consideration shall also be given to possible future removal of
the soil in front of the foundation.
4.11.4.4
Loss of Overall Stability
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation soil or rock, shall be evaluated for footings located on
or near a slope using applicable factored load combinations in Article 3.22 and a performance factor of 0.75.
4.11.5
Structural Capacity
The structural design of footings shall comply to the

provisions given in Article 4.4.11 and Article 8.16.
4.11.6
Construction Considerations for

Shallow Foundations
4.11.6.1
General
The ground conditions should be monitored closely

during construction to determine whether or not the
ground conditions are as foreseen and to enable prompt
intervention, if necessary. The control investigation
should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
Excavation Monitoring
Prior to concreting footings or placing backfill, an

excavation shall be free of debris and excessive water.
Monitoring by an experienced and trained person
should always include a thorough examination of the
sides and bottom of the excavation, with the possible
addition of pits or borings to evaluate the geological
conditions.
The assumptions made during the design of the foundations regarding strength, density, and groundwater
conditions should be verified during construction, by
visual inspection.
4.11.6.3
Compaction Monitoring
Compaction shall be carried out in a manner so that the

fill material within the section under inspection is as close
as practicable to uniform. The layering and compaction
of the fill material should be systematic everywhere, with
the same thickness of layer and number of passes with the
compaction equipment used as for the inspected fill. The
control measurements should be undertaken in the form
of random samples.
4.12
DRIVEN PILES
4.12.1
General
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.5.1

through 4.5.21 with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall
apply to strength design (load factor design) of driven
piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress design of
piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section
for load factor design of driven piles, unless otherwise
stated.
4.12.2
as
Ap
As
CPT
=
=
=
=
Notations
pile perimeter
area of pile tip
surface area of shaft of pile
cone penetration test
4-61
TABLE 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on Rock (After Putnam, 1981)
Sound
Foliated
Rock
Sound
Sedimentary
Rock
Soft
Rock3
Soft
Shale
Broken
Shale
Code
Year1
Bedrock2
Baltimore
BOCA
Boston
Chicago
Cleveland
Dallas
Detroit
Indiana
Kansas City
Los Angeles
New York City
New York State
Ohio
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Richmond
St. Louis
San Francisco
Uniform Building
Code
NBC Canada
New South Wales,
Australia
1962
1970
1970
1970
1951/1969
1968
1956
1967
1961/1969
1970
1970
...
1970
1969
1959/1969
1968
1960/1970
1969
1970
100
100
100
100
...
.2qu5
100
.2qu
.2qu
10
60
100
100
50
25
100
100
3-5
.2qu
35
40
50
100
...
.2qu
100
.2qu
.2qu
4
60
40
40
15
25
40
40
3-5
.2qu
...
25
10
...
25
.2qu
9,600
.2qu
.2qu
3
60
15
15
10-15
25
25
25
3-5
.2qu
10
10
10
...
...
.2qu
.12
.2qu
.2qu
1
8
...
10
8
8
10
10
...
.2qu
...
4
...
...
...
.2qu
12
.2qu
.2qu
1
...
...
4
...
8
4
1.5
...
.2qu
(4)
1.5
(4)
...
...
.2qu
...
.2qu
.2qu
1
...
...
...
...
...
1.5
1.5
...
.2qu
1970
1974
...
...
...
...
100
33
...
13
...
4.5
...
...
Note: 1Year of code or original year and date of revision.

2Massive crystalline bedrock.
3Soft and broken rock, not including shale.
4Allowable bearing pressure to be determined by appropriate city official.
5qu = unconfined compressive strength.
d
D
D'
Db
Ds
ex
ey
Ep
Es
fs
H
4-62
= dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip

capacity of piles in rock
= pile width or diameter
= effective depth of pile group
= depth of embedment of pile into a bearing
stratum
= diameter of socket
= eccentricity of load in the x-direction
= eccentricity of load in the y-direction
= Youngs modulus of a pile
= soil modulus
= sleeve friction measured from a CPT at point
considered
= distance between pile tip and a weaker underlying soil layer
Hs
I
Ip
K
Kc
Ks
Ksp
Lf
nh
N
N
= depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock

= influence factor for the effective group embedment
= moment of inertia of a pile
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure
= correction factor for sleeve friction in clay
= correction factor for sleeve friction in sand
= dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
= depth to point considered when measuring
sleeve friction
= rate of increase of soil modulus with depth
= Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count
= average uncorrected (SPT) blow count along
pile shaft
Ncorr
= average SPT-N value corrected for effect of

overburden
Npile = number of piles in a pile group
OCR = overconsolidation ratio
PD
= unfactored dead load
Pg
= factored total axial load acting on a pile group
Px,y
= factored axial load acting on a pile in a pile
group; the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with
respect to the centroidal origin in the pile group
PI
= plasticity index
q
= net foundation pressure
qc
= static cone resistance
ql
= limiting tip resistance
qo
= limiting tip resistance in lower stratum
qp
= ultimate unit tip resistance
qs
= ultimate unit side resistance
qu
= average uniaxial compressive strength of rock
cores
qult
= ultimate bearing capacity
Qp
= ultimate load carried by tip of pile
Qs
= ultimate load carried by shaft of pile
Qug
= ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a
group of drilled shafts
Qult
R
= characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohesive soils
sd
= spacing of discontinuities
S
= average spacing of piles
Su
= undrained shear strength
SPT = Standard Penetration Test
Su
= average undrained shear strength along pile
shaft
td
= width of discontinuities
T
= characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohesionless soils
Wg
= weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
x
= distance of the centroid of the pile from the
centroid of the pile cap in the x-direction
X
= width of smallest dimension of pile group
y
= distance of the centroid of the pile from the
centroid of the pile cap in the y-direction
Y
= length of pile group or group of drilled shafts
Z
= total embedded pile length
= adhesion factor applied to Su
= coefficient relating the vertical effective stress

and the unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft
'
= effective unit weight of soil
= angle of shearing resistance between soil and

pile
tol
'h
'v
av
q
qs
qp
u
ug
4.12.3
= empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral earth pressure and the unit skin friction of
a pile
= pile group efficiency factor
= settlement
= tolerable settlement
= horizontal effective stress
= vertical effective stress
= average shear stress along side of pile
= performance factor for the bearing capacity of
a pile group failing as a unit consisting of the
piles and the block of soil contained within the
piles
= performance factor for the total ultimate bearing capacity of a pile
= performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity of a pile
= performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity
of a pile
= Performance factor for the uplift capacity of a
single pile
= performance factor for the uplift capacity of
pile groups
Selection of Design Pile Capacity
Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and

structural capacity, under tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral displacements.
The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined
by static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction. Capacity may be verified with pile load test
results, use of wave equation analysis, use of the dynamic
pile analyzer or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas.
4.12.3.1
See Article 4.5.6. 1. 1. The following sub-articles shall

supplement Article 4.5.6.1.1.
4.12.3.1.1
Pile Penetration
Piling used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum

overlying a hard or firm stratum, shall penetrate the hard
or firm stratum by a sufficient distance to limit lateral and
vertical movement of the piles, as well as to attain
sufficient vertical bearing capacity.
4-63
4.12.3.1.2
Groundwater Table and

Buoyancy
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using

the groundwater level consistent with that used to calculate load effects. For drained loading, the effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered in the design.
shall include both the unfactored dead and live loads for
piles in cohesionless soils and only the unfactored dead
load for piles in cohesive soils.
Service loads for evaluating lateral displacement of
foundations shall include all lateral loads in each of the
load combinations as given in Article 3.22.
4.12.3.2.2
4.12.3.1.3
Effect Of Settling Ground and

Downdrag Forces
Possible development of downdrag loads on piles

shall be considered where sites are underlain by compressible clays, silts or peats, especially where fill has
recently been placed on the earlier surface, or where the
groundwater is substantially lowered. Downdrag loads
shall be considered as a load when the bearing capacity
and settlement of pile foundations are investigated.
Downdrag loads shall not be combined with transient
loads.
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specified in
Article 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction
forces reversed. The factored downdrag loads shall be
added to the factored vertical dead load applied to the
deep foundation in the assessment of bearing capacity.
The effect of reduced overburden pressure caused by the
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing
capacity of the foundation.
The downdrag loads shall be added to the vertical dead
load applied to the deep foundation in the assessment of
settlement at service limit states.
4.12.3.1.4
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile

foundations shall be developed consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated
service life and consequences of unacceptable displacements on performance of the structure.
4.12.3.2.3
Settlement
The settlement of a pile foundation shall not exceed

the tolerable settlement, as selected according to Article
4.12.3.2.2.
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil

Procedures used for shallow foundations shall be used
to estimate the settlement of a pile group, using the
equivalent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil

The settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils can
be estimated using results of in situ-tests, and the equivalent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Uplift
4.12.3.2.4
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should

be checked both for resistance to pullout and for structural capacity to carry tensile stresses. Uplift forces can
be caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effects, and expansive soils.
4.12.3.2
Tolerable Movement

Limit State
Lateral Displacement
The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not

exceed the tolerable lateral displacement, as selected
according to Article 4.12.3.2.2.
The lateral displacement of pile groups shall be estimated using procedures that consider soil-structure interaction.
4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States

4.12.3.2.1
General
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile

groups, loads shall be assumed to act on an equivalent
footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment
of the piles into the layer which provide support as shown
in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Service loads for evaluating foundation settlement
4-64
The strength limit states that shall be considered

include:
bearing capacity of piles,
uplift capacity of piles,
punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer,
and
structural capacity of the piles.
+
+
+
+
+
Db
2Db
3
Equivalent
footing
Db
2
(a)
Soft Layer
2Db
Db
Firm Layer
Db
3
1
Equivalent
footing
(b)
Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1 Location of Equivalent Footing (After Duncan and Buchignani, 1976)
4-65
4.12.3.3.1
Axial Loading of Piles
Preference shall be given to a design process based

upon static analyses in combination with either field
monitoring during driving or load tests. Load test results
may be extrapolated to adjacent substructures with similar subsurface conditions. The ultimate bearing capacity
of piles may be estimated using analytic methods or insitu test methods.
4.12.3.3.7
Uplift
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects

calculated based on the appropriate strength limit state
load combinations are tensile.
When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be
investigated for both resistance to pullout and structural
ability to resist tension.
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity

4.12.3.3.2
+
+
+
+
+
Analytic Estimates of Pile

Capacity
Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate

bearing capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless
soils. Both total and effective stress methods may be used
provided the appropriate soil strength parameters are
evaluated.
4.12.3.3.3
Pile of Capacity Estimates

Based on In-Situ Tests
In-situ test methods may be used to estimate the

+
+ ultimate axial capacity of piles.
4.12.3.3.4
Piles Bearing on Rock
For piles driven to weak rock such as shales and

+
+ mudstones or poor quality weathered rock, the ultimate
+ tip capacity shall be estimated using semi-empirical
+ methods.
Friction piles may be considered to resist an intermittent but not sustained uplift. Uplift resistance may be
equivalent to 40 percent of the ultimate structural compressive load capacity for Groups I through VI loadings
and 50 percent of the ultimate structural compressive
load capacity for Groups VII loading. Adequate pile
anchorage, tensile strength, and geotechnical capacity
must be provided.
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity

The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be
estimated as the lesser of the sum of the individual pile
uplift capacities, or the uplift capacity of the pile group
considered as a block. The block mechanism for cohesionless soil shall be taken as provided in Figure
C4.12.3.7.2-1 and for cohesive soils as given in Figure
C4.12.3.7.2-2. Buoyant unit weights shall be used for soil
below the groundwater level.
4.12.3.3.8
4.12.3.3.5
+
+
+
+
+
Presumptive End Bearing

Capacities
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures

given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of temporary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
4-66
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Lateral Load
Pile Load Test
The load test method specified in ASTM D 1143-81

may be used to verify the pile capacity. Tensile load
testing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM
D 3689-83. Lateral load testing of piles shall be done in
accordance with ASTM D 3966-81.
4.12.3.3.6
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interaction between the piles and ground, including the number
and spacing of the piles in the group, shall be accounted
for in the design of laterally loaded piles.
4.12.3.3.9
+
+
+
+
Batter Pile
The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter

piles may be estimated by treating the batter piles as
vertical piles.
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity

If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if +
the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of +
+
+
+
+
+
each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor ,

where = 1.0 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 6B
or greater, for a CTC of less than 6B the Division of
Structural Foundations should be consulted to determine
the value of .
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground and if
the soil is stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be
required.
If the cap is in firm contact with the ground, then no
reduction in efficiency shall be required.
The group capacity shall be the lesser of:
the sum of the modified individual capacities of
each pile in the group, or
the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the
piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by
the piles.
For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil
shall be used to determine the skin friction resistance, the
total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to
determine the end bearing resistance, and the additional
capacity of the cap shall be ignored.
4.12.3.3.10b
Cohesionless Soil
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohesionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the
piles in the group. The efficiency factor, shall be 1.0
where the pile cap is, or is not, in contact with the ground.
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil

Overlying a Weak or
Compressible Soil
If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit
overlying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given
to the potential for a punching failure of the pile tips into
the weaker soil stratum. If the underlying soil stratum
consists of a weaker compressible soil, consideration
shall be given to the potential for large settlements in that
weaker layer.
+
4.12.3.3.11 Deleted
4.12.4
Structural Design
The structural design of driven piles shall be in accordance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was
developed for allowable stress design procedures. To use
load factor design procedures for the structural design of
driven piles, the load factor design procedures for reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections 8, 9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place of
the allowable stress design procedures.
4.12.4.1
Buckling of Piles
Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles

extend through water or air for a portion of their lengths.
4.12.5
Deleted
4.13
DRILLED SHAFTS
4.13.1
General
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1

through 4.6.7 with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall
apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled
shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of
drilled shafts, and shall be replaced by the articles in this
section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless
otherwise stated.
The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply to the design
of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with
continuous flight augers that are concreted as the auger is
being extracted.
4.13.2
Notations
a
Ap
As
Asoc
Au
b
CPT
d
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
D
Db
=
=
Dp
Ds
Ec
Ei
Ep
Er
Es
Fr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
parameter used for calculating Fr

area of base of drilled shaft
surface area of a drilled pier
cross-sectional area of socket
annular space between bell and shaft
perimeter used for calculating Fr
cone penetration test
dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip
capacity of drilled shafts in rock
diameter of drilled shaft
embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro
vides support
diameter of base of a drilled shaft
diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock
Youngs modulus of concrete
intact rock modulus
Youngs modulus of a drilled shaft
modulus of the in-situ rock mass
soil modulus
reduction factor for tip resistance of large
diameter drilled shaft
4-67
Hs
Ip
I
I
k
K
Kb
KE
Ksp
LL
N
Nc
Ncorr
Nu
p1
Po
PD
PL
qp
qpr
qs
qs bell
qu
qult
Qp
Qs
QSR
Qult
R
RQD
sd
SPT
Su
td
T
4-68
= depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed

into rock
= moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
= influence coefficient (see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-1)
= influence coefficient for settlement of drilled
shafts socketed in rock
= factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts
with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so
as to limit the shaft settlement to 1 inch
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure or load
transfer factor
for drilled shafts socketed in rock using
pressuremeter results
= modulus modification ratio
(see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4)
= liquid limit of soil
= uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
blow count
= bearing capacity factor
= corrected SPT-N value
= uplift bearing capacity factor
= limit pressure determined from pressuremeter
tests within 2D above and below base of shaft
= at rest horizontal stress measured at the base
of drilled shaft
= unfactored dead load
= plastic limit of soil
= Ultimate unit tip resistance
= reduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled
shafts
= ultimate unit side resistance
= unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft
= uniaxial compressive strength of rock core
= ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft
= ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft
= ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts socketed in rock
= total ultimate bearing capacity
= characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft system in cohesive soils
= Rock Quality Designation
= spacing of discontinuities
= Standard Penetration Test
= undrained shear strength
= width of discontinuities
= characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft system in cohesionless soils
z
Z
= depth below ground surface

= total embedded length of drilled shaft
Greek
'
base
e
tol
'v
v
Pi
' or f
q
qs
qp
4.13.3
= adhesion factor applied to Su

= coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
and the unit skin friction of a drilled shaft
= effective unit weight of soil
= angle of shearing resistance between soil and
drilled shaft
= drilled shaft group efficiency factor
= settlement of the base of the drilled shaft
= elastic shortening of drilled shaft
= tolerable settlement
= vertical effective stress
= total vertical stress
= working load at top of socket
= angle of internal friction of soil
= performance factor for the total ultimate bear
ing capacity of a drilled shaft
= performance factor for the ultimate shaft ca
pacity of a drilled shaft
= performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of a drilled shaft
Geotechnical Design
Drilled shafts shall be designed to have adequate

bearing and structural capacities under tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral movements.
The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be
estimated by static analysis methods (analytical methods
based on soil-structure interaction). Capacity may be
verified with load test results.
The method of construction may affect the drilled
shaft capacity and shall be considered as part of the
design process. Drilled shafts may be constructed using
the dry, casing or wet method of construction, or a
combination of methods.
4.13.3.1
Factors Affecting Axial

Capacity
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Article

4.6.5.3.3 for drilled shafts in rock. The following subarticles shall supplement Articles 4.6.5.2 and 4.6.5.3.3.
4.13.3.1.1
Downdrag Loads
Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate, as indicated in Article 4.12.3.1.3.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4.13.3.1.2
Uplift
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as

applicable.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Sufficient clearance shall be provided between the ground
surface and underside of caps or beams connecting shafts
to preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap
connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift
capacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely only on
side resistance in conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.2 for
drilled shafts in cohesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for
drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. If the shaft has an
enlarged base, Qs shall be determined in conformance
with Article 4.13.3.3.6.
settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial

compression of the drilled shaft.
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement

The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be
estimated using the same procedures as described for pile
groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
Cohesive Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3a
Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3b
4.13.3.2.4

applicable.
4.13.3.3
4.13.3.2
4.13.3.2.1

Limit State
General

applicable.
In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only
unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However unfactored live loads must be added to the permanent loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular soil.
4.13.3.3.1
4.13.3.2.3
Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts

applicable.
Tolerable Movement

applicable.
Resistance at Strength Limit

States
The strength limit states that must be considered

include: (1) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift
capacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled
shafts bearing in strong soil into a weaker layer below.
4.13.3.3.2
4.13.3.2.2
Lateral Displacement
Analytic Estimates of Drilled

+
Shaft Capacity in Cohesive Soils +
Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate

the ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive
soils.
Settlement
4.13.3.3.3
The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving

either single drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall
not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according
to Article 4.13.3.2.2
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled

Shafts
Estimation of Drilled-Shaft
Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in

cohesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable
methods, and the factored capacity selected using judgment, and any available experience with similar conditions.
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be estimated considering short-term settlement, consolidation
4-69
4.13.3.3.4
+
+
+
+
+
+
In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with

rock sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil
deposits shall be ignored.
If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or
reduced socket capacities shall be considered.
4.13.3.3.5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Axial Capacity in Rock
Load Test
Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be

conducted on a drilled shaft or shafts to confirm response
to load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts constructed in a manner and of dimensions and materials
identical to those planned for the production shafts.
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
written procedures which have been developed from
accepted standards and modified, as appropriate, for the
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing procedures developed by the American Society for Testing and
Materials as specified in Article 4.12.3.3.5 may be modified for testing drilled shafts.
4.13.3.3.6
Uplift Capacity
Uplift shall be considered when (i) upward loads act

on the drilled shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils
act on the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift
forces shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single

Drilled Shaft
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided drilled

shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts in
compression (Articles 4.13.3.3.2, 4.13.3.3.3, and
4.13.3.3.4).
The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated
neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assuming that the bell behaves as an anchor.
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity

+
4.13.3.3.7
Lateral Load
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually

governed by lateral movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2)
or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design of
laterally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects
of interaction between the shaft and ground, including
the number of piers in the group.
4.13.3.3.8
Group Capacity
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall

be considered.

The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10a shall apply.
4.13.3.3.8b Cohesionless Soil

Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor for
(CTC) spacing of 8 diameters or greater, for a CTC of less
than 8 diameters the Division of Structural Foundations
should be consluted to determine the value of .
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as

applicable.
4.13.3.3.9
4.13.4
Deleted
Structural Design
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in

accordance with the provisions of Article 4.6.6, which
was developed for allowable stress design procedures. In
order to use load factor design procedures for the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor design
procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete shall be
used in place of the allowable stress design procedures.
4.13.4.1
Buckling of Drilled Shafts
Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the

shafts extend through water or air for a portion of their
length.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying

Weaker Compressible Soil
See Article 4.12.3.3.7b
4-70
BRIDGE DESIGN S PECIFICATIONS A UGUST 2004
SECTION 5 - RETAINING WALLS
Part A
5.1
GENERAL
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral

earth and water pressures, the effects of surcharge loads,
the self-weight of the wall and in special cases, earth
quake loads in accordance with the general principles
specified in this section.
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects
of material deterioration on each of the material compo
nents comprising the wall. Permanent retaining walls
should be designed for a minimum service life of 50 years.
Temporary retaining walls should be designed for a
minimum service life of 5 years.
The quality of in-service performance is an important
consideration in the design of permanent retaining walls.
Permanent walls shall be designed to retain an aestheti
cally pleasing appearance, and be essentially mainte
nance free throughout their design service life.
The Service Load Design Method shall be used for the
design of retaining walls except where noted otherwise.
5.2
WALL TYPES
Retaining walls are generally classified as gravity,

semi-gravity (or conventional), non-gravity cantilevered,
and anchored. Gravity walls derive their capacity to resist
lateral loads through dead weight of the wall. The gravity
wall type includes rigid gravity walls, mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE) walls, and prefabricated modular
gravity walls. Semi-gravity walls are similar to gravity
walls, except they rely on their structural components to
mobilize the dead weight of backfill to derive their
capacity to resist lateral loads. Non-gravity cantilevered
walls rely on structural components of the wall partially

embedded in foundation material to mobilize passive
resistance to resist lateral loads. Anchored walls derive
their capacity to resist lateral loads by their structural
components being restrained by tension elements con
nected to anchors and possibly additionally by partial
embedment of their structural components into founda
tion material. The anchors may be ground anchors
(tiebacks), passive concrete anchors, passive pile an
chors, or pile group anchors. The ground anchors are
connected directly to the wall structural components
whereas the other type anchors are connected to the wall
structural components through tie rods. Within the wall
types above, many of the retaining wall systems available
are proprietary. Their use requires appropriate contrac
tual requirements. See Figures 5.2-1 through 5.2-4 for
examples.
5.2.1
Selection of Wall Type
Selection of appropriate wall type is based on an

assessment of the design loading, depth to adequate
foundation support, presence of deleterious environmen
tal factors, physical constraints of the site, cross-sectional
geometry of the site both existing and planned, settle
ment potential, desired aesthetics, constructibility, main
tenance, and cost.
5.2.1.1
Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity

Walls
Rigid gravity walls may be constructed of stone ma

sonry, unreinforced concrete, or reinforced concrete.
These walls can be used in both cut and fill applications.
They have relatively narrow base widths. They are
generally not used when deep foundations are required.
They are most economical at low wall heights.
SECTION 5 RETAINING WALLS
5-1
Face
Panels
Soil Reinforcement
MSE Wall with Precast
Concrete Face Panels
Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Wall
Batte
r 1:6
Figure 5.2-2 Typical Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
utilities. They are most economical at low to medium wall

heights.
Due to the rigidity of rigid gravity walls and semigravity walls they should only be used where their foun
dations can be designed to limit total and differential
settlements to acceptable values.
5.2.1.2
Precast Concrete Crib Wall
Figure 5.2-1 Typical Gravity Retaining Walls
Semi-gravity cantilever, counterfort and buttress walls

are constructed of reinforced concrete. They can be used
in both cut and fill applications. They have relatively
narrow base widths. They can be supported by both
shallow and deep foundations. The position of the wall
stem relative to the footing can be varied to accommodate
right-of-way constraints. These walls can support
soundwalls, sign structures, and other highway features.
They can accommodate drainage structures and utilities
and span existing drainage structures and load sensitive
5-2
Non-Gravity Cantilevered
Walls
Non-gravity cantilevered walls are constructed of

vertical structural members consisting of partially em
bedded soldier piles or continuous sheet piles. Soldier
piles may be constructed with driven steel piles, treated
timber, precast concrete or steel piles placed in drilled
holes and backfilled with concrete or cast-in-place rein
forced concrete. Continuous sheet piles may be con
structed with driven precast prestressed concrete sheet
piles or steel sheet piles. Soldier piles are faced with either
treated timber, reinforced shotcrete, reinforced cast-in
place concrete, precast concrete or metal elements.
This type wall is suitable for both cut and fill applica
tions but is most suitable for cut applications. Because of
the narrow base width of this type wall it is suitable for
Steel Sheet
Piles
This type wall depends on passive resistance of the

foundation material and the moment resisting capacity of
the vertical structural members for stability, therefore its
maximum height is limited by the competence of the
foundation material and the moment resisting capacity of
the vertical structural members. Because this type wall
depends on the passive resistance of foundation material,
it should not be used where it is likely that foundation
material will be removed in front of the wall during its
service life.
The economical height of this type wall is generally
limited to a maximum height of 20 feet or less.
5.2.1.3
Continuous Vertical Wall Elements
Soldier pile
with timber
lagging
Anchored Walls
Anchored walls are typically composed of the same

elements as non-gravity cantilevered walls (Article
5.2.1.2), but derive additional lateral resistance from one
or more levels of anchors. The anchors may be ground
anchors (tiebacks) consisting of drilled holes with grouted
in prestressing steel tendons extending from the wall face
to an anchor zone located behind potential failure planes
in the retained soil or rock mass. The anchors may also
be structural anchors consisting of reinforced concrete
anchors, driven or drilled in vertical pile anchors or a
group of driven piles consisting of battered compression
piles and vertical tension piles connected with a rein
forced concrete cap. These anchors are located behind
potential failure planes in the retained soil and are con
nected to the wall by horizontal tie rods.
Ground anchors are suitable for situations requiring
one or more levels of anchors whereas anchors utilizing
tie rods are typically limited to situations requiring a
single level of anchors. The ground anchor tendons and
tie rods must be provided with corrosion protection.
Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
Figure 5.2-3 Typical Non-Gravity Cantilevered

Retaining Walls
situations with tight space constraints or right-of-way

constraints.
The distribution of lateral earth pressure on anchored

walls is influenced by the method and sequence of wall
construction and the anchor prestressing. Ground an
chors are generally prestressed to a high percentage of
their design tension force whereas anchors with tie rods
are secured to the wall with little or no prestress force.
Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situ
ations in which construction proceeds from the top down
to the base of the wall. For situations where fill is placed
behind the wall special consideration in the design and
construction is required to protect the ground anchors or
5-3
Waler
Tie rod
Steel Sheet
Piles
Pile anchor
System
Waler
Ground anchor
( Tieback anchor )
Soldier pile
with timber
lagging
Figure 5.2.4 Typical Anchored Retaining Walls
tie rods from construction damage due to fill placement

and fill settlement.
The vertical wall elements should extend below po
tential failure planes associated with the retained soil or
rock mass. Where competent and stable foundation ma
terial is located at the base of the wall face, only minimal
embedment of the wall may be required (soldier pileless
design).
The long-term creep characteristics of the anchors
should be considered in design. Anchors should not be
located in soft clay or silt.
5-4
Anchored walls may be used to stabilize unstable sites.

Provided adequate foundation material exists at the site
for the anchors, economical wall heights up to 80 feet are
feasible.
5.2.1.4
Mechanically Stabilized Earth

Walls
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls use either

metallic (inextensible) or geosynthetic (extensible) soil
reinforcement in the soil mass, and vertical or near verti
cal facing elements. MSE walls behave as a gravity wall,
deriving their lateral resistance through the dead weight

of the reinforced soil mass behind the facing.
the soil reinforcement and adequate control of surface

runoff is provided.
MSE walls are typically used where conventional

reinforced concrete retaining walls are considered, and
are particularly well suited for sites where substantial
total and differential settlements are anticipated. The
allowable differential settlement is limited by the
deformability of the wall facing elements within the
plane of the wall face. In the case of precast concrete
facing elements (panels), deformablitiy is dependent on
the panel size and shape and the width of the joints
between panels. This type wall can be used in both cut
and fill applications. Because their base width is greater
than that of conventional reinforced concrete walls they
are most cost effective in fill applications. The practical
height of MSE walls is limited by the competence of the
foundation material at a given site.
Where high concentrated loads must be supported at

the wall face, such as those from highway sign founda
tions, a section of conventionally reinforced concrete
wall may be constructed within the length of the MSE
wall. This section of wall should be designed to retain
both the lateral earth pressures and the concentrated
loads.
MSE walls shall not be used where utilities or highway

drainage must be located within the reinforced mass
except that highway drainage may be placed within the
reinforced soil mass if it runs vertically or perpendicular
to the wall face.
MSE walls shall not be used where floodplain erosion
or scour may undermine the reinforced soil mass unless
the wall is founded at sufficient depth or adequate scour
protection is provided to prevent the erosion or scour.
MSE walls shall not be used to support bridge abut
ments with shallow foundations nor pile supported bridge
abutments where seismic displacements of the abutment
would impose large forces on the wall face panels and the
soil reinforcement to face panel connections. MSE walls
may be used in front of pile supported bridge abutments
where the seismic forces from the bridge superstructure
are limited by elastomeric bearing pads supporting the
bridge superstructure. These limited seismic forces shall
be considered in the design of the MSE wall. The design
service life shall be increased to 75 years for MSE walls
in front of pile supported bridge abutments.
MSE walls shall not be used where aggressive environ
mental conditions exist unless environment specific stud
ies of the long-term corrosion or degradation of the soil
reinforcement are conducted.
Various aesthetic treatments can be incorporated in

the precast concrete face panels.
5.2.1.5
Prefabricated Modular Walls
Prefabricated modular walls use stacked or intercon

nected structural elements, some of which utilize soil or
rock fill, to resist earth pressures by acting as gravity
retaining walls. Structural elements consisting of treated
timber, or precast reinforced concrete are used to from a
cellular system which is filled with soil to construct a crib
wall, also steel modules are bolted together to form a
similar system to construct a bin wall. Rock filled wire
gabion baskets are used to construct a gabion wall. Solid
precast concrete units or segmental concrete masonry
units are stacked to form a gravity block wall.
Prefabricated modular walls may be used where con
ventional reinforced concrete walls are considered.
Steel modular systems shall not be used where aggres
sive industrial pollutants or other environmental condi
tions such as use of deicing salts or cathodic protection
of nearby pipelines are present at a given site.
Traffic barriers shall not be placed at the face of this
type wall but shall be placed in fill above the top of the
wall.
The aesthetic appearance of some of these type walls
is governed by the nature of the structural elements used.
Those elements consisting of precast concrete may incor
porate various aesthetic treatments.
This type wall is most economical for low to medium
height walls.
MSE walls with metallic soil reinforcement may be

used where deicing salts are used provided an imperme
able cap is constructed at or near the ground surface above
5-5
5.2.2
Wall Capacity
Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate

structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate
foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements,
and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to
walls. The tolerable level of lateral and vertical deforma
tions is controlled by the type and location of the wall
structure and surrounding facilities.
5.2.2.1
Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of wall foundation support sys

tems shall be estimated using procedures described in
Articles 4.4 Spread Footings, 4.5 Driven Piles, or 4.6
Drilled Shafts, or other generally accepted theories.
Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters
measured by in-situ and /or laboratory tests.
excess pore water pressures may develop during a seismic

event.
Seismic forces applied to the mass of the slope shall be
based on a horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient, kh,
equal to one-third of, A, the expected peak acceleration
produced by the Maximum Credible Earthquake on
bedrock at the site as defined in the Caltrans Seismic
Hazard Map. Generally the vertical seismic coefficient,
kv, is considered to equal zero.
For seismic loads, if it is determined that the factor of
safety for the slope is less than 1.0 using one-third of the
peak bedrock acceleration, procedures for estimating
earthquake induced deformations such as the Newmarks
Method may be used provided that the retaining wall and
any supported structure can tolerate the resulting defor
mations.
5.2.2.4
5.2.2.2
Settlement
The settlement of wall foundation support systems

shall be estimated using procedures described in Articles
4.4, 4.5 or 4.6, or other generally accepted methods. Such
methods are based on soil and rock parameters measured
directly or inferred from the results of in-situ and/or
laboratory tests.
5.2.2.3
Overall Stability
As part of the design, the overall stability of the

retaining wall, retained slope and foundation soil or rock
shall be evaluated for all walls using limiting equilibrium
methods of analysis. A minimum factor of safety of 1.3
shall be used for the design of walls for static loads, except
that a minimum factor of safety of 1.5 shall be used for the
design of walls which support bridge abutments, build
ings, critical utilities, or other installations for which
there is a low tolerance for failure. A minimum factor of
safety of 1.0 shall be used for the design of walls for
seismic loads. In all cases, the subsurface conditions and
soil/rock properties of the wall site shall be adequately
characterized through in-situ exploration and testing and
/or laboratory testing as described in Article 5.3 Subsur
face Exploration And Testing Programs. Special explo
ration, testing and analysis may be required for retaining
walls constructed over soft deposits or for sites where
5-6
Tolerable Deformations
Tolerable vertical and lateral deformation criteria for

retaining walls shall be developed based on the function
and type of wall, anticipated service life, and conse
quences of unacceptable movements (i.e., both structural
and aesthetic).
Allowable total and differential vertical deformations
for a particular retaining wall are dependent on the ability
of the wall to deflect without causing damage to the wall
elements or exhibiting unsightly deformations. The total
and differential vertical deformation of a retaining wall
should be small for rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain
ing walls, and for soldier pile walls with cast-in-place
concrete facing. For walls with inclined tieback anchors,
any downward movement can cause significant
destressing of the anchors.
MSE walls can tolerate larger total and differential
vertical defections than rigid walls. The amount of total
and differential vertical deflection that can be tolerated
depends on the wall facing material, configuration, and
timing of facing construction. A cast-in-place concrete
facing has the same vertical deformation limitations as
the more rigid retaining wall systems. However, the cast
in-place facing of an MSE wall can be specified to be
constructed after an appropriate settlement period so that
vertical as well as horizontal deformations have time to
occur. An MSE wall with welded wire or geosynthetic
facing can tolerate the most deformation. An MSE wall
with multiple precast concrete face panels cannot tolerate

as much vertical deformations as flexible welded wire or
geosynthetic facings because of potential damage to the
precast face panels and unsightly face panel separation.
Horizontal movements resulting from outward rota
tion of the wall or resulting from the development of
internal equilibrium between the loads applied to the
wall and the internal structure of the wall must be limited
to prevent overstress of the structural wall facing and to
prevent the wall face batter from becoming negative. In
general, if vertical deformations are properly controlled,
horizontal deformations will likely be within acceptable
limits. For MSE walls with extensible reinforcements,
reinforcement serviceability criteria, the wall face batter,
and the facing type selected (i.e. the flexibility of the
facing) will influence the horizontal deformation criteria
required.
Vertical wall movements shall be estimated using
conventional settlement computational methods (see
Articles 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6). For gravity and semi-gravity
walls, lateral movement results from a combination of
differential vertical settlement between the heel and the
toe of the wall and the rotation necessary to develop
active earth pressure conditions (see Table C5.5.1-1). If
the wall is designed for at-rest earth pressure conditions,
the deflections in Table C5.5.1-1 do not need to be
considered.
Where a wall is used to support a structure, tolerable
movement criteria shall be established in accordance
with Articles 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil
on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of
wall movements and associated backfill settlement on
the adjacent structure shall be evaluated.
5.2.3
5.3
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND

TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing

programs shall be based on the specific requirements of
the project and prior experience with the local geological
conditions.
5.3.1
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing

programs shall define the following, where applicable:

Soil strata:
- Depth, thickness, and variability

- Identification and classification
- Relevant engineering properties (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear
strength, compressibility, stiffness, perme
ability, expansion or collapse potential, and
frost susceptibility)
- Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resis
tivity, cloride, sulfate, and sulfide content

Rock strata:
- Depth to rock
- Identification and classification
- Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing
and presence of joint filling, resistance to
weathering, if exposed, and solutioning)
- Compressive strength (i.e., uniaxial com
pression, point load index)
- Expansion potential

Ground water elevation, including seasonal

variations, chemical composition, and pH
(especially important for anchored, non-gravity
cantilevered, modular, and MSE walls)
where corrosion potential is an important con
sideration
Ground surface topography
Local conditions requiring special consider

ation (i.e., presence of stray electrical currents)
Soil, Rock, and Other Problem

Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can influ

ence the performance of retaining walls and their founda
tions, and may require special consideration during de
sign. To the extent possible, the presence and influence
of such conditions shall be evaluated as part of the
subsurface exploration program. A representative, but
not exclusive, listing of problem conditions requiring
special consideration is presented in Table 4.2.3A for
general guidance.
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata

descriptions, penetration resistance for soils (i.e., SPT or
qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
5-7
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone

penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any
unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be
noted on the exploration logs.
5.3.2
Minimum Depth
Regardless of the wall foundation type, borings shall

extend into a bearing layer adequate to support the
anticipated foundation loads, defined as dense or hard
soils, or bedrock. In general, for walls which do not utilize
deep foundation support, subsurface explorations shall
extend below the anticipated bearing level a minimum of
twice the total wall height. Greater depths may be
required where warranted by local conditions. Where the
wall is supported on deep foundations and for all nongravity walls, the depth of the subsurface explorations
shall extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated
pile, shaft, or slurry wall tip elevation. For piles or shafts
end bearing on rock, or shafts extending into rock, a
minimum of 10 feet of rock core, or a length of rock core
equal to at least three times the shaft diameter, which ever
is greater, shall be obtained to insure that the exploration
has not been terminated on a boulder and to determine the
physical characteristics of the rock within the zone of
foundation influence for design.
5.3.3
Minimum Coverage
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each

retaining wall. For retaining walls over 100 feet in length,
the spacing between borings should be not longer than
200 feet. In planning the exploration program, consider
ation should be given to placing borings inboard and
outboard of the wall line to define conditions in the scour
zone at the toe of the wall and in the zone behind the wall
to estimate lateral loads and anchorage capacities.
should be applied when establishing project design val

ues based on laboratory and field tests.
5.3.5

subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to
Article 1.3.2 for general guidance regarding hydraulic
studies and design.
5.4
Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to

determine engineering characteristics including unit
weight, natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, grada
tion, shear strength, compressive strength and compress
ibility. In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering
characteristics may be estimated based on field tests and/
or published property correlations. Local experience
5-8
NOTATIONS
The following notations apply for design of retaining

walls:
a
a
= width of strip load (FT); 5.5.5.10

= length of the sides of a square cell or the
length of the short side of a rectangular cell
(FT); 5.10.4
= length of side of rectangular wall cell used

for determining, Rb (FT); 5.10.4
A
= the expected peak acceleration produced by
the maximum credible earthquake on bed
rock at the site as defined in the Caltrans
Seismic Hazard Map (DIM); 5.2.2.3
Acorrosion loss
= cross-sectional area of soil reinforcement lost due to corrosion over the design
service life (FT ); 5.9.3
Agross
= cross sectional area of transverse grid ele
ment before any sacrificial steel loss due to
corrosion (FT ); 5.9.3
Anet
At
At
5.3.4
Scour
b
b
b
= cross sectional area of transverse grid element at end of design service life after design
sacrificial steel loss has occurred ( FT ); 5.9.3
= tributary area of wall face at level of soil
reinforcement (FT ); 5.9.3
= tributary area of wall face used in determin
ing, Tmax (FT ); 5.9.3
= actual width of embedded discrete vertical
wall element below design grade in plane of
wall (FT); 5.5.5.6, 5.7.6
= distance from pressure surface to near edge
of strip load (FT); 5.5.5.10
= actual width of concrete anchor (FT); 5.8.6.2.1
= width of soil reinforcement under consider
ation (FT); 5.9.3.5.2
b
b
b
b
bc
bf
bt
= length of the long side of a rectangular cell

(FT); 5.10.4
= effective width of embedded portion of ver
tical wall elements (FT); 5.5.5.6, 5.7.6
= effective width of concrete anchor (FT);
5.8.6.2.1
= effective width of anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
= indicator of batter of compression piles
(DIM); 5.8.6.2.3
= width of footing overwhich horizontal force,
PH , is distributed (FT); 5.5.5.10
= indicator of batter of tension piles (DIM);
5.8.6.2.3
bt
B
B
B
= width of tributary area, At (FT); 5.9.3

= notional slope of backfill (DEG) ; 5.5.5.5
= width of footing (FT); 5.5.5.10
= width of wall footing (FT); 5.6.4
B
B
B
= wall base width (FT); 5.9.1

= width of soil reinforcement (FT); 5.9.3
= length of transverse grid elements of soil
reinforcement (FT);5.9.3
= width of wall footing actually in compres

sion (B= B-2e) (FT); 5.6.4
= effective base width (FT); 5.9.2
= width of excavation in front of wall (FT);
5.5.5.7.2b
= distance from back face of footing key to the
back face or heel of wall footing (FT);
5.6.3,5.6.4
B
Be
Bk
Bn
B1
c
c
ca
C
Cp
Cph
= base width of nth tier of tiered wall with the

bottom tier being the first tier ( n=1) (FT);
5.10.1
= distance from toe of footing to front face of
footing key (FT )5.6.4
= unit cohesion (KSF); 5.5.5.4
= cohesion of foundation soil (KSF); 5.6.4
= adhesion between wall footing and founda
tion soil or rock (KSF); 5.6.4
= overall soil reinforcement surface area ge
ometry factor(DIM); 5.9.3
= axial force in compression pile (KIPS);
5.8.6.2.3
= horizontal component of axial force in a
battered compression pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
CRCR
d
d
d
d
dbnet
D
D
D
D
Dk
Do
Do
Do
D1
e
e
e
e
emax
= long-term connection strength reduction

factor to account for reduced ultimate
strength resulting from connection (DIM);
5.9.3.5.2
= depth of potential base failure surface below
the design grade in front of wall (FT);
5.5.5.7.2b
= distance from center of width, bf , to back of
wall or pressure surface (FT); 5.5.5.10
= depth of concrete anchor cover (FT) ; 5.8.6.2.1
= distance from finished grade to top of anchor
pile (FT) ;5.8.6.2.2
= diameter of ground anchor drill hole (FT);
5.8.6.3
= net diameter of transverse grid element after
consideration for corrosion loss (FT); 5.9.3
= depth of embedment of concrete anchor (FT);
5.8.6.2.1
= embedment from finished grade to be used
for anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
= depth of embedment of vertical wall ele
ments for non-gravity cantilevered walls
(FT); 5.7.1
= depth of embedment of vertical wall ele
ments for anchored walls (FT); 5.8.6.3
= depth of wall footing key (FT); 5.6.4
= calculated embedment depth of vertical wall
elements (FT); 5.5.5.6, 5.7.1, 5.7.6
= embedment of vertical wall elements that
provides a factor of safety equal to 1.0 against
rotation about level of tie rod of an anchored
wall (DIM); 5.8.6.2
= calculated embedment from finished grade
of anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
= effective width for determining vertical stress
at any depth due to applied vertical load

(FT); 5.5.5.10
= eccentricity of resultant force acting on foot
ing base from center of footing (FT); 5.6.4
= eccentricity of resultant force (DIM); 5.9.2
= base of natural logarithms (DIM); 5.10.4
= eccentricity of vertical load on footing (FT);
5.5.5.10
= maximum allowable eccentricity of the re
sultant force acting on the base of the wall
(FT); 5.9.2
5-9
Fa
FAC
Fy
F*
FS
FS
FSpo
FSpo
FSOT
FSR
FSSL
FST
h
h
h
h
= force at tip of embedded vertical wall ele

ments required to provide equilibruim of
horizontal forces (KIPS); 5.5.5.6
= total force acting on anchor pile at depth,
Do, required to provide equilibrium of hori
zontal forces acting on the anchor pile (KIPS);
5.8.6.2.2
= allowable tensile stress for steel soil rein
forcement (KSI); 5.9.3
= pullout anchorage factor of soil reinforce
ment (DIM); 5.9.3
= yield strength of steel (KSI); 5.9.3
= pullout resistance factor for soil reinforce
ment (DIM); 5.9.3
= factor of safety (DIM); 5.6.4
= global safety factor (DIM); 5.9.3.4.2.1
= factor of safety against pullout of wall mod
ules above the level under consideration
(DIM); 5.10.3
= factor of safety against pullout for level of
soil reinforcement under consideration
(DIM); 5.9.3
= factor of safety against overturning (DIM);
5.7.6
= factor of safety against rotation about level
of tie rod of an anchored wall (DIM); 5.8.6.2
= factor of safety against sliding (DIM); 5.6.4
= factor of safety against translation (DIM);
5.8.6.3
= height of pressure surface at back of wall
(FT); 5.5.5.8,5.6.4
= actual height of concrete anchor(FT);
5.5.6.2.1
= height of pressure surface (FT); C5.5.5.5.1
= height from intersection of active and pas
sive failure surfaces to ground surface (FT);
5.8.6.2.1
ht
H
= equivalent height of soil for vehicular load

(FT); 5.5.5.10
= height of nth tier of tiered wall with the
bottom tier being the first tier ( n=1) ( FT);
5.10.1
= height of tributary area, At (FT); 5.9.3
= design height of wall (FT); C5.5.1, 5.7.1
= wall design height (FT); 5.6.4
heg
hn
5-10
Hn
Hn+1
H1
H1
H1
H1
H1
k
k
ka
kh
ko
kp
kr
ks
kv
L
L
La
Lb
Le
= vertical distance between, nth level, and, (n

1 )th level of ground anchors (FT); 5.8.6.3
= distance from design grade at bottom of wall
to lowermost level of anchors (FT); 5.5.5.7
= distance from ground surface at top of wall
to uppermost level of anchors (FT); 5.5.5.7
= distance from finished grade to level at which,
Tult , acts on anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
= distance from finished grade to level at which,
Tult , acts on pile anchor (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
= distance from finished grade at top of wall to
top level of ground anchors (FT); 5.8.6.3
= vertical distance from bottom of wall to
point of intersection of finished grade be
hind wall face and failure surface for deter
mining internal stability for walls with
inextensible soil reinforcement (FT); 5.9.3
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure (DIM);
5.5.5.1
= ratio of lateral to vertical pressure in wall cell
fill (DIM);5.10.4
= coefficient of active lateral earth pressure
(DIM); 5.5.5.3
= horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient
(DIM); 5.2.2.3
= coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure
(DIM); 5.5.5.2
= coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure
(DIM); 5.5.5.4
= lateral earth pressure coefficient of rein
forced soil mass (DIM); 5.9.1
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure due to
surcharge (DIM); 5.5.5.10
= vertical seismic acceleration coefficient
(DIM); 5.2.2.3
= length of soil reinforcement (FT); 5.5.5.8,
5.9.1
= length of footing (FT); 5.5.5.10
= distance from back of wall facing to failure
surface for internal stability analysis(FT);
5.9.1
= ground anchor bond length (FT); 5.8.6.3
= distance from failure surface for internal
stability analysis to rearmost end of soil
reinforcement (FT); 5.9.1
Mn
Mp
MARV
N
NS
OCR
p
p
p
pa
pa
pb
pp
P
P
P
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa
= nominal moment strength of reinforced con

crete crib wall member (KIP-FT); 5.10.4
= plastic moment strength of reinforced con
crete crib wall member (KIP-FT); 5.10.4
= minimum average roll value for, Tult (KIPS/
FT); 5.9.3
= number of transverse grid elements of soil
reinforcement within length,Le (DIM); 5.9.3
= stability number (DIM); 5.5.5.6
= overconsolidation ratio (DIM); 5.5.5.2
= lateral pressure in wall cell fill at depth, y
(KSF); 5.10.4
= basic lateral earth pressure (KSF); 5.5.5.1
= load intensity of strip load parallel to wall
(KSF); 5.5.5.10
= maximum ordinate of lateral earth pressure
diagram (KSF); 5.5.5.7
= lateral pressure in wall cell fill next to the
short side of a rectangular cell at depth, y
(KSF); 5.10.4
= lateral pressure in wall cell fill next to the
long side of a rectangular cell at depth, y
(KSF); 5.10.4
= passive lateral earth pressure (KSF); 5.5.5.4
= horizontal earth pressure resultant acting on
the pressure surface at back of wall (KIPS)/
FT); 5.5.5.10
= vertical point load (KIPS); 5.5.5.10
= tangential component of force on wall foot
ing (KIPS); 5.6.4
= active lateral earth pressure resultant per
unit width of wall (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.3
length of wall under consideration deter
mined by Rankine theory (KIPS); 5.5.5.8
= lateral earth pressure resultant per unit width
of wall acting on pressure surface at back of
wall (KIPS/FT); 5.6.4
= total lateral active earth pressure acting on
an anchor pile over height, Do , and effective
pile width, b (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2
height, D , per foot width of anchor (KIPS/
FT); 5.8.6.2.1
= design lateral pressure acting on the tribu
tary area of the face of the wall modules
Pa
Pah
Pav
Ph
PH
Pmax
PN
Po
Pp
Pp
Pp
Pp
Pp
Pr
Pr
PT
PTotal
above the level under consideration (KIPS);

5.10.3
height, h , per foot width of anchor or anchor
pile (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.1, 5.8.6.2.2
= horizontal component of, Pa (KIPS/FT);
5.6.4
= vertical component of , P a (KIPS/FT); 5,6,4
= horizontal component of ,Pa (KIPS); 5.5.5.8
= horizontal force at base of continuous foot
ing per unit length of footing (KIPS/FT);
5.5.5.10
= maximum resisting force between wall footing base and foundation soil or rock against
sliding failure (KIPS); 5.6.4
= normal component of passive lateral earth
pressure resultant per unit width of wall
(KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
= at-rest lateral earth pressure resultant per
unit width of wall acting on the toe of the
wall footing (KIPS/FT); 5.6.4
= passive lateral earth pressure resultant per
unit width of wall (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
= passive lateral earth pressure, not to exceed
50 percent of the available passive lateral
earth pressure (KIPS); 5.6.4
= total lateral passive earth pressure acting on
height, D, per foot width of anchor (KIPS/
FT); 5.8.6.2.1
an anchor pile over height, Do , and effective
pile width, b (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2
height, h , per foot width of anchor or anchor
pile (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.1, 5.8.6.2.2
= resultant force of unifomly distributed lat
eral resisting pressure per unit width of wall
acting over the depth of footing key required
to provide equilibrium to force, P (KIPS/
FT); 5.6.4
= design lateral pressure from retained fill
(KSF); 5.10.4
= tangential component of passive lateral earth
pressure resultant per unit width of wall
(KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
= total lateral load per foot of wall required to
be applied to the wall face to provide a factor
5-11
Pv
Pv
Pv
q
qa
qb
qc
qs
Q
Qa
Q1
Q2
r
R
of safety equal to 1.3 for the retained soil

mass when stability is analyzed using an
appropriate limiting equilibrium method of
analysis (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.7
= vertical component of, Pa (KIPS) ; 5.5.5.8
= vertical load per unit length of continuous
footing or strip load (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.10
= vertical load on isolated rectangular footing
or point load (KIPS); 5.5.5.10
= vertical pressure in wall cell fill at depth , y
(KSF); 5.10.4
= vertical pressure in wall cell fill next to short
side of rectangular cell (KSF); 5.10.4
= vertical pressure in wall cell fill next to long
side of rectangular cell (KSF); 5.10.4
= cone penetration resistance (KSF); 5.3.1
= uniform surcharge applied to the wall back
fill surface within the limits of the active
failure wedge (KSF); 5.5.5.10
= normal component of force on wall footing
(KIPS); 5.6.4
= allowable ground anchor pullout resistance
(KIPS); 5.8.6.3
within distance, B1 (KIPS); 5.6.4
within distance,( B-B1) (KIPS); 5.6.4
= ( x +y ) 0.5 (FT); 5.5.5.10
= reduction factor for determination, of Pp ,
using Figures 5.5.5.4-1 and 5.5.5.4-2 (DIM);
5.5.5.4
= earth pressure resultant per unit width of wall
acting on failure surface of failure wedge
(KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.5
= design reaction force at bottom of wall to be
resisted by embedded portion of wall (KIPS)/
FT); 5.5.5.7
= radial distance from point of load applica
tion to the point on the back of the wall at
which,Dph, is being determined (FT);5.5.5.10
= reaction at assumed point of zero moment in
verticalwall elements at or near bottom of
anchored wall (KIPS);5.8.6.3
= hydraulic radius of wall cell (FT); 5.10.4
Ra
Rb
Rpo
Rpo
RF
RFCR
RFD
RFID
RQD
s
sc
sm
st
Su
Sub
SPT
T
Ta
Tac
Tal
Tf
5-12
= hydraulic radius for determining pressures

next to short side of rectangular wall cell
(FT); 5.10.4
= hydraulic radius for determining pressures
next to long side of rectangular wall cell
(FT); 5.10.4
= pullout resistance of soil reinforcement for
level of soil reinforcement under consider
ation (KIPS); 5.9.3
= pullout resistance of wall modules above the
level under consideration (KIPS); 5.10.3
= combined strength reduction factor to ac
count for potential long-term degradation
(DIM); 5.9.3
= strength reduction factor to prevent long
-term creep rupture of soil reinforcement
(DIM); 5.9.3
= strength reduction factor to prevent rupture
of soil reinforcement due to chemical and
biological degradation (DIM); 5.9.3
= strength reduction factor to account for po
tential degradation due to installation dam
age (DIM); 5.9.3
= Rock Quality Designation (DIM); 5.3.1
= horizontal spacing of tie rods (FT); 5.8.6.2.1
= spacing of compression piles (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
= shear strength of rock mass (KSF); 5.5.5.6,
5.7.5
= spacing of tension piles (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
= undrained shear strength of soil (KSF); 5.5.5.6
= undrained shear strength of soil below design grade in front of wall (KSF); 5.5.5.7.2b
= Standard Penetration Test (DIM); 5.3.1
= design force of structural anchor or ground
anchor (KIPS); 5.8.6.1
= long term allowable strength of soil rein
forcement associated with tributary area, At
(KIPS); 5.9.3
= long-term allowable reinforcement / facing
connection design strength per width , b, of
soil reinforcement (KIPS); 5.9.3.5.2
= long-term tensile strength required to prevent rupture of the soil reinforcement (KIPS/
FT); 5.9.3
= wall footing thickness (FT); 5.6.4
Th
Thi
Thn
Tk
Tmax
Tn
To
To
Tp
Tph
TT
Tult
Tult
Tult
Tult
Va
Vb
Vn
= horizontal component of ground anchor de

sign force (KIPS); 5.8.6.3
= horizontal component of design force in
anchor at level i (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.7
= horizontal component of ground anchor design force at, nth , level (KIPS); 5.8.6.3
= width of wall footing key (FT); 5.6.4
= maximum soil reinforcement load (KIPS);
5.9.3
= design force of ground anchor at, nth, level
(KIPS); 5.8.6.3
= tie rod force that provides equilibrium of
horizontal forces acting on the wall over the
height, H+Do (KIPS); 5.8.6.2
= maximum soil reinforcement tensile load at
the wall face (KIPS); 5.9.3
= axial force in tension pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
battered tension pile(KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
= applied test load at failure applied to soil
reinforcement connection (KIPS/FT);
5.9.3.5.1
= ultimate capacity of a structural anchor
(KIPS); 5.8.6.2
= ultimate capacity of an anchor pile (KIPS);
5.8.6.2.2
= ultimate capacity per tie rod of a continuous
pile anchor with tie rods at a spacing, s , or
ultimate capacity of an individual pile an
chor (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
= ultimate tensile strength of soil reinforcement determined from wide width tensile
tests for geotextiles and geogrids or rib ten
sile test for geogrid (KIPS/FT); 5.9.3
= total vertical frictional force per unit width
of wall cell perimeter over depth, y (KIPS/
FT); 5.10.4
of short side of rectangular cell over depth,
y (KIPS/FT); 5.10.4
of long side of rectangular cell over depth,y
(KIPS/FT); 5.10.4
= nominal shear strength of reinforced con
crete crib wall member (KIPS); 5.10.4
Vp
W
W
W
Wc
Wu
x
xw
y
y
= vertical shear force associated with develop

ment of plastic moments in reinforced con
crete crib wall member (KIPS); 5.10.4
= resultant weight of failure wedge per unit
width of wall (KIPS/FT) ; 5.5.5.5
= resultant weight of wall including any foot
ing key, the backfill above the footing, and
any surcharge loads acting above the foot
ing width per unit width of wall (KIPS/FT);
5.6.4
= weight of pile cap and pile cap cover for pile
anchor (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.3
= total weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y
(KIPS); 5.10.4
= segmental facing block unit width from front
to back (IN); 5,9.3.6.3
= horizontal distance from point of load appli
cation to the back of the wall (FT); 5.5.5.10
= horizontal distance from toe of footing to
location at which, W , acts (FT); 5.6.4
= height above base of wall to location of
point of application of, Pa (FT); 5.5.5.8
= horizontal distance from the point on the
back of the wall at which, Dph , is being
determined to a plane which is perpendicu
lar to the wall and which passes through the
point of load application measured along
the back of wall (FT); 5.5.5.10
y
y
= indicator of batter of wall (DIM); 5.10.1

= depth below top of wall cell fill at which
pressures are being determined (FT); 5.10.4
= vertical distance from bottom of footing to
ya
level of application of, Pa (FT); 5.6.4

= vertical distance from the bottom of embed
ment, Do , to the level at which, Pa , acts on
an anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
yo
yp
= vertical distance from bottom of wall foot

ing to the level of application of, Po (FT);
5.6.4
ment, Do , to the level at which, Pp , acts on
an anchor pile (FT) ; 5.8.6.2.2
= depth below the surface of earth at pressure
surface (FT); 5.5.5.1
5-13
z2
z3
a
a
ai
ao
b
b
d
d
5-14
= vertical distance from the wall backfill sur

face to the level at which , Dph , is being
determined (FT); 5.5.5.10
= vertical distance from bottom of footing
elevation or level of applied vertical stress to
level at which, D sv , is being determined
(FT); 5.5.5.10
= vertical distance from finished grade to the
mid-point of , Le , at the level of soil rein
forcement under consideration (FT); 5.9.3
elevation or level of applied horizontal force
to level at which, D s H , is being determined
(FT); 5.5.5.10
= depth at which inclined plane for determina
tion of effective width, D1, intersects the
back of wall or pressure surface (FT); 5.5.5.10
= depth of back of wall or pressure surface
overwhich horizontal stress, DsH , from the
applied horizontal force is distributed (FT);
5.5.5.10
face to the level at which the horizontal earth
pressure resultant is applied (FT); 5.5.5.10
= angle between bottom of wall footing and a
plane passing through the lower front corner
of the footing and the lower front corner of
the footing key (DEG); 5.6.4
= inclination from horizontal of ground an
chor (DEG); 5.8.6.3
= scale effect correction factor (DIM); 5.9.3
= angle between vertical plane and inner
failure surface of Rankine failure wedge
(DEG); 5.5.5.3
= angle between vertical plane and outer fail
ure surface of Rankine failure wedge (DEG);
5.5.5.3
= slope angle of backfill surface behind retain
ing wall (DEG); 5.5.5.2
= slope angle of slope in front of retaining wall
(DEG); 5.5.5.6
= friction angle between backfill material and
back of wall (DEG); 5.5.5.3
= angle of friction between wall footing and
foundation soil or rock (for footings on soil,
d , may be taken as, 2/3 f ) (DEG); 5.6.4
Dsh
Dshmax
Dsv
Dsv
Dsv
Dp
Dph
D Pp
D Pp
D Tult
D Wc
e
n
savg
sh
sm
sp
sv
= movement of top of wall required to reach

minimum active or maximum passive earth
pressure by tilting or lateral translation (FT);
C 5.5.1
= horizontal stress at depth, z , due to horizon
tal force at base of continuous footing (KSF);
5.5.5.10
= maximum value for, Ds h , which occurs at the
bottom of footing elevation (KSF); 5.5.5.10
= additional surcharge (KSF); 5.5.5.6
= vertical soil stress at level of soil reinforce
ment under consideration due to concen
trated vertical surcharge loads (KSF); 5.9.3
= vertical stress at depth, z , due to applied
vertical stress (KSF); 5.5.5.10
= constant horizontal earth pressure due to
uniform surcharge (KSF); 5.5.5.10
= horizontal earth pressure on the pressure
surface at back of wall at a distance, z , from
the wall backfill surface (KSF); 5.5.5.10
= force required for equilibrium of soil mass
between structural anchor and anchored wall
(KIPS); 5.8.6.2
= reduction in lateral passive earth pressure
acting on an anchor pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2
= ultimate capacity reduction for a concrete
anchor (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.1
= weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y, not
supported by vertical frictional force at cell
perimeter over depth, y (KIPS); 5.10.4
= angle used in calculating, a i , and, a o , of
Rankine failure wedge (DEG); 5.5.5.3
= Poissons ratio (DIM); 5.5.5.10
= average vertical soil stress at level of soil
reinforcement under consideration due to
weight of soil overburden and distributed
vertical surcharge loads above at level of
soil reinforcement (KSF); 5.9.3
= horizontal soil stress at level of soil rein
forcement (KSF);5.9.3
ment under consideration using the
Meyerhof procedure (KSF);5.9.3
= passive lateral earth pressure at depth H
(KSF); 5.5.5.4
= applied vertical stress (KSF); 5.5.5.10
sv
sv
ta
c
f
f
f
fn
r
gc
gf
gr
gs
m
q

ment (KSF); 5.9.3
= vertical soil stress at the mid-point of , Le , at
the level of soil reinforcement under consid
eration (KSF); 5.9.3
= ultimate ground anchor bond stress (KSF);
5.8.6.3
= internal friction angle of reinforced soil mass
or foundation soil,whichever is the least
(DEG); 5.9.2
= resistance factor (DIM); 5.10.4
= angle of internal friction of wall cell fill
(DEG); 5.10.1
= angle of internal friction of soil (DEG); 5.5.5.4
= angle of internal friction of retained soil
(DEG); 5.9.1
= effective angle of internal friction of soil
(DEG); 5.5.5.2
= effective angle of internal friction of founda
tion soil (DEG); 5.6.4
= angle of internal friction of foundation soil
(DEG); 5.10.1
= angle of internal friction of reinforced soil
mass (DEG); 5.9.1
= unit weight of wall cell fill (KCF); 5.10.1
= unit weight of retained soil (KCF); 5.9.1
= unit weight of reinforced soil mass
(KCF);5.9.1
= unit weight of soil (KCF); 5.5.5.1
= tangent of angle of internal friction of wall
cell fill, = tan c (DIM); 5.10.4
= angle from the back face of wall to the
horizontal as shown in Figure 5.5.5.3-1
(DEG); 5.5.5.3
= soil to soil reinforcement interface angle

(DEG); 5.9.2
y, y 1 , y 2 = angle from horizontal to failure surface of
failure wedge (DEG); 5.5.5.5
y
= vertical angle measured from horizontal to
failure surface for internal stability analysis
for walls with extensible soil reinforcement
(DEG); 5.9.3
y
= vertical angle measured from horizontal to
failure surface within retained soil (DEG);
5.9.1
Part B
5.5
EARTH PRESSURE
5.5.1
General
Earth pressure shall be considered a function of the:
type and unit weight of earth,

water content,
soil creep characteristics,
degree of compaction,
location of groundwater table,
seepage,
earth-structure interaction,
amount of surcharge, and
earthquake effects.
C5.5.1
Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be
designed for at-rest lateral earth pressure. Walls which
can move away from the mass should be designed for
pressures between active and at-rest conditions, depend
ing on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Move
ment required to reach the minimum active pressure or the
maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall height
and the soil type. Some typical values of these mobilizing
movements, relative to wall height, are given in Table
C5.5.1-1, where:
D = movement of top of wall required to reach mini
mum active or maximum passive pressure, by
tilting or lateral translation (FT)
H = height of wall (FT)
For walls retaining cohesive materials, the effects of
soil creep should be taken into consideration in estimat
ing the design earth pressures. Evaluation of soil creep
is complex and requires duplication in the laboratory of
the stress conditions in the field as discussed by Mitchell
(1976). Further complicating the evaluation of the stress
induced by cohesive soils are their sensitivity to shrinkswell, wet-dry and degree of saturation. Tension cracks
can form, which considerably alter the assumptions for
the estimation of stress. If possible, cohesive or other fine
5-15
grained soils should be avoided as backfill and in no

case should highly plastic clays be used.
Type of Backfill
Values of DD /H
Active
Passive
Dense Sand
0.001
0.01
Medium Dense Sand
0.002
0.02
Loose Sand
0.004
0.04
Compacted Silt
0.002
0.02
Compacted Lean Clay
0.010
0.05
Compacted Fat Clay
0.010
0.05
temporarily. If there is no further movement, acitve

pressures will increase with time, approaching the at-rest
pressure, and passive pressures will decrease with time,
approaching values on the order of 40% of the maximum
short-term value. The at-rest pressure should be based on
the residual strength of the soil.
5.5.2
Compaction
For non-yielding walls where activity by mechanical

compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of
one-half the height of the wall, the effect of additional
earth pressure that may be induced by compaction shall
be taken into account.
C5.5.2
Table C5.5.1-1
Approximate Values of Relative Movements
Required to Reach Active or Passive Earth Pressure
Conditions, Clough (1991)
Under stress conditions close to the minimum active
or maximum passive earth pressures, cohesive soils indi
cated in table C5.5.1-1 creep continually, and the move
ments shown produce active or passive pressures only
Compaction-induced earth pressures may be estimated

using procedures described by Clough and Duncan
(1991).
5.5.3
Presence of Water
If the retained earth is not allowed to drain, the effect

of hydrostatic water pressure shall be added to that of
earth pressure.
Total
Pressure
Earth
Pressure
Water
Pressure
Water
= Table
Depth
Earth
Pressure
Depth Below Water

Table
Depth
Water
Pressure
Total
Pressure
Earth
Water
Pressures
Figure C5.5.3-1 Effect of Groundwater Table
5-16
In cases where water is expected to pond behind a wall,

the wall shall be designed to withstand the hydrostatic
water pressure plus the earth pressure.
ation should be given to address the possibility of excess

pore pressures or soil liquefaction.
Submerged unit weights of the soil shall be used to

determine the lateral earth pressure below the groundwa
ter table.
5.5.5
If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the

wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the
potential for piping shall be considered. Pore water
pressures shall be added to the effective horizontal stresses
in determining total lateral earth pressures on the wall.
C5.5.3
5.5.5.1
Basic Lateral Earth Pressure
Basic lateral earth pressure shall be assumed to be

linearly proportional to the depth of earth and taken as:
P = k s z
(5.5.5.1-1)
where:
The development of hydrostatic water pressure on

walls should be eliminated through use of crushed rock,
pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains or geosynthetic
drains.
Pore water pressures behind the wall may be approxi
mated by flow net procedures or various analytical meth
ods such as the line-of-creep method as presented in the
US Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-2-2502.
5.5.4
Earth Pressure
= basic lateral earth pressure (KSF)
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as,

ko ,for walls that do not deflect or move, or, ka,
for walls that deflect or move sufficiently to
reach minimum active conditions.
= unit weight of soil (KCF)
= depth below the surface of earth at pressure

surface (FT)
Effect of Earthquake
The effects of earthquake may be considered in the

design of retaining walls which support bridge abut
ments, buildings, soundwalls, critical utilities, or other
installations for which there is a low tolerance for failure.
The effects of wall inertia and probable amplification of
active earth pressure and/or mobilization of passive earth
masses by earthquake may be considered.
C5.5.4
The Mononobe-Okabe method for determining
equivalent static seismic loads may be used for gravity
and semi-gravity retaining walls.
The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is based, in part, on the
assumption that the backfill soils are unsaturated and
thus, not susceptible to liquefaction.
Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic
or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special consider
The resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the

backfill shall be assumed to act at a height of h3 above
the base of the wall, where h is the height of the pressure
surface, measured from the surface of the ground to the
base of the wall.
C5.5.5.1
The location of the resultant lateral earth load on the
pressure surface at h3 above the base of the pressure
surface is applicable when the backfill surface is planar
and the backfill is completely above or completely below
the ground water table.
For those situations where the backfill surface is nonplanar and/or the ground water table is located within the
backfill, a trial wedge method of analysis may be used for
the determination of the resultant lateral earth load in
which case the location of the resultant lateral earth load
may be determined by the intersection of a line that is
parallel to the failure surface of the wedge projected from
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-17
the centroid of the weight of the failure wedge to the plane

of the wall pressure surface. If the projected line is above
the top of the pressure surface, the resultant lateral earth
load may be assumed to act at the top of the pressure
surface.
5.5.5.2
At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure

Coefficient, ko
For normally consolidated soils and vertical wall, the

coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure may be taken
as:
ko = (1 - sin f f )(1 + sin b )
(5.5.5.2-1)
where:
'f
= effective friction angle of soil (DEG)
ko
C5.5.5.2
The evaluation of the stress induced by cohesive soils
is highly uncertain due to their sensitivity to shrinkageswell, wet-dry and degree of saturation. Tension cracks
can form, which considerably alter the assumptions for
the estimation of stress. Extreme caution is advised in the
determination of lateral earth pressures by assuming the
most unfavorable conditions.
5.5.5.3
Active Lateral Earth Pressure

Coefficient, ka
Values for the coefficient of active lateral earth pres

sure may be taken as:
Coulomb Theory
sin ( Q + f f )
2
ka =
= slope angle of backfill surface behind retain

ing wall (DEG)
G sin 2 Q sin( Q - d )
( 5.5.5.3-1)
For overconsolidated soils, level backfill, and a verti

cal wall, the coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure
may be assumed to vary as a function of the
overconsolidation ratio or stress history, and may be
taken as:
0.5
sin(f f +d )sin(f f -b )
G = 1 + (
J
sin(
q
d
)sin(
q
+
b
)

( 5.5.5.3-2)
sinf f
ko = (1 - sin f f )(OCR)
where:
(5.5.5.2-2)
where:
h
Pa
OCR = overconsolidation ratio

Silt and lean clay shall not be used for backfill unless
suitable design procedures are followed and construction
control measures are incorporated in the construction
documents to account for their presence. Consideration
must be given for the development of pore water pressure
within the soil mass. Appropriate drainage provisions
shall be provided to prevent hydrostatic and seepage
forces from developing behind the wall. In no case shall
highly plastic clay be used for backfill.
5-18
d
b
O
'f
ka

(FT)
unit width of wall (KIP/FT)
= friction angle between backfill material and
back of wall (DEG)
= angle from backfill surface to the horizontal
(DEG)
= angle from the back face of wall to the
horizontal as shown in Figure 5.5.5.3-1 (DEG)
(DIM)
C5.5.5.3
Rankine Theory
cos b cos f f
2
ka =
(cos b + (cos
b -cos f f )
2
0.5 2
(5.5.5.3-3)
Where d and'f are as defined for Coulombs theory.
For conditions that deviate from those described in Fig
ures 5.5.5.3-2a, 5.5.5.3-2b and 5.5.5.3-2c for Coulombs
theory and Figure 5.5.5.3-3 for Rankines theory, the
active lateral earth pressure may be calculated by using
a trial procedure based on wedge theory.
The Coulomb theory is applicable for the design of

retaining walls for which the back face of the wall inter
feres with the full development of the outer failure surface
in the backfill soil as assumed in the Rankine theory. In
general, The Coulomb theory applies for gravity, semigravity, prefabricated modular walls and non-gravity
cantilevered walls which have relatively steep back faces,
and semi-gravity cantilevered walls with short footing
heels. Both the Coulomb theory and the Rankine theory
are applicable for the semi-gravity cantilevered walls
with long footing heels where the outer failure surface in
the backfill soil as assumed in the Rankine theory can
fully develop. The Rankine theory is applicable for the
design of mechanically stabilized earth walls.
Backfill
Slope
Level
Gravity
Wall
Lateral earth
pressure
distribution
h/3
Pa
Figure 5.5.5.3-1 Notation for Coulomb Active Lateral Earth Pressure
5-19
Backfill slope
Inner failure surface
Level
Pa
Wedge of backfill
soil slides along
back of wall
Gravity wall
Figure 5.5.5.3-2a Application of Coulomb Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
Surface of sliding
restricted by
top of wall and
heel of footing
Outer failure
surface by
Rankine's
theory
restricted
by wall
Backfill slope
Inner
failure
surface
Level
Pa
Determine lateral
earth pressure on
vertical plane at
heel of footing
'f to 2 'f
3
3
but not greater than
=
___
a b = vertical plane
Semi-gravity wall with short footing heel
Figure 5.5.5.3-2b Application of Coulomb Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
5-20
Backfill slope
Inner failure surface
Level
Pa
Wedge of backfill
soil slides along
back of wall
Gravity wall
Figure 5.5.5.3-2a Application of Coulomb Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
Surface of sliding
restricted by
top of wall and
heel of footing
Outer failure
surface by
Rankine's
theory
restricted
by wall
Backfill slope
Inner
failure
surface
Level
Pa
Determine lateral
earth pressure on
vertical plane at
heel of footing
'f to 2 'f
3
3
but not greater than
=
___
Semi-gravity wall with short footing heel
Figure 5.5.5.3-2b Application of Coulomb Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
5-21
Backfill
slope
Shear zone uninterupted
by stem of wall
(failure wedge)
a
Outer
failure
surface
Level
Pa
Inner failure
surface
b
semi-gravity wall with long footing heel
where:
Pa = lateral earth pressure rsultant per unit width of
___ wall determined by Rankine theory (KIP/FT)
i = (90-'f)+(-) (DEG)
o = (90-'f)-(-) (DEG)
sin
sin = ___
sin 'f
Figure 5.5.5.3-3 Application of Rankine Lateral Earth Pressure Theories with Notation
5-22
Passive Lateral Earth Pressure

Coefficient, kp
For non-cohesive soils, values of the passive lateral

earth pressure may be taken from Figure 5.5.5.4-1 for the
case of a sloping or vertical wall with a horizontal backfill
or from Figure 5.5.5.4-2 for the case of a vertical wall and
sloping backfill. For conditions that deviate from those

described in Figures 5.5.5.4-1 and 5.5.5.4-2, the passive
pressure may be calculated by using a trial procedure
based on wedge theory or a logarithmic spiral method.
When wedge theory or logarithmic spiral method are
used, the limiting value of the wall friction angle should
not be taken larger than one-half the effective angle of
internal friction, f .
DEDUCTION FACTOR (R) OF Kp
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
12
.898
.830
.752
.666
.574
.475
.375
.276
.881
.803
.716
.620
.520
.417
.316
.221
.864
.775
.678
.574
.467
.362
.262
.174
11
10
70
80
-0.3
.912
.854
.787
.711
.627
.536
.439
.339
100
-0.4
.929
.881
.824
.759
.686
.603
.512
.414
90
-0.5
.946
.907
.862
.808
.746
.674
.592
.500
-0.6
.962
.934
.901
.860
.811
.752
.682
.600
-0.7
.978
.961
.939
.912
.878
.836
.783
.718
110
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
13
-/
120
14
FOR VARIOUS RATIOS OF -/
5.5.5.4
45- f /2
60
7.0
45- f /2
6.0
FAILURE
SURFACE
PT
PP
-
PN
H/3
LOGARITHMIC
SPIRAL
p = k p s H
50
4.0
COEFFICIENT OF PASSIVE PRESSURE, K p
5.0
PASSIVE PRESSURE
PP = k p s H ;
2
3.0
PT = PP SIN
PN = PP cos
NOTE: CURVES SHOWN ARE

FOR
/ f
= -1
2.0
1.0
.8
.6
.5
0
10
20
30
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, f , DEGREES
40
45
Figure 5.5.5.4-1 Coefficient of Passive Lateral Earth Pressure for Vertical and Sloping Walls with
Horizontal Backfill ( Caquot and Kerisel Analysis ), Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1971)
5-23
For cohesive soils, passive lateral earth pressures may

be estimated by:
Pp = kp gs z + 2c( k p) 0.5
where:
Pp
gs
z
c
(5.5.5.4-1)
= passive lateral earth pressure (KSF)
= depth below surface of soil (FT)
= unit cohesion (KSF)
kp = coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure speci

fied in Figures 5.5.5.4-1 and 5.5.5.4-2, as appropriate.
COEFFICIENT OF PASSIVE PRESSURE, Kp
-/f
f
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
REDUCTION FACTOR (R) OF Kp
90.0
80.0
FOR VARIOUS RATIOS OF -/f
70.0
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
60.0
.978
.961
.939
.912
.878
.836
.783
.718
.962
.934
.901
.860
.811
.752
.682
.600
.946
.907
.862
.808
.746
.674
.592
.500
.929
.881
.824
.759
.686
.603
.512
.414
.912
.854
.787
.711
.627
.536
.439
.339
.898
.830
.752
.666
.574
.475
.375
.276
.881
.803
.716
.620
.520
.417
.316
.221
.864
.775
.678
.574
.467
.362
.262
.174
50.0
/f = +0.6
/f = + 1
/f = + 0.8
/f = +0.4
/f = +0.2
40.0
30.0
/ f = 0
20.0
/f = -0.2
H
PT
10.0
9.0
8.0
H/3
7.0
FAILURE
SURFACE
90 f
o
PP
LOGARITHMIC
SPIRAL
PN
/f = -0.4
P = KPs H
6.0
PASSIVE PRESSURE
5.0
KPs H ;
2
2
PP =
4.0
/f = -0.6
PT = PP sin ;
PN = PP cos ;
NOTE: CURVES SHOWN ARE

FOR -/f = -1
3.0
/f = -0.8
2.0
PASSIVE
ZONE
/f = -0.9
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
10
20
30
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, f , DEGREES
40
45
Figure 5.5.5.4-2 Coefficient of Passive Lateral Earth Pressure for Vertical Walls with Sloping Backfill
( Caquot and Kerisel Analysis ), Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1971)
5-24
5.5.5.5
Trial Wedge Method of

Analysis for the Determination
of the Resultant Lateral Earth
Pressure
soil. This movement causes a failure surface to form. It is

assumed that this surface is a plane AM. The wedge of soil
BAM moves downward a small amount along the failure
surface and along the pressure surface. This wedge, whose
weight is,W, is held in equilibrium by the resultant active
pressure, Pa , acting on the surface, AB, and the resultant
force, R, acting on the failure surface, AM. Since the
wedge moves downward along, AB, the force, Pa , acts
with an assumed obliquity,d , below the normal to oppose
this movement. Similarly, the force, R, acts with an
obliquity, f , below the normal because failure is occur
ring along this surface. For any assumed direction of the
failure surface, AM, as defined by angle, y , from the
horizontal, the magnitude of, W, can be determined and
with the directions of ,W, R, and, Pa , known or assumed,
the magnitude of, Pa , can be determined. With the trial
wedge method of analysis, the direction of the failure
surface, AM, is varied until the determined magnitude of,
Pa , is a maximum.
The trial wedge method of analysis is a procedure by

means of which the resultant active and passive lateral
earth pressures may be determined using either Coulombs
or Rankines theories. The only limitation in this method
is that the inner failure surface must be plane or so nearly
plane that assuming a plane surface does not introduce
significant errors. This condition is satisfied when deter
mining active pressures but may not be satisfied when
determining passive pressures when large values of wall
friction and are used. In addition to the conditions shown
in Figures 5.5.5.5. -1 through 5.5.5.5-6 this method can
be applied for conditions where the ground water table is
located within the failure wedge, when seismic accelera
tions are applied to the mass of the failure wedge and
where soils are cohesive.
Figure 5.5.5.5-2 shows the assumptions used in the

determination of the resultant active pressure for a slop
ping ground condition applying Rankine's theory.

determination of the resultant active pressure for a slop
ing ground condition applying Coulomb's theory. The
pressure surface AB yields by rotating in a counterclock
wise direction about A and may also yield to the left
sufficiently to create an active state of stress in the backfill
Figure 5.5.5.5-3 shows the application of Coulombs

theory for a broken back slope condition for the determi
nation of the resultant active pressure.
Failure wedge
B
Wall
Failure surface
c.g.
Pressure
Surface
'f
Level
A
Figure 5.5.5.5-1 Trial Wedge Method-Active Pressure, Coulomb's Theory
5-25
In Figures 5.5.5.5-1 through 5.5.5.5-4 the point of

application of the resultant active pressure on the pres
sure surface is determined by passing a line through the
center of gravity (c.g.) of the weight of the failure wedge
which is parallel to the failure surface, AM. The point at
Figure 5.5.5.5-4 shows the application of Rankines

theory for a broken back slope condition for the determi
nation of the resultant active pressure. The direction of
the resultant active pressure is assumed to be parallel to
a line passing through points, V, and, M.
Failure wedge
Pressure
Surface
Inner failure
surface
Wall
c.g.
Outer
failure
surface
Pa
'f
Level
Figure 5.5.5.5-2 Trial Wedge Method-Active Pressure, Rankine's Theory
M
Failure wedge
B
Failure
surface
c.g.
Pressure
Surface
w
Wall
P
A
'f
Level
Figure 5.5.5.5-3 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope-Active Pressure, Coulomb's Theory
5-26
pressure surface. The determination of,W, R, and, Pa1, is

similar to the determination of, W, R, and, Pa , shown in
figure 5.5.5.5-3. In the determination of, Pa2, failure
wedge 2 has the forces,Pa2 ,W2 , and,R2 , acting on it plus
the force, R1 , from failure wedge 1.
which this line intersects the pressure surface, AB, or, AV,
is the point of application of the resultant active pressure.
Figure 5.5.5.5-5 shows the application of Coulombs
theory for a broken back slope condition and a broken
Failure wedge
B
M
Pressure
surface
c.g.
Outer failure
surface
Inner Failure
Surface
Pa
'f
Wall
Level
A
The direction of, Pa , is parallel to a line, VM
Figure 5.5.5.5-4 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope-Active Pressure, Rankine's Theory
Failure wedge 1
M2
M1
Pressure
Surfaces
B
Failure
wedge 2
c.g. 'f R 1
w1
c.g.
1
Wall
Pa1
B'
R 1 '
f w2
Pa2
Failure
surface
wedge 1
Level
Failure
surface
wedge 2
R 2 '
f
Level
Figure 5.5.5.5-5 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope and Broken Pressure Surface-Active Pressure,
Coulomb's Theory
5-27
Pressure
surface
B
Pp
Failure wedge
c.g.
Level
w
Structure
'
Failure surface
Figure 5.5.5.5-6 Trial Wedge Method-Passive Pressure, Coulomb's Theory

determination of the resultant passive pressure for a
broken back slope condition applying Coulombs theory.
The pressure surface, AB, moves toward the backfill soil
by rotating in a clockwise direction about, A, and may
also translate to the right sufficiently to create a passive
state of stress in the backfill soil. This movement causes
a failure surface to form. It is assumed that this surface is
a plane, AM. The wedge of soil, BAM, moves downward
along the failure surface and also upward relative to the
pressure surface of the structure. This wedge, whose
weight is, W, is held in equilibrium by the resultant
passive pressure, Pp , acting on the surface, AB, and the
resultant force,R , acting on the failure surface, AM. Since
the wedge moves upward along, AB, the force, Pp , acts
with an assumed obliquity,d , above the normal to oppose
this movement. Similarly, the force, R , acts with an
obliquity, f , to the normal in a direction that opposes
movement of the wedge along the failure surface. For any
assumed direction of the failure surface, AM, as defined
by angle y from the horizontal, the directions of, W, R,
and, Pp , are known or assumed, and the magnitude of,Pp,
can be determined. With the trial wedge method of
analysis, the direction of the failure surface, AM, is varied
until the determined magnitude of,Pp , is a minimum. The
point of application of the resultant passive pressure on
the pressure surface is determined by passing a line
through the center of gravity (c.g.) of the weight of the
failure wedge which is parallel to the failure surface, AM.
5-28
The point at which this line intersects the pressure surface,

AB, is the point of application of the resultant passive
pressure.
5.5.5.6
Lateral Earth Pressures For

Non-Gravity Cantilevered
Walls
For permanent walls, the simplified lateral earth pres

sure distributions shown in Figures 5.5.5.6-1 and 5.5.5.6
2 may be used. If walls will support or are supported by
cohesive soils for temporary applications, the walls may
be designed based on total stress methods of analysis and
undrained shear strength parameters. For this latter case,
the simplified lateral earth pressure distributions shown
in Figures 5.5.5.6-3, and 5.5.5.6-4 may be used with the
following restrictions:
The ratio of total overburden pressure to undrained
shear strength,NS (see Article 5.5.5.7.2), must be <3
at the design grade in front of wall.
The active lateral earth pressure acting over the wall
height, H, shall not be less than 0.25 times the
effective overburden pressure at any depth, or 0.036
KSF/FT of wall height, which ever is greater.
For temporary walls with vertical elements embedded

in granular soil or rock and retaining cohesive soil,
Figures 5.5.5.6-1 and 5.5.5.6-2 may be used to determine
the lateral earth pressure distributions on the embedded
portion of the vertical elements and Figure 5.5.5.6-4 may
be used to determine the lateral earth pressure distribu
tion due to the retained cohesive soil.
The lateral earth pressure distributions in Figures

5.5.5.6-1 thru 5.5.5.6-4 shown acting on the embedded
portion of vertical wall elements shall be applied to the
effective width, b', of discrete vertical wall elements. See
Article 5.7.6 for effective widths of discrete vertical wall
elements to be used.
k a1 s1
k a2 s1 H
H
Soil 1
( s1 ,' f1 )
Finished Grade
Design
Grade
'
k a2 s2
Do
k p2 s2
1
Soil 2
( s2 ,' f2 )
1
Note: The value of ' is negative for the slope shown.
Figure 5.5.5.6-1 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Granular Soil and Retaining Granular Soil
5-29
k as
1
Soil
( s , 'f )
Finished Grade
'
D0
Design
Grade
Rock
(s m )
F
Note: The value for ' is negative

for the slope shown.
Pp =
s m(Do+b 2 )
(1-tan ')
where:
b = Actual width of embedded discrete vertical wall element
below design grade in plane of wall (feet)
Pp = Passive resistance of the rock acting on the actual width of the
embedded discrete vertical wall element (KIP/FT)
Figure 5.5.5.6-2 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Rock and Retaining Granular Soil
5-30
Treat sloping backfill above top of wall

within the active failure wedge as additional
surcharge ( v) for determining the active
lateral earth pressure on the embedded
wall element
k as
Active failure
wedge failure
surface
Design
Grade
Granular
Soil
( s1, 'f )
Do
Cohesive
Soil
( s2 , S u )
F
2Su
( s1 H+ v -2S u )
Figure 5.5.5.6-3 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Cohesive Soil and Retaining Granular Soil
5-31
Treat sloping backfill above top of wall

within the active failure wedge as additional
surcharge ( v) for determining the active
lateral earth pressure.
2Su1
Active failure
wedge failure
surface
s
Design
Grade
Cohesive
Soil
( s1 , Su1)
Do
Cohesive
Soil
( s2 , Su2)
2Su2
H+ -2S
u2
s1
v
H+ -2S
s1
v
u1
Note: A portion of negative loading at top of wall due to cohesion

is ignored and hydrostatic pressure in a tension crack
should be considered, but is not shown.
Figure 5.5.5.6-4 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Cohesive Soil and Retaining Cohesive Soil
5-32
For anchored walls restrained by tie rods and structural

anchors, the lateral earth pressure acting on the wall may
be determined in accordance with Article 5.5.5.6.
For anchored walls constructed from the top down and
restrained by ground anchors (tieback anchors), the lat
eral earth pressure acting on the wall height, H, may be
determined in accordance with Articles 5.5.5.7.1 and
5.5.5.7.2.
For anchored walls constructed from the bottom up
and restrained by a single level of ground anchors located
not more than one third of the wall height, H, above the
bottom of the wall, the total lateral earth pressure, PTotal,
acting on the wall height, H, may be determined in
accordance with Article 5.5.5.7.1 with distribution as
sumed to be linearly proportional to depth and a maxi
2PTotal
mum pressure equal to,
. For anchored walls
H
constructed from the bottom up and restrained by mul
tiple levels of ground anchors, the lateral earth pressure
acting on the wall height, H, may be determined in
accordance with Article 5.5.5.7.1.
In developing the lateral earth pressure for design of an

anchored wall, consideration shall be given to wall dis
placements that may affect adjacent structures and/or
underground utilities.
C5.5.5.7
In the development of lateral earth pressures, the
method and sequence of wall construction, the rigidity of
the wall/anchor system, the physical characteristics and
stability of the ground mass to be supported/retained,
allowable wall deflections, anchor spacing and prestress
and the potential for anchor yield should be considered.
2
H
3 1
Lateral Earth Pressures for

Anchored Walls
H1
5.5.5.7
T h1
H1
2
H
3 1
H2
T h2
2
H
3 n+1
Design
Grade
T hn
Design
Grade
Hn+1
2
(H - H 1)
3
Hn
1
H
3
T h1
2
H
Note: H1 <
a) Wall with a single level of anchors
b) Wall with multiple levels of anchors
Figure 5.5.5.7.1-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Anchored Walls Constructed from the Top Down
in Cohesionless Soils
5-33
5.5.5.7.1
Cohesionless Soils
The lateral earth pressure distribution for the design of

temporary or permanent anchored walls constructed in
cohesionless soils may be determined using Figure
5.5.5.7.1-1, for which the maximum ordinate, pa, of the
pressure diagram is determined as follows:
For walls with a single level of anchors :
pa =
5.5.5.7.2
Cohesive Soils
The lateral earth pressure distribution for cohesive

soils is related to the stability number, NS, which is
defined as:
PTotal
2
3
(H -
PTotal
1
3
Ns =
(5.5.5.7.1-1)
For walls with multiple levels of anchors:
pa =
= design reaction force at design grade

at bottom of wall to be resisted by
embedded portion of wall (KIP/FT)
H1 - 31 H n +1 )
(5.5.5.7.1-2)
g sH
Su
where:
g s
= total unit weight of soil (KCF)
= wall design height (FT)
Su
= average undrained shear strength of

soil (KSF)
where:
pa
= maximum ordinate of pressure dia
gram (KSF)
PTotal = total lateral load required to be ap

plied to the wall face to provide a factor
of safety equal to 1.3 for the retained
soil mass when stability is analyzed
using an appropriate limiting equilib
rium method of analysis. Except that
PTotal, shall not be less than 1.44 Pa. (KIP)
Pa
= active lateral earth pressure resultant

acting on the wall height, H, and deter
mined using Coulombs theory with a
wall friction angle, d, equal to zero. (KIP)
H1
= distance from ground surface at top of

wall to uppermost level of anchors. (FT)
Hn+1
= distance from design grade at bottom

of a wall to lowermost level of anchors (FT)
Thi
= horizontal component of design force

in anchor at level i (KIP/FT)
5-34
5.5.5.7.2a
Stiff to Hard
For temporary anchored walls in stiff to hard cohesive

soils ( N s <_ 4), andb= zero, the lateral earth pressure may
be determined using Figure 5.5.5.7.1-1, with the maxi
mum ordinate, pa, of the pressure diagram determined as:
pa = 0.2 g s H to 0.4 g s H
(5.5.5.7.2a 1)
where:
pa
= maximum ordinate of pressure diagram

(KSF)
gs
For permanent anchored walls in stiff to hard cohesive

soils, the lateral earth pressure distributions described in
Article 5.5.5.7.1 may be used with, PTotal, based on the
drained friction angle of the cohesive soil. For permanent
walls, the distribution (permanent or temporary) result
ing in the maximum total force shall be used for design.
H
4
Th1
Design
Grade
3H
Th2
Th3
pa
Figure 5.5.5.7.2b-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution for Anchored Walls Constructed from the Top Down
in Soft to Medium Stiff Cohesive Soils
pa = ka g s H
C5.5.5.7.2a
In the absence of specific experience in a particular
soil deposit, pa=0.3g sH should be used for the maximum
pressure ordinate when the anchors are locked off at 75
percent of the design force or less. Where anchors are to
be locked off at 100 percent of the design force or greater,
a maximum pressure ordinate of pa=0.4g sH should be
used.
For temporary walls the lateral earth pressure distribu
tions in Figure 5.5.5.7.1-1 should only be used for exca
vations of controlled short duration, where the soil is not
fissured and where there is no available free water.
5.5.5.7.2b
Soft to Medium Stiff
The lateral earth pressure on temporary or permanent

walls in soft to medium stiff cohesive soils (NS >
_ 6) and
b =zero, may be determined, using Figure 5.5.5.7.2b-1 for
which the maximum ordinate,pa, of the pressure diagram
is determined as:
(5.5.5.7.2b-1)
where:
pa
= maximum ordinate of pressure diagram

(KSF)
ka
= coefficient of active lateral earth pres

sure from Equation 5.5.5.7.2b-2
gs
The coefficient of active lateral earth pressure,ka, may

be determined by:
4S
d 1 - 5.14Sub
ka = 1 - u +2 2 (
0.22
g sH
H g s H J
(5.5.5.7.2b-2)
5-35
where:
Su
= undrained shear strength of retained soil

(KSF)
Sub
= undrained shear strength of soil below

design grade in front of wall (KSF)
gs
= total unit weight of retained soil (KCF)
= depth of potential base failure surface

below the design grade in front of wall
(FT)
For permanent anchored walls in soft to medium clay,

long-term lateral earth pressures determined using drained
shear strengths and effective stresses may be greater than
pressures determined using undrained strengths and
should be considered in design.
C5.5.5.7.2b
For soils with 4<Ns<6, use the larger , pa , from
Equations 5.5.5.7.2a-1 and 5.5.5.7.2b-1.
The value of, d , is taken as the thickness of soft to

medium stiff cohesive soil below the design grade in front
of the wall up to a maximum value of,Be / 2 , where,Be
, is the width of excavation in front of the wall.

Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Walls
The lateral active earth pressure resultant applied to

the back of an MSE wall as shown in Figures 5.5.5.8-1,
5.5.5.8-2 and 5.5.5.8-3 shall be determined using the
Rankine theory in accordance with Articles 5.5.5.1,
5.5.5.3 and 5.5.5.5.
Retained
soil
y= h
H=h
Reinforced
soil
5.5.5.8
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Level
Backfill Surface
5-36
h-H
Retained
soil
Pa
Pv
Reinforced
soil
y= h
Ph
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-2 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Sloping
Backfill Surface
5-37
h-H
Retained
soil
Failure surface
Pv
Pa
Reinforced
soil
Ph
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-3 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Broken Back
Backfill Surface
where:
Pa

length of wall under consideration
determined by Rankine theory (KIP)
Ph
= horizontal component of, Pa (KIP)
Pv
= vertical component of, Pa (KIP)
= design height of wall (FT)

(FT)
5-38
= length of soil reinforcement (FT)
= height above base of wall to location of

point of application of, Pa, see Article
C5.5.5.1 (FT)
= slope of backfill surface behind wall

(DEG)
= notional slope of backfill associated

with broken back backfill surface behind
wall (DEG)
5.5.5.9

.

.
The lateral active earth pressure for the design of

prefabricated modular walls may be determined using
Coulombs theory as presented in Figures 5.5.5.3-1 and
5.5.5.3-2c.
5.5.5.10
(a + b )
b +
(a + b )
P=
arctan ( a + b ) - arctan b

90
h
h
ph
z =
(
(
(a + b )
arctan
(a + b )
- arctan
(5.5.5.10.1-1)
(a + b )
where:
+

uniform surcharge (KSF)
(
(
(
= uniform surcharge applied to the wall

backfill surface within the limits of the
active failure wedge (KSF)
90 - arctan
(a + b )
(a
)
)
h
- arctan
b
h
b
h
+ b)
)
)
(a + b )
90 - arctan
2 h arctan
b
h
2 h arctan
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure due to

surcharge
b
arctan
2 h arctan
qs
(5.5.5.10.2-2)
Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant

horizontal earth pressure shall be added to the basic
lateral earth pressure. This constant earth pressure may be
taken as:
k s
.
'
5.5.5.10.1 Uniform Surcharge Loads
Dp
(5.5.5.10.2-1)
Surcharge Loads
Dp = ksqs
' .
- 57.30 a h
- arctan
For active earth pressure conditions, ks , shall be

taken as, ka, and for at-rest conditions, ks , shall be taken
as, ko.
b
h
(5.5.5.10.2-3)
where:
5.5.5.10.2 Uniformly Loaded Strip Parallel

to Wall
The horizontal earth pressure distribution and result
ant applied to the back of a wall due to a uniformly loaded
strip parallel to the wall may be taken as:
D ph =
2p
p
p
z
z
arccot
-arc cot
180
a+b
b
Dph
= horizontal earth pressure on the pressure

surface at back of wall at a distance,z, from the
wall backfill surface (KSF)

face to the level at which Dph is being deter
mined (KT)
= horizontal earth pressure resultant acting on

the pressure surface at back of wall (KIPS/FT)
5-39
_
z

face to the level at which the horizontal earth
pressure resultant is applied (FT)
= height of pressure surface at back of wall (FT)
= load intensity of strip load parallel to wall

(KSF)
= width of strip load (FT)
= distance from pressure surface to near edge

of strip load (FT)
5.5.5.10.3
Point Load
The horizontal earth pressure applied to the back of a

wall due to a vertical point load my be taken as:
D ph =
3x z (
- 1 - 2v )
p
R
p
x -y
2
Rr
(R + z )
y z
3
Rr
(5.5.5.10.3-1)
where:
C5.5.5.10.2
Equations 5.5.5.10.2-1 and 5.5.5.10.2-2 are based on
the assumption that the wall does not move (i.e. walls
which have a high degree of structural rigidity or re
strained at the top combined with an inability to slide in
response to applied loads). For flexible walls, this as
sumption can be conservative.
= vertical point load (KIP)
= radial distance from point of load applica

tion to the point on the back of the wall at
which, Dph , is being determined where,
R = ( x2 + y2 +z2 ) (FT)
0.5
= horizontal distance from the point of load

application to the back of the wall (FT)
_
z
p
Back of wall
or pressure
surface
Design
grade
Figure 5.5.5.10.2-1 Horizontal Earth Pressure on Wall Due to Uniformly Loaded Strip Parallel to Wall
5-40
= horizontal distance from the point on the

determined to a plane which is perpendicular
to the wall and which passes through the point
of load application measured along the back
of wall (FT).
C5.5.5.10.3
= vertical distance from the point of load

application to the elevation of the point on the
determined (FT)
Poisson's ratio for soils varies from about 0.25 to 0.5,

with lower values more typical for granular and stiff
cohesive soils and higher values more typical for soft
cohesive soils.
= ( x2 + y2) (FT)
= Poissons ratio (DIM)
The horizontal earth pressure on a wall due to other

vertical load conditions may be approximated by super
imposing the effects of closely spaced point loads which
are equivalent to the actual load in magnitude and distri
bution.
0.5
Equation 5.5.5.10.3-1 is based on the assumption that

the wall does not move. For flexible walls, this assump
tion can be conservative.
x
P
Back of wall
or pressure
surface.
Back of Wall
or pressure
surface
Location
of load
application
Design
grade
Vertical Section
Horizontal Section
at
Figure 5.5.5.10.3-1 Horizontal Earth Pressure on Wall Due to Point Load
5-41
5.5.5.10.4
Uniformly Loaded Strip

Parallel to Wall Flexible
Walls
strip loads may be distributed with depth as shown in

Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 and horizontal forces may be distrib
uted with depth as shown in Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2.
For flexible walls, i.e. walls relatively free to move

laterally in response to applied horizontal loads, vertical
d
bf
Pv or Pv'
/2
Footing, BxL
Bottom of
footing
elevation
Applied vertical
stress, v
1
bf
Z2
D1
Back of wall
or pressure
surface
D1
For z z2 , D1
For point load, Ds v =
For z z2 ,
where:
= b1 + z
b +z
D1 = 1
+d
2
For continuous footing or strip load,
p
Ds v = v
D1
D1
= effective width for determining vertical

stress at any depth due to applied vertical load
(FT)
bf
= width of applied vertical stress (FT). For

concentrically loaded footings, bf =B. For
eccentrically loaded footings,bf =B-2e', where,
For isolated footing load,
Ds v =
p v
D1 ( L + z )
pv
, (b f = 0)
( D1 ) 2
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 Distribution of Vertical Stress with Depth Due to Applied Vertical Stress ( Continued )
5-42
e' , is the eccentricity of the footing load, but

bf shall not be greater than B.
Dsv
= vertical stress at depth, z , due to applied

vertical stress (KSF)
= width of footing (FT)
= length of footing (FT)

elevation or level of applied vertical stress to
level at which,Dsv , is being determined (FT)
Pv
= vertical load per unit length of continuous

footing or strip load (KIPS/FT)
z2
= depth at which inclined plane for determi

nation of effective width, D1, intersects the
back of wall or pressure surface (FT)
Pv'
= vertical load on isolated rectangular footing

or point load (KIPS)
sv
= distance from center of width,bf , to back of

wall or pressure surface (FT)
= applied vertical stress (KSF)
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 Distribution of Vertical Stress with Depth Due to Applied Vertical Stress ( Continued )
d
bf
Bottom of
Footing
elevation
bf/
2
Footing
PH
Z3
2PH
Z3
45+
'f/
2
Back of wall or
pressure surface
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2 Distribution of Horizontal Stress with Depth Due to Applied Horizontal
Force ( Continued )
5-43
Dsh max = maximum value for, Dsh , which occurs at

the bottom of footing elevation (KSF)
where:
bf
= width of footing overwhich horizontal force,

PH, is distributed, (bf = B - 2e', but not greater
B) (FT)
B
e'
= width of footing (FT)

= eccentricity of vertical load on footing (FT)
PH
= horizontal force at base of continuous foot

ing per unit length of footing (KIPS/FT)
Dsh
= horizontal stress at depth,z, due to horizon

tal force at base of continuous footing (KSF)

elevation or level of applied horizontal force
to level at which, Dsh , is being determined
(FT)
z3
= depth of back of wall or pressure surface

overwhich horizontal stress, Dsh , from the
applied horizontal force is distributed, deter
mined as shown in figure (FT)
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2 Distribution of Horizontal Stress with Depth Due to Applied Horizontal
Force ( Continued )
5.5.5.10.5
Live Load Surcharge
A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular

load is expected or possible to act on the surface of the
backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind
the back face of the wall or pressure surface.
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load
surcharge may be taken as:
D p = k gsheq
heq
= equivalent height of soil for vehicular load

(FT)
g sheq 0.240 KSF for highway loading

If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a struc
tural slab, which is also supported by means other than
earth, a corresponding reduction in the surcharge loads
may be permitted.
(5.5.5.10.5-1)
5.5.5.11
where:
Dp

live load surcharge (KSF)
gs
= coefficient of lateral earth pressure (DIM)
5-44
Lateral Earth Pressures for

Restrained Abutments
For abutments, such as rigid frame abutments or proped

abutments, which do not deflect sufficiently to create an
active wedge in the backfill soil, the lateral earth pressure
distributions shown in Figure 5.5.5.11-1 shall be used
whichever controls. Additionally live load surcharge
effects shall be applied.
0.6h
0.2h
0.2h
k o s h
0.8kas h
where:
ka
ko

(DIM)
gs

(DIM)
Figure 5.5.5.11-1 Lateral Earth Pressure at Restrained Abutments
5.5.5.12
Reduction Due to Earth
Pressure
For culverts and bridges and their components where

earth pressure may reduce effects caused by other loads
and forces, such reduction shall be limited to the extent
earth pressure can be expected to be permanently present.
In lieu of more precise information, 50% of the earth
pressure effects may be used to reduce the effects of other
loads.
5-45
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AUGUST 2003
5.6
5.6.1
RIGID GRAVITY AND

SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN
5.6.2
Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 5.6.1-1 for terminology used in the

design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls.
Footing Embedment
Refer to Articles 4.4.5.1 and 4.4.5.2 for minimum

requirements for depth of embedment of footings of rigid
gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls. Additionally,
footings shall be founded at a depth that provides a
minimum of 1.5 feet of cover.
Backfill
Back face
Front face
Stem
Buttress
Counterfort
Footing
cover
Construction
joint
~
Toe
Heel
Footing
Footing key
Figure 5.6.1-1 Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
5-46
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5.6.3
Earth Pressure, Water Pressure and

Surcharge Loadings
Lateral earth pressure loading on rigid gravity and

semi-gravity retaining walls is a function of the type and
condition of soil backfill, the slope of the ground surface
surface behind the wall, the friction between the wall and
soil, and the ability of the wall to translate or rotate about
its base. For walls with footing keys of depth, Dk , which
is greater than the distance, Bk , from the back face of the
footing key to the backface or heel of the wall footing, the
lateral earth pressure loading shall extend to the level of
the bottom of the footing key. Refer to Articles 5.5.5.1
5.5.5.5 for determination of appropriate design lateral
earth pressures.
No vertical wall structure shall be designed for less
than an equivalent fluid with a unit weight of 36 pounds
per cubic foot, except that the maximum foundation
pressure or maximum pile reactions acting on the heels of
wall footings shall be determined by using an equivalent
fluid with a unit weight of 27 pounds per cubic foot.
In developing the total design lateral pressures, the
lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line
surcharge loads, backfill compaction, or other types of
surcharge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth
pressure. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination
of design lateral pressures due to surcharge loads.
The resistance due to passive lateral earth pressure in
front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends
well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other
types of disturbance. Development of passive lateral
earth pressure in the soil in front of a rigid wall requires
an outward rotation of the wall about its toe or other
movement of the wall into the soil. The magnitude of
movement required to mobilize passive pressure is a
function of the soil type and condition in front of the wall
as defined in Table C5.5.1-1.
5.6.4
Structure Dimensions and External

Stability
Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be proportioned

to ensure stability against possible failure modes by
satisfying the following stability criteria:
Sliding Factor of safety, FSSL 1.5
Overturning Maximum eccentricity of the result
ant force acting on footing base
Wall footing on soil, emax
Wall footing on rock, emax
B
6
B
4
Bearing capacity
Wall footing on soil, FS 3.0 see Article 4.4.7
Wall footing on rock, FS 3.0 see Article 4.4.8
5.6.4.1
Sliding Stability
In the determination of the, FSSL , the effect of passive

lateral earth pressure resistance in front of a wall footing
or a wall footing key shall only be considered when
competent soil or rock exists which will not be removed
or eroded during the structure life. Not more than 50
percent of the available passive lateral earth pressure
shall be considered in determining the, FSSL .
Refer to Figure 5.6.4.1-1 for procedures to deter
mine the factor of safety against sliding. For wall
footings with a footing key, both horizontal and
inclined sliding planes should be considered to
determine the minimum factor of safety against
sliding. For walls with sloping footings procedures
similar to those shown in Figure 5.6.4.1-1 should be
used to determine the factor of safety against sliding.
The provisions of Article 5.5.3 shall apply.

When groundwater levels may exist above the bottom
of wall footing elevation, consideration shall be given to
the installation of a drainage blanket and piping at the
wall excavation face to intercept the groundwater before
it saturates the wall backfill.
In general, all wall designs should provide for the
thorough drainage of the back-filling material.
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-47
Wall stem
Footing toe
= arctan
Footing heel
P
Tf
PP
Pmax
Q
Dk
B1
B1
c
Pmax = (Q cos Pp sin ) tan f +
cos
(Pmax + Pp cos Q sin )
FS SL =
P cos
c.
FSSL =
a.
Pmax + Pp
where:
Wall footing without footing key

Wall stem
Footing toe
Footing heel
P
Dk
Tf
Pmax
Q1
B1
Footing key
Q2
Q
B
Q = Q1 + Q2
FSSL =
b.
Pmax + Pp
P
Wall footing with footing key and horizontal

sliding plane
Wall stem
Footing toe
Dk
Pmax
Tf
Footing heel
Pp
Wall footing with footing key and inclined

sliding plane
Footing key
= tangential component of force on wall foot

ing (KIP)
Pmax = maximum resisting force between wall foot
ing base and foundation soil or rock against
sliding failure (KIP)
Pp
= passive lateral earth pressure, not to exceed
50 percent of the available passive lateral
earth pressure (KIP)
Q
(KIP)
Q1
within distance B1 (KIP)
Q2
within distance (B B1) (KIP)
B
= width of wall footing (FT)
B1
= distance from toe of footing to front face of
footing key (FT)
B'
= width of wall footing actually in compres
sion (B= B 2e) (FT)
Tf
= wall footing thickness (FT)
Dk
= depth of wall footing key (FT)
= effective angle of internal friction of foun

dation soil (DEG)
= angle of friction between wall footing and

foundation soil, or rock (for footings on
2
soil, , may be taken as, 3 ) (DEG)
c
= cohesion of foundation soil (KSF)
ca
= adhesion between wall footing and founda
tion soil or rock (KSF)
= angle between bottom of wall footing and

a plane passing through lower front corner
of the footing and the lower front corner of
the footing key (DEG)
B1
Figure 5.6.4.1-1 Procedures to Determine the Factor of Safety Against Sliding
5-48
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5.6.4.2 Overturning
forces are generally not considered in determining the

eccentricity of the resultant force acting on the footing
base. For walls with a footing with a deep footing key the
lateral resisting forces shall be considered in determining
the eccentricity of the resultant force acting on the foot
ing base. In the determination of the eccentricity, the
horizontal resisting force acting on the toe of the footing
shall not exceed the at-rest lateral earth pressure.
Stability of a wall against overturning is evaluated by

determining the eccentricity of the resultant force acting
on the footing base.
For walls with a footing with no footing key or with a
footing with a shallow footing key, the lateral resisting
Pressure
surface
Pav
xw
Pa
W
Pah
cL Footing
Tf
Pmax
Dk
Pp
Q
Tk
Bk
Dk < Tf
Bk > Dk , when Bk < Dk , the pressure surface of height, h , extends to bottom of footing key
e=
QB
2
+ Pah y Pav B Wxw
Figure 5.6.4.2-1
Procedures to Determine the Eccentricity of the Resultant Force Acting on the Wall
Footing Base ( Continued )
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-49
Pressure
surface
xw
Pav
Pa
Pah
yo
cL Footing
Po
Tf
P
O
Q
Pr
Dk
Pmax
Tk
Bk
Pr = P Po , and ( Pr Pmax ) 0.5Pp
Bk Dk , when Bk > Dk , the pressure surface of height, h, extends to the bottom of the footing.
e=
D
QB
+ Pr ( 2k )
o o
2 + Pah y PavBWxw Py
Q
b. Wall with deep footing key
Figure 5.6.4.2-1
5-50
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
where:
P a = lateral earth pressure resultant per unit width
of wall acting on pressure surface at back of
wall (KIPS/FT)
= eccentricity of resultant force acting on foot

ing base from center of footing (FT)
Tk = width of wall footing key (FT)

Pav = vertical component of, Pa (KIPS/FT)
P ah = horizontal component of, Pa (KIPS/FT)
= vertical distance from bottom of footing to

level of application of, Pa (FT)
Bk = distance from heel of footing to back face of

footing key (FT)
Pr = resultant force of uniformly distributed lat
eral resisting pressure per unit width of wall
acting over depth of footing key required to
provide equilibrium to force, P (KIPS/FT)
Pr=P-Po
W = resultant weight of wall, including any footing key, the backfill above the footing, and
any surcharge loads acting above the footing
width per unit width of wall (KIPS/FT)
P o = at-rest lateral earth pressure resultant per unit

with of wall acting on the toe of the wall
footing (KIPS/FT)
xw = horizontal distance from toe of footing to

location at which, W, acts.
y o = vertical distance from bottom of wall footing

to the level of application of, Po (FT)
For other variables, see Figure 5.6.4.1-1
Figure 5.6.4.2-1
5.6.4.3
Wall Foundations
See Article 4.45 for procedures to determine the re

quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles
4.4.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6,
respectively, for procedures to design driven pile and
drilled shaft foundations.
5.6.5
Structure Design
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be

by the service load design method except in special cases
when earthquake forces are considered in which case the
load factor design method may be used. A wall support
ing a soundwall is a special case where earthquake forces
should be considered.
5.6.5.1
Wall Footings
The rear projection or heel of footings shall be de

signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
backfill, surcharge loads, and a portion of the vertical
component of the lateral earth pressure acting on the
pressure surface located at the heel of the footing, unless
a more exact method is used. The footing of cantilever
walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported by the
wall stem. The footing of counterforted and buttressed
walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous beams of
spans equal to the distance between counterforts or but
tresses.
The critical sections for bending moments in footings
shall be taken at the front and back faces of the wall stem.
The critical sections for shear in the footing shall be taken
at a distance, d, from the front face of the wall stem for the
toe section and at the back face of the wall stem for the heel
section (see Aritcle 8.16.6 when concentrated loads are
present).
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-51
5.6.5.2
Footing Keys
Shallow unreinforced footing keys shall be propor

tioned such that the key width is at least twice the key
depth. Deep reinforced footing keys shall be designed as
cantilevers supported at the bottom of the footing and
they shall be designed for the load produced by the force,
PR, shown in Figure 5.6.4.2-1b.
5.6.5.3
Wall Stems
The wall stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as

cantilevers supported at the footing. The face walls of
counterfort and buttress walls shall be designed as fixed
or continuous beams. The face walls shall be securely
anchored to the supporting counterforts or buttresses by
means of adequate reinforcement.
Axial loads (including the weight of the wall stem and
frictional forces due to backfill acting on the wall stem)
shall be considered in addition to the bending due to
eccentric vertical loads, surcharge loads and lateral earth
pressure if they control the design of the wall stems.
5.6.5.4
Counterforts and Buttresses
Counterforts shall be designed as rectangular beams.

In connection with the main tension reinforcement of
counterforts, there should be a system of horizontal and
vertical bars or stirrups to anchor the face walls to the
counterfort. These stirrups should be anchored as near to
the outside faces of the face walls, and as near to the
bottom of the footing as practicable.
5.6.5.6
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not

exceeding 24 feet and expansion joints at intervals not
exceeding 96 feet for gravity or reinforced concrete walls.
Expansion joints shall be constructed with a joint filling
material of the appropriate thickness to ensure the func
tioning of the joint and they shall be provided with a
waterstop capable of functioning over the anticipated
range of joint movements.
5.6.5.7
Silts and clays shall not be used for backfill unless

suitable design procedures are followed and construction
control measures are incorporated in the construction
documents to account for their presence.
5.6.5.8
Overall Stablility
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED
WALL DESIGN
Reinforcement
5.7.1.
Except in gravity walls, not less than 0.20 square

inches per foot of height or length shall be provided in the
horizontal and vertical directions near the exposed sur
faces not otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of
temperature and shrinkage cracks.
Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel shall
be provided if required during the construction stage
prior to wall backfill placement. The adequacy of the
reinforcement shall be checked due to the dead load of the
stem and any other vertical loads applied to the stem prior
to backfilling.
5-52
Backfill
The backfill material behind all retaining walls shall

be free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive material
and shall be drained by weep holes with pervious material
or other positive drainage systems, placed at suitable
intervals and elevations. For counterfort walls, there shall
be at least one drain for each pocket formed by the
counterforts.
5.7
5.6.5.5
Expansion and Contraction
Joints
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
Design Terminology
A nongravity cantilevered wall includes an exposed

design height, H, over which soil is retained and an
embedded depth, D, which provides lateral support, see
Figure 5.7.1-1.
Finished
grade
Top of wall
Facing
Berm
Finished grade
Design grade
(Bottom of wall)
D0
Discrete vertical
element (soldier pile)
Concrete backfill
Drilled hole
where:
H
D
Do
= design height of wall

= depth of embedment of vertical wall elements for nongravity cantilevered walls (FT)
= calculated embedment depth of vertical wall elements for non-gravity cantilevered walls
required to provide the desired factor of safety by the simplified analysis method (FT)
Figure 5.7.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Nongravity Cantilevered Retaining Walls
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-53
This type wall may consist of discrete vertical ele

ments, (soldier piles) which extend over the height, H, and
embedment, D, with facing elements over the height, H,
which span between the discrete vertical elements or it
may consist of continuous vertical elements (sheet piles),
which extend over the height, H, and embedment, D,
providing both the facing and lateral support.
Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls,

saturated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject
to freezing and expansion. In such cases, insulation shall
be provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil,
or consideration should be given during wall design to
the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by frozen
soil.
5.7.2
5.7.5
Loading
The active lateral earth pressure distributions pro

vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for design. When
determining the value for, ka, for granular soils, the
Coulomb theory should be used with the value for the
wall friction angle, , equal to zero.
The lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and
line surcharge loads, backfill compaction or other types
of surcharge loads shall be added to the active lateral earth
5.7.3
Wall Movement
The effects of wall movements on adjacent facilities

shall be considered in the selection of the design lateral
earth pressures. Walls for which little or no movement can
be tolerated should be designed for at-rest lateral earth
pressure.
5.7.4
Water Pressure and Drainage
The provisions of Article 5.5.3 shall apply. Seepage

shall be controlled by the installation of a drainage
medium behind the facing with outlets at or near the
bottom of the wall facing. Drainage panels, when used,
shall maintain their drainage characteristics under the
design lateral earth pressures and surcharge loadings, and
shall extend from the base of the wall to a level not more
than 3 feet below finished grade at the top of the wall.
When timber lagging members are used for the facing, the
provision of gaps between the lagging members is gener
ally sufficient to control seepage. For lagging members
less than 6 inches thick, 3/8 inch gaps may be used, for
lagging members 6 inches or more in thickness, inch
gaps may be used.
Passive Resistance
The passive lateral earth pressure distributions pro

vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for design. When
determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the
provisions of Articles 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used.
The embedment of vertical wall elements shall be
designed to support the full design lateral earth, sur
charge and water pressures. In determining the embed
ment depth to mobilize passive lateral resistance, consid
eration shall be given to planes of weakness (e.g., slick
ensides, bedding planes, and joint sets) that could reduce
the strength of the soil or rock determined by field or
laboratory tests. Embedment in intact rock including
massive to appreciably jointed rock which should not fail
through a joint surface, shall be based on the shear
strength, sm, of the rock mass.
5.7.6
Structure Dimensions and External

Stablility
Nongravity cantilevered walls shall be dimensioned

to ensure stability against passive failure of the embed
ded vertical elements such that the factor of safety against
overturning about he bottom of the embedded vertical
elements is greater than or equal to 1.5, FSOT >_ 1.5, when
the simplified lateral earth pressure distributions in Ar
ticle 5.5.5.6 plus any additional surcharge and water
pressures are used.
Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for
support, the width, b, of each vertical element shall be
assumed to equal the width of the flange or diameter of the
structural element for driven sections or elements place
in drilled holes which are backfilled with pea gravel or
lean concrete and equal to the diameter of the drilled hole
for sections encased in structural concrete backfill.
When determining the resultant lateral pressures, both
active and passive, applied to the embedded portion of
5-54
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
discrete vertical elements in soil, an effective width of the

vertical elements, b, may be used. For walls with a facing
that is continuous across the vertical elements the effec
tive width shall not exceed two times the width of the
vertical elements (b<_ 2b) . For walls with a facing that is
simply supported at each vertical element the effective
width shall not exceed three times the width of the vertical
elements (b<_ 3b). The effective width used for the verti
cal elements shall not exceed the center to center spacing
of the vertical elements. When determining the resultant
passive lateral pressure applied to the embedded portion
of discrete vertical elements in rock, the width of the
vertical element shall be used.
For vertical elements embedded in soil, the calculated
embedment, Do, shall be increased to determine the
embedment to be used, D, so that,
_ 1.1Do. For vertical elements embedded in rock,
D>
>
_
D Do may be used.
For nongravity cantilevered walls with embedment in
soil, the design height, H, shall be established so that the
finished grade provides a berm in front of the wall face at
least 4 feet wide measured from the face of the wall and
provides a design grade at least 2 feet below finished
grade measured at the face of the wall.
For nongravity cantilevered walls with embedment in
rock the design height, H, shall be established so that
stable conditions will be provided considering the nature
of the rock and slope in front of the wall and the service
life of the wall.
5.7.7
Structure Design
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be

by the service load design method except in special cases,
such as when earthquake forces are considered, in which
case the load factor design method may be used.
The vertical support elements shall be designed for the
full contributory lateral pressures and any vertical loads
if they control the design.
Reinforced concrete facing elements both continuous
and simply supported shall be designed for the full design
lateral pressures, deadload, and any other vertical loads
if they control the design.
Timber or steel facing elements (lagging members)

simply supported at the vertical support elements may be
designed for a reduced bending moment to account for
soil arching except when retaining soft cohesive soils.
When applicable the maximum design moment may be
taken as 0.8 times the calculated moment using the design
lateral pressures. Timber facing elements should be con
structed from stress-grade lumber which has been pres
sure treated with a perservative.
5.7.8
Traffic Barrier
When traffic barriers are placed at the top of nongravity cantilevered walls they shall be constructed on a
support slab which is designed to resist the overturning
due to the design horizontal impact load applied to the
barrier. The support slab shall be designed so only
horizontal and vertical forces are transmitted to the ver
tical support elements of the wall. The support slab
shall be continuous the full length of the wall with no
expansion joints. The horizontal forces from the support
slab applied to the vertical support elements need to be
considered in the design of these vertical support ele
ments. The horizontal force from the support slab shall
be applied to the top of the vertical support elements.
For discrete vertical support elements the minimum de
sign force shall be 20 kips or 3.5 kips times the spacing
of the vertical support elements whichever is greater but
need not exceed 40 kips. For continuous vertical sup
port elements the minimum force shall be 3.5 kips per
foot. These design forces may be considered factored
loads. The design lateral earth pressure from the retained
soil need not be considered to act concurrently with the
above design forces. The calculated embedment, Do,
shall provide a minimum factor of safety against over
turning equal to 1.0 ( FSOT > 1.0 ) for the above loading
using the simplified analysis method.
When traffic barriers are placed at the top of nongravity cantilevered walls embedded in soil or rock, the
minimum design height, H, shall be 6 feet, and the
minimum length of wall and barrier slab shall be 60 feet.
5.7.9
Overall Stability
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3

When conducting a limiting equilibrium method of
analysis, the passive resistance provided by any portion
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-55
of the wall vertical elements which extend below the

failure surface being evaluated may be used in the
analysis.
5.7.10
Corrosion Protection
Steel vertical support elements should be protected

over their exposed height and a nominal distance below
finished grade with an appropriate coating system.
Steel facing elements and fasteners should be pro
tected with an appropriate coating system.
5.8.
5.8.1
ANCHORED WALL DESIGN

Design Terminology
An anchored wall includes an exposed design height,

H, over which soil is retained and generally an embed
ded depth, D, which may provide vertical and lateral

support plus either structural anchors or ground anchors,
see figures 5.8.1-1 and 5.8.1-2.
This type wall may consist of discrete vertical ele
ments (soldier piles) which extend over the height, H, and
embedment, D, with facing elements over the height, H,
which span between the discrete vertical elements and
one or more levels of anchors or it may consist of continu
ous vertical elements (sheet piles), which extend over the
height, H, and embedment, D, providing both the facing
and vertical and lateral support and one or more levels of
anchors or it may consist of multiple levels of continuous
horizontal elements over the height, H, with anchors at
each level all of which provide the facing and vertical and
lateral support.
The anchors may be either structural anchors or ground
anchors. Structural anchors may consist of concrete
anchors, anchor piles or a pile anchor which are located
a sufficient distance behind the wall to develop lateral
Top of wall
Concrete
Facing
Timber
lagging
Finished grade
Active
pressure
failure
surface
Tie rod
Passive
pressure
failure surface
Discrete vertical
Concrete
anchor
Berm
Concrete backfill
Finished
grade
Design
grade
(Bottom of
wall)
Passive pressure
failure surface
Drilled hole
Active pressure
failure surface
(or critical failure surface)
a) Wall With Concrete Anchor
Figure 5.8.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Tie Rods and
Structural Anchors ( Continued )
5-56
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
Top of wall
Finished grade
Concrete
backfill
Drilled
Hole
Timber
lagging facing
H
Tie rod
Berm
Discrete vertical
Finished
grade
Concrete
backfill
D
Design
grade
(Bottom of
wall)
Active
pressure
failure
surface
Anchor
pile
Passive
pressure
failure surface
Drilled hole
Passive pressure
failure surface
Active pressure
failure surface
(or critical failure surface)
b) Wall With Anchor Pile
Top of wall
Finished grade
Pile cap
Waler
Tie rod
Berm
Continuous
vertical elements
(sheet piles)
Finished
grade
Design
grade
Compression
piles
Active pressure
failure surface
(critical failure
surface)
Passive pressure
failure surface
Tension
piles
Pile Anchor
System
c) Wall With Pile Anchor System
Figure 5.8.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Tie Rods and
Structural Anchors ( Continued )
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-57
Top of wall
Finished grade
Critical failure surface

- internal design
Waler
Leon concrete backfill
Tendon
anchorage
Drilled hole
Ground anchor inclination
Ground anchor tendon
Unb
onde
Timber
lagging
facing
d len
Grout
gth
Bond
ed le
ngth
Berm
Finished
grade
Discrete vertical
Drilled hole
Design
grade
(Bottom of
wall)
Structural Concrete
backfill
a) Wall With Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Discrete Vertical Elements
Figure 5.8.1-2 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Ground
Anchors ( Tiebacks) ( Continued )
5-58
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
Finished grade
Top of wall

- internal design
Ground anchor
inclination
Concrete
facing
Ground anchor tendon

Grout
Unbonde
Horizontal
shotcrete
support
element
Finished
grade
d length
Bonded le
ngth
Drilled hole
Design
grade
b) Wall With Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Continuous

Horizontal Support Elements (soldier pileless wall)
Figure 5.8.1-2 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Ground
Anchors ( Tiebacks) ( Continued )
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-59
resistance beyond any critical failure surface and tie rods

secured to the wall and structural anchor. Ground anchors
generally consist of prestressing steel elements (tendons)
placed and grouted in drilled holes.These tendons extend
from an anchorage to the wall to an anchor zone (bonded
length) located beyond any critical failure surface behind
the wall. The ground anchor includes an unbonded
length which permits stressing the anchor without trans
ferring forces to the ground within this length and a
bonded length overwhich tendon forces are transferred to
the ground.
5.8.2
Loading
5.8.2.1
The effects of wall movements on adjacent facilities

shall be considered in the selection of the design lateral
earth pressures. Walls that can tolerate little or no move
ment should be designed for at-rest lateral earth pressure.
Walls with Ground Anchors
For the determination of the apparent lateral earth

pressure distributions acting on the wall height, H, the
provisions of Article 5.5.5.7 apply. For the determination
of the active lateral earth pressure distributions acting on
the wall embedment depth, D, the provisions of Article
5.5.5.6 apply. When determining the value for, Ka, for
granular soils, the Coulomb theory should be used with
the value for the wall friction angle, , equal to zero. The
lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line
surcharge loads, backfill compaction or other types of
surcharge loads shall be added to the above lateral earth
pressures. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination
of design lateral earth pressures due to surcharge loads.
5.8.3
Wall Movement
The effects of horizontal and vertical wall movements

on the performance of the wall and on adjacent facilities
shall be considered in the development of the wall design.
5-60
Water Pressure and Drainage
The provisions of Article 5.7.4 shall apply.
5.8.5
Passive Resistance
The passive lateral earth pressure distributions, pro

vided in Article 5.5.5.6, may be used in the determination
of the required embedment of the vertical wall elements.
When determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the
provisions of Articles, 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used.
The vertical component of the total passive lateral earth
pressure should not exceed the available vertical force
resistance of the wall and the wall anchors.
Walls with Structural Anchors
For the determination of active lateral earth pressure

distributions and additional loadings, the provisions of
Article 5.7.2 apply.
5.8.2.2
5.8.4
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
In determining the required embedment depth to

mobilize passive lateral resistance, consideration shall
be given to planes of weakness (e.g. slickensides, bed
ding planes, and joint sets) that could reduce the strength
of the soil or rock determined by field or laboratory tests.
Embedment in intact rock including massive to apprecia
bly jointed rock which should not fail through a joint
surface, shall be based on the shear strength, sm, of the
rock mass.
5.8.6.1
General
The design of anchored walls includes the determina

tion of the following;

Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of the

vertical wall elements and facing;
Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and
corrosion protection of wall anchors; and
Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall
foundation and surrounding soil mass for all
intermediate and final stages of construction.
For anchored walls with embedment in soil, the design

height, H, shall be established so that the finished grade
provides a berm in front of the wall face at least 4 feet wide
measured from the face of the wall and which provides a
design grade at least 2 feet below finished grade measured
at the face of the wall. For walls supported in or through
soft clays, the design grade shall be established suffi
ciently below finished grade to prevent heave in front of
the wall.
For anchored walls with embedment in rock the design

height, H, shall be established so that stable conditions
will be provided considering the nature of the rock and
slope in front of the wall and the service life of the wall.
Bearing resistance shall be determined assuming that
all vertical components of loads are transferred to the
embedded portion of the vertical wall elements. The
provisions of Articles 4.4.7, 4.4.8, 4.5.6 and 4.6.5 shall
apply.
Where fill is placed behind a wall, either around or
above the tie rods or ground anchors, special designs, and
construction specifications shall be provided to prevent
damage to these elements due to the backfilling opera
tions or due to settlement of subsoil.
For walls in cut where the excavation has advanced to
the level required for the construction of the top level of
anchors, but prior to the installation of the anchors, the
wall shall be analyzed as a temporary non-gravity canti
levered wall and the provisions of Article 5.7 shall apply.
For anchors that are to be load tested against the wall,
consideration of the ability of the retained soil to resist the
anchor test load without excessive deflection of the wall
shall be considered in locating the top level of anchors
and in establishing the design force, T, of the anchors.
Anchored walls must be internally and externally
stable. Internal stability requires the wall anchors to be
located sufficiently behind the wall so that the anchors do
not develop load-resistance from the soil mass retained
by the wall unless the load-resistance is reduced by the
amount developed from the retained soil mass. A wall is
internally stable when any failure surface that passes
between the wall and the wall anchor will have an ad
equate factor of safety with the available anchor resis
tance applied. External stability is satisfied when any
failure surface that passes behind the wall anchors has an
adequate factor of safety. The factors of safety in Article
5.2.2.3 apply.
5.8.6.2
the ultimate capacity, Tult, is greater than or equal to, 2T,

_ 2T.
Tult >
For design of these walls, refer to Figures 5.8.6.2-1,
5.8.6.2-2, and 5.8.6.2-3 and the following procedures;
1. Determine the active lateral earth pressure distribu
tion or at-rest lateral earth pressure distribution if
movements are to be restricted and any additional
loadings. Determine the passive lateral earth pres
sure distribution;
2. Determine the embedment, Do, of the vertical wall
elements that provides a factor of safety equal to 1.0
against rotation about point, O, (level of tie rod);
3. Determine the tie rod force, To, that provides equi
librium of horizontal forces acting on the wall over
the height, H + Do;
4. Determine the tie rod design force, T . For walls with
_ 1.2 To, for
concrete anchors and anchor piles, T >
>
_
walls with pile anchors, T 1.4 To.
5. Design tie rod, tie rod connections, and anchor for
the design force, T. the anchor shall be designed so
that, Tult , of the anchor is greater than or equal to
2 times the design force, T, of the tie rod.
6. For walls with a concrete anchor or anchor piles, if
the passive wedge failure surface of the anchor
encroaches into the active wedge failure surface
behind the wall, determine the force, Pp, required
for equilibrium of the soil mass, abed, between the
anchor and the wall.
7. Determine the embedment, D, for the vertical wall
elements that provides a factor of safety equal to 1.5
against rotation about point, O, (level of tie rod).
Include the driving force, Pp, in the determination
of , D.
8. Design the vertical wall elements assuming a point
of zero moment in the vertical wall elements at
point, b.
Walls with Structural Anchors.
Anchored walls with structural anchors shall be di

mensioned to ensure stability against passive failure of
the embedded vertical elements such that the factor of
safety against rotation about the level of the tie rod is
_ 1.5, and to ensure that
greater than or equal to 1.5, FSR >
When the tie rods are not horizontal, the vertical

component of the tie rod design force, T, shall be consid
ered in the design of the vertical wall elements, tie rod
connections, and anchors.
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-61
Concrete
anchor
Finished Grade
d
H1
Tie rod
Pa
O
e
Active wedge
failure surface
Passive wedge
failure surface
Wall
Finished
Grade
Design
Grade
Pp
W
R
R
' f
Pa
Forces acting on soil
Mass, abed
Pp
Do
Do
Passive wedge
failure
surface
Assumed point
of zero moment
in vertical wall
elements
Passive
pressure
Active
pressure
Figure 5.8.6.2-1 Anchored Wall with Concrete Anchor
5-62
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
Anchor
pile
Finished Grade
d
H1
Tie rod
Pa
Passive wedge
failure surface
Finished
Grade
Design
Grade
Do
Passive wedge
failure
surface
Pp
W
Pp
D o/3
Active wedge
failure surface
' f
Pa
Forces acting on soil
Mass, abed
Passive
pressure
Active wedge
failture
surface
Wall
Do
Assumed point
of zero moment
in vertical wall
elements
Active
pressure
Figure 5.8.6.2-2 Anchored Wall with Anchor Piles
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-63
Finished grade
Pile cap
a
H1
Tie rod
Active
wedge
failure
surface
Wall
Finished
grade
Design
grade
Tension
piles
Compression
piles
Do
Passive wedge
failure
surface
Pile Anchor
b
Active pressure
Passive
pressure
Assumed point of
zero moment in
vertical wall elements
Figure 5.8.6.2-3 Anchored Wall with Pile Anchor
5-64
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
If the wall will support soil or backfill before the

anchor is effective, the wall shall be checked as a nongravity cantilevered wall, see Article 5.7.
= depth of embedment of concrete anchor (FT)
b'
= effective width of concrete anchor (FT)
where :
Concrete Anchors
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of a concrete anchor equals

the total passive lateral earth pressure resistance minus
the total active lateral earth pressure minus any lateral
earth pressure due to surcharge loads acting behind the
_ , it may be assumed
anchor, see Figure 5.8.6.2.1-1. If, d <_ D
2
that the anchor extends to the finished grade and the
ultimate capacity of the anchor is,
Tult = (Pp - Pa) b'
(5.8.6.2-1)
where:
Tult
= ultimate capacity of the concrete anchor

(KIP)
Pp

height, D, per foot width of anchor (K/FT)
Pa

height, D, per foot width of anchor (K/FT)
= actual height of concrete anchor (FT)
= actual width of concrete anchor (FT)
= horizontal spacing of tie rods (FT)
= depth of concrete anchor cover (FT)
b'
= s for continuous anchors and
b'
b+
h
b
or b + , whichever
2
2
is least but not to exceed, s, for

individual anchors
_ the ultimate capacity, T , of a concrete anchor
If, d > D
ult
2
may conservatively be taken as the total lateral passive
earth pressure acting on the anchor height, h, and effective width, b', minus the total lateral active earth pressure
and any lateral earth pressure due to surcharge loads
acting behind the anchor acting on the anchor height, h,
and effective with, b'. Alternatively, Tult, may be determined from representative full size tests or model tests.
For the determination of the active lateral earth pressure, Pa, and the lateral earth pressures due to surcharge
loads, the provisions of Article 5.7.2 apply.
The passive lateral earth pressure distributions provided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for determining, Pp.
provisions of Article 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used with
the value for the wall friction angle, , assumed equal to
zero.
Finished
grade
c"
c'
Passive wedge
failure surface
Tult
Active wedge
failure surface
Pp
Pa
Active pressure
5.8.6.2.1
Tie rod
e
Passive pressure
Concrete anchor
Figure 5.8.6.2.1-1 Determination of Ultimate Capacity of a Concrete Anchor
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-65
Concrete
anchor
c
P a'
P 'p
d
d
H1
c"
h'
Finished
grade
Tie rod
Passive wedge
failure surface
wall
Do
Active
wedge
failure
surface
'f
b
Figure 5.8.6.2.1-2 Determination of Reduction of Ultimate Capacity of a Concrete Anchor
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of a concrete anchor should

be reduced when the passive wedge failure surface in front
of the anchor crosses the active wedge failure surface
behind the wall, see Figure 5.8.6.2.1-2. If the anchor is
located between surfaces, bc, and, bf, in Figure 5.8.6.2.1
2, only partial resistance is available. The capacity
reduction, Tult, may be determined as;
h'
= height from intersection of failure surfaces

to ground surface (finished grade) (FT)
b'
= effective width of concrete anchor (FT)
The tie rod connection to the anchor should be located

at the location of the resultant lateral earth pressures
acting on the vertical faces of the anchor.
Tult = (P'p - P'a) b'

5.8.6.2.2
where:
Tult = ultimate capacity reduction for the

concrete anchor (KIP)
P'p

height, h', per foot width of anchor (K/FT)
P'a

height, h', per foot width of anchor (K/FT)
5-66
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
Anchor Pile
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of an anchor pile is a

function of the moment resistance of the total passive
lateral earth pressure minus the driving moment of the
total active lateral earth pressure and any lateral earth
pressure due to surcharge loads acting on the anchor pile
embedment, Do, and anchor pile effective width, b', see
Figure 5.8.6.2.2-1. If, d <_ b', it may be assumed that the
anchor pile extends to the finished grade and that the
ultimate capacity of the anchor pile is;
Tult =
ya

ment, Do, to the level at which, Pa, acts (FT)
Do
= calculated embedment from finished grade

of anchor pile (FT)
= distance from finished grade to top of anchor

pile (FT)
H1
= distance from finished grade to level at

which, Tult, acts on anchor pile (FT)
b'
= effective width of anchor pile (FT)
= embedment from finished grade to be used

for anchor pile (FT)
= total force acting on anchor pile at depth,

Do, required to provide equilibrium of hori
zontal forces acting on the anchor pile (KIP)
( Pp y p Pa y a )
(5.8.6.2.2-1)
( Do H 1 )
where :
Tult
= ultimate capcity of the anchor pile (KIP)
Pp

height, Do, and effective anchor pile width, b'
(KIP)
Pa

height, Do, and effective anchor pile width, b'
(KIP)
yp

ment, Do, to the level at which, Pp, acts (FT)
Anchor pile
Finished
grade
c'
H1
c"
Active
wedge
failure
surface
Tult
Tie rod
Do
Passive wedge
failure surface
Pp
ya
yp
Pa
Figure 5.8.6.2.2-1 Determination of Ultimate Capacity of an Anchor Pile
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-67
The passive lateral earth pressure distributions provided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for determining, Pp.
provisions of Article 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used with
the value for the wall friction angle, , assumed equal to
zero.
For the determination of the active lateral earth pressure, Pa, and the lateral earth pressures due to surcharge
loads, the provisions of Article 5.7.2 apply. When determining the active lateral earth pressure, the value for the
wall friction angle, , shall be assumed equal to zero.
When determining the effective width, b', of an anchor
pile, the provisions of Article 5.7.6 apply.
piles embedded in rock, the calculated embedment, Do,

shall be increased to determine the embedment to be used,
D, so that D >_ 1.1 Do.
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of an anchor pile should be
reduced when the passive wedge failure surface in front
of the anchor pile crosses the active wedge failure surface
behind the wall. Where this case occurs, the ultimate
capacity, Tult, may be determined by considering a reduced value for, Pp, acting on the anchor pile. The
reduction in, Pp, is;
Pp = (P'p - P'a) b'

where:
Pp = reduction in lateral passive earth pressure

acting on the anchor pile (KIP)
For anchor piles embedded in soil, the calculated

embedment, Do, shall be increased to determine the
embedment to be used, D, so that D >_ 1.2 Do. For anchor
H1
Finished grade
Tult
Pile cap
Tie rod
bc
bt
Compression
piles
CP
Tension
piles
TP
Figure 5.8.6.2.3-1 Determination of Ultimate Capacity of a Pile Anchor
5-68
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
(5.8.6.2.2-2)
= total lateral passive earth pressure acting

on height, h', per foot width of anchor pile
(K/FT)
st
= spacing of tension piles (FT)
H1
= total lateral active pressure acting on

height, h', per foot width of anchor pile
(K/FT)
= distance from finished grade to level at

which, Tult , acts on pile anchor (FT)
= weight of pile cap and pile cap cover (KIP/

FT)
h'
= height from intersection of failure surfaces

to ground surface (finished grade) (FT)
b c
= indicator of batter of compression piles

(DIM)
b'
= effective width of anchor pile (FT)
b t
= indicator of batter of tension piles (DIM)
Cp
= axial force in compression pile (KIP)
Tp
= axial force in tension pile (KIP)
P'p
P'a
5.8.6.2.3
Pile Anchor
Pile anchors generally consist of driven tension and

compression piles and a pile cap for anchoring the tops
of the piles and the end of the horizontal tie rod, see Figure
5.8.6.2.3-1. The ultimate capacity, Tult, of a pile anchor
is a function of the horizontal component of force in the
tension and compression piles. The ultimate capacity of
a continuous pile anchor is;
T ult = s
ph
sc
T ph
st
(5.8.6.2.3.1)
and the ultimate capacity of an individual pile anchor

is;
T ult = C ph +
Tp h
(5.8.6.2.3.2)
where:
Tult
= ultimate capacity of a continuous pile

anchor with tie rods at spacing, s (KIP)
or ultimate capacity of an individual pile
anchor (KIP)
Cph = horizontal component of axial force in a

battered compression pile (KIP)
Tph

battered tension pile (KIP)
= spacing of tie rods (FT)
sc
= spacing of compression piles (FT)
For the design of the driven piles, the provisions of

Article 4.5 shall apply except that piles may be designed
for sustained tension force. The axial forces, Cp , and, Tp ,
shall be less than or equal to the nominal resistances of the
piles. Lateral earth pressures acting on the piles and pile
cap generally are not considered in determining, Tult .
The pile anchor should be located beyond any critical
failure surface behind the wall.
5.8.6.3
Walls with Ground Anchors
Anchored walls with ground anchors shall be dimen

sioned to ensure that the total lateral load,PTotal, plus any
additional horizontal loads are resisted by the horizontal
component of the anchor design force,T, of all the anchors
and the reaction,R, at or below the bottom of the wall. The
embedded vertical elements shall ensure stability against
passive failure such that the factor of safety against
_ 1.5. In
translation is greater than or equal to 1.5, FSt >
determining the stability of the embedded vertical ele
ments, only the passive resistance below the critical
failure surface or point, o, in Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru 5.8.6.3
5 whichever is lowest, shall be considered in resisting the
reaction, R, and the active lateral earth pressure below the
critical failure surface or point,o, in Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru
5.8.6.3-5 whichever is lowest.
When the critical failure surface of the limiting equi
librium analysis associated with the determination of,
PTotal, in Aticle 5.5.5.7 passes a significant distance
below the design grade at the bottom of the wall, then the
ground anchors should be designed to resist the total
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-69
pa
Finished grade
Wall
Design lateral
earth pressure
1
3
H1
2
3
H1
Th1
Design
grade
Ground
anchor
Unb
on
leng ded
th
Finished
grade
bon
ded
leng
th
O
R
Assumed point of zero moment

in vertical wall elements
Note:
Passive
pressure
The critical failure surface

is the failure surface
associated with the
determination of, PTotal .
Active
pressure
Figure 5.8.6.3-1 Anchored Wall with Single Level of Ground Anchors, Critical Failure Surface
Near Bottom of Wall, and
5-70
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
pa
Finished grade
Design lateral
earth pressure
H1
Note:

associated with the
1
3
H1
2
3
Wall
1
2
Th1
Finished
grade
Design
grade
Unb
ond
Ground
anchor
ed l
eng
th
bon
ded
leng
th
Note: Point, O, is the assumed

point of zero moment in
vertical wall elements.
Active
pressure
Passive pressure
Near Bottom of Wall, and
H
2
< H1 , H
2
3
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-71
Finished grade
Critical failure
surface
2 Ptotal
H2
H1
Note:
The critical failture surface
associate with the
determination
of, P total .
Design
grade
Design lateral
earth pressure
Th1
1
2
Finished
grade
Un
bo
nd
ed
len
Assumed point of
gth
zero moment in
vertical wall elements
Ground Anchor
Bo
nd
Active
pressure
ed
len
gth
Passive pressure
Near Bottom of Wall, and H1
5-72
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
H
3
Finished grade
pa
Design lateral
earth pressure
H1

Note:
2
3
H1
Wall
H2
Th1
Unb
ond

associated with the
ed l
Ground
anchor
eng
th
bon
Finished
grade
ded
H3
Design
grade
leng
th
Ground
anchor
2
3
H3
Th2
O
R
Note:
Active
pressure
Point, O, is the assumed

point of zero moment in
vertical wall elements.
Passive
pressure
Figure 5.8.6.3-4 Anchored Wall with Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Critical Failure
Surface Near Bottom of Wall
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-73
Finished grade
H1
Design lateral
earth pressure
Note:
The critical failure
surface is the failure
surface associated
with the determination
of, PTotal .
2
3
H1
Wall
Critical failure
surface
H2
Th1
Unb
ond
ed
Ground
anchor
leng
th
bon
ded
H3
Finished
grade
2
3
H3
Th2
O
Design
grade
leng
th
Ground
anchor
Assumed point of zero

moment in vertical wall elements
where: R = zero
Figure 5.8.6.3-5 Anchored Wall with Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Critical Failure Surface a
Significant Distance Below the Bottom of Wall
5-74
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
force, PTotal, and the vertical elements of the wall should

be designed as a cantilever from the lowest anchor level
to the bottom of the wall.
For design of these walls, refer to Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru
5.8.6.3-3 for walls with a single level of anchors and
Figures 5.8.6.3-4 and 5.8.6.3-5 for walls with multiple
levels of anchors and the following procedures;
7. Use the greater of the two embedments, D, in pro

cedures 5 and 6 above;
8. Design the vertical wall elements for all horizontal
and vertical loads. Horizontal supports may be
assumed at each level of ground anchors and at
point, O;
9. Design the ground anchors.
1. Determine the design lateral earth pressure and any

additional horizontal loading acting on the wall
over the design height, H;
2. Determine the passive and active lateral earth pres
sures acting on the embedded vertical wall ele
ments below the point, O, or the critical failure
surface whichever is the lowest;
3. Determine the horizontal component of ground
anchor design force, Th, and reaction, R, that pro
vides equilibrium of horizontal forces above point,
O. For walls with a single level of anchors, take
moments about point, O, to determine, Th1, where
_, point, O,
for walls with, H1, less than or equal to, 2H
is located at the bottom of wall (design grade) and
_ , point, O,
where for walls with, H1, greater than, 2H
H
_
is located, 2 , below the level of the anchors. For
walls with multiple levels of anchors a number of
suitable methods for the determination of, Th, at
each level are in common use. Sabatini, et. al.
(1999) provides two methods which can be used :
the Tributary Area Method, and the Hinge Method.
To determine, R, equate horizontal forces above
point, O, equal to zero;
4. Determine the design force, T, for the anchors at
T
each level, where, T = cosh , and , , equals the incli
nation from horizontal of the anchor;
5. Determine the embedment, D, of the vertical wall
elements required to ensure stability against pas
sive failure;
6. Determine the embedment, D, of the vertical wall
elements required to resist all vertical components
of loads. Only the portion of the vertical wall
elements below the critical failure surface should
be considered in determining the resistance to
vertical loads;
Ground anchors shall be designed to resist pullout of

the bonded length in soil or rock. The allowable pullout
resistance of a straight shaft anchor in soil or rock, Qa , is
computed as;
Qa =
d a Lb
FS
where :
Qa
d
a
Lb
FS
= allowable anchor pullout resistance (KIP)

= diameter of anchor drill hole (FT)
= ultimate anchor bond stress (KSF)
= anchor bond length (FT)

= factor of safety applied to ultimate anchor
bond stress (DIM)
For preliminary design the resistance of anchors may

either be based on the results of anchor pullout load tests;
estimated based on a review of geologic and boring data,
soil and rock samples, laboratory testing, and previous
experience; or estimated using published ultimate soil
and rock to grout bond stresses. Typical values for the
factor of safety, FS, applied to ultimate anchor bond stress
values are 2.0 to 2.5 for soil and 2.5 to 3.0 for rock. Final
design of the bonded length is generally the responsibil
ity of the contractor and is verified by load testing each
ground anchor.
The anchor bonded length shall be located beyond the
critical failure surface in the retained soil mass.
A minimum distance between the front of the bonded
zone of the anchor and the critical failure surface behind
H is needed to ensure that no load from
the wall of 5 feet or _
5
the bonded zone of the ground anchor is transferred to the
retained soil mass by the grout column.
Determination of the anchor unbonded length, incli
nation from horizontal and overburden cover shall con
sider:
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
5-75
the location of the critical failure surface in the re

tained soil mass behind the wall,
the minimum length required to ensure minimal
loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground
movement, but not less than 15 feet,
the depth to adequate anchoring strata,
the method of anchor installation and grouting,
the seismic performance of the wall and anchors.
5.8.10.2
Ground anchors should be protected from corrosion by

complete full-length encapsulation. Encapsulation con
tinuity shall be maintained at transitions in type of
encapsulation including at the wall anchorage.
5.8.10.3
The minimum spacing between ground anchor bonded
lengths should be the larger of three times the diameter of
the bonded length, or 5 feet. If smaller spacings are
required to develop the required anchor design force,
consideration may be given to differing the anchor incli
nations between alternating anchors.
5.8.7
Structure Design
Ground Anchors
Wall Members
The provisions of Article 5.7.10 apply,
5.8.11
5.8.11.1
Load Testing and Lock Off
Structural Anchors
Structural design of individual wall and anchor ele

ments may be performed by service load or load factor
design methods in conformance with Article 3.22. The
provisions of Article 5.7.7 apply.
Consideration should be given to load testing repre

sentative structural anchors when unusual conditions are
encountered to verify the safety with respect to the tie rod
design force.
5.8.8
Tie rods should be secured to the wall with a nominal

force to help establish uniform loading of the tie rods and
anchors.
Traffic Barrier
The provisions of Article 5.7.8 apply
5.8.11.2
5.8.9
The provisions of Article 5.7.9 apply. Failure surfaces

both in front of and behind the wall anchors shall be
evaluated.
5.8.10
5.8.10.1
Tie Rods
Tie rods should be protected from corrosion by com

plete full-length encapsulation and electrical isolation
from the wall and structural anchor at the connections to
these members.
5-76
Ground Anchors
Overall Stability
SECTION 5
RETAINING WALLS
All ground anchors for walls should be load tested with

either a proof test, performance test or creep test. The
maximum test load for an anchor should generally be 1.5
times the design force, T, of the anchor.
Ground anchors for walls are generally locked off
against the wall at a load equal to 0.75 times the design
force, T, of the anchor. Higher lock-off forces may be
considered in order to minimize wall movements or to
develop higher frictional forces between the wall ele
ments and the retained soil mass.
Ground anchors with strand tendons should be locked
-off at a force which produces a stress in the strand of at
least 0.50 fpu of the strand in order to ensure that the strand
wedges at the tendon anchorage maintain a sufficient grip
on the strand to preclude slippage. If this lock-off force
can not be provided, alternative means of restraining the
strand wedges should be provided.
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS A UGUST 2004
5.9
MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
EARTH WALL
MSE walls shall be designed for external stability of

the wall system as well as internal stability of the rein
forced soil mass behind the facing. MSE wall system
design requires knowledge of short and long-term prop
erties of the materials used as soil reinforcement as well
as the soil mechanics which govern MSE wall behavior.

Structural design of the wall facing may also be required.
The design provisions provided herein for MSE walls
do not apply to geometrically complex MSE wall sys
tems such as tiered walls (walls stacked on top of one
another with various offset distances of the front face) or
walls with varying soil reinforcement length over the
height of the wall.
Finished
grade
Pressure surface
for external
stability
Top of wall
for design
Retained soil
f , f
Reinforced soil mass,

r, r , k r
Wall facing
panels or
units
Active Zone
La
Resistant Zone
Le
Failure surface
for external
stability
Berm
Width
Finished
grade
Wall facing
connection
Embedment
Depth
Failure surface for

internal stability
Leveling pad
Soil Reinforcement Length, L
Limits of wall
for design
Wall Base Width, B
Figure 5.9.1-1 MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design.
5-77
5.9.1
Structure Dimensions
MSE wall element dimensions needed for design are

shown in figure 5.9.1-1
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the
minimum factors of safety required for sliding and over
turning stability are satisfied as well as the eccentricity of
the base reaction not exceeding the maximum allowed. In
addition, the minimum factors of safety for foundation
bearing capacity and soil reinforcement pullout resis
tance shall be satisfied, as well as overall stability require
ments as provided in Article 5.2.2.3.
The soil reinforcement length shall be calculated
based on external and internal stability considerations.
Soil reinforcement length, L , shall be as a minimum 70
percent of the wall height,H , and not less than 8 feet. The
soil reinforcement length shall be uniform throughout
the entire height of the wall, unless substantiating evi
dence indicates that variation in length is satisfactory or
additional length is required locally to resist concen
trated loads. External loads such as surcharges may
increase the minimum soil reinforcement length. Greater
soil reinforcement lengths may also be required for walls
founded on soft soil sites and to satisfy global stability
requirement.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the
reinforced soil mass shall be based on bearing capacity,
settlement and stability requirements, also the effects of
frost heave, scour, proximity to slopes, erosion, and the
potential future excavation in front of the wall shall be
considered. In addition to general bearing capacity,
settlement, and stability considerations, the minimum
embedment required shall consider the potential for local
bearing capacity failure under the leveling pad or footing
due to higher vertical stresses transmitted by the facing.
The minimum embedment depth shall be 2 feet or, 0.1H,
whichever is greater. The lowest level of soil reinforce
ment shall be located a minimum of 0.5 feet below the
level of the finished grade in front of the wall.
A minimum horizontal berm 4 feet or, 0.1H, wide
whichever is greater shall be provided in front of walls
founded on slopes.
For walls constructed along rivers and streams, embed
ment depth shall be established at a minimum of 2 feet
below potential scour depth as determined in accordance
with Article 5.3.5.
5-78
5.9.2
External Stability
The length of soil reinforcement for MSE walls shall

be determined to ensure stability against failure modes by
satisfying the following stability criteria:
Overturning factor of safety,FSOT 2.0, and

- Maximum eccentricity of the resultant force
L
acting on the base of wall, emax
6
Bearing capacity - factor of safety, FS 2.0.
Stability determinations shall be made assuming the

reinforced soil mass and facing to be a coherent gravity
mass. The design lateral earth pressure acting on the
pressure surface at the end of the soil reinforcement shall
be determined in accordance with Article 5.5.5.8 using
the friction angle and unit weight of the retained soil. For
battered walls with an inclined pressure surface,
Coulombs theory may be used assuming the wall friction
angle, d , equals, b , orB. For standardized wall designs
a friction angle equal to 34 degrees may be assumed for
the retained soil and 30 degrees for the foundation soil.
In developing the total design lateral pressures acting
on the pressure surface, the lateral pressure due to sur
charge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth
When groundwater levels may exist within the rein
forced soil mass and/or retained soil, they shall be consid
ered in stability determinations.
front of an MSE wall shall be neglected in sliding and
overturning stability determinations.
For external stability determinations the weight and
dimensions of the facing elements are typically ignored,
although they may be included.
For external stability determinations traffic surcharge
loads shall be considered to act beyond the end of the
reinforced soil mass.
5.9.2.1
Sliding Stability
The factor of safety against sliding , FSSL , shall be

determined by summing the horizontal resisting forces of
the wall and dividing that sum by the summation of
driving forces acting on the wall. The horizontal resisting
forces typically only consist of the normal force acting on
the base of the wall times the coefficient of sliding
resistance. The normal force acting on the base consists
of the weight of the reinforced soil mass, surcharge loads
acting on the top of the reinforced soil mass, and the
vertical component of the design lateral pressure acting
on the pressure surface. The coefficient of sliding resis
tance used to calculate the frictional resistance at the base
of the wall shall be the minimum of the following deter
minations:

Tan at the base of the wall, where is the

friction angle of the reinforced soil or the foun
dation soil, whichever is the least.
Tan r if continuous or near continuous soil

reinforcement layers are used, where, r , is the
soil to reinforcement interface angle for the
bottom of the lowest soil reinforcement layer. If
site specific data for Tan r is not available, use
0.67 Tan for the coefficient of sliding
resistance.
The summation of driving forces acting on the wall

typically consists of the horizontal component of the
design lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface.
5.9.2.2
Overturning Stability
The factor of safety against overturning, FSOT , shall

be determined by summing the resisting moments about
the toe of the wall and dividing that sum by the summa
tion of the driving moments about the toe of the wall. The
lower front corner of the reinforced soil mass is typically
assumed as the toe of the wall. The resisting moments are
typically provided by the weight of the reinforced soil
mass, surcharge loads acting on the top of the reinforced
soil mass, and the tangential component of the design
lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface. The
driving moment is typically provided by the horizontal
component of the design lateral pressure acting on the
pressure surface.
The eccentricity of the location of the resultant force

acting on the base of the wall shall be determined and
compared with the maximum allowable eccentricity.
5.9.2.3
Bearing Capacity
The provisions of Article 4.4.7 apply. Allowable bear

ing capacities for MSE walls shall be determined using a
minimum factor of safety of 2.0 for Group 1 loading
applied to the ultimate bearing capacity. The width of the
footing for determining the ultimate bearing capacity
shall be considered to be the length of the soil reinforce
ment at the foundation level.
Bearing pressures shall be computed using the
Meyerhof distribution, which considers a uniform base
pressure distribution over an effective base width, B' =
L-2e . When the value fore, is negative,B' = L . Where soft
soils are present or if on sloping ground, the difference in
bearing stress determined for the wall reinforced soil zone
relative to the local bearing stress beneath the facing
elements shall be considered when evaluating bearing
capacity. This is especially important where concrete
wall facings are used due to their weight. Furthermore,
differential settlements between the facing elements and
the reinforced soil zone of the wall due to concentrated
bearing stresses from the facing weight on soft soil could
create concentrated stresses at the connection between
the facing elements and the wall soil reinforcement. In
both cases, the leveling, pad shall be embedded ad
equately to meet bearing capacity and settlement require
ments or dimensioned and designed to keep bearing
stresses beneath the leveling pad and the remainder of the
wall as uniform as possible.
5.9.2.4
Overall Stability
Overall stability analyses shall be performed in accor

dance with Article 5.2.2.3. Additionally for MSE walls
with complex geometrics, compound failure surfaces
which pass through a portion of the reinforced soil mass
shall be analyzed, especially where the wall is located on
sloping or soft ground where overall stability is marginal.
Factors of safety and methods of analysis provided in
Article 5.2.2.3 are still applicable. The long-term strength
of those levels of soil reinforcement extending beyond a
failure surface should be considered as restoring forces in
the limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.
5-79
5.9.3
Internal Stability
Internal stability design is dependent on the soil

reinforcement extensibility and material type. In general,
inextensible soil reinforcement consists of metallic strips,
bar mats or welded wire mats, whereas extensible soil
reinforcement consists of geotextiles or geogrids.
Inextensible soil reinforcement reaches its peak strength
at strains lower than the strain required for the reinforced
soil to reach its peak strength. Extensible soil reinforce
ment reaches its peak strength at strains greater than the
strain required for the reinforced soil to reach its peak
strength. Internal stability failure modes include soil
reinforcement rupture (ultimate limit state), soil rein
forcement pullout (ultimate limit state), and excessive
elongation under the design load (serviceability limit
state). The serviceability limit state is not evaluated in
current practice for internal stability design. Internal
stability is determined by equating the tensile load ap
plied to the soil reinforcement to the allowable tension for
the soil reinforcement, the allowable tension being gov
erned by soil reinforcement rupture and pullout.
The load in the soil reinforcement is determined at two
critical locations, i.e. at the zone of maximum stress and
at the connection with the wall face, to assess the internal
stability of the wall system. Potential for soil reinforce
ment rupture and pullout are evaluated at the zone of
maximum stress. The zone of maximum stress is assumed
to be located at the boundary between the active zone and
the resistant zone. Potential for soil reinforcement rup
ture and connection failure are evaluated at the connec
tion of the soil reinforcement to the wall facing.
For the determination of the horizontal forces and
pullout resistance within the reinforced soil mass for
permanent or temporary MSE walls, a friction angle of
34 may be assumed for the reinforced soil mass. Backfill
for the reinforced soil mass shall consist of material free
from organic material and substantially free of shale or
other soft, poor durability particles and shall not contain
slag aggregate or recycled materials such as glass, shred
ded tires, portland cement concrete rubble, asphaltic
concrete rubble or other unsuitable material, and shall
conform to the following requirements:
5-80
For MSE walls with inextensible soil reinforcement

(Metallic soil reinforcement),
Gradation Requirements
Sieve Size
Percentage Passing
California Test
6"
100
202
3"
78-100
202
#4
*--
202
#30
0-60
202
#200
0-25
202
Property Requirements
Test
Requirement
California Test
Sand Equivalent
12 min.
217
Plasticity Index
10 max.
204
Minimum Resistivity
1500 ohm - cm
min.
643
Chlorides
<500ppm
422
Sulfates
<2000 ppm
417
pH
5.5 to 10.0
643
* If 12 percent or less passes the #200 sieve and 50

percent or less passes the #4 sieve, the Sand Equivalent
and Plasticity Index requirements shall not apply.
For MSE walls with extensible soil reinforcement
(geosynthetics),
Sieve Size
Percentage Passing
California Test
2"
100
202
#4
50-80
202
#40
0-30
202
#200
0-15
202
5.9.3.1
Test
Requirement
California Test
Sand Equivalent
30 min.
217
Plasticity Index
10 max.
204
Durability Index
35 min.
229
pH
4.5 to 9.0
643
For the determination of the horizontal forces and

pullout resistance within the reinforced soil mass for
temporary MSE walls, a friction angle of 28 may be
assumed for the reinforced soil mass. Backfill for the
reinforced soil mass shall consist of material free from
organic material or other unsuitable material, and shall
conform to the following requirements:
Sieve Size
Percentage Passing
California Test
* 6"
100
202
** 4"
100
202
# 200
0-50
202
Test
Requirement
California Test
Sand Equivalent
8 min.
217
Plasticity Index
15 max.
204
* Minimum
Resistivity
1500 ohm - cm
min.
643
* Chlorides
< 500 ppm
422
* Sulfates
< 2000 ppm
417
* pH
5.5 to 10.0
643
** pH
4.5 to 9.0
643
*Applies only for MSE walls with inextensible soil

reinforcement
** Applies only for MSE walls with extensible soil
reinforcement
Determination of Maximum Soil

Reinforcement Loads.
The maximum soil reinforcement load, Tmax, shall be

determined using the Coherent Gravity method for walls
with inextensible soil reinforcement and the Simplified
Coherent Gravity Method for walls with extensible soil
reinforcement. For both these methods, the load in the
soil reinforcement is obtained by multiplying a lateral
earth pressure coefficient,Kr, by the vertical soil stress,sv,
at the level of the soil reinforcement and applying the
resulting horizontal soil stress, sh , to the tributary area,
At , for the soil reinforcement as follows:
Tmax = sh At
(5.9.3.1-1)
At = b t ht
(5.9.3.1-2)
sh = sv Kr + Dsh
(5.9.3.1-3)
Where, D s h , is the horizontal soil stress at the level

of soil reinforcement under consideration due to concen
trated horizontal surcharge loads, see Article 5.5.5.10.4,
bt , is the width of the tributary area and,ht , is the height
of the tributary area. For walls with face panels, the width
of the tributary area is generally equal to the panel width
or a multiple of the panel width. The height of the
tributary area depends on the location of the level of soil
reinforcement under consideration. For the top level of
soil reinforcement, ht , equals the distance from the top
of wall to the level of soil reinforcement plus one half the
distance to the next lower level of soil reinforcement. The
top of wall is considered the level at which the finished
grade intersects the back of the wall face. For intermediate
levels of soil reinforcement, ht , equals one half the
distance to the next higher level of soil reinforcement
plus one half the distance to the next lower level of soil
reinforcement. For the bottom level of soil reinforcement,
ht , equals one half the distance to the next higher level
of soil reinforcement plus the distance to the bottom of
wall. The bottom of the wall is generally considered to be
the level of the top of leveling pad under the face of the
wall.
The vertical soil stress, sv , and the lateral earth
pressure coefficient , Kr , shall be determined in accor
dance with Articles 5.9.3.1.1. and 5.9.3.1.2, for
inextensible and extensible soil reinforcement respec
tively.
5-81
5.9.3.1.1
Inextensible Soil Reinforcement
The Coherent Gravity Method shall be used to deter

mine, sv , as follows:
sv = sm + Dsv
(5.9.3.1.1-1)
Where, sm , equals the vertical soil stress at the level

of soil reinforcement under consideration due to the
weight of the soil overburden, distributed vertical sur
charge loads above the reinforced soil mass and lateral
earth pressure acting on the pressure surface and using the
Meyerhof procedure, and where, D sv , equals the vertical
soil stress at the level of soil reinforcement under consid
eration due to concentrated vertical surcharge loads, see
Article 5.5.5.10.4.
The lateral earth pressure coefficient , Kr , shall equal
the at-rest lateral earth pressure coefficient, Ko , at the
level of the top of the wall and vary linearly with depth
to a value equal to the active lateral earth pressure
coefficient at a depth of 20 feet below the top of the wall,
and remain constant at this value for depths greater than
20 feet from the top of the wall. The at-rest lateral earth
pressure coefficient, Ko , shall be determined in accor
dance with Article 5.5.5.2 assuming,b, equal to zero. The
active lateral earth pressure coefficient, Ka , shall be
determined in accordance with the Coulomb Theory and
Article 5.5.5.3 assuming,b , d , and,q , all are equal to zero.
5.9.3.1.2
Extensible Soil Reinforcement
The Simplified Coherent Gravity Method shall be

used to determine, sv , as follows:
sv = savg + Dsv
(5.9.3.1.2-1)
Where, savg , equals the average vertical soil stress at

the level of soil reinforcement under consideration due to
the weight of the soil overburden and distributed vertical
surcharge loads above the level of soil reinforcement, and
where, Dsv , is as noted in Article 5.9.3.1.1.
The lateral earth pressure coefficient, Kr , shall equal
the active lateral earth pressure coefficient which shall be
determined in accordance with the Coulomb Theory and
Article 5.5.5.3 assuming, b , d , and, q , all are equal to
zero.
5-82
5.9.3.2.
Determination of Maximum Soil

Reinforcement Load at the Wall
Face
The maximum soil reinforcement tensile load at the

wall face,To , shall be equal to, Tmax , for the correspond
ing level of soil reinforcement for all wall systems regard
less of facing and soil reinforcement type.
5.9.3.3.
5.9.3.3.1
Determination of Soil
Reinforcement Length for
Internal Stability
Location of Zone of Maximum

Horizontal Soil Stress
The location of the zone of maximum horizontal soil

stress for wall systems with inextensible and extensible
soil reinforcement, which forms the boundary between
the active and resistant zones and which is assumed to be
the failure surface for internal stability, is determined as
shown in Figure 5.9.3.3.1-1. For all wall systems, the zone
of maximum horizontal soil stress shall be assumed to
begin at the back of the facing elements at the toe of the
wall.
For wall systems with extensible soil reinforcement,
the zone of maximum horizontal soil stress, as defined by
the angle,y , from horizontal, should be determined using
the Coulomb theory. In applying the Coulomb theory,
the back of the wall facing elements shall be assumed to
be the pressure surface and, d , the wall friction angle shall
be assumed equal to, b , or ,B, where,b , equals the slope
of the backfill surface behind the wall face and, B, is the
notional slope of the backfill associated with a broken
back backfill surface behind the wall face as shown in
Figure 5.5.5.8-3.
Concentrated surcharge loads shall be considered in
the determination of the location of the zone of maximum
horizontal soil stress.
5.9.3.3.2
Soil Reinforcement Pullout
Design
The soil reinforcement pullout resistance shall be

checked for adequacy at each level against pullout failure
for internal stability. Only the effective pullout length
which extends beyond the potential failure surface for
0.3 H1
Bilinear zone of maximum horizontal soil

stress/failure surface for internal stability.
Upper portion is parallel to back of wall
face.
L
H1
Active zone
Resistant zone
Soil reinforcement
H1
* Minimum horizontal distance,increase

as required when concentrated surcharge
loads are present.
L
Linear zone of maximum horizontal

soil stress/failure surface for
internal stability.
Active zone
Resistant zone
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.9.3.3.1-1 Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability Design of MSE Walls
5-83
internal stability shall be used in the determination of

pullout resistance. The minimum effective pullout length
shall be 3 feet. In the determination of the vertical soil
stress at each level of soil reinforcement, only permanent
loads should be considered.
The pullout resistance provided at each level of soil
reinforcement shall provide a minimum factor of safety
against pullout equal to 1.5 as determined by the follow
ing equation:
FS po =
R po
(5.9.3.3.2-1)
Tmax
Where, FSpo , is the factor of safety against pullout of

the soil reinforcement under consideration, Tmax , is the
maximum soil reinforcement load in the soil reinforce
ment under consideration, and, Rpo , is the pullout
resistance of the soil reinforcement under consideration
and is determined as follows:
Finished
grade
Pullout Resistance Factor, F *
Potential
failure
surface
0.4
Tan r
1.5
Le
2
Le
s
trip
ds
be
Rib
Smooth strips
Wall
face
Depth Below Ground Surface, Feet

20
Level of soil
reinforcement
under consideration
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-1 Pullout Resistance Factor for Steel Strip Soil Reinforcement
5-84
For geosynthetic soil reinforcement,

Rpo = F*LeCBasv
(5.9.3.3.2-2)
Where, F*, is the pullout resistance factor, Le , is the

length of soil reinforcement in the resistant zone,C, is an
overall soil reinforcement surface area geometry factor
and is equal to 2 for strip, grid, and sheet type soil
reinforcements, B , is the width of the soil reinforcement,
a , is a scale effect correction factor and is equal to one or
less, sv , is the minimum vertical soil stress at the level of
soil reinforcement under consideration within the length,
Le .
The values for, F* , and, a , are product specific and

should be determined by appropriate testing. In the
absence of product specific values a default value of
0.67 Tan r may be assumed for, F*, and default values
of 0.8 and 0.6 may be assumed for, a , for geogrids and
geotextiles respectively.
For steel strip soil reinforcement,
Rpo = 2F* Le Bsv
(5.9.3.3.2-3)
Where, F* ,Le , and,B, are as defined for geosynthetic

soil reinforcement and, sv , is the vertical soil stress at
the mid-point of, Le , at the level of soil reinforcement
under consideration.
Finished
grade
Pullout Achorage Factor, FAC
Potential
failure
surface
10 12
16
20
Le
Level of soil
reinforcement
under consideration
r =34 o
Le
r =28 o
Wall
face
Depth Below Ground Surface, Feet

20
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2 Pullout Anchorage Factor for Steel Grid Soil Reinforcement
5-85
The values for, F*, and, sv , are based on the depth,

z , below the ground surface (finished grade) as shown in
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-1.
For steel grid soil reinforcement,
Rpo = FAC NB d bnetsv
The values for, FAC and, sv , are based on the depth,

z , below the ground surface (finished grade) as shown in
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2.
For welded wire faced walls with grid type soil rein
forcement with longitudinal wire spacing greater than six
inches center to center, the values for, FAC , shall be
determined from pull-out tests but shall not be greater
than those values shown in Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2
The value for, dbnet , may be determined by the
d bnet = (
0.5
(5.9.3.3.2-5)
Where, Agross , is the cross sectional area of the trans

verse grid element before any sacrificial steel loss due to
corrosion and, Anet , is the cross sectional area of the
transverse grid element at the end of the design service
life after the design sacrificial steel loss has occurred.
For steel grid soil reinforcement, the spacing between
transverse grid elements shall be uniform throughout the
length of the soil reinforcement. The transverse grid
element spacing may vary between levels of soil rein
forcement but the spacing shall not be less than 6 inches
nor more than 30 inches.
5-86
Reinforcement Strength Design
The strength of the soil reinforcement needed, for

internal stability, to resist the maximum load applied
throughout the design life of the wall shall be determined
at every level within the wall height.
(5.9.3.3.2-4)
Where, FAC , is the pullout anchorage factor, Le , is

the length of soil reinforcement in the resistant zone , N,
is the number of transverse grid elements of the soil
reinforcement within the length, Le , B , is the length of
the transverse grid elements, dbnet , is the net diameter
of the transverse grid elements after consideration for
corrosion loss, and,sv , is the vertical soil stress at the mid
point of, Le , at the level of soil reinforcement under
consideration.
2( Agross + Anet )
5.9.3.4
Therefore, for the maximum load at each level of

reinforcement,
Tmax T a
( 5.9.3.4-1)
Where, Tmax , is determined in accordance with Article

5.9.3.1 and , Ta , is the long-term allowable strength of the
soil reinforcement associated with the tributary area , At
, used in determining, Tmax . T a , shall be determined in
accordance with Article 5.9.3.4.2.1 for steel reinforce
ment and Article 5.9.3.4.2.2. for geosynthetic reinforce
ment.
The difference in the environment occurring immedi
ately behind the wall face relative to the environment
within the reinforced backfill zone and its effect on the
long-term durability of the soil reinforcement/connec
tion shall be considered when determining, Ta , since, To,
equals, Tmax .
5.9.3.4.1
Design Service Life
Requirements
Soil reinforcement, including connections to the fac

ing, in MSE walls shall be designed to have a corrosion
resistance/durability to ensure a minimum design service
life. For permanent walls with steel soil reinforcement, a
design service life of 50 years is a minimum. For perma
nent walls with geosynthetic soil reinforcement, a design
service life of 75 years is a minimum. The greater design
service life for geosynthetic soil reinforcement is due to
the large influence creep has on the long-term strength of
geosynthetic soil reinforcement. For temporary walls, a
design service life of 5 years is a minimum.
5.9.3.4.1.1 Steel Reinforcement

The structural design of steel soil reinforcements and
connections shall be made on the basis of, Fy , the yield
strength of the steel, and the net cross-sectional area of the
steel at the end of the design service life.
Steel soil reinforcement and steel connection ele

ments for permanent walls shall be galvanized with a
minimum coating thickness of 2 ounces per square foot
applied in conformance with ASTM A 123. This coating
shall be assumed to provide 10 years of service life.
The net cross-sectional area of the soil reinforcement,

Anet , shall be determined as follows:
Anet = Agross - Acorrosion loss
Sieve Size
Percentage Passing
California Test
6"
100
202
3"
75-100
202
#4
0-25
202
# 200
0-5
202
(5.9.3.4.1.1-1)
Where, Anet , is the cross-sectional area of the soil

reinforcement at the end of the design service life,Agross
, is the cross-sectional area of the ungalvanized soil
reinforcement at the start of the design service life , and,
Acorrosion loss , is the cross-sectional area of the soil
reinforcement lost due to corrosion over the design ser
vice life.
Test
Requirement
California Test
Plasticity Index
6 max
204
Minimum Resistivity
1500 ohm - cm
min.
643
Chlorides
< 500 ppm
422
Sulfates
< 2000 ppm
417
pH
5.5 to 10.0
643
Acorrosion loss , shall be determined by applying a

corrosion loss rate to the exposed surface of the soil
reinforcement for the remaining design service life after
the depletion of the galvanization.
When the backfill for the reinforced soil mass con
forms to the requirements in Article 5.9.3, a corrosion loss
rate equal to 1.1 mils per year may be used to determine,
Acorrosion loss .
When the backfill for the reinforced soil mass con
forms to the following requirements for select granular
backfill, a corrosion loss rate equal to 0.5 mils per year
may be used to determine, Acorrosion loss .
Select granular backfill for the reinforced soil mass
shall consist of material free from organic material and
substantially free of shale or other soft, poor durability
particles and shall not contain slag aggregate or recycled
materials such as glass, shredded tires, portland cement
concrete rubble, asphaltic concrete rubble or other un
suitable material, and shall conform to the following
requirements:
The above corrosion loss rates account for potential

pitting mechanisms and much of the uncertainty due to
data scatter. These corrosion loss rates are not applicable
in applications where:

the MSE wall will be exposed to a marine or other

chloride rich environment;
the soil reinforcement is continuously connected

in a direction parallel to a source of stray currents
such as from nearby underground power lines or
adjacent electric rail lines;
the backfill material is aggressive; or
the galvanizing coating thickness is less than

specified.
Each of these situations creates a special set of condi

tions which should be specifically analyzed by a corro
sion specialist.
Epoxy coatings are not considered equivalent to gal
vanizing.
5-87
5.9.3.4.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement

The durability of geosynthetic reinforcements is in
fluenced by environmental factors such as time, tempera
ture, mechanical damage, stress levels, and chemical
exposure (e.g., oxygen, water, andpH , which are the most
common chemical factors). Microbiological attack may
also affect certain polymers, though in general most of the
polymers used for carrying load in soil reinforcement
applications are not affected by this. The effects of these
factors on product durability are dependent on the poly
mer type used (i.e. resin type, grade, additives, and manu
facturing process) and the macrostructure of the rein
forcement. Not all of these factors will have a significant
effect on all geosynthetic products. Therefore, the re
sponse of geosynthetic reinforcements to these long-term
environmental factors is product specific.
However, within specific limits of wall application,
soil conditions, and polymer type, strength degradation
due to these factors can be anticipated to be minimal and
relatively consistent from product to product, and the
impact of any degradation which does occur will be
minimal. Even with product specific test results, RFID
and RFD shall be no less than 1.1 each.
For conditions which are outside these defined limits
(i.e. applications in which the consequences of poor
performance or failure are severe, aggressive soil condi
tions, or polymers which are beyond the specific limits
set), or if it is desired to use an overall reduction factor
which is less than the default reduction factor recom
mended herein, then product specific durability studies
shall be carried out prior to use. These product specific
studies shall be used to estimate the short-term and longterm effects of these environmental factors on the strength
and deformational characteristics of the geosynthetic
reinforcement throughout the reinforcement design life.
Wall application limits, soil aggressiveness, polymer
requirements, and the calculation of long-term reinforce
ment strength are specifically described as follows:
1)
Structure Application Issues: Applications for
which the consequences of poor performance or failure
are severe consist of walls which support important struc
tures, critical utilities, or other facilities for which the
consequences of poor performance would be severe. In
such applications, a single default reduction factor shall
not be used for design.
5-88
2)
Determination of Soil Aggressiveness: Soil
shall be considered aggressive when any one of the
following conditions exist:

the maximum soil particle size is greater than

0.75 inches unless full scale installation damage
tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM D
5818,
the pH of the soil is less than 4.5 or greater than

9.0,
the design temperature at the all site is greater

than 85F, and
the soil organic content (determined by

AASHTO T267-86) for material finer than the
No.10 sieve is greater than one-percent.
The effective design temperature is defined as the

temperature which is halfway between the average yearly
air temperature and the normal daily air temperature for
the warmest month at the wall site. Note that for walls
which face the sun, it is possible that the temperature
immediately behind the facing could be higher than the
air temperature. This condition should be considered
when assessing the design temperature, especially for
wall sites located in warm, sunny climates.
A single default reduction factor shall not be used in
aggressive soil conditions. The environment at the face,
in addition to within the wall backfill, shall be evaluated,
especially if the stability of the facing is dependent on the
strength of the geosynthetic at the face, i.e., the
geosynthetic reinforcement forms the primary connec
tion between the body of the wall and the facing.
The chemical properties of the native soil surrounding
the reinforced soil backfill shall also be considered if
there is potential for seepage of ground water from the
native surrounding soils to the reinforced soil backfill. If
this is the case, the surrounding soils shall also meet the
chemical criteria required for the backfill material if the
environment is to be considered non-aggressive, or ad
equate long-term drainage around the geosythetic rein
forced soil mass shall be provided to ensure that chemi
cally aggressive liquid does not enter into the reinforced
backfill.
3)
Polymer Requirements: Polymers which are
likely to have good resistance to long-term chemical
degradation shall be used if a single default reduction
factor is to be used, to minimize the risk of the occurrence
of significant long-term degrtadation. The polymer ma
terial requirements provided in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A shall
therefore be met if detailed product specific data as
described in FHWA Publication No.FHWA SA-96-071
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced
Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines Ap
pendix B, and in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96
072 Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced
Soil Slopes is not obtained. Polymer materials not
meeting the requirements in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A could be
used if this detailed product specified data extrapolated
to the design life intended for the structure is obtained.
4)
Calculation of Long-Term Reinforcement
Strength: for ultimate limit state conditions.
Tal =
Tult b
RF
(5.9.3.4.1.2-1)
where,
RF = RFID RFCR RFD
(5.9.3.4.1.2-2)
Tal, is the long-term tensile strength required to pre

vent rupture of the reinforcement, b, is the width of the
reinforcement, Tult , is the ultimate tensile strength of the
reinforcement determined from wide width tensile tests
(ASTM D 4595) for geotextiles and geogrids, or rib
tensile test for geogrids (GRI: GG1, but at a strain rate of
10 percent per minute), RF, is a combined strength
reduction factor to account for potential long-term deg
radation due to installation damage, creep and chemical
aging, RFID is a strength reduction factor to account for
installation damage to the reinforcement, RFCR is a
strength reduction factor to prevent long-term creep
rupture of the reinforcement, and RFD is a strength
reduction factor to prevent rupture of the reinforcement
due to chemical and biological degradation. The value
selected forTult shall be the minimum average roll value
( MARV) for the product to account for statistical vari
ance in the material strength.
Values for, RFID , RFCR , and, RFD , shall be deter
mined from product specific test results. Even with
product specific test results, RFID , and, RFD , shall be
no less than 1.1 each.
Guidelines for how to determine, RFID , RFCR , and,

RFD , from product specific data are provided in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 Mechanically Sta
bilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
and Construction Guidelines- Appendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 Corrosion/Degrada
tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes. For wall appli
cations which are defined as not having severe conse
quences should poor performance or failure occur having
nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the geosyntethic
product meets the minimum requirements listed in Table
5.9.3.4.1.2A, the long-term tensile strength of the rein
forcement may be determined using a default reduction
factor for, RF , as provided in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2B in lieu
of product specific test results.
TABLE 5.9.3.4.1.2A Minimum Requirements for
Geosynthetic Products to Allow Use of Default Reduc
tion Factor for Long-Term Degradation
Polymer
Type
Property
Test Method
Criteria to Allow
Use of Default RF*
Polypro
pylene
UV Oxidation
Resistance
ASTM D4355
Min.70% strength
retained after 500 hrs
in weatherometer
Polyethyl UV Oxidation
ene
Resistance
ASTM D4355
Min.70% strength
retained after 500 hrs
in weatherometer
Inherent Viscosity
Method (ASTM
D4603 and GRI Test Min.Number Average
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance Method GG8**) or
Molecular Weight of
Determine Directly
25,000
Using Gel Permeation
Chromatography
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance
GRI Test Method

GG7
Max.of Carboxyl End

Group Content of 30
All
Survivability
Polymers
Weight per Unit Area

(ASTM D5261)
Min.270 g/m
% Post-Consumer
All
Recycled Material by
Polymers
Weight
Certification of
Material Used
Maximun of 0%
*Polymers not meeting these requirements may be used if

product specific test results obtained and analyzes in accordance
with FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and
Construction Guidelines Appendix B, and in FHWA Publication
No. FHWA SA-96-072 Corrosion /Degradation of Soil Rein
forcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and
Reinforced Soil Slopes are provided.
**These test procedures are in draft form. Contact the
Geosythetic Research Institute, Drexel University in Philadelphia,
PA.
5-89
TABLE 5.9.3.4.1.2B Default and Minimum Values for

the Total Geosyntheic Ultimate Limit State Strength
Reduction Factor, RF
Total Reduction
Factor, RF
Application
All applications, but with product
specific data obtained and analyzed in
accordance with FHWA Publication
No. FHWA SA-96-071 "Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced
Soil Slopes Design and Construction
Guidelines"-Appendix B, and FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072
"Corrosion/Degradation of Soil
Reinforcements for Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced
Soil Slopes"
All reduction factors

shall be based on
product specific data.
RFID and RFD shall not
be less than 1.1
Permanent applications not having

severe consequences should poor
performance or failure occur,
nonaggressive soils, and polymers
meeting the requirements listed in
Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A, provided product
specific data is not available
7.0
Temporary applications not having

severe consequences should poor
performance or failure occur,
nonaggressive soils, and polymers
meeting the requirements listed in
Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A, provided product
specific data is not available
3.5
The allowable reinforcement tension, Ta , is deter

mined by multiplying the allowable tensile stress by the
net cross-sectional area of the steel soil reinforcement
after corrosion losses. Therefore,
Ta = FS Fy Anet
(5.9.3.4.2.1-3)
where , Fy , and, Anet , are as defined in Article

5.9.3.4.1.1
The minimum thickness of steel strip soil reinforce
ment shall be 4 millimeters before galvanizing. The
minimum thickness if connection elements of bolted
connections or splice plates of bolted splices before
galvanizing shall be 10 gage. Corrosion losses need not
be considered for the faying surfaces of bolted connec
tions or bolted splices of strip soil reinforcements.
The transverse and longitudinal wires of grid type soil
reinforcement shall be sized in accordance with ASTM A
185. The size of transverse wires shall not be greater than
the size of the longitudinal wires of a grid. Except for walls
with exposed welded wire facing the minimum size
longitudinal wires for grid reinforcement shall be W11
and their maximum center to center spacing shall be 8
inches maximum. For walls with exposed welded wire
facing, the minimum size longitudinal wires for grid
reinforcement shall be W8, at 6 inch maximum center to
center spacing or W11 or 12 inch maximum center to
center spacing.
5.9.3.4.2.2. Geosynthetic Reinforcements

5.9.3.4.2
Allowable Stresses
5.9.3.4.2.1 Steel Reinforcements

The allowable tensile stress for steel reinforcements,
connections, and splices, Fa , shall be as follows:
Permanent Structures, Fa = 0.55Fy , (5.9.3.4.2.1-1)
Temporary Structures,Fa = 0.75Fy , (5.9.3.4.2.1-2)
The global safety factor,FS, of 0.55 applied to,Fy , for
permanent structures accounts for uncertainties in struc
ture geometry, fill properties, externally applied loads,
the potential for local overtress due to load
nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term rein
forcement strength.
5-90
The allowable tensile load for geosynthetic reinforce

ment is determined as follows:
Ta =
Tal
FS
(5.9.3.4.2.2-1)
Where, Tal , is the long-term reinforcement strength as

determined in Article 5.9.3.4.1.2 and, FS , is a global
safety factor which accounts for uncertainties in structure
geometry, fill properties, externally applied loads, the
potential for local overstress due to load nonuniformitiies,
and uncertainties in long-term reinforcement strength.
For permanent walls, a, FS, of 1.5 shall be used. For
temporary walls, a, FS, of 1.3 may be used along with a
minimum value for, RF, equal to 3.5. Note that the
uncertainty of determining long-term reinforcement
5.9.3.5.1
Connection Strength for Steel

Soil Reinforcements
strength is taken into account through an additional

factor of safety, which is typically about 1.2, depending
on the amount of creep data available, through the creep
extrapolation protocol provided in Appendix B of the
FHWA-SA-96-071, Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction
Guidelines.
Connections shall be designed using the strength

design method to resist a factored load from the soil
reinforcement equal to 2.0 times,Ta , of the connected soil
reinforcement.
5.9.3.5 Soil Reinforcement/Facing

Connection Strength Design
The capacity of the designed connection shall be

verified by load tests of actual connections. A connection
may be considered adequate when:
The connection of soil reinforcement to MSE wall

facing elements shall meet the following minimum crite
ria:
the tensile force resisiting capacity shall be at least
2.0 times the design allowable tensile force of the
connected soil reinforcement at a total displace
ment wihtin the connection not exceeding 0.75
inches,
the connection shall engage directly all longitudi
nal tensile force resisting elements of the soil rein
forcement,
the connection shall not rely on frictional force
resistance where the frictional force depends on the
constant force of gravity,
the design of the connection shall be such that
relative displacement between face elements due to
differential settlement at the wall face does not
result in a significant reduction in the capacity of
the connection,
the design of the connection shall be such that after
a level of soil reinforcement has been connected
and all elements necessary to complete the connec
tion are in place, but before backfill covers the soil
reinforcement, the connection can be visually in
spected and a determination made that all elements
of the connection are properly in place, and
the design of the connection shall be such that there
is an adequate force resistance path from any face
element to at least one soil reinforcement connec
tion.
TT 2.0Ta
(5.9.3.5.1-1)
Where, TT , is the applied test load at failure of the

connection or at 0.75 inches displacement within the
connection whichever is the least. When the soil rein
forcement is connected to the facing at multiple closely
spaced locations, group action shall be considered in the
test set-up when verifying the connection capacity. The
material strengths of the test connection samples shall be
determined and the value for,TT , shall be corrected when
these determined material strengths exceed the minimum
specified strengths for these materials.
Connection materials shall be designed to accommo
date losses due to corrosion in accordance with Article
5.9.3.4.1.1. Potential differences between the environ
ment at the face relative to the environment within the
reinforcement soil mass shall be considered when assess
ing potential corrosion losses.
5.9.3.5.2
Connection Strength for
Geosynthetic Soil
Reinforcements
The long-term allowable geosynthetic connection

strength, Tac , on a load per width, b, of reinforcement
basis shall be determined as follows:
Tult b CRCR
Ta
(5.9.3.5.2-1)
5-91
Tac
FS RFD
5.9.3.6
Where:
Tac
Tult
= long-term allowable reinforcement/

facing connection design strength per
width , b, of reinforcement (KIPS)
= minimum average roll value (MARV)
of ultimate tensile strength of soil rein
forcement (KIP/FT)
= width of soil reinforcement under

consideration (FT)
CRCR
= long-term connection strength re

duction factor to account for reduced
ultimate strength resulting from con
nection (DIM)
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the hori

zontal forces specified. In addition to these horizontal
forces, the facing elements shall also be designed to resist
potential compaction stresses occurring near the wall
face during erection of the wall. The facing element shall
be designed such that they do not deflect laterally or
bulge beyond acceptable limits.
5.9.3.6.1
RFD
= reduction factor to prevent rupture of

reinforcement due to chemical and bio
logical degradation (DIM)
FS
= global safety factor which accounts

for uncertainties in externally applied
loads, the potential for local connec
tion overstress due to wall settlement
or load nonuniformities, and uncer
tainties in long-term connection
strength. (DIM)
Values for, CRCR , and,RFD , shall be determined from

product specific test results. Note that the environment
at the wall face connection may be different than the
environment away from the wall face in the wall backfill.
This shall be considered when determining,CRCR , and,
RFD . The minimum value for, RFD , shall be 1.1, the
minimum value for, FS, shall be 2.0.
Guidelines for determining, CRCR , and, RFD , from
product specific data are provided in Corrosion/Degra
dation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabi
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes, Federal
Highway Administration, No. FHWA-NHI-00-044, 2001
and Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines,
Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-NHI-00-043,
2001.
Design of Facing Elements
Design of Stiff or Rigid

Concrete, Steel, and Timber
Facings
Concrete and steel facing elements shall be structur

ally designed in accordance with Sections 8 and 10
respectively using the strength design method provi
sions. The basic design factored load shall be a distrib
uted horizontal load acting on the entire back face of the
face element the resultant of which is equal 1.8 times the
sum of the,Ta , values of the soil reinforcement connected
to the face element. The location of the resultant of this
distributed load shall be at the location of the resultant of
the, Ta , values of the same soil reinforcement.
Top of wall facing elements which support a traffic
barrier support slab shall be designed for a horizontal line
load acting at the top rear of the facing elements and equal
to 1.9 kips per foot. This load is to be considered a factored
load, and does not need to be combined with the basic
design factored load specified above.
Loads from any appurtenances attached to the facing
elements shall be considered.
Timber facing elements shall be structurally designed
in accordance with Section 13 using the working stress
design method. The basic service load shall be a distrib
uted horizontal load acting on the entire back face of the
face element the resultant of which is equal to the sum of
the, Ta , values of the soil reinforcement connected to the
face element. The location of the resultant of this distrib
uted load shall be at the location of the resultant of the,
Ta , values of the same soil reinforcement.
Loads from any appurtenances attached to the facing
elements shall be considered. Timber facing elements
shall not be used to support a traffic barrier support slab.
5-92
In the design of concrete, steel and timber facing

elements the locations of the connected soil reinforce
ment are considered support locations in resisting the
basic design horizontal load.
The maximum vertical spacing of soil reinforcement
connected to the facing elements equals 30 inches. The
minimum distance from the top or bottom of a facing
element to a level of soil reinforcement equals 5 inches.
The minimum specified compressive strength, fc , for
concrete facing elements equals 4000 psi.
5.9.3.6.2
Design of Flexible Wall Facings
Welded wire, expanded metal, or similar facing panels

shall be designed in a manner which prevents the occur
rence of excessive bulging as backfill behind the facing
elements compresses due to compaction stresses or self
weight of the backfill. This may be accomplished by
limiting the size of individual panels vertically and the
vertical spacing of the levels of soil reinforcement, and by
requiring the facing panels to have an adequate amount
of vertical slip between adjacent panels. The top of
flexible facing panels at the top of the wall shall be
connected to a level of soil reinforcement to provide
stability to the top-facing panel. The maximum vertical
spacing of soil reinforcement connected to the facing
panels equals 20 inches for permanent walls and 30
inches for temporary walls. The maximum horizontal
clear spacing between soil reinforcement elements within
a level shall be 12 inches. For welded wire facing panels
the minimum wire size shall be W8 for permanent walls
and W6 for temporary walls, the maximum center to
center spacing of vertical wires shall be 6 inches and of
horizontal wires shall be 9 inches. Secondary facing
panels shall be provided when necessary to prevent loss
of backfill material through the facing panels. Steel
facing panels for permanent walls shall be galvanized
with a minimum coating thickness of 2 ounces per square
foot applied in conformance with ASTM A123.
Geosynthetic facing elements shall not, in general, be
left exposed to sunlight ( specifically ultraviolet radia
tion) for permanent walls. If geosynthetic facing ele
ments must be left exposed permanently to sunlight, the
geosynthetic shall be stabilized to be resistant to ultra
violet radiation. Furthermore, product specific test data
shall be provided which can be extrapolated to the
intended design life and which proves that the product
will be capable of performing as intended in an exposed

environment.
Flexible wall facings shall not be used to support a
traffic barrier support slab.
5.9.3.6.3
Design of Segmental Concrete

Block Facings
Segmental concrete block facings shall be designed

considering facing stability which shall include an evalu
ation of the maximum vertical spacing between rein
forcement layers, the maximum allowable facing height
above the uppermost reinforcement layer, inter-unit shear
capacity, and resistance of the facing to bulging. The
maximum vertical spacing between reinforcement layers
shall be limited to twice the width, WU , of the proposed
segmental concrete facing unit or 30 inches, whichever is
less, the maximum facing height above the upper most
reinforcement layer shall be limited to 1.5 times,WU , or
18 inches, whichever is less, and the maximum depth of
facing below the bottom reinforcement layer shall be
limited to the width,WU , where,WU , is the segmental
facing block unit width from front to back.
The minimum specified compressive strength of seg
mental concrete block facing units shall be 4000 psi. The
water absorption limit of segmental concrete block fac
ing units shall be 5 percent maximum. Blocks shall also
meet the additional requirements of ASTM C90 and
C140.
When the segmental concrete block facing supports a
traffic barrier support slab, the provisions of Article
5.9.3.6.1 shall apply.
5.9.3.6.4
Corrosion Issues for MSE
Facing Design
Steel to steel contact between the soil reinforcement

connections and the concrete facing steel reinforcement
shall be prevented so that contact between dissimilar
metals (e.g., bare facing reinforcement steel and galva
nized soil reinforcement steel) does not occur. Steel to
steel contact in this case can be prevented through the
placement of a nonconductive material between the soil
reinforcement face connection and the facing concrete
reinforcing steel.
5-93
5.9.3.7
Drainage
MSE walls in cut areas and side-hill fills with estab

lished ground water levels should be constructed with
drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced
zone. Internal drainage measures should be considered
for all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced
backfill or to intercept any surface flows containing
aggressive elements such as deicing chemicals.
For MSE walls utilizing metallic soil reinforcements
supporting roadways which are chemically deiced in the
winter, an impervious membrane should be placed below
the pavement and just above the first level of soil
reinforcement to intercept any flows containing deicing
chemicals. The membrane should be sloped to drain away
from the facing to an intercepting longitudinal drain
outletted beyond the reinforced zone. Typically, a mini
mum membrane thickness of 30 mils should be used. All
seams in the membrane shall be welded to prevent leak
age.
For MSE walls utilizing metallic soil reinforcement
which support a slope which supports a roadway which is
chemically deiced in the winter, provisions shall be made
to prevent runoff from reaching the soil reinforcement at
the back of the face panels at the toe of the slope. As a
minimum, an impermeable cap shall be placed on the face
of the slope and a continuous coping/gutter which is
keyed into the slope shall be constructed at the toe of
slope/top of wall.
5.9.3.8
5.9.3.8.1
Special Loading Conditions
Traffic Loads and Barriers
Traffic loads shall be considered in accordance with

the criteria outlined in Article 5.5.5.10.5. Traffic loads
should be positioned to maximize their effects.
When traffic barriers are placed at the top of MSE walls,
they shall be constructed on a support slab which is
designed to resist the overturning due to the design
horizontal impact load applied to the barrier. The support
slab shall be designed so only horizontal and vertical
forces are transmitted to the face elements of the wall. The
support slab shall be continuous the full length of the wall
with no expansion joints. The horizontal forces from the
support slab applied to the top of the face elements of the
wall shall be in accordance with Article 5.9.3.6.1.
As a minimum, the top level of soil reinforcement shall
be designed for a tensile load at the wall face equal to 1.9
kips per foot of wall. This load is to be considered a
factored load for which the, FSpo , shall be equal to or
greater than 1.0 and the load shall be less than or equal to,
1.33Ta , of the soil reinforcement. the minimum length of
the top level of soil reinforcement shall be 16 feet.
When traffic barriers are placed at the top of MSE walls,
the minimum height wall shall be 6 feet and the minimum
length of wall shall be 40 feet.
5.9.3.8.3
Hydrostatic Pressures
For Structures along rivers and canals, a minimum

differential hydrostatic pressure equal to 3 feet of water
shall be considered for design. This load shall be applied
at the high-water level. Effective unit weights shall be
used in the calculations for internal and external stability.
Concentrated Dead Loads
Concentrated dead loads shall be incorporated into

the internal and external stability design by using a
simplified uniform vertical distribution of 2 vertical to 1
horizontal to determine the vertical component of stress
with depth within the reinforced soil mass as shown in
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1. Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2 shows how con
centrated horizontal dead loads may be distributed within
and behind the reinforced soil mass. Depending on the
size and location of the concentrated dead load, the
location of the boundary between the active and resistant
zones may need to be adjusted.
5-94
5.9.3.8.2
Situations where the wall is influenced by tide or river

fluctuations may require that the wall be designed for
rapid drawdown conditions, which could result in differ
ential hydrostatic pressure considerably greater than 3
feet or alternatively rapidly draining backfill material
such as shot rock or open graded coarse gravel may be
used as backfill.
5.9.3.9
Placement of Soil
Reinforcement
For a wall supporting a roadway at the top of wall

elevation, the top level of soil reinforcement shall be
placed sloping downward from horizontal at a negative
slope equal to -5% minimum to -15% maximum. Lower
levels of soil reinforcement shall be sloped downward
also if required to provide a minimum 6 inches of sepa
ration between levels of soil reinforcement. The depth of
the roadway structural section and cross slope of the
roadway should be considered when determining place
ment details.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of a

prefabricated modular wall shall be based on bearing
capacity, settlement and stability requirements also the
effects of frost heave, scour, proximity to slopes, erosion,
and the potential future excavation in front of the wall
shall be considered.
The minimum embedment depth and minimum berm
width shall be as follows:
For back to back walls for which the soil reinforcement

overlaps, the levels of soil reinforcement shall be placed
such that a minimum of 3 inches of separation between
levels is provided.
5.10 PREFABRICATED MODULAR

WALL DESIGN
Prefabricated modular walls consist of walls as de
scribed in Article 5.2.1.5. Additionally this type wall may
consist of precast reinforced concrete elements which are
placed or stacked to form a series of T shaped modules
along the length of the wall with the top of the T forming
the face of the wall. This type wall is similar to a crib wall
except each cell is three sided and open at the back at the
pressure surface used for external stability analysis.
5.10.1 Structure Dimensions

Prefabricated modular wall dimensions needed for
external designs are shown in Figure 5.10.1-1 for a bat
tered three-tier wall.
Prefabricated modular walls shall be dimensioned to
ensure that the minimum factor of safeties required for
sliding and overturning are satisfied as well as the eccen
tricity of the base reaction not exceeding the maximum
allowed. These requirements apply to each tier of a tiered
wall. In addition the minimum factor of safety for foun
dation bearing capacity shall be satisfied, as well as
overall stability requirements as provided in Article
5.2.2.3.
Wall Height
H (feet)
Embedment
Depth (feet)
Berm
Width (feet)
< 10
> 10, < 30
> 30
For walls constructed along rivers and streams, embed

ment depth shall be a minimum of 2 feet below potential
scour depth as determined in accordance with Article
5.3.5.
5.10.2
External Stability
The base width, B, of a prefabricated modular wall

shall be determined to ensure stability against failure
modes by satisfying the following stability criteria:


Overturning Factor of safety, FSOT 2.0
and
- Maximum eccentricity of the resultant force
acting on the base of wall, emax B
6
Bearing capacity Factor of safety, FS 3.0
Stability determinations shall be made at every mod

ule level assuming the prefabricated modules and any
wall fill to be a rigid gravity mass. The design lateral earth
pressure acting on the pressure surface at the rear of the
wall modules shall be determined using the Coulomb
theory and the trial wedge method of analysis as de
scribed in Article 5.5.5.5. Where the rear of the wall
modules form an irregular surface (stepped or tiered
5-95
Finished
grade
Pressure surface for

external stability
Face of Wall
1
h3
Tier 3
y
B3
h2
Tier 2
Failure
surface
for external
stability
Berm width
Finished
grade
Embedment
depth
Tier 1
Wall fill, c , c
h1
B2
B=B
Foundation soil, fn
Where: B equals base width of wall
Figure 5.10.1-1 Prefabricated Modular Wall Dimensions Needed for Design
5-96
modules) the lateral earth pressure shall be determined on

a broken surface as shown in figures 5.5.5.5-5 and 5.10.1
1. The friction angle and unit weight of the retained soil
shall be used in determining the design lateral earth
pressure along with the wall friction angle, d . The
following wall friction angles may be used unless more
exact values are established:
Case
Wall Friction
Angle, d
a) Significant vibrations of
backfill or modules settling

more than backfill
b) Continuous pressure surface

of pre-cast concrete (uniform
width modules)
c) Averaged pressure surface
(backfill filled recesses within or
between modules or stepped
modules)
1
2
ff
2
3
ff
For standardized wall designs for permanent walls, a

friction angle of 34 degrees and unit weight of 120
pounds per cubic foot may be assumed for the retained
soil, wall fill and foundation soil. Site specific designs
shall be used when these values are not appropriate.
In developing the total design lateral pressures acting
on the pressure surface, the lateral pressure due to sur
charge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth
When groundwater levels may exist within the wall fill
and/or retained soil, they shall be considered in stability
determinations.
front of a prefabricated modular wall shall be neglected
in external stability determinations.
For external stability determinations, traffic surcharge
loads shall be considered in accordance with the criteria
outlined in Article 5.5.5.10.5. Traffic loads should be

positioned to maximize their effects.
5.10.2.1
Sliding Stability
The factor of safety against sliding, FSSL , shall be

determined by summing the resisting forces of the wall
which act parallel to the base of the wall and dividing that
sum by the summation of driving forces on the wall which
act parallel to the base of the wall. The resisting forces
typically consist of the normal force acting on the base of
the wall times the coefficient of sliding resistance plus the
component of force due to the weight of the wall and any
surcharge loads acting on the wall which is parallel to the
base of the wall. The normal force acting on the base of
the wall consists of the component of force due to the
weight of the wall and any surcharge loads acting on the
wall which is normal to the base of the wall plus the
component of the design lateral pressure acting on the
pressure surface which is normal to the base of the wall.
The coefficient of sliding resistance used to determine the
frictional resistance at the base of the wall shall be as
follows:
For prefabricated modular walls with cells which

are filled with wall fill which are in contact with the
foundation soil, the coefficient equals,Tan , at the base
of the wall, where is the friction angle of the wall fill or
the foundation soil whichever is lowest.
For prefabricated modular walls the base of

which consists of a continuous or near continuous surface
of concrete, the coefficient equals,Tan 2/3 fn, wherefn
is the friction angle of the foundation soil.
The summation of the driving forces acting on the wall
typically consists of the component of the design lateral
pressure acting on the pressure surface which is parallel
to the base of the wall.
5.10.2.2
Overturning Stability
The factor of safety against overturning, FSOT , shall

be determined by summing the resisting moments about
the toe of the wall and dividing that sum by the summa
tion of the driving moments about the toe of the wall. The
lower front corner of the prefabricated modules is typi
cally assumed as the toe of the wall. The resisting
moments are typically provided by the weight of the wall,
5-97
surcharge loads acting on the top of the wall and the

vertical component of the design lateral pressure acting
on the pressure surface. In determining the weight of walls
with cellular modules filled with wall fill and essentially
open ended at the bottom of the wall, only 80 percent of
the weight of the wall fill shall be considered effective in
resisting overturning moments. The driving moment is
typically provided by the horizontal component of the
design lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface.
The eccentricity of the location of the resultant force
acting on the base of the wall shall be determined and
compared with the maximum allowable eccentricity.
5.10.2.3
Tiered Walls
Stability determinations shall be made at the base of

each tier of a tiered wall. The requirements for sliding and
overturning stability shall be satisfied under the actual
loading conditions and additionally sliding and over
turning stability shall be satisfied for every tier above the
bottom tier for a loading condition consisting of an
unlimited 1.5 horizontal to 1.0 vertical slope the toe of
which is located at the front top of the wall.
5.10.2.4
The entire base of the prefabricated modules including

the area of any cellular area may be used in determining
the contact pressure at the base of the wall. The contact
pressure may be assumed to vary linearly.
Allowable bearing capacities for prefabricated modu
lar walls shall be determined using a minimum factor of
safety of 3.0 for Group 1 loading applied to the ultimate
bearing capacity.
Overall Stability
Overall stability analysis shall be performed in accor

dance with Article 5.2.2.3.
5-98

with T Shaped Modules.
In the determination of external stability for walls with

T shaped modules, the base width, B, of each tier shall
be reduced to account for the cellular structure being
open at the back. The reduction in base width,B, of each
tier shall equal a length equal to 15 percent of the clear
distance between the stems of the T shaped modules.
A T shaped module may consist of a monolithic
element which forms both the wall face and the stem
which extends into the wall fill, or it may consist of
separate elements one of which forms the face and another
which forms the stem which extends into the wall fill and
which also supports the face element.
5.10.3
Internal Stability
Prefabricated modular walls with T shaped modules

shall be designed for adequate internal stability. For
adequate internal stability the pullout resistance pro
vided at each module level shall provide a minimum
factor of safety against pullout equal to 1.5 as determined
by the following equation:
Bearing Capacity
The provisions of Article 4.4.7 apply.
5.10.2.5
5.10.2.6
FSpo
Rpo
Pa
(5.10.3-1)
Where, FSpo, is the factor of safety against pullout of

the wall modules above the level under consideration,
Rpo , is the pullout resistance of the wall modules above
the level under consideration, and, Pa , is the design
lateral pressure acting on the face of the tributary area of
the wall modules above the level under consideration.
The design lateral pressure, Pa , shall include the
design lateral earth pressure and the lateral pressure due
to surcharge loads. When groundwater levels may exist
within the wall fill they shall be considered.
The design lateral earth pressure acting on the face of
the wall modules shall be determined using Coulombs
theory and the trial wedge method of analysis as de
scribed in Article 5.5.5.5 and assuming the wall friction
angle, d , equals zero.
The pullout resistance, Rpo , consists of the frictional

resistance acting on the bottom of the stem of the module
at the level under consideration and the frictional resis
tance acting on the sides of the stems of all the modules
above the level under consideration which provide an
effective area beyond the failure surface of the failure
wedge acting on the face of the wall. The frictional
resistance acting on the bottom of the stem equals the
normal force times the coefficient of sliding resistance.
The normal force equals the weight of stems of all mod
ules above the level under consideration plus any over
burden soil on the stems and any permanent surcharge
load acting above the stems. The coefficient of sliding
resistance depends on the interface conditions, for con
crete on foundation soil a value equal to tan fn may be
used, for concrete on concrete a value equal to 0.5 may be
used, when joint material between concrete surfaces is
used the coefficient to be used shall be established from
tests representing actual conditions. The frictional resis
tance acting on the sides of the stems equals the at-rest
lateral earth pressure acting on the effective area of the
stems times the coefficient of sliding resistance. For the
at-rest lateral earth pressure coefficient,ko , refer to Article
5.5.5.2. The effective area of the stems is that portion of
the sides of the stems above the level under consideration
which extend beyond the failure surface of the failure
wedge associated with the design lateral earth pressure
acting on the face of the wall. Only the stems of modules
whose full height extends beyond the failure surface shall
be considered. The coefficient of sliding resistance
depends on the configuration of the sides of the stems of
the modules, for smooth concrete a value equal to tan (2/
3) c may be used, for sides with recesses an increased
value may be determined. For the percentage of effective
area which consists of recesses, up to a maximum of 40
percent, a value equal to tan c may be used and for the
remaining percentage of effective area a value equal to
tan (2/3) c may be used. Any shear keys between module
elements shall not be considered effective for internal
stability determinations.
5.10.4
Module Design
The requirements for internal stability shall be satis

fied under the actual loading conditions at every module,
level and additionally for tiered walls internal stability
shall be satisfied at every module level above the bottom
tier for a loading condition consisting of an unlimited 1.5
horizontal to 1.0 vertical slope the toe of which is located
at the front top of the wall.
Bearing stresses shall be checked between bottom

headers and stretchers due to loading from the tributary
area of base pressure.
Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for the

design lateral pressure behind the wall and for the pres
sures developed inside the cells of modular walls. Also
the contact pressure at the bottom of the wall shall be
taken into consideration in the design of modular units.
Reinforced concrete modular units and steel modular
units shall be designed in conformance with Section 8
and Section 10 respectively using Group I loading and
the strength design method provisions. Timber modular
units shall be deigned in conformance with Section 13
using Group I loading and working stress design method.
Large unreinforced concrete modular units shall be
fabricated with concrete that will provide sufficient
strength for handling and crack resistance and that will
provide sufficient durability for the service life intended.
Segmental concrete block units shall be fabricated
with concrete with a minimum specified compressive
strength of 4000 psi. The water absorption limit of
segmental concrete block units shall be 5 percent maxi
mum. The units shall also meet the additional require
ments of ASTM C90 and C140.
Wire gabion baskets shall be fabricated with wire mesh
with adequate strength, flexibility and durability for the
site conditions and intended service life.
5.10.4.1
Crib Member Design
Crib members, headers and stretchers, shall be de

signed as beams supported at their intersections and
subjected to the pressure of the wall fill within the cells
and the pressure of the retained soil. Refer to figures
5.10.4.1-1 through 5.10.4.1-5 for typical loadings to be
considered.
Bearing stresses shall be checked between headers and

stretchers at intermediate levels due to loading from the
vertical frictional forces and deadloads acting on the
headers and stretchers.
5-99
(short side)
(short side)
b/2
pa
pa
pa
b (long side)
pa
Header
pb
pb
pb
pb
pr
pa
pa
pa
b/2
pa
Front
stretcher
Intermediate
stretcher
Rear
stretcher
Where:
a
=the length of the sides of a square cell or the

length of the short side of a rectangular cell (FT)
=the length of the long side of a rectangular cell

(FT)
=hydraulic radius
For square cells, R= a4
For rectangular cells,
Ra = a4 for determining pressures next to short

side of cell.
Figure 5.10.4.1-1 Plan View of Crib Members Showing Design Lateral Pressures ( Continued )
5-100
'
Rb = a4 for determining pressures next to long side

'
of cell and a = (a2ab
+ b)
y
= depth below top of cell fill at which pressures are

being determined (FT)
= vertical pressure in cell fill at depthy (KSF) for

square cells and next to short side of rectangular
cells,
qa =
g Ra
1 - e - m ky / Ra
mk
next to the long side of rectangular cells,

qb =
g Rb
mk
1 - e - m ky / Rb
m = tangent of angle of internal friction of wall fill

= tanc (DIM)
pa = q ak
next to the long side of rectangular cells
pb = q bk
V =total vertical frictional force per unit width of
cell perimeter over depth y (KIPS/FT)
= (g y-0.8q) R
for square cells and at the short side of rectangular
cells,
Va = (g y-0.8qa) R a
at the long side of rectangular cells,
Vb = (g y-0.8qb) R b
Wc = total weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y
=g caby (KIPS)
=ratio of lateral to vertical pressure in cell fill

(DIM)
= ko =1-sinc
= unit weight of wall fill = g c (KCF)
DWc= weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y, not

supported by vertical frictional force at cell
perimeter over depth,y (KIPS)
= Wc 2Vaa 2Vbb
= base of natural logarithms, 2.71828
c = angle of internal friction of wall fill (DEG)
= lateral pressure in wall fill at depth y

= qk (KSF)
Pr = design lateral pressure from retained fill (KSF)
for square cells and next to the short side of

rectangular cells,
Figure 5.10.4.1-1 Plan View of Crib Members Showing Design Lateral Pressures ( Continued )
5-101
The column sections of steel crib walls shall be checked

at the base considering the loading from the tributary area
of base pressure.
loading (see figure 5.10.4.1-6). The member sections

shall be designed for the vertical shear force, Vp , associ
ated with the plastic hinge moment, Mp . where ;
The column sections of steel crib walls shall be checked

at intermediate levels due to loading of the vertical
frictional forces and deadloads acting on the headers
(spacers) and stretchers (stringers).
The bottom three courses of both headers and stretch
ers of reinforced concrete crib walls shall be designed for
plastic hinging at both column faces and at the midspan
of the members due to a uniformly distributed vertical
1.
Mp = 1.3Mn
2.
Vn > Vp
3.
Column is defined as the region where headers

and stretchers intersect.
4.
Mn is based on member section required to resist

wall fill pressures.
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Header
Front stretcher
under
consideration
Center to center
vertical spacing of
headers
Header
Notes:
1. The average lateral pressure equals pa or pb depending on the cell dimensions.
2. The loading is based on the depth, y, to the mid-height of the stretcher under consideration.
3. The design forces on the front stretcher shall not be less than the active earth pressure
associated with the active failure wedge controlled by the clear opening at the top of the front crib cell.
4. The deadload of the member and the weight of wall fill on top of the member shall be considered.
Figure 5.10.4.1-2 Design Forces on Front Stretchers
5-102
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Header
Notes:
Center to center
vertical spacing of
headers
Intermediate stretcher
under
consideration
1. The average lateral pressure equals pa or p depending on the cell dimensions.

b
Figure 5.10.4.1-3 Design Forces on Intermediate Stretchers
5-103
Average lateral
pressure
Average lateral
pressure from
retained soil, pr
Average vertical
frictional force
Center to center
vertical spacing
of headers
Header
Rear stretcher
under consideration
Notes:
1. The average lateral pressure equals pa or pb depending on the cell dimensions.
Figure 5.10.4.1-4 Design Forces on Rear Stretchers
5-104
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Stretchers
Center to center
vertical spacing of
stretchers
Header
under
consideration
Front stretchers
Horizontal reaction
from front stretchers
Notes:
Header under
consideration
1. The average lateral pressure equals pa or p b depending on the cell dimensions.

2. The loading is based on the depth, y, to the mid-height of the header under consideration.
3. The deadload of the member and the weight of wall fill on top of the member shall be
considered.
Figure 5.10.4.1-5 Design Forces on Headers
5-105
b/2
Stretcher
Vp =
5.2 M n
b
Vp =
10.4 M n
b
Vp =
10.4 M n
a
Column
Location of plastic
hinge in stretcher
(typ)
Header
Location of
plastic hinge
in header (typ)
Figure 5.10.4.1-6 Location of Plastic Hinges in Members at Base of Crib Wall
5-106
SECTION 6 - CULVERTS
6.1
CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH,

AND WATERWAY OPENINGS
Recommendations on culvert location, length, and

waterway openings are given in the AASHTO Guide on
Hydraulic Design of Culverts.
6.2
DEAD LOADS
For unique and site specific culverts, where a

geotechnical investigation is made, vertical and horizontal earth pressures may be computed by recognized or
appropriately documented analytical techniques based
on the principles of soil mechanics and soil structure
interaction, or design pressures shall be calculated as
being the result of an equivalent fluid weight as shown in
Article 6.2.1. For all other culverts, loads shall be applied
as shown in Article 6.2.1.
6.2.1
Culvert in Trench, or Culvert

Untrenched on Yielding Foundation.
A. Rigid Culverts except reinforced concrete boxes:

(1) For vertical earth pressure ............. 140 pcf
For lateral earth pressure ................. 42 pcf
(2) For vertical earth pressure ............. 140 pcf
For lateral earth pressure ............... 140 pcf
B. Reinforced Concrete Boxes:
(1) For vertical earth pressure ............ 140 pcf
For lateral earth pressure .............. 100 pcf
For lateral earth pressure ................ 35 pcf
C. Flexible Culverts:
For lateral earth pressure .............. 140 pcf
6.2.2
Culvert Untrenched on Unyielding

Foundation.
A special analysis is required.
6.3
LIVE LOADS
Culverts shall be designed for HS-20 loads only.
6.4
FOOTINGS
Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation

sufficient to secure a firm foundation, or a heavy reinforced floor shall be used to distribute the pressure over
the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any location
subject to erosion, aprons or cut-off walls shall be used at
both ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire
floor area between the wing walls shall be paved. Baffle
walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of a culvert
barrel shall not be used where the stream bed is subject to
erosion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall
be reinforced longitudinally.
6.5
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS

THROUGH EARTH FILLS
6.5.1
Culverts shall be designed for all combinations
of dead load, earth load and live load for two feet less than
and two feet more than the initial and final design
conditions. The culvert need not be designed for less than
the minimum fill as specified in these specifications.
6.5.2
For all culverts other than reinforced concrete
boxes, concentrated live loads shall be considered as
acting over an area as specified in Article 3.30 and
distributed through the fill at a slope of 7:8. For reinforced
concrete pipes and all flexible culverts, when this
distribution width is less than the span or diameter, the
applied pressure for design purposes, shall be the total
load divided by the span or diameter.
For reinforced concrete boxes, when the depth of fill
is two feet or less, the wheel load shall be distributed as
in slabs with concentrated loads. When the depth of fill
is greater than two feet, concentrated loads shall be
considered as uniformly distributed over a square, the
sides of which shall equal 13/4 times the height of fill.
SECTION 6
CULVERTS
6-1
6.5.3
When such areas from several concentrations
overlap, the total load shall be uniformly distributed over
the area defined by the outside limits of the individual
areas. For single spans, the effect of live load may be
neglected when the depth of fill is more than 8 feet and
exceeds the span length; for multiple spans it may be
neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the distance
between faces of end supports or abutments.
6.6
6.5.4
For RCBs, when the depth of fill exceeds 2
feet, reinforcement to provide for the lateral distribution
of concentrated loads is not required.
6.6.2
The culvert design guideline for corrugated
metal, reinforced concrete, and thermoplastic pipe culverts
are in Sections 12, 17 and 18 respectively.
6.5.5
6-2
Impact shall be as follows:

0 feet
- Fill - 1 foot
30%
1 foot
< Fill - 2 feet
20%
2 feet
< Fill - 3 feet
10%
3 feet
< Fill
SECTION 6
0%
CULVERTS
DESIGN
6.6.1
The design service life for drainage facilities
for all projects with overfills greater than 10 feet, or with
roadway widths greater than 28 feet, shall be fifty years.
Roadway widths 28 feet or less with less than 10 feet of
overfill shall have a minimum service life of twenty five
years.
SECTION 7 - SUBSTRUCTURES
Part A
7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 Definition
A substructure is any structural, loadsupporting component generally referred to by the terms abutment, pier,
retaining wall, foundation or other similar terminology.
7.1.2 Loads
Where appropriate, piers and abutments shall be designed to withstand dead load, erection loads, live loads
on the roadway, wind loads on the superstructure, forces
due to stream currents, floating ice and drift, temperature
and shrinkage effects, lateral earth and water pressures,
scour and collision and earthquake loadings.
The notations for dimension units include the following: ft = foot. The dimensional units provided with each
notation are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct combination of units for
the design procedures presented herein. If other units are
used, the dimensional correctness of the equations should
be confirmed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Part B
7.3 PIERS
7.3.1 Pier Types
7.3.1.1 Pier Walls
7.1.3 Settlement
The anticipated settlement of piers and abutments
should be estimated by appropriate analysis, and the
effects of differential settlement shall be accounted for in
the design of the superstructure.
Pier walls are designed as columns for forces and

moments acting about the weak axis and as piers for those
acting about the strong axis. Pier walls are defined as a
bridge support system consisting of a wall on a footing or
piles. Ratio of clear height to maximum width is less than
2.5.
+
+
+
+
+
+
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design

7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers
Refer to Section 4 for the design of spread footing,
driven pile and drilled shaft foundations and Section 5 for
the design of retaining walls.
7.2 NOTATIONS
+
+ pier and abutment substructure units:
More recent designs consist of double walls, spaced in

the direction of traffic, to provide support at the continuous soffit of concrete box superstructure sections. These
walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be
designed for the superstructure moments which develop
from live loads and erection conditions.
7.3.1.3 Bents
+
+
+
+
B = Width of foundation (ft)

e = Eccentricity of load from foundation centroid in
the indicated direction (ft)
H = Height of abutment (ft)
Bents are a bridge support system consisting of one or

more columns supporting a single cap. Columns are
defined as a single support member having a ratio of clear
height to maximum width of 2.5 or greater. The columns
SECTION 7
SUBSTRUCTURES
7-1
+
+
+
+
may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported

footing, or a solid wall shaft, or they may be extensions
of the piles or shaft above the ground line.
+
shall be of sufficient wall thickness to sustain the forces

and moments for all loading situations as are appropriate.
Prismatic configurations may be sectionally precast or
prestressed as erected.
7.3.1.4 Deleted
7.5 ABUTMENTS
7.3.2 Pier Protection
7.5.1 Abutment Types
7.3.2.1 Collision
7.5.1.1 Seat Type Abutment
Where the possibility of collision exists from highway
or river traffic, and appropriate risk analysis should be
made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be
provided and/or the appropriate protection system.
Seat type abutments are located at or near the top of

approach fills, with a backwall depth sufficient to accommodate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the
bearing seat.
+
+
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls

7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment
Collision walls extending 6 feet above top of rail are
required between columns for railroad overpasses, and
similar walls extending 2.35 feet above ground should be
considered for grade separation structures unless other
protection is provided.
7.3.2.3 Scour
The scour potential must be determined and the design
must be developed to minimize failure from this condition.
Partial-depth abutments are located approximately at

mid-depth of the front slope of the approach embankment. The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain fill
material, or the embankment slope may continue behind
the backwall. In the latter case, a structural approach slab
or end span design must bridge the space over the fill
slope, and curtain walls are provided to close off the open
area. Inspection access should be provided for this situation.
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment

7.3.2.4 Facing
Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed
to effectively break up or deflect floating ice or drift. In
these situations, pier life can be extended by facing the
nosing with steel plates or angles, and by facing the pier
with granite.
7.4.1 Materials
Tubular piers of hollow core section may be of steel,
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross
section to support the forces and moments acting on the
elements.
7.4.2 Configuration
The configuration can be as described in Article 7.3.1
and, because of their vulnerability to lateral loadings,
SECTION 7
7.5.1.4 Diaphragm Abutment

Diaphragm abutments are rigidly attached to the superstructure and are supported on spread or deep foundations capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements.
7.4 TUBULAR PIERS
7-2
Full-depth abutments are located at the approximate

front toe of the approach embankment, restricting the
opening under the structure.
SUBSTRUCTURES
7.5.2 Loading
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pressure as specified in Article 5.5 and 5.6, the weight of the
abutment and bridge superstructure, live load on the
superstructure or approach fill, wind forces and longitudinal forces when the bearings are fixed, and longitudinal
forces due to friction or shear resistance of bearings. The
design shall be investigated for any combination of these
forces which may produce the most severe condition of
+
+
loading. Diaphragm abutments must be designed for

forces generated by thermal movements of the superstructure.
7.5.2.1 Stability
Abutments shall be designed for the loading combination specified in Article 3.22.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Abutments on spread footings shall be designed to

resist overturning (FS 2.0) and sliding (FS 1.5).
Dead and live loads are assumed uniformly distributed over the length of the abutment between
expansion joints.
Allowable foundation pressures and pile capacities
shall be determined in accordance with Articles 4.4
and 4.3.
The earth pressures exerted by fill in front of the
abutment shall be neglected.
Earth pressures when active wedge cannot occur
(i.e. strutted abutments) should be addressed in
Section 5.
The earth pressures exerted by the fill material shall
be calculated in accordance with Articles 5.5.2 and
5.6.2.
The cross section of stone masonry or plain concrete abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the
introduction of tensile stress in the material.
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature

Except in gravity abutments, not less than 1/8 square
inch of horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall
be provided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks.
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling

The filling material behind abutments shall be free
draining, nonexpansive soil, and shall be drained by
weep holes with French drains placed at suitable intervals
and elevations. Silts and clays shall not be used for
backfill.
+
7.5.3 Diaphragm Abutments
Diaphragm abutments shall be designed to resist the

forces generated by thermal movements of the superstructure against the pressure of the fill behind the abutment.
Diaphragm abutments should not be constructed on
spread footings founded or keyed into rock. Movement

calculations shall consider temperature, creep, and longterm prestress shortening in determining potential movements of abutments.
Maximum span lengths, design considerations, details should comply with recommendations outlined in
FHWA Technical Advisory T 5140.13 (1980) except
where substantial local experience indicates otherwise.
To avoid water intrusion behind the abutment, the
approach slab should be connected directly to the abutment (not to wingwalls), and appropriate provisions
should be made to provide for drainage of any entrapped
water.
7.5.4 Deleted
7.5.5 Deleted
7.5.6 Wingwalls
7.5.6.1 Length
Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the
roadway embankment to the required extent and to furnish protection against erosion. The wingwall lengths
shall be computed using the required roadway slopes.
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars or suitable rolled sections shall be
spaced across the junction between wingwalls and abutments to tie them together. Such bars shall extend into the
masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop
the strength of the bar as specified for bar reinforcement,
and shall vary in length so as to avoid planes of weakness
in the concrete at their ends. If bars are not used, an
expansion joint shall be provided and the wingwall shall
be keyed into the body of the abutment.
Part C
Load Factor Design
7.6 Deleted
SECTION 7
SUBSTRUCTURES
7-3
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2003
SECTION 8 - REINFORCED CONCRETE1
Part A
Ac
8.1 APPLICATION
8.1.1 General
Acv
The specifications of this section are intended for

design of reinforced (non-prestressed) concrete bridge
members and structures. Bridge members designed as
prestressed concrete shall conform to Section 9.
Af
Ag
Ah
8.1.2 Notations
a
ab
av
Ab
= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block

(Article 8.16.2.7)
= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
for balanced strain conditions, inches (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
= shear span, distance between concentrated
load and face of support (Articles 8.15.5.8
and 8.16.6.8)
= effective tension area, in square inches, of
concrete surrounding the flexural tension
reinforcement and having the same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the
number of bars or wires. When the flexural
reinforcement consists of several bar size or
wire sizes, the number of bars or wires shall
be computed as the total area of reinforcement divided by the area of the largest bar
or wire used. For calculation purposes, the
thickness of clear concrete cover used to
compute A shall not be taken greater than 2
inches. (Article 8.16.8.4)
= area of an individual bar, square inches
(Article 8.25.1)
An
As
A's
Asf
Ash
Ast
Av
Avf
Aw
= area of core of spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square inches (Article
8.18.2.2.2); area of concrete section resisting shear, square inches (Article 8.16.6.9)
= area of concrete section resisting shear
transfer, square inches (Article 8.16.6.4.5)
= area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel
resisting moment, square inches (Articles
8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
= gross area of section, square inches
= area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, square inches
(Articles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
= area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel
resisting tensile force, Nc (Nuc), square
inches (Articles 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
= area of tension reinforcement, square inches
= area of compression reinforcement, square
inches
= area of reinforcement to develop compressive strength of overhanging flanges of Iand T-sections (Article 8.16.3.3.2)
= total cross sectional area of tie reinforcement including supplementary cross ties
within a section having limits of st and h c,
square inches (Article 8.18.2.3.1)
= total area of longitudinal reinforcement
(Articles 8.16.4.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.1)
= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inches (Article 8.15.5.3.2)
= area of shear-friction reinforcement, square
inches (Article 8.15.5.4.3)
= area of an individual wire to be developed
or spliced, square inches (Articles 8.30.1.2
and 8.30.2)
The Specifications of Section 8 are patterned after and are in general conformity with the provisions of ACI Standard 318 for
reinforced concrete design and its commentary, ACI 318 R, published by the American Concrete Institute.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-1
A1
A2
b
bo
bv
bw
+
+
+
c
Cm
d'
d"
db
dc
Ec
EI
Es
fb
8-2
= loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)

= maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to
and concentric with the loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
= width of compression face of member
= perimeter of critical section for slabs and
footings (Articles 8.15.5.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.2)
= width of cross section at contact surface
being investigated for horizontal shear
(Article 8.15.5.5.3)
= web width, or diameter of circular section.
For tapered webs, the average width or 1.2
times the minimum width, whichever is
smaller, inches (Article 8.15.5.1.1)
= distance from extreme compression fiber to
neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7)
= factor relating the actual moment diagram to
an equivalent uniform moment diagram
(Article 8.16.5.2.7)
centroid of tension reinforcement, inches.
For computing shear strength of circular
sections, d need not be less than the distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement in opposite half of member. For computing horizontal shear strength of composite members, d
shall be the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement for entire composite section.
centroid of compression reinforcement,
inches
= distance from centroid of gross section,
neglecting the reinforcement, to centroid of
tension reinforcement, inches
= nominal diameter of bar or wire, inches
= thickness of concrete cover measured from
extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto (Article 8.16.8.4)
= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article 8.7.1)
= flexural stiffness of compression member
(Article 8.16.5.2.7)
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi
(Article 8.7.2)
= average bearing stress in concrete on loaded
area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.1)
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
fc
fc
f c
fct
ff
fmin
fr
fs
f s
ft
fy
h
hc
hf
Icr
Ie
Ig
Is
k
la
ld
ldh
= extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)

= specified compressive strength of concrete,
psi
= square root of specified compressive
strength of concrete, psi
= average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi
= fatigue stress range in reinforcement, ksi
(Article 8.16.8.3)
= algebraic minimum stress level in reinforcement (Article 8.16.8.3)
= modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (Article
8.15.2.1.1)
= tensile stress in reinforcement at service
loads, psi (Article 8.15.2.2)
= stress in compression reinforcement at balanced conditions (Articles 8.16.3.4.3 and
8.16.4.2.3)
= extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at
service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)
= specified yield strength of reinforcement,
psi
= overall thickness of member, inches
= core dimension of tied column in the direction under consideration (out-to-out of ties)
(Article 8.18.2.3.1)
= compression flange thickness of I- and Tsections
= moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete (Article 8.13.3)
= effective moment of inertia for computation
of deflection (Article 8.13.3)
= moment of inertia of gross concrete section
about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
= moment of inertia of reinforcement about
centroidal axis of member cross section
= effective length factor for compression
members (Article 8.16.5.2 and Appendix C)
= additional embedment length at support or
at point of inflection, inches (Article .24.2.3)
= development length, inches
= development length of standard hook in
tension, measured from critical section to
outside end of hook (straight embedment
length between critical section and start of
hook (point of tangency) plus radius of
bend and one bar diameter), inches (Article
8.29)
+
+
+
+
+
ldh
lhb
lu
M
Ma
Mb
Mc
Mcr
Mn
Mnx
Mny
Mu
Mux
Muy
M1b
M2b
M2s
n
N
= lhb applicable modification factor

= basic development length of standard hook
in tension, inches
= unsupported length of compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.1)
= computed moment capacity (Article 8.24.2.3)
= maximum moment in member at stage for
which deflection is being computed (Article 8.13.3)
= nominal moment strength of a section at
balanced strain conditions (Article
8.16.4.2.3)
= moment to be used for design of compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.7)
= cracking moment (Article 8.13.3)
= nominal moment strength of a section
= nominal moment strength of a section in the
direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= nominal moment strength of a section in the
direction of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= factored moment at section
= factored moment component in the direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= factored moment component in the direction of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= value of smaller end moment on compression member due to gravity loads that result
in no appreciable side sway calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature,
negative if bent in double curvature (Article
8.16.5.2.4)
= value of larger end moment on compression
member due to gravity loads that result in
no appreciable side sway calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, always
positive (Article 8.16.5.2.4)
= value of larger end moment on compression
member due to lateral loads or gravity loads
that result in appreciable side sway, defined
by a deflection , greater than lu /1500,
calculated by conventional elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Article 8.16.5.2)
= modular ratio of elasticity
= Es /Ec (Article 8.15.3.4)
= design axial load normal to cross section
occurring simultaneously withV, to be taken
as positive for compression, negative for
tension and to include the effects of tension
Nc
Nu
Nuc
Pb
Pc
Pe
=
=
Po
Pn
Pnx
Pny
Pnxy
Pu
r
=
=
st
sw
S
V
=
=
SECTION 8
due to shrinkage and creep (Articles

8.15.5.2.2 and 8.15.5.2.3)
design tensile force applied at top of bracket
or corbel acting simultaneously with V, to
be taken as positive for tension (Article
8.15.5.8)
factored axial load normal to the cross section occurring simultaneously with Vu to be
taken as positive for compression, negative
for tension, and to include the effects of
tension due to shrinkage and creep (Article
8.16.6.2.2)
factored tensile force applied at top of
bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with
Vu , to be taken as positive for tension (Article 8.16.6.8)
nominal axial load strength of a section at
balanced strain conditions (Article
8.16.4.2.3)
critical load (Article 8.16.5.2.7)
design axial load due to gravity and seismic
loading (Articles 8.18.2.2 and 8.18.2.3)
nominal axial load strength of a section at
zero eccentricity (Article 8.16.4.2.1)
nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity
nominal axial load strength corresponding to
Mnx, with bending considered in the direction
of the x axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
nominal axial load strength corresponding to
Mny, with bending considered in the direction
of the y axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
nominal axial load strength with biaxial loading (Article 8.16.4.3)
factored axial load at given eccentricity
radius of gyration of cross section of a
compression member (Article 8.16.5.2.2)
spacing of shear reinforcement in direction
parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement,
inches
vertical spacing of ties, inches (Article
8.18.2.3.1)
spacing of wires to be developed or spliced,
inches
span length, feet
design shear force at section (Article
8.15.5.1.1)
design shear stress at section (Article
8.15.5.1.1)
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-3
+
+
+
+
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Article 8.16.6.1)

vc
= permissible shear stress carried by concrete (Article 8.15.5.2)
vdh
= design horizontal shear stress at any cross
section (Article 8.15.5.5.3)
vh
= permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
8.15.5.5.3)
Vn
= nominal shear strength (Article 8.16.6.1)
Vnh
= nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
8.16.6.5.3)
Vs
= nominal shear strength provided by shear
reinforcement (Article 8.16.6.1)
Vu
= factored shear force at section (Article
8.16.6.1)
vu
= limiting shear stress, psi (Article 8.18.2.1.6)
wc
= weight of concrete, lbs per cubic foot.
yt
= distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme
fiber in tension (Article 8.13.3)
z
= quantity limiting distribution of flexural reinforcement (Article 8.16.8.4)
(alpha)= angle between inclined shear reinforcement
and longitudinal axis of member
f
= angle between shear-friction reinforcement
and shear plane (Articles 8.15.5.4 and
8.16.6.4)
b (beta) = ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to
total area of reinforcement at the section
(Article 8.24.1.4.2)
c
= ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area; for a circular
concentrated load or reaction area, c = 1.0
(Articles 8.15.5.6.3 and 8.16.6.6.2)
d
= absolute value of ratio of maximum dead
load moment to maximum total load moment, always positive
1
= ratio of depth of equivalent compression
zone to depth from fiber of maximum compressive strain to the neutral axis (Article
8.16.2.7)
(lambda) = correction factor related to unit weight for
concrete (Articles 8.15.5.4 and 8.16.6.4)
(mu) = coefficient of friction (Article 8.15.5.4.3)
(rho) = tension reinforcement ratio = As /bd
= compression reinforcement ratio = A's /bd

b
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced
strain conditions (Article 8.16.3.1.1)
Vc
= the ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement

area to gross concrete area of a vertical
section in pier walls (Article 8.16.6.9.3)
n
= the ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area
to the gross concrete area of a horizontal
section in pier walls (Article 8.18.1.5)
s
= ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to
total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals)
of a spirally reinforced compression member (Article 8.18.2.2.2)
w
= reinforcement ratio used in Equation (8-4)
and Equation (8-48) = As /b wd
b (delta) = moment magnification factor for members
braced against side sway to reflect effects
of member curvature between ends of compression member
s
= moment magnification factor for members
not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral and gravity
loads
(phi) = strength reduction factor (Article 8.16.1.2)
8.1.3 Definitions
The following terms are defined for general use in
Section 8. Specialized definitions appear in individual
Articles.
Bracket or corbel - Short (haunched) cantilever that
projects from the face of a column or wall to support a
concentrated load or beam reaction. (Articles 8.15.5.8
and 8.16.6.8)
Compressive strength of concrete ( f c ) - Specified
compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square
inch (psi).
Concrete, structural lightweight - A concrete containing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight
as determined by Method of Test for Unit Weight of
Structural Lightweight Concrete (ASTM2 C 567), not
exceeding 115 pcf. In this specification, a lightweight
concrete without natural sand is termed all-lightweight
concrete and one in which all fine aggregate consists
of normal weight sand is termed sand-lightweight
concrete.
8-4
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
American Society for Testing and Materials
+
+
+
+
+
+
Deformed reinforcement - Deformed reinforcing bars,

deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded
deformed wire fabric.
Design load - All applicable loads and forces or their
related internal moments and forces used to proportion
members. For design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN,
design load refers to loads without load factors. For
design by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD, design load
refers to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design strength - Nominal strength multiplied by a
strength reduction factor, .
Tension tie member - Member having an axial tensile

force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross
section and having limited concrete cover on all sides.
Examples include: arch ties, hangers carrying load to an
overhead supporting structure, and main tension elements in a truss.
Development length - Length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of the
reinforcement at a critical section.
Yield strength or yield point (fy) - Specified minimum

yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in pounds
per square inch.
Embedment length - Length of embedded reinforcement

provided beyond a critical section.
8.2
Factored load - Load, multiplied by appropriate load

factors, used to proportion members by the STRENGTH
DESIGN METHOD.
The specified compressive strength, f c , of the con- +

crete for each part of the structure shall be shown on the +
plans. Use f c = 3600 psi minimum for reinforced concrete. +
Nominal strength - Strength of a member or cross

section calculated in accordance with provisions and
assumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
before application of any strength reduction factors.
Plain reinforcement - Reinforcement that does not
conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
Required strength - Strength of a member or cross
section required to resist factored loads or related
internal moments and forces in such combinations as
are stipulated in Article 3.22.
Service load - Loads without load factors.
Spiral reinforcement - Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix.
Splitting tensile strength (fct) - Tensile strength of
concrete determined in accordance with Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete AASHTO M 1953 (ASTM C 330).
Stirrups or ties - Lateral reinforcement formed of individual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound
reinforcement. The term stirrups is usually applied to
lateral reinforcement in horizontal members and the term
ties to those in vertical members.
8.3
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
8.3.1
The yield strength or grade of reinforcement shall

be shown on the plans.
8.3.2
Deleted
8.3.3
Designs shall, except as shown below, be based +

on a yield strength, fy, of 60,000 psi.
+
8.3.4
Deformed reinforcement shall be used except

that plain bars or smooth wire may be used for spirals and
ties.
8.3.5
The following structures shall be designed using

fy = 40,000 psi: minor structures, slope and channel paving,
sign foundations (pile and footing types), roadside rest
facilities, concrete barrier (Type 50 series) and temporary
railing.
Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and

Methods of Sampling and Testing
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-5
+
+
+
+
+
Part B
Analysis
8.4
GENERAL
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND

POISSONS RATIO
8.7.1
All members of continuous and rigid frame structures

shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads
specified in Articles 3.2 through 3.22 as determined by the
theory of elastic analysis.
8.5
8.7
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
The modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete may be

taken as wc 1 .5 33 f c in psi for values of wc between 90
and 155 pounds per cubic foot. For normal weight concrete
(wc = 145 pcf), Ec may be considered as 57000 f c .
8.7.2
The modulus of elasticity Es for nonprestressed

steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi.
8.7.3
Poissons ratio may be assumed as 0.2.
8.5.1
In general, provision for temperature changes

shall be made in simple spans when the span length
exceeds 40 feet.
8.5.2
In continuous bridges, the design shall provide

for thermal stresses or for the accommodation of thermal
movement with rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads,
or other means.
8.8
SPAN LENGTH
8.8.1
The span length of members that are not built

integrally with their supports shall be considered the clear
span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the
distance between centers of supports.
8.8.2
8.5.3
The coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction for normal weight concrete may be taken as
0.000006 per deg. F.
8.5.4
The coefficient of shrinkage for normal weight

concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
8.5.5
Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for lightweight concrete shall be determined for the type of lightweight aggregate used.
8.6
STIFFNESS
8.6.1
Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted

for computing the relative flexural and torsional
stiffnesses of continuous and rigid frame members. The
assumptions made shall be consistent throughout the
analysis.
8.6.2
The effect of haunches shall be considered both

in determining moments and in design of members.
8-6
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
In analysis of continuous and rigid frame members, distances to the geometric centers of members shall
be used in the determination of moments. Moments at
faces of support may be used for member design. When
fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the axis
of a continuous or restrained member are built monolithic
with the member and support, the face of support shall be
considered at a section where the combined depth of the
member and fillet is at least one and one-half times the
thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be
considered as adding to the effective depth.
Column flares which are designed and detailed to be
monolithic with a continuous or restrained member shall
be considered as fillets. However, no portion of the flares
shall be considered as fillets if the flares are designed and
detailed as sacrificial flares, or if the flares are separated
from the continuous or restrained member by a gap.
+
+
+
+
+
+
a
8.8.3
The effective span length of slabs shall be as

specified in Article 3.24.1.
the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part by

pedestrians, whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed
1/1000.
8.9
8.9.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to

service live load plus impact preferably should be limited
to 1/300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be 1/375.
CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
8.9.1 General
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or
any deformations that may adversely affect the strength
or serviceability of the structure at service load plus
impact.
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations

The minimum depths stipulated in Table 8.9.2 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates
that lesser depths may be used without adverse effects.
TABLE 8.9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for
Constant Depth Members
Superstructure Type
Minimum Depth a in Feet

Simple Spans Continuous Spans
Bridge slabs with

main reinforcement
1.2(S+10) /30 ( S+10) /30 0.542
parallel to traffic
T-Girders
0.070 S
0.065 S
Box-Girders
0.060 S
0.055 S
Pedestrian Structure
0.033 S
0.033 S
Girders
a
When variable depth members are used, values may

be adjusted to account for change in relative
stiffness of positive and negative moment sections.
S = span length as defined in Article 8.8, in feet.
8.10
COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH
8.10.1 T-Girder
8.10.1.1 The total width of slab effective as a T-girder
flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the
girder. The effective flange width overhanging on each
side of the web shall not exceed six times the thickness of
the slab or one-half the clear distance to the next web.
8.10.1.2 For girders having a slab on one side only,
the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/
12 of the span length of the girder, six times the thickness
of the slab, or one-half the clear distance to the next web.
8.10.1.3 Isolated T-girders in which the T-shape is
used to provide a flange for additional compression area
shall have a flange thickness not less than one-half the
width of the girder web and an effective flange width not
more than four times the width of the girder web.
8.10.1.4 For integral bent caps, the effective flange
width overhanging each side of the bent cap web shall not
exceed six times the least slab thickness, or 1/10 the span
length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the
span length shall be taken as two times the length of the
cantilever span.
8.10.2 Box Girders
8.9.3
Superstructure Deflection Limitations
When making deflection computations, the following

criteria are recommended.
8.10.2.1 The entire slab width shall be assumed

effective for compression.
8.10.2.2
For integral bent caps, see Article 8.10.1.4.
8.9.3.1 Members having simple or continuous spans

preferably should be designed so that the deflection due
to service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1/800 of
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-7
8.11
SLABS AND WEB THICKNESS
accordance with Article 3.24.3 but shall not be less than

that specified in Article 8.9.
together and have equal deflection. The live loading shall

consist of all traffic lanes fully loaded, with reduction in
load intensity allowed as specified in Article 3.12. The live
loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all
longitudinal flexural members.
8.11.2 The thickness of the bottom slab of a box girder
8.13.3 Deflections that occur immediately on applica-
shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder
webs or 5 1 /2 inches, except that the thickness need not be
greater than the top slab unless required by design.
tion of load shall be computed by the usual methods or

formulas for elastic deflections. Unless stiffness values
are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, immediate deflections shall be computed taking the modulus of
elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 8.7 for normal
weight or lightweight concrete and taking the moment of
inertia as either Ig or Ie as follows:
8.11.1 The thickness of deck slabs shall be designed in
8.11.3 When required by design, changes in girder web

thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12
times the difference in web thickness.
8.12
M
I e = cr
Ma
DIAPHRAGMS
8.12.1 Diaphragms shall be used at the ends of T-girder
3
M
I g + 1 cr
Ma
I cr I g
(8-1)
and box girder spans unless other means are provided to

resist lateral forces and to maintain section geometry.
Diaphragms may be omitted where tests or structural
analysis show adequate strength.
where
8.12.2 In T-girder construction, one intermediate dia-
and fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article

8.15.2.1.1.
phragm is recommended at the point of maximum positive

moment for spans in excess of 40 feet.
8.12.3 Straight box girder bridges and curved box girder

bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater do not
require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder
bridges having an inside radius less than 800 feet, intermediate diaphragms are required unless shown otherwise by
tests or structural analysis. For such curved box girders,
the maximum diaphragm spacing shall be 40 feet for radius
+ 400 feet or less and 80 feet for radius between 400 feet and
+ 800 feet.
8.13
COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS
8.13.1 Computed deflections shall be based on the

cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure
section excluding railings, curbs, sidewalks, or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure
section before falsework removal.
8.13.2 Live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act
8-8
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
M cr =
fr Ig
yt
(8-2)
For continuous spans, the effective moments of inertia

may be taken as the average of the values obtained from
Equation (8-1) for the critical positive and negative moment sections. For prismatic members, effective moment
of inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Equation
(8-1) at midspan for simple or continuous spans, and at +
support for cantilever spans.
+
8.13.4 Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, the long-time deflection for both normal
weight and lightweight concrete flexural members shall be
the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
considered, computed in accordance with Article 8.13.3,
multiplied by one of the following factors:
(a)
Where the immediate deflection has been based

on Ig , the multiplication factor for the long-time
deflection shall be taken as 4.
(b)
Where the immediate deflection has been based

on Ie, the multiplication factor for the long-time
deflection shall be taken as 3 - 1.2(A's /As ) 1.6.
Part C
Design
8.14
GENERAL
8.14.1 Design Methods

8.14.1.1 The design of reinforced concrete members
shall be made either with reference to service loads and
allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and
strengths as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN.
8.14.2.2
The entire composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and
moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for
all critical stages of loading and shall be designed to
support all loads introduced prior to the full development
of the design strength of the composite member. Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to prevent
separation of the individual elements.
8.14.2.3 If the specified strength, unit weight, or other
properties of the various elements are different, the properties of the individual elements, or the most critical values,
shall be used in design.
+
8.14.1.2 Except as provided herein, all reinforced
+ concrete structures or members shall be designed by
+ STRENGTH DESIGN. Current standard designs by other
+ methods shall be utilized until revised.
8.14.2.4 In calculating the flexural strength of a

composite member by strength design, no distinction
shall be made between shored and unshored members.
+
+
+
+
+
8.14.1.3 Structures designed exclusively for carrying railroad traffic and transversely reinforced deck slabs of
highway structures shall be designed by SERVICE LOAD
DESIGN. AREA Specifications may be required for substructure design of railroad structures.
8.14.2.5 When an entire member is assumed to resist

the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance with
the requirements of Article 8.15.5 or Article 8.16.6 as for a
monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional
shape.
+
+
+
+
+
8.14.1.4 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN may be used at

any section where the allowable stress determined by
Article 8.16.8.4 is less than 24,000 psi if the amount of
reinforcement provided is sufficient to satisfy other requirements for STRENGTH DESIGN.
8.14.2.6 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored

into the interconnected elements in accordance with Article 8.27. Extended and anchored shear reinforcement
may be included as ties for horizontal shear.
+
8.14.1.5 All applicable provisions of this specifica+ tion shall apply to both methods of design.
+
+
+
+
+
8.14.1.6 The strength and serviceability requirements of STRENGTH DESIGN may be assumed to be
satisfied for design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN if the
service load stresses are limited to the values given in
Article 8.15.2.
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members
8.14.2.1 Composite flexural members consist of
precast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so interconnected
that all elements respond to superimposed loads as a unit.
When considered in design, shoring shall not be removed
until the supported elements have developed the design
properties required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking.
8.14.2.7 The design shall provide for full transfer of

horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of interconnected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Article 8.15.5.5 or
Article 8.16.6.5.
8.14.3 Concrete Arches
8.14.3.1 The combined flexure and axial load strength
of an arch ring shall be in accordance with the provisions
of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5. Slenderness effects in the
vertical plane of an arch ring, other than tied arches with
suspended roadway, may be evaluated by the approximate
procedure of Article 8.16.5.2 with the unsupported length,
lu , taken as one-half the length of the arch ring, and the
radius of gyration, r, taken about an axis perpendicular to
the plane of the arch at the quarter point of the arch span.
Values of the effective length factor, k, given in Table
8.14.3 may be used. In Equation (8-41), Cm shall be taken
as 1.0 and shall be taken as 0.85.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-9
TABLE 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k

Rise-to-Span
Ratio
3-Hinged
Arch
2-Hinged
Arch
Fixed
Arch
0.1 - 0.2
1.16
1.04
0.70
0.2 - 0.3
1.13
1.10
0.70
0.3 - 0.4
1.16
1.16
0.72
8.14.3.2
Slenderness effects between points of
lateral support and between suspenders in the vertical
plane of a tied arch with suspended roadway, shall be
evaluated by a rational analysis taking into account the
requirements of Article 8.16.5.1.1.
8.14.3.3
The shape of arch rings shall conform,

as nearly as is practicable, to the equilibrium polygon for
full dead load.
8.14.3.4
In arch ribs and barrels, the longitudinal

reinforcement shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.01, divided equally
between the intrados and the extrados. The longitudinal
reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties in accordance with Article 8.18.2. In arch barrels, upper and lower
levels of transverse reinforcement shall be provided that
are designed for transverse bending due to loads from
columns and spandrel walls and for shrinkage and temperature stresses.
8.14.3.5
If transverse expansion joints are not
provided in the deck slab, the effects of the combined
action of the arch rib, columns and deck slab shall be
considered. Expansion joints shall be provided in spandrel walls.
8.14.3.6
Walls exceeding 8 feet in height on filled
spandrel arches shall be laterally supported by transverse
diaphragms or counterforts with a slope greater than 45
degrees with the vertical to reduce transverse stresses in
the arch barrel. The top of the arch barrel and interior faces
of the spandrel walls shall be waterproofed and a drainage
system provided for the fill.
8.15
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN)
8.15.1
8.15.1.1
Service load stresses shall not exceed
the values given in Article 8.15.2.
8.15.1.2
Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required in Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
8.15.2
Allowable Stresses
8.15.2.1
Concrete
Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
8.15.2.1.1
Flexure
Extreme fiber stress in compression, fc ..... 0.40 f c

Extreme fiber stress in compression
for transversely reinforced
deck slabs, fc ..................................... 1200 psi
Extreme fiber stress in tension for
plain concrete, ft .................................... 0.21fr
Modulus of rupture, fr , from tests, or, if data are not
available:
Normal weight concrete ...................... 7 . 5
f c
Sand-lightweight concrete ............... 6 . 3
f c
All-lightweight concrete .................... 5 . 5
f c
8.15.2.1.2
Shear
For detailed summary of allowable shear stress, vc, see

Article 8.15.5.2.
8.15.2.1.3
Bearing Stress
The bearing stress, fb , on loaded area shall not exceed

0.30 f c .
8-10
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
+
+
+
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than

the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on the loaded
A2
area may be increased by
A1 , but not by more than
2.
When the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, A2
may be taken as the area of the lower base of the largest
frustum of the right pyramid or cone contained wholly
within the support and having for its upper base the loaded
area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
When the loaded area is subjected to high edge stresses
due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including any increase due
to the supporting surface being larger than the loaded
area, shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75.
8.15.3.3
In reinforced concrete members, concrete resists no tension.
8.15.3.4
The modular ratio, n = Es /Ec may be
taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6).
Except in calculations for deflections, the value of n for
lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as
for normal weight concrete of the same strength.
8.15.3.5
In doubly reinforced flexural members,
an effective modular ratio of 2 Es /Ec shall be used to
transform the compression reinforcement for stress computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcements
shall not be greater than the allowable tensile stress.
8.15.4 Compression Members
8.15.2.2
Reinforcement
The tensile stress in the reinforcements, fs , shall not

exceed the following:
Grade 40 reinforcement ..................... 20,000 psi
Grade 60 reinforcement ...................... 24,000 psi
+
+
Grade 60 reinforcement for transversely

reinforced deck slabs ......................... 20,000 psi
The combined flexural and axial load capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35 percent of that
computed in accordance with the provisions of Article
8.16.4. Slenderness effects shall be included according to
the requirements of Article 8.16.5. The term Pu in Equation
(8-41) shall be replaced by 2.5 times the design axial load.
In using the provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5, shall
be taken as 1.0.
8.15.5
Shear
8.15.5.1
In straight reinforcement, the range between the maximum tensile stress and the minimum stress caused by live
load plus impact shall not exceed the value given in Article
8.16.8.3. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided
in regions of high stress range.
Shear Stress
8.15.5.1.1
Design shear stress, v, shall be

computed by:
v=
8.15.3 Flexure
V
bw d
(8-3)
where V is design shear force at section considered, b w

is the width of web, andd is the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal
tension reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of
torsion4 shall be included.
8.15.3.1
For the investigation of stresses at service loads, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in
flexure shall be used with the following assumptions:
8.15.3.2
The strain in reinforcement and concrete is directly proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis, except that for deep flexure members with
overall depth to span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous
spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution
of strain shall be considered.
4
The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in

"Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete" - ACI
318 may be used.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-11
8.15.5.1.2 For a circular section, b w shall be the

diameter and d need not be less than the distance from the
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
8.15.5.1.3 For tapered webs, b w shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is
smaller.
8.15.5.1.4 When the reaction, in the direction of
the applied shear, introduces compression into the end
regions of a member, sections located less than a distance
d from face of support may be designed for the same shear,
V, as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs
when major concentrated loads are imposed between that
point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer
than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance
d plus the major concentrated loads.
8.15.5.2
Shear Stress Carried by

Concrete
N
fc
vc = 0.91 + 0.0006
Ag
N
Ag shall be expressed in pounds per
The quantity
square inch.
8.15.5.2.3
Shear in Tension Members
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
detailed calculation is made using:
N
fc
vc = 0.9 1+ 0.004
Ag
Shear in Beams and One-Way

Slabs and Footings
For members subject to shear and flexure only, the

allowable shear stress carried by the concrete, vc, may be
taken as 0 .95 f c . A more detailed calculation of the
allowable shear stress can be made using:
Vd
vc = 0.9 f c + 1,100 w 1.6 f c
M
Note:
(a)
M is the design moment occurring

simultaneously with V at the section being
considered.
Vd
(b) The quantity
shall not be taken greater
M
than 1.0.
8.15.5.2.2
Shear in Compression Members
For members subject to axial compression, the allowable shear stress carried by the concrete, vc, may be taken
as 0 .95 f c . A more detailed calculation can be made
using:
8-12
SECTION 8
Shear in Lightweight Concrete
The provisions for shear stress, vc, carried by the

concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, one of the following
modifications shall apply:
(a) When fct is specified, the shear stress vc, shall
be modified by substituting fct /6.7 for
(8-4)
REINFORCED CONCRETE
(8-6)
Note:
(a) N is negative for tension.
N
(b) The quantity A shall be expressed in pounds
g
per square inch.
8.15.5.2.4
8.15.5.2.1
(8-5)
f c ,
but the value of fct /6.7 used shall not exceed
f c .
(b) When fct is not specified, the shear stress, vc,
shall be multiplied by 0.75 for all-lightweight
concrete, and 0.85 for sand-lightweight
concrete. Linear interpolation may be used
when partial sand replacement is used.
8.15.5.3
Shear Stress Carried by Shear

Reinforcement
8.15.5.3.1 Where design shear stress v exceeds

shear stress carried by concrete vc, shear reinforcement
shall be provided in accordance with this Article. Shear
reinforcement shall also conform to the general requirements of Article 8.19.
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4.
8.15.5.4
Shear Friction
8.15.5.3.2
When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is used:
Av =
(v vc )bw s
fs
8.15.5.3.3
When inclined stirrups are used:
(v vc )bw s
f s (sin + cos )
Av =
(8-7)
(8-8)
8.15.5.3.4 When shear reinforcement consists of

a single bar or single group of parallel bars all bent up at
the same distance from the support:
Av =
(v vc )bw s
fs sin
(8-9)
where (v-v c) shall not exceed 1 .5 f c .

a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bentup bars at different distances from the support, the required area shall be computed by Equation (8-8).
8.15.5.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the
inclined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be
considered effective for shear reinforcement.
8.15.5.3.7 Where more than one type of shear
reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, the required area shall be computed as the sum of
the values computed for the various types separately. In
such computations, vc shall be included only once.
8.15.5.3.8 When (v - vc) exceeds 2 f c , the maximum spacings given in Article 8.19 shall be reduced by
one-half.
8.15.5.3.9
8.15.5.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be

applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an
interface between two concretes cast at different times.
8.15.5.4.2 A crack shall be assumed to occur along
the shear plane considered. Required area of shearfriction reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be
designed using either Article 8.15.5.4.3 or any other shear
transfer design methods that result in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of paragraph 8.15.5.4.4 through
8.15.5.4.8 shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer
strength.
8.15.5.4.3
Shear-friction design method
(a) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction

reinforcement Avf shall be computed by
Avf =
V
fs
(8-10)
where is the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 8.15.5.4.3(c).

(b) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined
to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-friction reinforcement,
area of shear-friction Avf shall be computed by
V
Avf =
(8-11)
f s ( sin f + cos f )
where a f is angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane.
(c) Coefficient of friction in Equation (8-10) and
Equation (8-11) shall be:
The value of (v - vc) shall not exceed
concrete placed monolithically ........... 1.4
4 f c .
concrete placed against hardened concrete

with surface intentionally roughened as specified in Article 8.15.5.4.7 .......................... 1.0
8.15.5.3.10 When flexural reinforcement located

within the width of a member used to compute the shear
strength is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforceSECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-13
concrete placed against hardened concrete

not intentionally roughened ........ 0.6
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel
by headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see
Article 8.15.5.4.8) ........................ 0.7
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85
for sand-lightweight concrete; and 0.75 for
all-lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied when partial sand replacement is used.
substantial agreement with result of comprehensive tests.
8.15.5.5.3 Design horizontal shear stress vdh at

any cross section may be computed by
v dh =
V
bv d
(8-11A)
where V is design shear force at section considered and d

is for entire composite section. Horizontal shear vdh shall
not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance
with the following:
Shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09 f c
nor 360 psi.
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance,

and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh
shall not exceed 36 psi.
8.15.5.4.5 Net tension across shear plane shall be

resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear plane may be taken as additive to the
force in the shear-friction reinforcementAvf fs , when calculating required Avf.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Paragraph 8.15.5.5.5, and contact
surface is clean and free of laitance, but not
intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall
not exceed 36 psi.
8.15.5.4.6 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be

appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be
anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Paragraph 8.15.5.5.5, and contact
surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full magnitude of approximately 1 /4 inch, shear stress vh shall not exceed
160 psi.
8.15.5.4.4
8.15.5.4.7 For the purpose of Art. 8.15.5.4, when

concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete,
the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free of
laitance. If is assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall be
roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1 /4 inch.
8.15.5.4.8 When shear is transferred between asrolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded
reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint.
8.15.5.5
Horizontal Shear Design for

Composite Concrete Flexural
Members
8.15.5.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of

horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected elements.
8.15.5.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to
horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
Paragraph 8.15.5.5.3 or 8.15.5.5.4 or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in
8-14
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing

the contact surface in excess of the minimum
required by 8.15.5.5.5, permissible vh may be
increased by 72 fy /40,000 psi.
8.15.5.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated

by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the actual change in compressive or tensile force
to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that
force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible
horizontal shear stress vh in accordance with Paragraph
8.15.5.5.3.
8.15.5.5.5
Ties for Horizontal Shear
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50 b vs / fy, and tie spacing s shall not
exceed four times the least web width of
support element, nor 24 inches.
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single

bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical
legs of welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored
into interconnected elements by embedment
or hooks.
+
+
+
+
(c) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into

cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be used in satisfying the
minimum tie reinforcement.
8.15.5.6
2
fc 1.8 f c
vc = 0.8 +
c
c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load

or reaction area.
8.15.5.6.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars

or wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance
with the following provisions:
(a) Shear stresses computed by Equation (8-12)
shall be investigated at the critical section
defined in 8.15.5.6.1(b) and at successive sections more distant from the support.
Special Provisions for Slabs

and Footings
8.15.5.6.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in

the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be
governed by the more severe of two conditions:
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a
critical section extending in a plane across the
entire width and located at a distance d from
the face of the concentrated load or reaction
area. For this condition, the slab or footing
shall be designed in accordance with Article
8.15.5.1 through 8.15.5.3, except at footings
supported on piles, the shear on the critical
section shall be determined in accordance
with Article 4.4.7.2.
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with
a critical section perpendicular to the plane of
the member and located so that its perimeter
b o is a minimum, but not closer thand/2 to the
perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction
area. For this condition, the slab or footing
shall be designed in accordance with Article
8.15.5.6.2 and 8.15.5.6.3.
8.15.5.6.2
Design shear stress, v shall be com-
puted by:
v=
V
bod
(8-13)
(b) Shear stress vc at any section shall not exceed

0 .9 f c and v shall not exceed 3 f c .
(c) Where v exceeds 0 .9 f c , shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with
Article 8.15.5.3.
8.15.5.7
Deleted
8.15.5.8
Special Provisions forBrackets

and Corbels 5
8.15.5.8.1 Provisions of Paragraph 8.15.5.8 shall

apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth
ratio a v /d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal
tensile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be
measured at face of support.
8.15.5.8.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area
shall not be less than 0.5d.
8.15.5.8.3 Section at face of support shall be
designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment
Vav + Nc (h d ) and a horizontal tensile force Nc. Distance h shall be measured at the face of support.
(8-12)
where V and b o shall be taken at the critical section defined

in 8.15.5.6.1(b).
8.15.5.6.3 Design shear stress, v, shall not exceed

vc given by Equation (8-13) unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.6.4.
These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA

publication, Notes on ACI 318-95 contains an example
design of beam ledges - Part 17, Example 17-3.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-15
+
+
+
(a) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to

resist shear V shall be in accordance with
Article 8.15.5.4. For normal weight concrete,
shear stress v shall not exceed 0 .9 f c nor 360
psi. For all-lightweight or sand-lightweight concrete, shear stress v shall not
exceed
(0.09 0.03a v / d ) f c
nor
(360 126 av / d ) psi.
As (primary
reinforcement)
Bearing Plate
Anchor bar
Framing bar
to anchor
stirrups or ties
(b) Reinforcement A f to resist moment

[Vav + N c (h d )] shall be computed in accordance with Articles 8.15.2 and 8.15.3.
(c) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc
shall be computed by An =Nc /fs. Tensile force
Nc shall not be taken less than 0.2 V unless
special provisions are made to avoid tensile
forces.
(d) Area of primary tension reinforcementAs shall
be made equal to the greater of (Af +An ) or
((2 Avf / 3) + An ) .
8.15.5.8.4
Closed stirrups or ties parallel toAs, with

a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As - An ), shall be uniformly
distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As .
Ratio = As /bd shall not be taken less
than 0 .04 ( fc / f y ) .
Figure 8.15.5.8
8.15.5.8.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel

shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As , nor project beyond interior face of transverse
anchor bar (if one is provided).
8.16
8.16.1.1
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
8.16.1.2
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Design Strength
8.16.1.2.1 The design strength provided by a

member or cross section in terms of load, moment, shear,
or stress shall be the nominal strength calculated in
accordance with the requirements and assumptions of the
strength design method, multiplied by a strength reduction factor 6 .
6
8-16
Required Strength
The required strength of a section is the strength

necessary to resist the factored loads and forces applied
to the structure in the combinations stipulated in Article
3.22. All sections of structures and structural members
shall have design strengths at least equal to the required
strength.
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least

equal size; weld to be designed to develop
specified yield strength fy of As bars;
(b) bending primary tension bars As back to form
a horizontal loop, or
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

(LOAD FACTOR DESIGN)
8.16.1 Strength Requirements
8.15.5.8.5
8.15.5.8.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one
of the following:
An (closed stirrups
or ties)
The coefficient provides for the possibility that small

adverse variations in material strengths, workmanship, and
dimensions, while individually within acceptable tolerances
and limits of good practice, may combine to result in
understrength.
8.16.1.2.2
The strength reduction factors, , shall
be as follows:
(a) Flexure ............................................. = 0.90
(except Group VII footings ................ = 1.0
and Group VII columns7 .................... = 1.2)
+
+
(b) Shear ................................................. = 0.85

(c) Axial compression with
spirals ...........................................
ties ................................................
(except Group VII columns7 .........
= 0.75
= 0.70
= 1.0)
(d) Bearing on concrete ........................... = 0.7

The value of may be increased linearly from the value
for compression members to the value for flexure as the
design axial load strength, P n , decreases from
0.10 f c Ag or Pb , whichever is smaller, to zero.
8.16.1.2.3 The development and splice lengths of

reinforcement specified in Articles 8.24 through 8.32 do
not require a strength reduction factor.
8.16.2.5
The tensile strength of the concrete is
neglected in flexural calculations.
8.16.2.6
The concrete compressible stress/
strain distribution may be assumed to be a rectangle,
trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape that results in
prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the
results of comprehensive tests.
8.16.2.7
A compressive stress/strain distribution, which assumes a concrete stress of 0.85 f'c uniformly
distributed over an equivalent compression zone
bounded by the edges of the cross section and a line
parallel to the neutral axis at a distance = 1 c from the fiber
of maximum compressive strain, may be considered to
satisfy the requirements of Article 8.16.2.6. The distance
c from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall
be measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The
factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths, f'c,
up to and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000
psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for
each 1,000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi but1 shall
not be taken less than 0.65.
8.16.3
Flexure
8.16.2 Design Assumptions

8.16.3.1
Maximum Reinforcement of
Flexural Members
8.16.2.1
The strength design of members for

flexure and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions
given in this article, and on the satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium of internal stresses and
compatibility of strains.
8.16.2.2
The strain in reinforcement and concrete is directly proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis.
8.16.2.3
The maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003.
8.16.2.4
The stress in reinforcement below its
specified yield strength, fy, shall be Es times the steel strain.
For strains greater than that corresponding tofy, the stress
in the reinforcement shall be considered independent of
strain and equal to fy.
8.16.3.1.1 The ratio of reinforcement provided

shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section. The portion of
b balanced by compression reinforcement need not be
reduced by the 0.75 factor.
8.16.3.1.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a
cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches the
strain corresponding to its specified yield strength, fy, just
as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
8.16.3.2
Rectangular Sections with

Tension Reinforcement Only
8.16.3.2.1
The design moment strength, Mn , may
be computed by:
+
+
+
+
+
+
For seismic loads (Group VII), the use of increased coefficient

for columns recognizes the overstrength capacity of well
confined compression members with axial loads below Pb . For
axial loads above Pb , do not use the increased coefficient
without a more detailed analysis to justify the use of higher
coefficient .
f y
M n = As f y d 1 0. 6
c
f
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
(8-15)
8-17
= As f y d
(8-16)
where
b 0.85 1 fc 87,000
b = w
+f
87,000 + f y
fy
b
(8-22)
where
a=
As f y
0.85 fcb
f =
(8-17)
Asf
bw d
(8-23)
8.16.3.2.2 The balanced reinforcement ratio, b , is

8.16.3.3.4 For T-girder and box-girder construction,
the width of the compression face, b, shall be equal to the
effective slab width as defined in Article 8.10.
given by:
b =
8.16.3.3
0. 85 1 fc 87,000
87,000 + f y
fy
(8-18)
Flanged Sections with Tension

Reinforcement Only
8.16.3.3.1 When the compression flange thickness

is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent
rectangular stress block, a, the design moment strength,
Mn , may be computed by Equations (8-15) and (8-16).
8.16.3.3.2 When the compression flange thickness
is less than a, the design moment strength may be computed by:
M n = A s Asf f y d
+ Asf
2
f y d 0.5h f
8.16.3.4
Rectangular Sections with

Compression Reinforcement
8.16.3.4.1 The design moment, Mn , may be computed as follows:

If
fcd 87 ,000
As As
0. 85 1
bd
f y d 87 ,000 f y
a
M n = ( As As ) f y d + As f y (d d )
2
a=
0.85 fc(b bw )h f
fy
( As Asf ) f y
0.85 fcbw
(8-20)
(8-21)
8.16.3.3.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, b , is

given by:
8-18
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
(8-25)
where
a=
Asf =
(8-24)
then
(8-19)
where
( As As ) f y
0. 85 f cb
(8-26)
8.16.3.4.2 When the value of ( A s As ) / bd is less

than the value required by Equation (8-24), so that the
stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the
yield strength, fy, or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the design moment strength may
be computed by the equations in Article 8.16.3.2. Alternatively, a general analysis may be made based on stress and
strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Article 8.16.2.
8.16.3.4.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio b for

rectangular sections with compression reinforcement is
given by:
0.85 f 87,000

1 c
+ f s
b =
87,000 + f
f
fy
(8-27)
where
d 87 ,000 + f y
f s = 87,000 1
f y
d 87 ,000
+
+
8.16.3.5
(8-28)
Flanged Sections with

+
8.16.3.5.1 When the compression flange thick+ ness is less than the value of 'a' determined by Article
+ 8.16.3.4.1, the design moment strength may be computed
+ by:
+
+
+
+
+
+
(8-28A)
+ where
+
+
+
a=
( As Asf As ) f y f h
0.85 fcbw
(8-28B)
+ and the following condition shall be satisfied:

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(As Asf As ) 0.851 f cd

bw d
fy d
bw
b
0. 85 f 87 ,000
1 c
+f
87, 000 + f
f
y
y
87, 000
87,000 f
y
(8-28C)
8.16.3.5.2 When the value of
(As Asf As )/ bw d
is less than the limit given by the

expression in Article 8.16.3.5.1, the moment strength
may be computed by the equations in Article 8.16.3.3.2,
or a general analysis based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Article
8.16.2 may be performed.
+
8.16.3.5.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, b , for
+ flanged sections with compression reinforcement is given
+ by:
f
+ s
f
+
+
+
(8-28D)
where f is as defined in Article 8.16.3.3.3 and f s is as

defined in Article 8.16.3.4.3.
+
+
8.16.3.6
Other Cross Sections
For other cross sections the design moment strength,

Mn , shall be computed by a general analysis based on
stress and strain compatibility using assumptions given
in Article 8.16.2. The requirements of Article 8.16.3.1 shall
also be satisfied.
8.16.4
Compression Members
8.16.4.1
As Asf As f y d +
2
M n =
Asf f y d 0.5h f + As f y (d d )
b =
8.16.4.1.1 The design of members subject to axial

load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based
on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions
given in Article 8.16.2. Slenderness effects shall be included according to the requirements of Article 8.16.5.
8.16.4.1.2 Members subject to compressive axial
load combined with bending shall be designed for the
maximum moment that can accompany the axial load. The
factored axial load, Pu , at a given eccentricity shall not
exceed the design axial strength Pn(max) where
(a)
For members with spiral reinforcement

conforming to Article 8.18.2.2.
Pn(max) = 0.85 0.85fc ( Ag - Ast ) + f y Ast
(8-29)
= 0.75
(b)
For members with tie reinforcement

conforming to Article 8.18.2.3
Pn(max) = 0.80 0.85fc ( Ag - Ast ) + f y Ast
(8-30)
= 0.70
The maximum factored moment, Mu , shall be magnified
for slenderness effects in accordance with Article 8.16.5.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-19
and
8.16.4.2
Compression Member
Strengths
d 87,000 + f y
f s = 87,000 1
d 87 ,000
The following provisions may be used as a guide to

define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for members subjected to combined flexure and axial
load.
8.16.4.2.1
Pure Compression
The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity,Po ,

may be computed by:
Po = 0 .85 fc( Ag Ast ) + A st f y
(8-31)
For design, pure compressive strength is a hypothetical condition since Article 8.16.4.1.2 limits the axial load
strength of compression members to 85 and 80 percent of
the axial load at zero eccentricity.
8.16.4.2.2
Pure Flexure
8.16.4.2.4
Combined Flexure and Axial Load
The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension

when the nominal axial load strength, Pn , is less than the
balanced load strength, Pb , and is controlled by compression when Pn is greater than Pb .
The nominal values of axial load strength, Pn , and
moment strength, Mn , must be multiplied by the strength
reduction factor, , for axial compression as given in Article
8.16.1.2.
8.16.4.3
Biaxial Loading
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and

strain compatibility, the design strength of non-circular
members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed
by the following approximate expressions:
The assumptions given in Article 8.16.2 or the applicable equations for flexure given in Article 8.16.3 may be
used to compute the design moment strength,Mn , in pure
flexure.
1
1
1
1
=
+
Pnxy
Pnx Pny Po
(8-36)
when the factored axial load,
8.16.4.2.3
Balanced Strain Conditions
Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are

defined in Article 8.16.3.1.2. For a rectangular section with
reinforcement in one face, or located in two faces at
approximately the same distance from the axis of bending,
the balanced load strength, Pb , and balanced moment
strength, Mb , may be computed by:
Pb = 0 .85 fcbab + As fs As f y
(8-32)
ab
0.85 fcbab d d +
M b =
2
(8-33)
As f s(d d d ) + As f y d
where,
87, 000
ab =
87 ,000 + f y
SECTION 8
1 d
(8-34)
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Pu 0 .1 f c Ag
(8-37)
M uy
M ux
+
1
M nx M ny
(8-38)
or
when the factored axial load,
Pu p 0 .1 f c Ag
and
8-20
f y
(8-35)
8.16.4.4
(8-39)
Hollow Rectangular
Compression Members
8.16.4.4.1 The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow

rectangular cross section, Xu /t, is defined in Figure
8.16.4.4.1. Wall slenderness ratios greater than 35.0 are not
permitted, unless specific analytical and experimental
evidence is provided justifying such values.
8.16.4.4.2
The equivalent rectangular stress block

method shall not be employed in the design of hollow
rectangular compression members with wall thickness
ratio of 15 or greater.
8.16.4.4.3 If the wall slenderness ratio is less than

15, then the maximum usable strain at the extreme compression fiber is equal to 0.003. If the wall slenderness is 15 or
greater, then the maximum usable strain at the extreme
concrete compression fiber is equal to the computed local
buckling strain of the widest flange of the cross section,
or 0.003, whichever is less.
8.16.4.4.4 The local buckling strain of the widest
flange of the cross section may be computed assuming
simply supported boundary conditions on all four edges
of the flange. Nonlinear material behavior shall be considered by incorporating the tangent material moduli of the
concrete and reinforcing steel in computations of the local
buckling strain.
8.16.4.4.5 In lieu of the provisions of Articles

8.16.4.4.2, 8.16.4.4.3 and 8.16.4.4.4, the following approximate method may be used to account for the strength
reduction due to wall slenderness. The maximum usable
strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be
taken as 0.003 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and
including 35.0. A strength reduction factor w shall be
applied in addition to the usual strength reduction factor,
, in Article 8.16.1.2. The strength reduction factor w shall
be taken as 1.0 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and
including 15.0. For wall slenderness ratios greater than
15.0 and less than or equal to 25.0, the strength reduction
factor w shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.025
for every unit increase in wall slenderness ratio above 15.0.
For wall slenderness ratios greater than 25.0 and less than
or equal to 35.0, the strength reduction factor w shall be
taken as 0.75.
8.16.4.4.6 Discontinuous, non-post-tensioned
reinforcement in segmentally constructed hollow rectangular compression members shall be neglected in computations of member strength.
FIGURE 8.16.4.4.1 Definition of Wall Slenderness Ratio

+
8.16.4.5
Probable Plastic Moment
+
8.16.4.5.1 The probable plastic moment is defined
+ as the maximum moment which can be expected to actually
+ develop in a well confined column section at yield.
8.16.4.5.2 For well-confined sections with axial

loads below Pb (Article 8.1.2) the probable plastic moment
may be assumed to be 1.3 times the nominal moment. For +

loads above Pb , a more detailed analysis shall be per- +
formed.
+
8.16.4.6
Special Provisions for Column

and Pier Wall Hinges
8.16.4.6.1 The design shear force, Vu , and the

associated axial force, Pu , shall be adequately transferred
+
+
+
+
a
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-21
+ from superstructure to support, from support to founda+ tion, or at intermediate locations in the support considered
+ hinged.
+
+
+
+
+
8.16.4.6.2
The design compressive axial load

strength shall be computed in accordance with Article
8.16.4.2.1 for all Group loads except Group VII. For Group
VII loads, the design compressive axial load strength shall
be computed by:
Po = 0 .85 fc( Ag Ast ) + Ast f y
+
+ where,
+
8.16.4.6.3 The design tensile axial load strength

+
+ may be computed by:
Pn = Ast f y
(8-39B)
+ where = 0.90 for all loads except Group VII, and= 1.0 for
+ Group VII loads.
8.16.4.6.4 The design shear strength shall be in

+
+ accordance with Article 8.16.6.4. The area of longitudinal
+ hinge reinforcement, Ast , in excess of, As , may be used for
a + the required area, Avf.
8.16.4.6.5 In hinges, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed close to the center of the core to
minimize moment strength. The longitudinal hinge reinforcement shall be developed on both sides of the hinge
interface.
8.16.5
Slenderness Effects in
Compression Members
8.16.5.1
8.16.5.1.1 The design of compression members

shall be based on forces and moments determined from an
analysis of the structure. Such an analysis shall include
the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia
on member stiffness and fixed-end moments, the effect of
deflections on the moments and forces, and the effect of
the duration of the loads.
8.16.5.1.2 In lieu of the procedure described in
Article 8.16.5.1.1, slenderness effects of compression
8-22
SECTION 8
8.16.5.2
+
+
+
+
Approximate Evaluation of
Slenderness Effects
8.16.5.2.1 The unsupported length, lu , of a compression member shall be the clear distance between slabs,
girders, or other members capable of providing lateral
support for the compression member. Where haunches
are present, the unsupported length shall be measured to
the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
+ Pu shall not exceed Po .
+
+
+
+
a+
8.16.5.1.3 In lieu of the procedure described in

Article 8.16.5.1.1, slenderness effects in compression
members shall be neglected when proportioning them for
the Group VII load combination.
(8-39A)
= 0.90
members may be evaluated in accordance with the approximate procedure in Article 8.16.5.2.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.16.5.2.2 The radius of gyration, r, may be assumed equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the
direction in which stability is being considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter
for circular compression members. For other shapes, r may
be computed for the gross concrete section.
8.16.5.2.3 For compression members braced
against sidesway, the effective length factor, k, shall be
taken as 1.0, unless an analysis shows that a lower value
may be used. For compression members not braced
against sidesway, k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness
and shall be greater than 1.0.
8.16.5.2.4 For compression members braced
against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be
neglected when k lu /r is less than 34-(12M1b /M2b ).
8.16.5.2.5 For compression members not braced
against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be
neglected when k lu /r is less than 22.
8.16.5.2.6 For all compression members where
k lu /r is greater than 100, an analysis as defined in Article
8.16.5.1 shall be made.
8.16.5.2.7 Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load, Pu , derived from a
conventional elastic analysis and a magnified factored +
moment, Mc. Pu shall not exceed Pc.
+
M c = b M 2b + s M 2s
(8-40)
where
b =
members braced against sidesway and without transverse

loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
M
C m = 0. 6 + 0.4 1b
M 2b
Cm
1.0
Pu
1
Pc
(8-41)
but not less than 0.4.
(8-41A)
t 0. 01
Q 1.90
and
2 EI
(klu )
(8-45)
For all other cases Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
Cm
s =
1.0
Pu
1
Pc
Pc =
(8-42)
t 0. 06
1.33
1.00
For members braced against sidesway, s shall be taken

as 1.0. For members not braced against sidesway, b shall
be evaluated as for a braced member and s for an unbraced
member.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.9
P/Po
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken

either as:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ where
+
+
+ and
+
+
+
Ec I g
+ Es I s
EI = Q 5
(1 + d )
Q = 2. 014 11. 42( t )
t =
A st
FIGURE 8.16.5 EI Correction Factor Q

(Equation 8-43A)
(8-43)
(8-43A)
(8-43B)
Ag
Equation (8-43A) applies for values of P/Po less than

0.6 and for values of t between 0.01 and 0.06. For values
of P/Po greater than 0.6, the value of Q shall vary linearly
from the values in Equation (8-43A) to 1.0 atP/Po of 0.9 (See
Figure 8.16.5), or the value of EI may be taken conservatively as:
8.16.5.2.8 If computations show that there is no

moment at either end of a compression member braced or
unbraced against sidesway or that computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches, M2b and M2s in
Equation (8-40) shall be based on a minimum eccentricity
of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches about each principal axis separately.
The ratio M1b /M2b in Equation (8-45) shall be determined
by either of the following:
(a) When the computed end eccentricities are less
than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches, the computed end moments
may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in Equation (8-45).
(b) If computations show that there is essentially no
moment at either end of the member, the ratio
M1b /M2b shall be equal to one.
Ec I g
EI =
2.5
(1 + d )
(8-44)
where d is the ratio of maximum dead load moment to

maximum total load moment and is always positive. For
8.16.5.2.9 In structures that are not braced against

sidesway, the flexural members framing into the compression member shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression member at the joint.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-23
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.16.5.2.10 When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment
about each axis shall be magnified byd, computed from the
corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.
8.16.5.2.11 When a group of compression members
on one level comprise a bent, or when they are connected
integrally to the same superstructure, and collectively
resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of s shall be
computed for the member group withPu and Pc equal to
the summations for all columns in the group.
8.16.6.2
Shear Strength Provided by

Concrete
8.16.6.2.1
Shear in Beams and One-Way

Slabs and Footings
For members subject to shear and flexure only, Vc, shall

be computed by:
V d
Vc = 1.9 f c + 2,500 w u bw d
Mu
(8-48)
or
8.16.6
Vc = 2 fc bw d
Shear
8.16.6.1
Shear Strength

shear shall be based on:
V u V n
(8-46)
where Vu is factored shear force at the section considered

and Vn is the nominal shear strength computed by:
V n = Vc + Vs
where b w is the width of web and d is the distance from the

extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of torsion shall be included. For a circular section,
b w shall be the diameter and d need not be less than the
distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half
of the member. For tapered webs, b w shall be the average
width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
(8-47)
Note:
(a)
where Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by the

concrete in accordance with Article 8.16.6.2, and Vs is the
nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforcement in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. Whenever applicable, effects of torsion8 shall be included.
8.16.6.1.2 When the reaction, in the direction of

applied shear, introduces compression into the end regions of a member, sections located less than a distance
d from the face of support may be designed for the same
shear Vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception
occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case
sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for
V at a distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
(8-49)
Vc shall not exceed 3 .5 f c bw d when using
a more detailed calculation.

(b) The quantity Vu d/Mu shall not be greater than
1.0 where Mu is the factored moment occurring
simultaneously with Vu at the section being
considered.
8.16.6.2.2
Shear in Compression Members
For members subject to axial compression, Vc

may be computed by:
Nu
Vc = 21 +
2,000 Ag
f c (bw d )
(8-50)
or
Vc = 2 fc bw d
(8-51)
Note:
The quantity Nu /Ag shall be expressed in pounds
per square inch.
8
The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in

Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
ACI318 may be used.
8-24
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.16.6.2.3
Shear in Tension Members
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within a

distance s.
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
detailed calculation is made using:
Nu
Vc = 2 1 +
500 Ag
Note:
(a)
f c (bw d )
Vs =
(8-52)
Nu is negative for tension.
(b)
The quantity Nu /Ag shall be expressed in

pounds per square inch.
(c)
Vc shall not be taken less than zero.
(b)
When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vc

shall be modified by substituting fct / 6.7 for
fc ,but the value of fct / 6.7 used shall not
exceed fc .
When fct is not specified, Vc shall be
multiplied by 0.75 for "all-lightweight" concrete, and 0.85 for "sand-lightweight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be used when
partial sand replacement is used.
8.16.6.3
Av f y (sin + cos )d
s
(8-54)
8.16.6.3.4
When a single bar or a single group of
parallel bars all bent up at the same distance from the
support is used:
Vs = Av f y sin 3 fc (bw d )
(8-55)
Shear in Lightweight Concrete
The provisions for shear stress, vc, carried by the

concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, one of the following
modifications shall apply:
(a)
When inclined stirrups are used:

a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bentup bars at different distances from the support, shear
strength Vs shall be computed by Equation (8-54).
a
8.16.6.2.4
8.16.6.3.3
Shear Strength Provided by

Shear Reinforcement
8.16.6.3.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds

shear strength Vc, shear reinforcement shall be provided
to satisfy Equations (8-46) and (8-47), but not less than that
required by Article 8.19. Shear strength Vs shall be
computed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.3.2 through
8.16.6.3.10.
8.16.6.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is used:
Vs =
Av f y d
s
8.16.6.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the

inclined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be
considered effective for shear reinforcement.
8.16.6.3.7 Where more than one type of shear
reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, shear strength Vs shall be computed as the sum
of the Vs values computed for the various types.
8.16.6.3.8 When shear strength Vs exceeds
4 fcb wd , spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed one-half the maximum spacing given in Article 8.19.3.
8.16.6.3.9 Shear strength Vs shall not be taken
greater than 8 f c bw d .
8.16.6.3.10 When flexural reinforcement, located
within the width of a member used to compute the shear
strength, is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4.
8.16.6.4
Shear Friction
8.16.6.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be

applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an
interface between two concretes cast at different times.
(8-53)
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-25

shear transfer as described in paragraph 8.16.6.4.1 shall be
based on Equation (8-46), where shear strength Vn is
calculated in accordance with provisions of paragraph
8.16.6.4.3 or 8.16.6.4.4.
8.16.6.4.3 A crack shall be assumed to occur along
the shear plane considered. Required area of shearfriction reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be
designed using either paragraph 8.16.6.4.4 or any other
shear transfer design methods that result in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of paragraph 8.16.6.4.5 through
8.16.6.4.9 shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer
strength.
8.16.6.4.4
Shear-friction Design Method
(a)When shear-friction reinforcement is

perpendicular to shear plane, shear strength Vn
shall be computed by:
Vn = Avf f y
(8-56)
where is coefficient of friction in accordance

with paragraph (c).
(b)When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined
to shear plane, such that shear force produces
tension in shear-friction reinforcement, shear
strength Vn shall be computed by:
V n = Avf f y sin f + cos f
(8-56A)
where f is angle between shear-friction

reinforcement and shear plane.
(c)Coefficient of friction in Equation (8-56)
and Equation (8-56A) shall be:
Concrete placed monolithically.....................1.4
Concrete placed against hardened concrete
with surface intentionally roughened
as specified in Article 8.16.6.4.8....................1.0
Concrete placed against hardened concrete
not intentionally roughened........................0.6
8-26
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural

steel by headed studs or by reinforcing
bars (see Article 8.16.6.4.9)............................0.7
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for
"sand-lightweight" concrete; and 0.75 for "alllightweight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be
applied when partial sand replacement is used.
8.16.6.4.5 Shear strength Vn shall not be taken

greater than 0.2 fc Acv nor 800 Acv in pounds, where Acv is
area of concrete section resisting shear transfer.
8.16.6.4.6 Net tension across shear plane shall be
resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear plane may be taken as additive to the
force in the shear-friction reinforcementAvf fy, when calculating required Avf.
8.16.6.4.7 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be
appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be
anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
8.16.6.4.8 For the purpose of Article 8.16.6.4,
when concrete is placed against previously hardened
concrete, the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and
free of laitance. If is assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall
be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately1 /4 inch.
8.16.6.4.9 When shear is transferred between asrolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded
reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint.
8.16.6.5
Horizontal Shear Strength for

Composite Concrete Flexural
Members
8.16.6.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of

horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
paragraph 8.16.6.5.3 or 8.16.6.5.4, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in
substantial agreement with results of comprehensive
tests.

horizontal shear may be based on
V u V nh
(8-57)
where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh

is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with
the following, and where d is for the entire composite
section.
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and
intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall
not be taken greater than 80b vd, in pounds.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with paragraph 8.16.6.5.5, and contact surface is
clean and free of laitance, but not intentionally
roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 80b vd, in pounds.
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with paragraph 8.16.6.5.5, and contact surface is
clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened
to a full amplitude of approximately1 /4 inch, shear
strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 350b vd,
in pounds.
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
contact surface in excess of the minimum required
by paragraph 8.16.6.5.5, shear strengthVnh may be
increased by (160fy /40,000) b vd, in pounds.
8.16.6.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated

by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizontal
shear strength Vnh in accordance with paragraph
8.16.6.5.3, except that length of segment considered shall
be substituted for d.
8.16.6.5.5
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected
elements. Tie area shall not be less than 50 b vs /fy,
and tie spacing s shall not exceed four times the
least web width of support element, nor 24 inches.
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars

or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of
welded wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately
anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
(c) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into
cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be used in satisfying the minimum
tie reinforcement.
8.16.6.6
+
+
+
+
Special Provisions for Slabs

and Footings
8.16.6.6.1 Shear strength of slabs and footings in

the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be
governed by the more severe of two conditions:
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical
section extending in a plane across the entire width
and located at a distance d from the face of the
concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in
accordance with Articles 8.16.6.1 through 8.16.6.3
except at footings supported on piles the shear on
the critical section shall be determined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3.2.
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a

critical section perpendicular to the plane of the
member and located so that its perimeter b o is a
minimum, but need not approach closer thand/2 to
the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction
area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall
be designed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.6.2
and 8.16.6.6.3.
8.16.6.6.2 Design of slab or footing for two-way

action shall be based on Equation (8-46), where shear
strength Vn shall not be taken greater than shear strength
Vc given by Equation (8-58), unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 8.16.6.6.3.
4
fc bod 4 fcbo d
Vc = 2 +
c
(8-58)
c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load

or reaction area, and b o is the perimeter of the critical
section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1(b).
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-27
8.16.6.6.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars

or wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance
with the following provisions:
(a) Shear strength Vn shall be computed by Equation
(8-47), where shear strength Vc shall be in accordance with paragraph (d) and shear strength Vs
shall be in accordance with paragraph (e).
(b) Shear strength shall be investigated at the critical
section defined in 8.16.6.6.1(b), and at successive
sections more distant from the support.
(c) Shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than
6 fc bod , where b o is the perimeter of the critical
section defined in paragraph (b).
(d) Shear strength Vc at any section shall not be taken
greater than 2 fc bo d , where b o is the perimeter of
the critical section defined in paragraph (b).
(e) Where the factored shear force Vu exceeds the
shear strength Vc as given in paragraph (d), the
required area Av and shear strength Vs of shear
reinforcement shall be calculated in accordance
8.16.6.7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Special Provisions for Box

Culverts
8.16.6.7.1 For top slabs of box culverts under 2

feet or more fill, and for sidewalls and invert slab regardless
of fill height, shear strength Vc may be computed by:
Vc = 3. 0 fcbd
(8-59)
For top slabs of box culverts under less than 2 feet of

fill, applicable provisions of Articles 3.24 and 6.5 should
be used.
8.16.6.8
Special Provisions for Brackets

and Corbels 9
8.16.6.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.16.6.8 shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth
ratio a v /d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal
9
These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA

publication, Notes on ACI 318-95, contains an example
design of beam ledges - Part 17, Example 17.3
8-28
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu . Distance d shall be

measured at face of support.
8.16.6.8.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area

shall not be less than 0.5d.
8.16.6.8.3 Section at face of support shall be
designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu , a moment
[Vu a v+Nuc(h-d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc. Distance h shall be measured at the face of support.
(a) In all design calculations in accordance with
paragraph 8.16.6.8, strength reduction factor
shall be taken equal to 0.85.
(b) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist
shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 8.16.6.4.
For normal weight concrete, shear strength Vn shall
not be taken greater than 0.2 fcbw d nor 800 b wd in
pounds. For "all-lightweight" or "sand-lightweight"
concrete, shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater
than (0.2 0.07 av / d ) fcbw d nor
(800-280a v /d)b wd in pounds.
(c) Reinforcement Af to resist moment
[Vu a v+Nuc(h-d)] shall be computed in accordance
with Articles 8.16.2 and 8.16.3.
(d) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall
be determined from N uc An f y . Tensile force
Nuc shall not be taken less than 0.2Vu unless special
provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. Tensile
force Nuc shall be regarded as a live load even when
tension results from creep, shrinkage, or temperature change.
(e) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall
be made equal to the greater of (Af + An ), or
(2Avf /3+An ).
8.16.6.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel toAs , with

a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As -An ), shall be uniformly
distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As .
8.16.6.8.5
0.04 fc / f y .
Ratio = As /b d shall not be less than
8.16.6.8.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one
of the following:
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least

equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy of As bars,
(b) bending primary tension bars As back to form a
horizontal loop, or
but shall not be taken greater than 8 f c .
a
8.16.6.9.4 For lightweight aggregate concrete,
Vn shall be multiplied by 0.75. The reinforcement required for shear shall be continuous and distributed
uniformly.
+
+
+
+
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
8.16.6.10
8.16.6.8.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel
shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As , nor project beyond interior face of transverse
anchor bar (if one is provided).
Ass (primary
(primary
reinforcement)
Bearing Plate
Nuc
Nuc
Anchor bar
+
+
8.16.6.9
An (closed stirrups
or ties)
Special Provision for Pier

Walls
+
+
+
8.16.6.9.1 The shear strength of a pier wall in its

weak direction shall be determined from Articles 8.16.6.2
and 8.16.6.3.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.16.6.9.2 In regions outside the plastic hinge

zone, the shear strength Vn in the strong direction of the
pier wall shall be:
+
+
+
+
8.16.6.9.3 The limiting shear stress shall be determined in accordance with the following formula:
V n = vu Ac
(8-59A)
Where, vu is the limiting shear stress; Ac is the area of

a horizontal section of the pier wall and is given by h times
d. d may be taken as 0.8 times the wall length.
vu = 2 f c + h f y
+
+
8.16.6.10.1 Design the connection between the

compression member and the bent or pier cap as specified
in Article 3.22. The development length for all longitudinal
steel shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.30.
+
+
+
+
8.16.6.10.2 The shear strength in the joint of a pier

or bent reinforced for enclosure, in the direction under
consideration, shall not exceed 12 fcb wd for normalweight aggregate concrete, 9 f c bw d nor for lightweight
aggregate concrete.
+
+
+
+
+
8.16.6.11
Framing bar
to anchor
stirrups or ties
Compression Member
Connection to Caps
Special Seismic Provisions for

Columns, Pier Walls and Piles
+
+
8.16.6.11.1 The design shear force Vu on each

principal axis of each column, pier wall or pile shall be
the value determined from the loading combinations in
Article 3.22 except for Group VII. Vu for Group VII shall
be the lesser of the shear forces resulting from plastic
hinging or unreduced elastic ARS seismic forces in
columns or pier walls.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+a
8.16.6.11.2 The amount of transverse reinforcement provided shall not be less than that required by
Article 8.18.2 for confinement or by Article 8.19.1 for
minimum shear reinforcement. For calculating the area or
spacing of Grade 60 transverse reinforcement, fy shall be
taken as 60 ksi.
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.16.6.11.3 The member shear resistance in regions +

away from plastic hinges shall conform to Articles 8.16.6.2, +
8.16.6.3 and 8.16.6.9.
+
a
8.16.6.11.4 The following provisions will determine +

the member shear resistance in regions of plastic hinges +
as described in Article 8.16.6.11.1.
+
(8-59B)
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-29
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(a) Concrete
The shear strength of the concrete, Vc, shall be in
accordance with Article 8.16.6.2 when the axial load
associated with the shear produces an average compression stress in excess of 0.1 f c over the core
concrete area of the support member. AsP/Ac increases
from 0.0 to 0.1 f c , strength Vc increases linearly from 0
to a maximum value of 2 fcbd .
+
+
+
+
(b) Reinforcement
The shear strength of the transverse reinforcement Vs
shall be computed by Article 8.16.6.3. Only the core
section of the member shall be considered.
+
+
+
+
Av shall be the area of the least number of bars or wires

in a single layer of transverse reinforcement that can be
intersected by a plane normal to the direction of the
applied shear.
+
+
In walls, Av shall be taken as the area of horizontal shear

reinforcement within a distance s.
a+
8.16.6.11.5 When calculating the shear strength of

+ the section, d may be taken as 0.8 times the member length
+ measured in the direction of the shear force under consid + eration or as 0.8 times the section diameter.
8.16.7.1
The bearing stress, fb , on concrete shall
not exceed 0. 85 fc except as provided in Articles
8.16.7.2, 8.16.7.3 and 8.16.7.4.
8.16.7.2
When the supporting surface is wider
on all sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing
stress on the loaded area may be multiplied by A2 / A1 ,
but not by more than 2.
8.16.7.3
When the supporting surface is sloped
or stepped, A2 may be taken as the area of the lower base
of the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone contained
wholly within the support and having for its upper base the
loaded area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2
horizontal.
8.16.7.4
When the loaded area is subjected to
high edge stresses due to deflection or eccentric loading,
the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including
any increase due to the supporting surface being larger
than the loaded area, shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75.
SECTION 8
Serviceability Requirements
8.16.8.1 Application
For flexural members designed with reference to load
factors and strengths by Strength Design Method,
stresses at service load shall be limited to satisfy the
requirements for fatigue in Article 8.16.8.3, and for distribution of reinforcement in Article 8.16.8.4. The requirements for control of deflections in Article 8.9 shall also be
satisfied.
8.16.8.2
Service Load Stresses
For investigation of stresses at service loads to satisfy

the requirements of Articles 8.16.8.3 and 8.16.8.4, the
straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be
used and the assumptions given in Article 8.15.3 shall
apply.
8.16.8.3
Fatigue Stress Limits
The range between a maximum tensile stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
plus impact at service load shall not exceed:
r
f f = 21 0.33 fmin + 8
h
8.16.7 Bearing Strength
8-30
8.16.8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
(8-60)
where:
ff = stress range in kips per square inch;
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, (tension positive, compression negative) in kips per square
inch;
r
= ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on
h
transverse deformations; when the actual
value is not known, use 0.3.
Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in

regions of high stress range.
Fatigue stress limits need not be considered for concrete deck slabs with primary reinforcement perpendicular
to traffic and designed in accordance with the approximate
methods given under Article 3.24.3 Case A.
8.16.8.4
Distribution of Flexural
Reinforcement
(c) 170 Kips/inch for all cases other than as

listed above.
To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension

reinforcement shall be well distributed within maximum
flexural zones. When the design yield strength, fy, for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi, the bar sizes and
spacing at maximum positive and negative moment sections shall be chosen so that the calculated stress in the
reinforcement at service load,fs , in ksi does not exceed the
value computed by:
fs =
( d c A )1 3
0. 6 f y
Where members are exposed to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments as specified in Article 8.22,
protection should be provided as discussed in Article 8.22
and Table 8.22.1, or by furnishing other methods of protection such as a waterproofing system, in addition to
satisfying Equation (8-61).
Part D
Reinforcement
(8-61)
but shall not be less than 0.4 fy
8.17
In Equation (8-61),
A = effective tension area, in square inches, of
reinforcement and having the same centroid as
that reinforcement, divided by the number of
bars or wires. When the flexural reinforcement
consists of several bar or wire sizes, the number
of bars or wires shall be computed as the total
area of reinforcement divided by the area of the
largest bar or wire used.
d c = distance measured from extreme tension fiber to

the center of the closest bar or wire in inches.
For calculation purposes, the thickness of
clear concrete cover used to compute d c shall
not be taken greater than 2 inches.
8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement

8.17.1.1
At any section of a flexural member
where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the
reinforcement provided shall be adequate to develop a
moment at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated
on the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight
concrete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
8.17.1.2
The requirements of Article 8.17.1.1
may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at a
section is at least one-third greater than that required by
analysis based on the loading combinations specified in
Article 3.22.
8.17.2
= a factor related to the exposure conditions of the

structure and based on the maximum crack
width permitted. Values for various exposure
conditions are:
(a) 100 Kips/inch for structures in direct
contact with sea water or subjected to sea
water spray.
(b) 130 Kips/inch for structures not in direct contact with sea water or subjected to sea
water spray but located within 1,000 feet of
ocean or tidal water and for bridge decks
located in environmental Area III (severe climate).
REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL
MEMBERS
Distribution of Reinforcement
8.17.2.1
Flexural Tension
Reinforcement in Zones of
Maximum Tension
8.17.2.1.1 Where flanges of T-girders and boxgirders are in tension, tension reinforcement shall be
distributed over an effective tension flange width equal to
1 / the girder span length or a width as defined in Article
10
8.10.1, whichever is smaller. If the actual slab width, centerto-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension
flange width, and for excess portions of the deck slab
overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement with area
not less than 0.4 percent of the excess slab area shall be
provided in the excess portions of the slab.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-31
8.17.2.1.2 For integral bent caps of T-girder and

box-girder construction, tension reinforcement shall be
placed within a width not to exceed the web width plus an
overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap web
equal to one-fourth the average spacing of the intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 8.10.1.4 for
integral bent caps, whichever is smaller.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.17.2.1.3 For the distribution of negative moment

tensile reinforcement continuous over a support, the
effective tension flange width shall be computed separately on each side of the support in accordance with
paragraphs 8.17.2.1.1 and 8.17.2.1.2. The larger of the two
effective flange widths shall be used for the uniform
distribution of the reinforcement into both spans.
8.17.2.1.4 If the depth of the side face of a member
exceeds 2 feet, longitudinal reinforcement having a total
area at least equal to 10 percent of the area of the flexural
tension reinforcement shall be placed near the side faces
of the member and distributed in the zone of flexural
tension with a spacing not more than the web width or 12
inches.
For continuous structures, the area of flexural tension
reinforcement shall be taken as the maximum at any single
section, either positive or negative. Minimum size of the
side face reinforcement shall be No. 4.
Such reinforcement may be included in computing the
flexural capacity only if a stress and strain compatibility
analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual
bars or wires.
+
8.17.2.1.5 For girders, the top side face bar on each
+ face of the girder web shall be a No. 8 bar.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.17.2.1.6 In bent caps, reinforcement shall be

placed approximately three inches below the construction
joint between the deck and cap, or lower if necessary to
clear prestressing ducts. This reinforcement shall be designed by Load Factor methods taking Mu as 1.3 times the
dead load negative moment of that portion of the cap and
superstructure located beneath the construction joint and
within 10 feet of each side face of the cap. Service load
checks and shear design are not required for this condition. This reinforcement may be included in computing the
flexural capacity of the cap only if a stress and strain
compatibility analysis is made to determine the stress in
the bars.
8-32
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.17.2.2
Transverse Deck Slab

Reinforcement in T-Girders
and Box-Girders
At least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse

reinforcement in the deck slab shall extend to the exterior
face of the outside girder web in each group and be
anchored by a standard 90-degree hook. If the slab
extends beyond the last girder web, such reinforcement
shall extend into the slab overhang and shall have an
anchorage beyond the exterior face of the girder web not
less than that provided by a standard hook.
8.17.2.3
Bottom Slab Reinforcement for

Box-Girders
8.17.2.3.1 Minimum distributed reinforcement of

0.4 percent of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom
slab parallel to the girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement
shall not exceed 18 inches.
8.17.2.3.2 Minimum distributed reinforcement of
0.5 percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based
on the least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom
slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement
shall be distributed over both surfaces with a maximum
spacing of 18 inches. All transverse reinforcement in the
bottom slab shall extend to the exterior face of the outside
girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard
90-degree hook or equal.
8.17.3
Lateral Reinforcement of
Flexural Members
8.17.3.1
Compression reinforcement used to increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed
by ties or stirrups which shall be at least No. 3 in size for
longitudinal bars that are No. 10 or smaller, and at least No.
4 in size for No. 11, No. 14, No. 18, and bundled longitudinal
bars. Welded wire fabric of equivalent area may be used
instead of bars. The spacing of ties shall not exceed 16
longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be
provided throughout the distance where the compression
reinforcement is required. This paragraph does not apply
to reinforcement located in a compression zone which has
not been considered as compression reinforcement in the
design of the member.
8.17.3.2 Torsion reinforcement, where required,

shall consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals,
combined with longitudinal bars. See Article 8.15.5.1.1 or
8.16.6.1.1.
bottom edges of each segment. The cross ties shall be

placed so as to link the ends of each pair of internal and
external longitudinal reinforcing bars in the walls of the
cross section.
8.17.3.3 Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in

one piece by overlapping the standard end hooks of ties
or stirrups around a longitudinal bar, or may be formed in
one or two pieces by splicing with Class C splices (lap of
1.7ld ).
8.17.4.7
Lateral reinforcing bars may be joined at
the corners of the cross section by overlapping 90-degree
bends. Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars are
not permitted unless the overlapping bars are enclosed
over the length of the splice by the hooks of at least four
cross ties located at intersections of the lateral bars and
longitudinal bars.
8.17.4.8
When details permit, the longitudinal
reinforcing bars in the corners of the cross section shall be
enclosed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be
provided, then pairs of "U" shaped bars with legs at least
twice as long as the wall thickness, and oriented 90 degrees
to one another, may be substituted.
8.17.4.9
Post-tensioning ducts located in the
corners of the cross section shall be anchored into the
corner regions with closed hoops, or by stirrups having a
90-degree bend at each end which encloses at least one
longitudinal bar near the outer face of the cross section.
8.17.3.4 In seismic areas, where an earthquake

that could cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be
designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
ductility to resist expected seismic movements.
8.17.4
Reinforcement for Hollow

Rectangular Compression
Members
The area of longitudinal reinforcement in

the cross section shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross
area of concrete in the cross section.
8.17.4.2 Two layers of reinforcement shall be provided in each wall of the cross section, one layer near each
face of the wall. The areas of reinforcement in the two
layers shall be approximately equal.
8.17.4.1
8.17.4.3 The center-to-center lateral spacing of

longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than 1.5
times the wall thickness, or 18 inches, whichever is less.
8.17.4.4
The center-to-center longitudinal spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than 1.25
times the wall thickness, or 12 inches, whichever is less.
Cross ties shall be provided between

layers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross ties shall
include a standard 135 degree hook at one end, and a
standard 90 degree hook at the other end. Cross ties shall
be located at bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties
shall enclose both lateral and longitudinal bars at the
intersections. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and each
lateral reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a
cross tie at a spacing not to exceed 24 inches.
8.17.4.6 For segmentally constructed members,

additional cross ties shall be provided along the top and
8.17.4.5
8.18
8.18.1
REINFORCEMENT OF
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Maximum and Minimum
Longitudinal Reinforcement
8.18.1.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement

for compression members shall not exceed 0.08 times the
gross area, Ag , of the section.
8.18.1.2 The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross area,
Ag , of the section. When the cross section is larger than
that required by consideration of loading, a reduced
effective area may be used. The reduced effective area
shall not be less than that which would require one percent
of longitudinal reinforcement to carry the loading. The
minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be
six for bars in a circular arrangement and four for bars in a
rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bars shall
be No. 5.
a
a
a
a
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-33
+
+
+
+
8.18.1.4
The center-to-center spacing of interlocking spirals or hoop cages in oblong columns shall not
be greater than 0.75 times the diameter of the cage. The
overlaps shall be interlocked by a minimum of four bars.
+
+
a+
+
+
8.18.1.5
The minimum vertical shear reinforcement ratio n , in a pier wall shall not be less than 0.0025. The
reinforcement determined by n shall be spaced uniformly
along both faces at a spacing not exceeding 12 inches. n
shall not be less than h (Article 8.18.2.1.6).
8.18.2
Lateral Reinforcement
8.18.2.1
+
+
+
General
8.18.2.1.1 Lateral reinforcement for compression

members shall consist of either spiral reinforcement,
hoops, or of a combination of lateral ties and cross ties.
Ties shall only be used when it is not practical to provide
spiral or hoop reinforcement. Where longitudinal bars are
required outside the spiral or hoop reinforcement, they
shall have lateral support provided by bars spaced and
hooked as required for cross ties. The hooked bars shall
extend into the core of the spiral or hoop by a full development length.
8.18.2.1.2
Reinforcement required for Article

8.18.2.1.1 may be used to satisfy shear requirements of
Article 8.16.6.9.
8.18.2.1.5 In a compression member that has a

larger cross section than that required by conditions of
loading, the lateral reinforcement requirements may be
waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate
strength and feasibility of construction.
8.18.2.1.6 In pier walls, the minimum horizontal
shear reinforcement ratio h shall not be less than 0.0025.
For pier walls designed as columns, provisions in Article
8.18.2.3.1 shall apply.
+
+
+
+ a
8.18.2.1.7 The vertical spacing of horizontal

shear reinforcement (ties) in pier walls shall not exceed
the least dimension of the wall or 12 inches, whichever
is smaller.
When vertical reinforcement is comprised of bars
larger than No. 10 bundled together with more than two
bars in any one bundle, the maximum spacing of horizontal reinforcement shall be one-half of that specified
above.
+
+
+
+ a
+
+
+
+
+
8.18.2.1.8 In plastic hinge zones, the maximum +

spacing of horizontal shear reinforcement shall be one- +
half of that specified in Article 8.18.2.1.7.
+
8.18.2.1.9 Cross-ties and horizontal shear rein- +
forcement in pier walls shall conform to Articles 8.18.2.3.3 +
and 8.18.2.3.4.
+ a
a
8.18.2.2
8.18.2.1.3 Lateral reinforcement shall extend at the
same spacing into the footing to the point of tangency of
the column bar hooks but may be discontinuous at the top
footing reinforcement.
8.18.2.1.4
Lateral reinforcement for compression

members shall be continued into the cap a distance equal
to the lesser of:
(a) one-half the maximum dimension of the confined
core section of the compression member at the cap
soffit;
(b) the development length of straight main reinforcement from compression members;
(c) the straight portion of hooked main reinforcement
from compression members.
+
+
This lateral reinforcement may be discontinuous at the

bottom flexural reinforcement of the cap.
8-34
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Spiral or Hoops
Spiral or hoop reinforcement for compression members

shall conform to the following:
8.18.2.2.1 Spirals or hoops shall consist of evenly

spaced continuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of
0.20 inch for members having a minimum dimension of 20
inches or less, and 0.348 inch for members having a
minimum dimension greater than 20 inches.
+
+
+
+
+
8.18.2.2.2 Ratio of spiral or hoop reinforcement s

shall not be less than the value given by:
Ag
f
s = 0.45
1 c
(8-62)
A
c
fy
where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral or hoop
reinforcement but not more than 60,000 psi.
In potential plastic hinge zone, as defined in Article
+
3.21.8, s shall not be less than:
+
+
+
+
Ag
f
1.25 Pe
s = 0.45
1 c 0. 5 +
f c Ag (8-62A)
Ac
f y
+ for columns less than or equal to 3 feet in diameter or least

+ dimension,
The total cross sectional area (Ash ) of tie reinforcement

for a rectangular column shall not be less than:
Ash = 0. 30 s t hc
Ash = 0.30 st hc
fc
1.25 Pe
0. 5 +
fy
f c Ag
(8-62B)
+
+ for columns larger than 3 feet in diameter or least dimension.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
However, s shall not be not less than that required by

Equation (8-62).
If the cover over the core in a plastic hinge zone exceeds
two inches at any point, the value of Ag used to determine
s for the plastic hinge zone shall be limited to the area of
a reduced section having not more than two inches of
cover. The reduced section used to calculate Ag shall be
adequate for all applied loads associated with the plastic
hinge.
8.18.2.2.3 Deleted
8.18.2.2.4
Deleted
8.18.2.2.5
Deleted
8.18.2.2.6
Splices in spiral or hoop reinforcement

shall be accomplished by welding or mechanical couplers.
8.18.2.2.7 Spirals or hoops shall be of such size

and so assembled as to permit handling and placing
without distortion from designed dimensions.
8.18.2.2.8 Spirals or hoops shall be held firmly in
place by attachment to the longitudinal reinforcement and
true to line by vertical spacers.
8.18.2.3
Ties
Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
8.18.2.3.1 All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties

which are at least No. 3 in size for longitudinal bars that are
No. 10 or smaller, and at least No. 4 in size for No. 11, No.
14, No. 18 and bundled longitudinal bars.
(8-62C)
In plastic hinge zones, Ash shall not be less than either
or
s = 0. 12
fc Ag
1
f y Ac
f c Ag
1.25 Pe
1 0.5 +
f y Ac
f c Ag (8-62D)
or
Ash = 0.12 st hc
fc
1. 25 Pe
0. 5 +
fy
f c Ag
(8-62E)
whichever is greater, but not less than that required by

Equation (8-62C). st shall not be less than 2 inches. Use
area Ag for plastic hinge zones as defined in Article
8.18.2.2.2.
8.18.2.3.2
Deleted
8.18.2.3.3
Ties shall be located vertically not more

than half a tie spacing above the footing or other support
and shall be spaced as provided herein to not more than
half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in members supported above.
+
+
+
+
+
8.18.2.3.4 Lateral tie reinforcement, shall be provided by single or overlapping closed ties, or a single
closed tie combined with cross ties.
Ties shall be so arranged that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar or bundle of bars shall have lateral
support, but no intermediate bar or bundle shall be farther
than 6 inches clear on either side from such a laterally
supported bar or bundle. Corner bars shall be considered
laterally supported if the included angle of the tie does not
exceed 135 degrees.
Closed ties shall be terminated with 135 degree hooks.
The hook extensions shall be the larger of 10 tie diameters
or 6 inches.
Cross ties shall be hooked at both ends and placed
normal across core section h c. Each hook will engage the
perimeter tie at a longitudinal bar on opposite face of the
column. Hook extensions shall be the same as for closed
ties. Hook details shall be in accordance with either of the
following:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-35
+
+
+
+
+
(a) Continuous ties with 135 degree hook on one end

and 90 degree hook on the other. Cross ties shall
be alternated so that hooks of the same degree are
not adjacent to each other both vertically and
horizontally.
(b) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member.
(c) Longitudinal reinforcement with a bent portion
making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the
longitudinal tension reinforcement.
(b) Lap spliced tie with 180 degree hook at each end.
8.18.2.4
(d) Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal

reinforcement.
Deleted
(e) Spirals.
8.19
8.19.1
LIMITS FOR SHEAR

REINFORCEMENT
Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.19.1.1
A minimum area of shear reinforcement
shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs and
footings, where:
(a) For design by Strength Design, factored shear
force Vu exceeds one-half the shear strength provided by concrete Vc.
(b) For design by Service Load Design, design shear
stress v exceeds one-half the permissible shear
stress carried by concrete vc.
8.19.2.2
Shear reinforcement shall be developed
at both ends in accordance with the requirements of
Article 8.27.
8.19.3
Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular to

the axis of the member shall not exceed d/2 or 24 inches.
Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement shall
be so spaced that every 45-degree line extending toward
the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, d/2, to the
longitudinal tension reinforcement shall be crossed by at
least one line of shear reinforcement.
8.20
8.19.1.2
Where shear reinforcement is required
by Article 8.19.1.1, or by analysis, the area provided shall
not be less than:
Av =
50bw s
fy
(8-63)
Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE

REINFORCEMENT
8.20.1 Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature

stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls
and slabs not otherwise reinforced. The total area of
reinforcement provided shall be at least1 /8 square inch per
foot in each direction.
where b w and s are in inches.
8.20.2 The spacing of shrinkage and temperature rein-
8.19.1.3
Minimum shear reinforcement requirements may be waived if it is shown by test that the required
ultimate flexural and shear capacity can be developed
when shear reinforcement is omitted.
8.21
8.19.2
Types of Shear Reinforcement
8.19.2.1
Shear reinforcement may consist of:
(a) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or

making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the
longitudinal tension reinforcement.
8-36
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
forcement shall not exceed three times the wall or slab

thickness, or 18 inches.
SPACING LIMITS FOR

REINFORCEMENT
8.21.1 For cast-in-place concrete, the clear distance

between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than
11 /2 bar diameters, 1 1 /2 times the maximum size of the coarse
aggregate, or 11 /2 inches.
+
+
+
+
+
8.21.1.1
The maximum spacing of lateral reinforcement in compression members shall not exceed the
smaller of one-fifth of the least dimension of the crosssection , 6 times the nominal diameter of the longitudinal
reinforcement, or 8 inches.
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.21.1.2
The maximum spacing of longitudinal
reinforcement in compression members shall be 8 inches.
The maximum spacing of the inner circle or row of concentric longitudinal reinforcement enclosed in lateral reinforcement may be increased to 16 inches if confinement
does not control the spacing of the lateral reinforcement.
8.21.2 For precast concrete (manufactured under plant
control conditions) the clear distance between parallel
bars in a layer shall be not less than 1 bar diameter, or 11 /3
times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or 1 inch.
8.21.3 Where positive or negative reinforcement is

placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall
be placed directly above those in the bottom layer with the
clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch.
8.21.4 The clear distance limitation between bars shall

also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap
splice and adjacent splices or bars.
8.22
PROTECTION AGAINST
CORROSION
8.22.1 The minimum concrete cover for protection of +

reinforcement against corrosion due to chlorides shall be
as provided in Table 8.22.1. "Corrosive" water or soil
contains more than 500 parts per million (ppm) of chlorides.
Sites that are considered corrosive due solely to sulfate
content greater than 2,000 ppm and/or a pH of less than 5.5
shall be considered non-corrosive in determining minimum cover from Table 8.22.1, but shall conform to the
requirements of Article 8.22.6.
Marine atmosphere includes both the atmosphere over
land within 1,000 feet of ocean or tidal water, and the
atmosphere above the splash zone. Tidal water, from
corrosion considerations, is any body of water having a
chloride content greater than or equal to 500 ppm. The
splash zone is defined as the region from the Mean Lower
Low Water (MLLW) elevation to 20 feet above the Mean
Higher High Water (MHHW) elevation and/or a horizontal
distance of 20 feet from the edge of water. The concrete
cover in structural elements that are in direct contact with
ocean spray shall be based on the requirements for a
chloride concentration greater than 10,000 ppm in the
corrosive splash zone.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.21.5 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in
8.22.2 For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover in +
contact to act as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any one

bundle. Bars larger than No. 11 shall be limited to two in
any one bundle in beams. Bundled bars shall be located
within stirrups or ties. Individual bars in a bundle cut off
within the span of a member shall terminate at points at
least 40 bar diameters apart. Where spacing limitations are
based on bar diameter, a unit of bundled bars shall be
treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the
equivalent total area.
non-corrosive atmosphere shall be equal to the equivalent

diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater than 2
inches. For concrete in contact with non-corrosive soil or
water, the minimum cover shall be 3 inches. In corrosive
environments, the cover shall be the same as that specified
in Table 8.22.1, except that it shall not be less than the cover
specified for bundled bars in non-corrosive environments.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.22.3 The minimum concrete cover for protection of +

8.21.6 In walls and slabs, the primary flexural reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than 11 /2 times the
wall or slab thickness, or 18 inches.
+ 8.21.7 For cast-in-place concrete piling, the entire
+
+
+
+
+
length of piles 24 inches and greater in diameter and the

portion below 15 feet from the top of piles less than 24
inches in diameter, the clear distance between parallel
longitudinal and tranverse reinforcing bars shall not be
less than 5 times the maximum aggregate size or 5 inches.
ducts in corrosive environments shall be the same as that +

specified for reinforcement in Table 8.22.1, except that: +
(a) the concrete cover over the duct shall not be less +
than one-half the diameter of the duct; and,
+
(b) when epoxy-coated reinforcement is required, the
minimum concrete cover over the duct shall be
increased by 1 /2 inch beyond that specified for
reinforcement in Table 8.22.1, but shall not be less
than that specified in (a).
+
+
+
+
+
a
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-37
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SECTION 8
8-38
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
Walls, columns &

cast-in-place piles
Precast piles and

pile extensions
Top surface of
deck slabs
Bottom surface of
deck slabs
Bottom slab of box

girders
2(d)
2
2.5
(d)
(a),(b)
1(b)
3(b),
(a),(b)
(d)
(a)
2(b),
(a)
2(d)
(a)
Corrosive soil
below MLLW
level
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
2(d)
(a)
5,001 Greater
500
10,000 than
5,000
10,000
Corrosive splash zone
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2(d)
(a),(b)
1(d)
2.5(d)
2.5(d)
2.5(d)
2.5(d)
2.5(d)
3.5
3.5
(a),(b)
1.5
2.5
2.5
2(d)
2.5
2.5
(a),(c),(e)
Deicing salt,
Corrosive water Chloride concentration (ppm) snow run-off, or
snow blower
permanently
5,001 Greater
500
spray
below MLLW
10,000 than
5,000
level
10,000
Exposure condition
Footnotes:
(f)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The maximum water to cementitious material ratio shall not exceed 0.40.
Use pre-fabricated epoxy coated reinforcing bars (ECR).
Use post-fabricated ECR.
Mineral admixtures conforming to ASTM Designation C1240 and/or ASTM Designation C618 Type F and/or N, may be required.
The minimum concrete cover and other requirements in structural elements exposed to de-icing salt, snow run-off, or snow blower spray shall
be adopted only where the structural elements are directly exposed to these corrosive conditions, otherwise the requirements specified for
non-corrosive conditions shall be adopted.
For precast I and T girders, the minimum cover may be reduced (depending on site conditions).
Concrete surface
Principal reinforcement: 1.5 inches
not exposed to
Stirrups, ties and spirals: 1.0 inch
weather, soil or water
General Notes: 1. Mineral admixtures conforming to ASTM Designation C618 Type F or N, are required for all exposure conditions, except for non-corrosive
exposure conditions.
2. For protection of bundled bars, ducts and /or prestressing steel, see Articles 8.22.2, 8.22.3 and 8.22.4.
3. The minimum cover at the corners, beveled edges, and curved surfaces shall be the same as that in the corresponding structural elements.
Curbs & railings
Cast-in-place I and
T girders; cast
exposed faces of
box-girder webs, bent
caps, diaphragms, and
hinged joints
(f)
Footings & pile caps
Marine
Atmosphere
Noncorrosive
Atmosphere/
soil/water
Chloride Concentration (ppm)
Corrosive soil above

MLLW level
TABLE 8.22.1 Minimum Concrete Cover (inches) for 75-year Design Life
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.22.4 In corrosive environments, the minimum con-
+
a +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8.22.5 Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates in-
+
+
+
+
+
8.22.6 The durability of concrete may be adversely
crete cover to prestressing steel not placed within ducts,

shall be the same as that specified for reinforcement (Table
8.22.1), except that when epoxy-coated reinforcement is
required per Table 8.22.1, the prestressing steel shall either
be epoxy-coated or the minimum concrete cover to the
prestressing steel shall be increased by 1 inch beyond that
specified in Table 8.22.1.
tended for bonding with future extensions, as well as other

types shall be protected from corrosion. All other ferrous
hardware, attachments, installations etc. shall conform to
the requirements of Table 8.22.1, or shall be protected by
hot-dip galvanizing or an equivalent protective method.
Appropriate reductions in requirements are permitted
depending on the interim conditions and/or exposure
duration.
affected by contact with acids and sulfates in soil or water.

The minimum requirements for protection of concrete
against acid and sulfate exposure shall conform to the
requirements in Table 8.22.2.
TABLE 8.22.2
Soil or
Water pH
7.1 to 14
Minimum Requirements for

Protection of Reinforced and
Unreinforced Concrete against Acid
and Sulfate Exposure Conditions
Sulfate
concentration
in soil or water
(ppm)
0 to 1499
Cement type required
Type I-P (MS) modified

or
Type II modified
5.6 to 7
1500 to 1999
Type I-P (MS) modified

or
Type II modified (a)
3to5.5
2000 to 15000(c)
Type II modified
or
Type V (b)
(c)
General Notes:
1. Recommendations for cement type shall apply
when the pH shown in Column 1 and/or the sulfate
concentration shown in Column 2 exist.
2. The table lists soil/water pH and Sulfate concentration in increasing levels of severity. If the soil/
water pH and the sulfate concentration are at
different levels of severity, then the recommendation for the more severe level shall apply.
Footnotes:
(a) Maximum water to cementitious material ratio shall
not exceed 0.45
(b) The minimum cementitious material content shall
be 658 pounds per cubic yard with a 25% mineral
admixture replacement by weight. Maximum water
to cementitious material ratio shall not exceed 0.40.
(c) Additional mitigation measures will be needed for
conditions where pH is less than 3 and/or the
sulfate concentration exceeds 15,000 ppm. Mitigation measures may include additional concrete
cover and/or protective coatings.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
a
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-39
8.23
HOOKS AND BENDS
less than 4-wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.
8.23.1 Standard Hooks

The term "standard hook" as used herein, shall mean
one of the following:
(a) 180-deg bend plus 4 d b extension, but not less than
2.5 inches at free end of bar.
(b) 90-deg bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
(c) For stirrup and tie hooks:
(1) No. 5 bar and smaller, 90-deg bend plus 6d b
extension at free end of bar, or
(2) No. 6, No. 7 and No. 8 bar, 90-deg bend plus
12d b extension at free end of bar, or
(3) No. 8 bar and smaller, 135-deg bend plus 6 d b
extension at free end of bar.
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters

+
8.23.2.1 For reinforcing bars, the diameter of bend

measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups
and ties, shall not be less than the values given in Table
8.23.2.1.
+
TABLE 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
+
Bar Size
Minimum Diameter
+
+
Nos. 3 through 8
6 bar diameters
+
Nos. 9,10 and 11
8 bar diameters
+
+
Nos. 14 and 18
10 bar diameters
+
+
8.23.2.2 For Grade 40 bars of size No. 3 to No. 11
+ inclusive, with bends not exceeding 180 degrees, the
+ minimum diameter of bend shall not be less than 5 bar
+ diameters.
8.23.2.3 The inside diameter of bend for stirrups

and ties shall not be less than 4 bar diameters for sizes No.
5 and smaller. For bars larger than size No. 5, the diameter
of bend shall be in accordance with Table 8.23.2.1.
8.23.2.4 The inside diameter of bend in smooth or

deformed welded wire fabric for stirrups and ties shall not
be less than 4-wire diameters for deformed wire larger than
D6 and 2-wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with
inside diameters of less than 8-wire diameters shall not be
8-40
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.24
DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL
REINFORCEMENT
8.24.1 General
8.24.1.1 The calculated tension or compression in
the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on
each side of that section by embedment length, hook or
mechanical device, or a combination thereof. Hooks may
be used in developing bars in tension only.
8.24.1.2 Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points of maximum
stress and at points within the span where adjacent
reinforcement terminates or is bent. The provisions of
Article 8.24.2.3 must also be satisfied.
8.24.1.2.1 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for
a distance equal to the effective depth of the member, 15
bar diameters, or 1 /20 of the clear span, whichever is
greater, except at supports of simple spans and at the free
ends of cantilevers.
8.24.1.2.2 Continuing reinforcement shall have an
embedment length not less than the development length
ld beyond the point where bent or terminated tension
reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
8.24.1.3 Tension reinforcement may be developed
by bending across the web in which it lies or by making it
continuous with the reinforcement on the opposite face of
the member.
8.24.1.4 Flexure reinforcement within the portion of
the member used to calculate the shear strength shall not
be terminated in a tension zone unless one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
8.24.1.4.1 The shear at the cutoff point does not
exceed two-thirds of that permitted, including the shear
strength of shear reinforcement provided.
8.24.1.4.2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for
shear is provided along each terminated bar over a dis-
tance from the termination point equal to three-fourths the

effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area, Av,
shall not be less than 60b ws/fy. Spacing, s, shall not exceed
d/(8b ) where b is the ratio of the area of reinforcement
cutoff to the total area of tension reinforcement at the
section.
8.24.1.4.3 For No. 11 bars and smaller, the continuing bars provided double the area required for flexure at the
cutoff point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths
of that permitted.
8.24.1.5
Adequate end anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural members where
reinforcement stress is not directly proportional to moment, such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings;
brackets; deep flexural members; or members in which the
tension reinforcement is not parallel to the compression
face.
8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement
8.24.2.1 At least one-third the positive moment
reinforcement in simple members or at simple supports of
continuous members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along
the same face of the member into the support. In beams,
such reinforcement shall extend into the support at least
6 inches.
8.24.2.2 When a flexural member is part of the
lateral load resisting system, the positive moment reinforcement required to be extended into the support by
Article 8.24.2.1 shall be anchored to develop the specified
yield strength, fy, in tension at the face of the support.
8.24.2.3 At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be
limited to a diameter such that ld computed for fy by Article
8.25 satisfies Equation (8-64); except Equation (8-64) need
not be satisfied for reinforcement terminating beyond
centerline of simple supports by a standard hook, or a
mechanical anchorage at least equivalent to a standard
hook.
ld
M
+ la
V
fully stressed. V is the maximum shear force at the section.

la at a support shall be the embedment length beyond
center of support. At a point of inflection, la shall be limited
to the effective depth of the member or 12d b , whichever is
greater. The value M/V in the development length limitation may be increased by 30 percent when the ends of the
reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction.
8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement

8.24.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be anchored in or through the
supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
8.24.3.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall
have an embedment length into the span as required by
Article 8.24.1.
8.24.3.3 At least one-third of the total tension
reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length beyond the point of
inflection not less than the effective depth of the member,
12 bar diameters or 1 /16 of the clear span, whichever is
greater.
8.25
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED
BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE IN
TENSION
The development length, ld , in inches shall be computed as the product of the basic development length
defined in Article 8.25.1 and the applicable modification
factor or factors defined in Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but
ld shall be not less than that specified in Article 8.25.4.
8.25.1 The basic development length shall be:

0.04 Ab f y
No. 11 bar10 and smaller............................
f c
but not less than 11 ....................................... 0.0004d b f y
(8-64)
where M is the computed moment capacity assuming all

positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
10
11
The constant has the unit of 1/in.

The constant has the unit of in. 2 /lb.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-41

0. 085 f y
No. 14 bars 12 ..........................................................
f c
0.11 f y
No. 18 bars 12 .............................................................
f c
0.03db f y
deformed wire.....................................................
8.25.3 The basic development length, modified by the

appropriate factors of Article 8.25.2, may be multiplied by
the following factors when:
8.25.3.1 Reinforcement being developed

in the length under consideration
is spaced laterally at least 6 inches
on center with at least 3 inches
clear cover measured in the direction of the spacing..................................0.8
fc
8.25.2 The basic development length shall be multiplied

by the following applicable factor or factors:
8.25.2.1 Top reinforcement shall be con-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
sidered as only those horizontal

bars or hooks which have more
than 12 inches of concrete cast
in the member below the bar or
hook as a part of the same pour
that encases the bar ............................1.4
8.25.3.2 Anchorage or development for

reinforcement strength is not
specifically required or reinforcement in flexural members is in
excess of that required by analysis
(As required)/(As provided)

8.25.2.2 Lightweight aggregate concrete
8.25.3.3 Reinforcement is enclosed within

a spiral of not less than 1 /4 inch in
diameter and not more than 4-inch
pitch......................................................0.75
6.7 fc
when fct is specified......................
fct
but not less than.....................................1.0
When fct is not specified all
lightweight concrete......................... 1.33
sand lightweight concrete...............1.18
Linear interpolation may be applied when partial sand replacement is used.
8.25.4 The development length,ld , shall not be less than

12 inches except in the computation of lap splices by
Article 8.32.3 and development of shear reinforcement by
Article 8.27.
8.26
less than 3d b or clear spacing between bars less than 6d b ........................1.5
The development length, ld , in inches, for deformed

bars in compression shall be computed as the product of
the basic development length of Article 8.26.1 and applicable modification factors of Article 8.26.2, butld shall not
be less than 8 inches.
All other cases......................................1.15
8.26.1
8.25.2.3 Bars coated with epoxy with cover
The constant has the unit of in. 2 /in.
8-42
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
The basic development length
0.02d b f y
The product obtained when combining the factor for top reinforcement with the applicable factor for
epoxy coated reinforcement need
not be taken greater than 1.7
12
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED
BARS IN COMPRESSION
shall be.......................................
f c
but not less than 13 ................... 0.0003db f y
13
The constant has a unit of square inches per pound.
8.26.2 The basic development length may be multiplied

by applicable factors when:
8.26.2.1 Anchorage or development for

reinforcement strength is not
specifically required, or reinforcement is in excess of that required
by analysis
8.27.2.4.1 Two longitudinal wires at 2-inch spacing along the member at the top of the U.
8.27.2.4.2 One longitudinal wire located not more
than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire
closer to the compression face and spaced at least 2 inches
from the first wire. The second wire may be located on the
stirrup leg beyond a bend or on a bend with an inside
diameter of bend of not less than 8-wire diameters.
8.26.2.2 Reinforcement is enclosed in a

spiral of not less than 1 /4 inch
in diameter and not more than
4-inch pitch..........................................0.75
8.27
DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
8.27.2.5 For each end of a single leg stirrup of

welded smooth or welded deformed wire fabric, there shall
be two longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of 2 inches
and with the inner wire at least the greater of d/4 or 2 inches
from mid-depth of member d/2. Outer longitudinal wire at
the tension face shall not be farther from the face than the
portion of primary flexural reinforcement closest to the
face.
8.27.3 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a
8.27.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend at least to the

centroid of the tension reinforcement, and shall be carried
as close to the compression and tension surfaces of the
member as cover requirements and the proximity of other
reinforcement permit. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength.
closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the

lapsare1.7ld .
8.27.4 Between the anchored ends, each bend in the

continuous portion of a single U- or multiple U-stirrup
shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
8.27.2 The ends of single leg, single U, or multiple U-
8.27.5 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforce-
stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means:
ment, if extended into a region of tension, shall be continuous with the longitudinal reinforcement and, if extended
into a region of compression, shall be anchored beyond
the mid-depth, d/2, as specified for development length in
Article 8.25 for that part of the stress in the reinforcement
required to satisfy Equation (8-8) or Equation (8-54).
8.27.2.1 A standard hook plus an embedment of

the stirrup leg length of at least 0.5 ld between the middepth of the member d/2 and the point of tangency of the
hook.
8.27.2.2 An embedment length of ld above or below the mid-depth of the member on the compression side
but not less than 24 bar or wire diameters or, for deformed
bars or deformed wire, 12 inches.
8.27.2.3
Bending around the longitudinal reinforcement through at least 180 degrees. Hooking or
bending stirrups around the longitudinal reinforcement
shall be considered effective anchorage only when the
stirrups make an angle of at least 45 degrees with the
longitudinal reinforcement.
8.27.2.4 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric

forming single U-stirrups, either:
8.28
DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED
BARS
The development length of individual bars within a

bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that for the
individual bar, increased by 20 percent for a three-bar
bundle, and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle.
8.29
DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD
HOOKS IN TENSION
8.29.1 Development length ldh in inches, for deformed

bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-43
8.23.1) shall be computed as the product of the basic

development length lhb of Paragraph 8.29.2 and the applicable modification factor or factors of Paragraph 8.29.3,
but ldh shall not be less than 8d b or 6 inches, whichever is
greater.
8.29.2
8.29.3.6 Epoxy-coated reinforcement hooked bars with epoxy coating ...................1.2
Basic development length lhb for

a hooked bar with fy equal to 60,000
psi shall be....................................
1,200db
f c
8.29.3 Basic development length lhb shall be multiplied

by applicable modification factor or factors for:
8.29.3.1 Bar Yield Strength

Bars with fy other than
60,000 psi.......................................
fy
60,000
8.29.3.2 Concrete Cover

For No. 11 bar and smaller, side
cover (normal to plane of hook)
not less than 2 1 /2 inches, and for
90 deg hook, cover on bar extension beyond hook not less than
2 inches....................................................0.7
8.29.3.3 Ties or Stirrups

For No. 11 bar and smaller, hook
enclosed v ertically or horizontally within ties or stirrup-ties
spaced along the full development
length ldh not greater than 3d b ,
where d b diameter of hooked bar............0.8
8.29.3.4 Excess Reinforcement

Where anchorage or development
for fy is not specifically required,
reinforcement in excess of that
required by analysis
8.29.3.5 Lightweight aggregate concrete..........1.3

8-44
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
FIGURE 8.29.1 Hooked Bar Details for

Development of Standard Hooks
8.29.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at

discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and
top (or bottom) cover over hook less than 21 /2 inches,
hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
along the full development length ldh not greater than 3d b ,
where d b is diameter of hooked bar. For this case, factor
of Article 8.29.3.3 shall not apply.
development length not less than 2 inches from the point

of critical section, shall be:
0. 03db ( f y 20, 000) 14

f c
(8-65)
but not less than
8.29.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.
0.20
Aw f y
sw f c
(8-66)
8.30.1.3 The basic development length of welded

deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the
development length, shall be determined as for deformed
wire in accordance with Article 8.25.
8.30.2
Smooth Wire Fabric
The yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall

be considered developed by embedment of two cross
wires with the closer cross wire not less than 2 inches from
the point of critical section. However, development length
ld measured from the point of critical section to outermost
cross wire shall not be less than:
FIGURE 8.29.4 Hooked Bar Tie
Requirements
8.30
8.30.1
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED
WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
Deformed Wire Fabric
8.30.1.1 The development length, ld , in inches of

welded deformed wire fabric measured from the point of
critical section to the end of wire shall be computed as the
product of the basic development length of Article 8.30.1.2
or 8.30.1.3 and the applicable modification factor or factors
of Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but ld shall not be less than 8
inches except in computation of lap splices by Article
8.32.5 and development of shear reinforcement by Article
8.27.
8.30.1.2 The basic development length of welded
deformed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the
0.27
Aw f y
s w f c
(8-67)
modified by (As required)/(As provided) for reinforcement

in excess of that required by analysis and by factor of
Article 8.25.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete, but ld
shall not be less than 6 inches except in computation of lap
splices by Article 8.32.6.
8.31
MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE
8.31.1 Any mechanical device shown by tests to be

capable of developing the strength of reinforcement without damage to concrete may be used as anchorage.
8.31.2 Development of reinforcement may consist of a

combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional
embedment length of reinforcement between point of
maximum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
14
20,000 has units of psi.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-45
8.32
SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown

on the design drawings or as specified, or as authorized by
the Engineer.
8.32.1
Class A splice.................................
Class B splice.................................
Class C splice.................................
1.0 ld
1.3 ld
1.7 ld
8.32.3.2
Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall conform to Table 8.32.3.2
Lap Splices
TABLE 8.32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices.
8.32.1.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger

than No. 11, except as provided in Articles 8.32.4.1 and
4.4.9.7.
8.32.1.2
Lap splices of bundled bars shall be
based on the lap splice length required for individual bars
within a bundle. The length of lap, as prescribed in Articles
8.32.3 or 8.32.4, shall be increased by 20 percent for a threebar bundle and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle. Individual
bar splices within the bundle shall not overlap.
Maximum percent of As spliced

(As provided)/(As required)
within required lap length

50
75
100
Equal to or Greater than 2 Class A
Class A
Class B
Less than 2
Class C
Class C
Class B
Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of

reinforcement required by analysis at splice location.
8.32.1.3
Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices
in flexural members shall not be spaced transversely
farther apart than 1 /5 the required length of lap or 6 inches.
8.32.3.3
Deleted
8.32.3.4
Deleted
8.32.1.4
The length, ld , shall be the development
length for the specified yield strength, fy, as given in Article
8.25.
8.32.3.4.1
Deleted
8.32.3.4.2
Deleted
+
8.32.1.5
Lap splices shall not be used in longitu+ dinal reinforcing bars within zones of possible plastic
+ hinging of the member.
8.32.3.5
Splices in tension tie members shall be
made with a full welded splice or a full mechanical connection.
+ 8.32.2
+
8.32.4
Welded Splices and Mechanical

Connections
+
8.32.2.1
Welded splices or other mechanical con+ nections may be used.
+
8.32.2.2
Deleted
8.32.2.3
Deleted
8.32.2.4
Deleted
8.32.3
Splices of Deformed Bars and

Deformed Wire in Tension
8.32.3.1
The minimum length of lap for tension
lap splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice,
but not less than 12 inches.
8-46
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Splices of Bars in Compression
8.32.4.1
Lap Splices in Compression
The minimum length of lap for compression lap splices

shall be 0.0005 fy d b in inches, but not less than 12 inches.
When the specified concrete strength, fc , is less than
3,000 psi, the length of lap shall be increased by one-third.
When bars of different size are lap spliced in compression, splice length shall be the larger of: development
length of the larger bar, or splice length of smaller bar. Bar
sizes No. 14 and No. 18 may be lap spliced to No. 11and
smaller bars.
In compression members where ties along the splice
have an effective area not less than 0.0015hs, the lap splice
length may be multiplied by 0.83, but the lap length shall
not be less than 12 inches. The effective area of the ties
shall be the area of the legs perpendicular to dimension h.
In compression members when spirals are used for

lateral restraint along the splice, the lap splice length may
be multiplied by 0.75, but the lap length shall not be less
than 12 inches.
+
8.32.4.2
Deleted
8.32.4.3
Deleted
8.32.5
Splices of Welded Deformed Wire

Fabric in Tension
8.32.5.1
The minimum length of lap for lap splices
of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the
ends of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.7ld or 8
inches, and the overlap measured between the outermost
cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 2
inches.
8.32.5.2
Lap splices of welded deformed wire
fabric, with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall
be determined as for deformed wire in accordance with
Article 8.32.3.1.
8.32.6
+
+
+
+
+
Splices of Welded Smooth Wire

Fabric in Tension
The minimum lap for lap splices of welded smooth wire

fabric shall be such that the overlap between the outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet is not less than the
larger of 1.5 ld , 6 inches, or the spacing of the cross wires
plus 2 inches.
8.32.6.1
Deleted
8.32.6.2
Deleted
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-47
Section 8:
Reinforced Concrete Commentary
8.8.2
In flared columns with gaps, only the column reinforcement was continued into the superstructure. These flares
were tested with various degrees of confinement to minimize cracking and spalling under moderate seismic events
as well as to prevent flare separation under stronger
earthquakes.
On the basis of UCSD test results, gapped flares are the

recommended choice.
8.12.3 The only requirement in AASHTO is for interme-
8.15.2.2
The stress limitation on Grade 60 rebars
has been imposed in order to maintain the same stress
levels in deck rebars that would be obtained using WSD.
Research on rectangular columns with one-way

flares (UCSD report # SSRP 97/06: Seismic performance
of flared columns) has demonstrated that flared columns
which have a separation gap between the bridge soffit and
the top of the flares have better ductility than columns
which have flares monolithic with the superstructure. In
the UCSD tests, the monolithic flares were not fully confined as is typically required of columns.
diate diaphragms to be spaced at a maximum of 40 feet for

curved box-girder bridges having an inside radius of less
than 800 feet. Caltrans requires a less stringent spacing for
bridges on curves of moderate radii from construction
considerations.
8.15.5.5.5
(c) AASHTO adopted to eliminate this article in 1992

to make deck replacement easier. Since such reinforcement improves the composite action between the deck and
the girder, Caltrans has retained this article.
8.15.5.6
Special Provisions for Slabs and

Footings
These provisions require the shear section for beam

action to be at the column face when there is no compressive
force. Articles 8.15.5.1.4 and 8.16.6.1.2 define the Design
Shear Section as a point d from the face of support if
compression is introduced into the end region of the
member. For a single column bent, we design for shear at a
point d from the column face (Figure C.8.15.5.6A).
8-48
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Typical Single Column Bent

FIGURE C.8.15.5.6A Typical Single Column Bent
A pile footing is to be treated like an inverted T. The

footing then, is the shear member and the end region is
the area where the column joins the footing. If the
combined axial and moment loads produce compression
on the joint area, the design shear section may be taken at
a distance d from the column face. Otherwise, the section
is designed for shear (Figure C.8.15.5.6B).
8.16.1.2
Design Strength
Since ultimate strength is used for flexural design of

footings for seismic forces, was increased to 1.00 for
flexure in Group VII. The value of for Group VII forces
in columns was increased by about 1.3 to take advantage
of the overstrength capacity of well confined column
members.
8.16.3.5
Flanged Sections with

d (typ)
These equations are based on compatibility and equilibrium of cross sections (Ref: Reinforced Concrete Structures: Park and Paulay).
8.16.4.5
d
Design Shear
Locatio n
Tension
Pile footing only
d
Design Shear
Location
Typical Footings
FIGURE C.8.15.5.6B Typical Footings
Probable Plastic Moment
In general, seismic analysis and design including calculation of probable plastic moment in a column, is discussed in the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria. Earthquake
forces could take a column to its yield capacity (probable
plastic moment). The design details in a column must
ensure that plastic hinging can occur. Forces in the columns and adjoining elements (example: superstructure
and footing) are based on the column plastic moment,
which in turn is based on potential overstrength capacity
of the column materials (expected strength).
Generally, the probable plastic moment depends on the
following four factors:
1) The actual size of the column and the actual
amount of reinforcing.
2) The effect of increased fy for both over-specification and for strain hardening effects.
3) The effect of increased fc for both over-specification and confinement provided by the transverse reinforcement. Also, the concrete will gradually increase in strength with time.
4) The effect of an actual ultimate compressive strain
above 0.003.
Actual Size and Reinforcement Configuration
The Design Engineer should select the minimum column section and reinforcing steel structurally possible.
As these parameters increase, the probable moment increases. That will lead to an increase in the foundation size
and cost. The Engineer must also consider that column
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-49
size will influence whether the column is functioning

above or below balanced axial load Pb . For columns
designed above Pb (for compression), the probable yield
moment will usually be greater than that for the same
section designed below Pb (for tension). A size and
reinforcement selection which forces the design below Pb
is preferable, especially in high seismic areas. However,
the selection of size and reinforcement must meet the
aesthetic requirements which may be the controlling factor. The designer should be actively involved in the
aesthetic selection process to encourage the use of economical members.
Increase in Yield Strength of Reinforcement (fy)
TransLab test data shows that the average yield strength
of Grade 60 reinforcement is about 67,000 psi or about 12%
over the minimum specified value. Combining this increase with an estimate of the effect of strain hardening
beyond yield, it is realistic to assume fy at 75,000 psi or 25%
over minimum yield strength.
Increase in fc
Ref: Priestly, Park and Potanangaroa; ASCE
STRUCTURAL JOURNAL, Jan. 1981.
fcc =
enhanced fc due to confinement
fy
f cc = f c 1 + 2. 05 s
fc
8-50
fc
s
=
=
fy
unconfined strength
ratio of volume of spiral
reinforcement to the volume
of the core concrete
spiral steel yield strength
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Assuming s = 0.013 (ACI 318/SEAOC/

ATC Spec)
fcc
or
fcc
=
=
3.25 (1 + 2.05 * 0.013 * 60/3.25)

4.85 ksi which is 1.49 fc .
1.5 fc is a realistic estimate.
Ultimate Compressive Strain ()

Although tests on unconfined concrete show 0.003 as
a reasonable strain at first crushing, tests on confined
column sections show a marked increase in this value.
Priestly (1981) found 0.0074 as a minimum average with
0.01 as an average. Blume, Newmark and Corning as well
as Penzien [(Berkeley) EERC 75-19] also support a 0.01
value. Assume 0.01 as a realistic value.
As a rule of thumb, it is generally satisfactory to assume
the probable plastic moment to be 1.3 times the yield
moment for axial loads below Pb .
As shown on the Probable Moment Capacity plot
(Figure C.8.16.4.5), a factor of 1.3 may be in considerable
error for axial loads above Pb .
For computer generated probable plastic moments
under high axial load conditions, the Engineer must compute the probable capacity using the increased realistic
values (i.e., fc = 4,870 psi, fy = 75,000 psi and = 0.01 for
corresponding concrete design strength of 3,250 psi and
steel yield strength of 60,000 psi).
FIGURE C.8.16.4.5 Plot Showing Development of Probable Moment Capacity

5 feet 6 inch diameter round column
fc = 3,250 psi to 4,870 psi
As = 44- No. 11 Bars (2%)
f y = 60 ksi to 75 ksi
= 0.003 to 0.01
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-51
8.16.4.6
Special Provisions for Column

and Pier Wall Hinges
The traditional method of designing and detailing a pin

connection at the base of a column is to group several large
diameter rebars (reinforcing bars) at the center of the
column. Caltrans current design criteria of using elastic
seismic forces or plastic hinging forces results in large
shear forces. Typical rebar (reinforcing bars) clusters may
have to be replaced by such devices as a cluster of rebars
in a spiral cage, H-beam, cylindrical steel shell, etc., to
develop the required shear capacity.
Oblong columns may perform as pinned columns about
their weak axis, but may perform as fixed columns about
their strong axis if not detailed properly. The Engineer
should ensure that the designed connection matches the
dynamic model. The connection must be fully developed
on both sides of the interface between supported and
supporting member. Concrete stress levels must be
checked if the designed pin connection performs as a fixed
connection about the strong axis.
When calculating the design strength for keys, assume
the following conditions:
1)
fc
2)
Ag shall be the contact area at the interface.
3)
Ast shall be the area, or the vertical component of

the area of the longitudinal rebars,
crossing the interface and connecting the
supporting and supported members.
shall be the concrete strength of the supporting or supported member, which ever is less.
8.16.6.5.5
detailed equation, AASHTO provides a lower bound

value of 3 ( fc) for shear strength of slabs which are
monolithic with the walls. However, Caltrans adopts this
lower bound value as a default for slabs and walls. Caltrans
also uses horizontal pressure distribution whose value
exceeds that recommended by AASHTO, and a vertical
pressure distribution whose value corresponds to the
upper bound AASHTO value. Hence, Caltrans equation
provides a simple and conservative approach to the shear
strength equation.
8.16.6.9
Special Provision for Pier Walls
The equations for determining shear strength are based

on the corresponding equations in ACI-318 (1995). However, equations for shear strength based on more detailed
calculations have been omitted. The upper bound on the
shear strength has been added similar to the guidelines in
AASHTO.
This specification also assures that pier walls are
reinforced sufficiently to resist lateral forces in a direction
parallel to its long dimension. Note that the foundation in
this case may be subjected to very large forces. The
foundation for piers in the transverse direction must be
evaluated to assure that its capacity is less than or equal
to the ultimate shear capacity of the pier wall. This
approach will cause the foundation to act as a fuse and
prevent a catastrophic failure of the pier wall. This is an
exception to the requirements of 4.5.6.5.1. The foundation
should be stable for large lateral loads.
In special circumstances, where the fuse action of the
footing is limited (Example: Footing anchored in rock),
alternate strategies such as isolation should be considered.
8.16.6.10
Compression Member
Connection to Caps
(c) See commentary for Article 8.15.5.5.5.
8.16.6.6
Special Provisions for Slabs and

Footings
See commentary for Article 8.15.5.6.

+
+
8.16.6.7
Special Provisions for Box

Culverts
Caltrans has provided a simplified version of the corre+

+ sponding AASHTO equation. In addition to a more
a
8-52
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The connection of columns to bent caps in a direction

parallel to the bent, will generally be satisfied by other
design criteria. However, in I or Tgirder bridges, or in
dropped caps, the shear force in a direction normal to the
bent must be developed. For T girders or I girders with
integral bent caps, a partial slab or diaphragm may be
necessary to satisfy plastic hinging requirements (Figure
C.8.16.6.10). In many instances, additional shear reinforcement and/or an increased cap width will be satisfactory.
8.16.6.11 Special Seismic Provision for

Columns, Pier Walls and Piles
8.16.8.4
The shear and confinement specifications were added

to define the shear and confinement reinforcement in
vertical support members, primarily at the location of
plastic hinges. The design shear force in pile shafts shall
consider the reduction in shear along the length of the
shaft as the load is transferred to the surrounding soil.
Distribution of Flexural
Reinforcement
Typically, the concrete cover to a reinforcing bar is

increased to improve corrosion resistance of the structure.
However, increasing the cover leads to an increase in the
calculated crack width in the extreme tension fiber. Therefore, to comply with the serviceability requirements of Eq.
(8-61), the amount of reinforcement has to be increased. In
order to eliminate this penalty for providing increased
A
Added width
alternative
Confinement
Diaphragms
B
Section A-A
Section B-B
FIGURE C.8.16.6.10 Compression Member/Cap Connection
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-53
concrete cover based on other controlling specifications

or practice, ACI committee 224 recommended that the
value of concrete cover used to determine d c in Eq.(8-61)
be limited to 2 inches. Additional information is available
in the following reference: DEBATE: Crack width, cover
and corrosion, Concrete International, May 1985.
The controlling value of steel stress f s given by Eq. (861) need not be less than 0.4*fy to be consistent with
Service Load Design (SLD) practice. Under SLD, serviceability requirements of Load Factor Design are satisfied by
default, and hence serviceability investigations are not
required.
8.17.2.1.5 The additional reinforcement is provided to account for any unexpected settlement of
falsework during construction.
8.18.1.4
8.18.2.2
These changes have been incorporated (from the

SEAOC recommendations and the New Zealand code on
Design of Concrete Structures) to account for the axial
load effects on the column. The equations ensure that axial
load strength is preserved after cover concrete spalls, as
well as ensure that adequate moment capacity is maintained with further plastic rotation.
Testing of reinforced columns at the University of
Canterbury, New Zealand has shown that the required
confinement of column reinforcement is directly proportional to the axial load applied. Test results in New Zealand
have shown that satisfactory results are obtained by
multiplying the generally accepted expressions for volumetric ratio s given by:
Interlocking Spirals
In rectangular or oblong columns, confinement is provided through interlocking hoop/spirals. The maximum
limitation for center-to-center spacing of the spirals was
established by a geometrical relationship for stability
normal to the bent. A minimum spacing of 0.50 times the
spiral diameter is recommended to avoid overlaps of more
than two spirals. Revise the column shape, size, number
of columns, etc., to avoid a closer spacing (Figure C.8.18.1.4).
Spiral Reinforcement
Ag
f
0. 45
1 c
Ac
fy
or
0.12
[AASHTO] (C-1)
f c
fy
[SEAOC]
(C-2)
by the expression
P
0.5 + 1. 25 e
fc Ag
Interlocking Bars
(C-3)
8
m "
ax
The revised specification provides that the volumetric

ratio, s , shall not be less than:
Ag
f
P
0. 45
1 c 0.5 + 1.25 e
A
f
f
c
y
c Ag
(C-4)
for columns less than 3 feet in dimension

or
FIGURE C.8.18.1.4 Interlocking Spirals
Note: If interlocking bars are also used to provide

column load capacity, then they must be fully
developed into the cap and footing as required. If
these bars are used solely for interlocking, then
they shall extend into the cap and footing the same
distance as that of the spirals.
8-54
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
0. 12
f c
P
0. 5 + 1.25 e
fy
f c Ag
(C-5)
for columns larger than 3 feet in dimension;

but, not less than
Ag
f
0. 45
1 c
Ac
fy
(C-6)
Figure 8.18.2.2 Spiral (or Hoop) Reinforcement
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-55
Generally,with fc = 3250 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, 2 inches

of cover, and prismatic sections less than 3 feet in diameter,
Equation (C-6) will control; between 3 feet and 5 feet - 6
inches, either Equation (C-4) or Equation (C-6) will control
depending on the axial load; and for sections greater than
5 feet-6 inches, Equation (C-5) will control. The following
plot of s vs. Pe /( fc Ag ) shows this relationship (Figure
C.8.18.2.2).
The revised specifications are a compromise between
the New Zealand recommendation and AASHTO/SEAOC;
where the New Zealand recommendation is below
AASHTO, the AASHTO spec is retained. For low axial
load ratio on large columns, the New Zealand recommendation usually governs. The Caltrans specifications ensure that the volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement shall
not be less than that required by AASHTO in any case.
8.18.2.3 Ties
Specifications for ties now include confinement requirements similar to spirals. These requirements were
originally taken from the 1983 AASHTO Seismic Design
guidelines and amended for column axial load in accordance with the New Zealand code. The AASHTO cross
tie specifications were modified to generally conform to
ACI guidelines. The following sketches (Figure 8.18.2.3)
identify some acceptable tie arrangements. It is strongly
recommended for confinement and construction reasons
that spirals be used in lieu of ties wherever possible. The
labor requirements to assemble ties for such a column is
enormous. In addition, access for inspection is almost
impossible. Since spirals/hoops and interlocking spirals/
hoops are more economical, and provide a more effective
confinement, these are the typical types of transverse
column reinforcement.
The sentence on the use of deformed wire or welded
wire fabric instead of bars has been removed from the
corresponding AASHTO article. Typically, such wires do
not perform adequately from fatigue considerations and
their use in structural concrete is not recommended.
< 6"
< 6"
"
10
135
< 6"
typ
< 6"
typ
> 6"
< 6"
typ
> 6"
< 6"
typ
FIGURE C.8.18.2.3 Ties
8-56
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.21
SPACING LIMITS FOR

REINFORCEMENT
8.21.1.1
This recommendation is based on the
guidelines in the New Zealand code for the Design of
Concrete Structures as well as SEAOC. The spacing
limitation on transverse reinforcement ensures adequate
confinement of core concrete in potential plastic hinge
zones and provides for restraint against buckling of longitudinal bars.
8.21.1.2
Limitations are introduced for minimum
bar sizes and maximum bar spacings of longitudinal reinforcing bars to help retain the shape of the lateral reinforcement and to confine the concrete core (Figure C.8.21.1.2).
In addition, this spacing requirement ensures that the bars
are distributed reasonably uniformly around the perimeter
of a column in potential plastic hinge zone.
only in the upper 6 feet of the pile when constructed in wet

conditions. CIDH piles with a diameter less 24 inches and
CIP concrete piles in steel shells require vibration in the
upper 15 feet of the pile.
The specifications require an increase in the clear

distance between the reinforcement to permit free flow of
concrete around the reinforcing bars, and against the steel
shell or earth in areas where the concrete is not vibrated.
The range of allowable nominal penetration for the concrete has been increased to achieve this free flow of
concrete. The Standard Specifications require the minimum concrete strength to be 3600 psi, and this is considered as concrete designated by compressive strength
(trail batch required). For additional information refer to
the following specifications; 49-310, 49CISS, 49CEND and
49SLUR.
8.22
PROTECTION AGAINST
CORROSION
Spiral
8" x
a
m
8" x
a
m
Single Spiral
See Note
Concentric Spirals
FIGURE C.8.21.1.2 Spacing of Reinforcement

Note: The maximum spacing between longitudinal reinforcement in the inner circle equals twice that in
the outer circle. If the inner circle is required for
confinement, the spacing between longitudinal
bars of the inner circle should not exceed 8
inches. It is a better practice to provide an equal
number of bars in each circle.
8.21.7
The Design Specification is required to
conform to the SSP for Cast-in-Place concrete piles (SSP
49-310). This SSP permits the contractor to construct castin-drilled-hole (CIDH) piles by water or slurry displacement methods for piles with a diameter greater than or
equal to 24 inches, when caving and water cannot be
controlled by temporary casing. CIDH piles with a diameter greater than or equal to 24 inches require vibration
The table for minimum concrete cover for protection

against corrosion has been developed for a 75-year design
life. However, the service life of bridge decks and barrier
rails are typically less than 75 years. Therefore, the concrete mix design and cover requirements for corrosion
protection of decks and barrier rails have incorporated
these aspects.
Environmental conditions such as proximity to corrosive atmosphere, marine environment, wave action, water
table elevation and chloride content have been incorporated in determining the cover requirements.
Corrosion protection can be improved by increasing
concrete denseness or imperviousness to water, as well as
by furnishing other protection methods. Such methods
include:
a) a reduction in water-to-cementitious material ratio;
b) use of 25% mineral admixture conforming to ASTM
Designation C618 Type F or N;
c) use of 5% mineral admixture conforming to ASTM
Designation C1240 with 20% mineral admixture
conforming to ASTM Designation C618 Type F or
N, in lieu of 25% mineral admixture conforming to
ASTM Designation C618 Type F or N.
d) use of different kinds of epoxy coatings for reinforcing bars;
e) protective concrete coatings;
f) use of chemical admixtures;
g) cathodic protection, and,
h) use of alternate materials.
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
8-57
The minimum concrete cover, concrete mix and epoxycoated reinforcement requirements for structural elements
exposed to deicing salt, snow run-off or snow blower
spray shall be adopted only if the Engineer determines that
the structural elements are directly exposed to these
corrosive conditions. For example, when the deck is subjected to de-icing salt, snow run-off or snow blower spray,
it is unlikely that the girders or bent caps will be exposed
to the same harsh conditions, particularly when there are
no deck-joints. Therefore, the girders and the bent caps
may be designed for a non-corrosive exposure condition.
If other considerations, such as a need to reduce the
dead load of a structure, require a further reduction in
concrete cover than those specified in Table 8.22.1, then
a reduction in cover should only be done after a thorough
investigation and research into existing state-of-practice.
8.29.3.6
Per ACI-318 (1995), the 20 % increase in
development length is provided to account for reduced
bond when reinforcement is epoxy-coated.
8-58
SECTION 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SECTION 9 - PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Part A
D
d
9.1
APPLICATION
9.1.1
General
dt
The specifications of this section are intended for

design of prestressed concrete bridge members. Members designed as reinforced concrete, except for a percentage of tensile steel stressed to improve service behavior, shall conform to the applicable specifications of
Section 8.
Exceptionally long span or unusual structures require
detailed consideration of effects which under this Section
may have been assigned arbitrary values.
9.1.2
As
A's
Notations
= area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement

(Articles 9.7 and 9.19)
= area of compression reinforcement (Article 9.19)
A*s = area of prestressing steel (Article 9.17)

Asf = steel area required to develop the compressive
strength of the overhanging portions of the flange
(Article 9.17)
Asr = steel area required to develop the compressive
strength of the web of a flanged section (Articles
9.17-9.19)
Av = area of web reinforcement (Article 9.20)
b
bv
CRs = loss of prestress due to relaxation of prestressing

steel (Article 9.16)
= distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the prestressing force, or to centroid of
negative moment reinforcing for precast girder
bridges made continuous
= distance from the extreme compressive fiber to
the centroid of the non-prestressed tension reinforcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19)
ES = loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Article

9.16)
e
= base of Naperian logarithms (Article 9.16)
fcds = average concrete compressive stress at the c.g. of
the prestressing steel under full dead load (Article
9.16)
fcir = average concrete stress at the c.g. of the prestressing steel at time of release (Article 9.16)
f 'c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
f 'ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial
prestress (Article 9.15)
fct
fd
fpc
= width of flange of flanged member or width of

rectangular member
= width of cross section at the contact surface being
investigated for horizontal shear (Article 9.20)
b' = width of a web of a flanged member

CRc = loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Article
9.16)
= nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Articles

9.17 and 9.28)
fpe
= average splitting tensile strength of lightweight

aggregate concrete, psi
= stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme
fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 9.20)
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance
for all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
resisting externally applied loads or at junction of
web and flange when the centroid lies within the
flange (In a composite member, fpc is resultant
compressive stress at centroid of composite section, or at junction of web and flange when the
centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress and moments resisted by precast member
acting alone.) (Article 9.20)
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective
prestress forces only (after allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
(Article 9.20)
SECTION 9
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9-1
fps
= guaranteed ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel, A*sf 's
p'
= A's /bd, ratio of compression reinforcement (Article 9.19)
fr
= the modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined in

Article 9.15.2.3 (Article 9.18)
= total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article
9.16)
Pu
Q
= factored tendon force

= statical moment of cross-sectional area, above or
below the level being investigated for shear, about
the centroid (Article 9.20)
fs
fse = effective steel prestress after losses

f*su = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate
load
f 's
fsy
f 'y
f*y
= ultimate stress of prestressing steel (Articles 9.15

and 9.17)
= yield stress of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in tension (Article 9.19 and 9.20)
= yield stress of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in compression (Article 9.19)
= yield stress of prestressing steel (Article 9.15)
= 0.90 f 's for low-relaxation wire or strand
= 0.85 f 's for stress-relieved wire or strand
h
I
K
L
Mcr
= 0.85 f 's for Type I (smooth) high-strength bar

= 0.80 f 's for Type II (deformed) high-strength bar
= overall depth of member (Article 9.20)
= moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross
section (Article 9.20)
= friction wobble coefficient per foot of prestressing steel (Article 9.16)
= length of prestressing steel element from jack end
to point x (Article 9.16)
= moment causing flexural cracking at section due
to externally applied loads (Article 9.20)
M*cr = cracking moment (Article 9.18)

Md/c = composite dead load moment at the section (Commentary to Article 9.18)
Md/nc = non-composite dead load moment at the section
(Article 9.18)
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to
SH = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage (Article 9.16)

s
= longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement
(Article 9.20)
Sb
Sc
t
To
Tx
v
Vc
Vd
Vi
= As /bdt, ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19)
Yt
p*
= A*s /bd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles 9.17

and 9.19)
= steel stress at any point x (Article 9.16)

= permissible horizontal shear stress (Article 9.20)
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Article 9.20)
= shear force at section due to unfactored dead load

(Article 9.20)
= factored shear force at section due to externally
applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax
(Article 9.20)
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article 9.20)

Vp = vertical component of effective prestress force at
section (Article 9.20)
Vs
SECTION 9
= average thickness of the flange of a flanged member (Articles 9.17 and 9.18)
= steel stress at jacking end (Article 9.16)
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when

diagonal cracking results from combined shear
and moment (Article 9.20)
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when
diagonal cracking results from excessive principal tensile stress in web (Article 9.20)
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section

Mu = factored moment at section Mn (Articles 9.17
and 9.18)
9-2
= non-composite section modulus for the extreme

fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused
by externally applied loads (Article 9.18)
= composite section modulus for the extreme fiber
of section where the tensile stress is caused by
Vu
= nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (Article 9.20)

= factored shear force at section (Article 9.20)
= distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension (Article 9.20)
= friction curvature coefficient (Article 9.16)
= total angular change of prestressing steel profile

in radians from jacking end to point x (Article
9.16)
= factor for concrete strength, as defined in Article
8.16.2.7 (Articles 9.17-9.19)
*
= factor for type of prestressing steel (Article 9.17)

= 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
= 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
= 0.55 for bars
9.1.3
Definitions
The following terms are defined for general use.

Specialized definitions appear in individual articles.
Anchorage deviceThe hardware assembly used for

transferring a post-tensioning force from the tendon
wires, strands or bars to the concrete.
Anchorage SeatingDeformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing
force is transferred from jack to anchorage device.
Anchorage SpacingCenter-to-center spacing of anchorage devices.
Anchorage ZoneThe portion of the structure in which
the concentrated prestressing force is transferred from
the anchorage device into the concrete (Local Zone), and
then distributed more widely into the structure (General
Zone) (Article 9.21.1).
Basic Anchorage DeviceAnchorage device meeting
the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness
requirements of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4;
no acceptance test is required for Basic Anchorage Devices.
Bonded TendonPrestressing tendon that is bonded to
concrete either directly or through grouting.
CoatingMaterial used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon
and duct, or to debond prestressing tendons.
Couplers (Couplings)Means by which prestressing
force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing
tendon to another.
Creep of ConcreteTime-dependent deformation of
concrete under sustained load.
Curvature FrictionFriction resulting from bends or
curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
Debonding (blanketing)Wrapping, sheathing, or
coating prestressing strand to prevent bond between
strand and surrounding concrete.
DiaphragmTransverse stiffener in girders to maintain section geometry.

DuctHole or void formed in prestressed member to
accommodate tendon for post-tensioning.
Edge DistanceDistance from the center of the anchorage device to the edge of the concrete member.
Effective PrestressStress remaining in concrete due
to prestressing after all calculated losses have been deducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and
weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of
dead load and superimposed load.
Elastic Shortening of ConcreteShortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing.
End AnchorageLength of reinforcement, or mechanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof, beyond point of zero stress in reinforcement.
End BlockEnlarged end section of member designed
to reduce anchorage stresses.
Friction (post-tensioning)Surface resistance between
tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
General ZoneRegion within which the concentrated
prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress
distribution over the cross section of the member (Saint
Venant Region) (Article 9.21.2.1).
Grout Opening or VentInlet, outlet, vent, or drain in
post-tensioning duct for grout, water, or air.
Intermediate AnchorageAnchorage not located at
the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the
form of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess pockets.
Jacking ForceTemporary force exerted by device
that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.
Local ZoneThe volume of concrete surrounding and
immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to
high local bearing stresses (Article 9.21.2.2).
Loss of PrestressReduction in prestressing force
resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and
steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep and
shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, and for
post-tensioned members, friction and anchorage seating.
Post-TensioningMethod of prestressing in which
tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
Precompressed ZonePortion of flexural member
cross-section compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed ConcreteReinforced concrete in which
internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential
tensile stresses in concrete resulting from loads.
PretensioningMethod of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
SECTION 9
9-3
Relaxation of Tendon StressTime-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.

Shear LagNon-uniform distribution of bending stress
over the cross section.
Shrinkage of ConcreteTime-dependent deformation
of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes
(hydration process).
Special Anchorage DeviceAnchorage device whose
adequacy must be proven experimentally in the standardized acceptance tests of Division II, Section 10.3.2.3.
TendonWire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete.
TransferAct of transferring stress in prestressing
tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member.
Transfer LengthLength over which prestressing force
is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members.
Wobble FrictionFriction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified
profile or alignment.
Wrapping or SheathingEnclosure around a prestressing tendon to avoid temporary or permanent bond between prestressing tendon and surrrounding concrete.
9.2
CONCRETE
The specified compressive strength, f 'c, of the concrete for each part of the structure shall be shown on the
plans.
9.3
9.3.1
REINFORCEMENT
Prestressing Steel
Wire, strands, or bars shall conform to one of the

following specifications.
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Concrete, AASHTO M 204.
Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Prestressed Concrete, AASHTO M 203.
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing
Concrete, ASTM A 722.
Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in
AASHTO M 204, AASHTO M 203, or ASTM A 722 may
be used provided they conform to the minimum requirements of these specifications.
9-4
SECTION 9
9.3.2
Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform to the

requirements in Article 8.3.
Part B
Analysis
9.4
GENERAL
Members shall be proportioned for adequate strength

using these specifications as minimum guidelines. Continuous beams and other statically indeterminate structures shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfactory behavior. Behavior shall be determined by elastic
analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments,
shear, and axial forces produced by prestressing, the
effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation, restraint of attached structural elements, and foundation settlement.
9.5
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
9.5.1
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the
design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall
be provided for movement caused by temperature changes.
9.5.2
Movements not otherwise provided for,
including shortening during stressing, shall be provided
for by means of hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates,
elastomeric pads, or other devices.
9.6
SPAN LENGTH
The effective span lengths of simply supported beams

shall not exceed the clear span plus the depth of the beam.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs
and beams shall be the clear distance between faces of
support. Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or
more with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are
built monolithic with the slab and support, the span shall
be measured from the section where the combined depth
of the slab and the fillet is at least one and one-half times
the thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments
are to be considered as existing at the ends of the span, as
above defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered
as adding to the effective depth.
9.7
FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS

CONSTRUCTION
ments, the secondary moments or shears induced by

prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) shall be added
algebraically to the moments and shears due to factored
or ultimate dead and live loads.
9.7.2
9.7.2.1
General
When structural continuity is assumed in calculating

live loads plus impact and composite dead load moments,
the effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered in
the design of bridges incorporating simple span precast,
prestressed girders and deck slabs continuous over two or
more spans.
9.7.2.2
Positive Moment Connection at

Piers
9.7.2.2.1
Provision shall be made in the design
for the positive moments that may develop in the negative
moment region due to the combined effects of creep and
shrinkage in the girders and deck slab, and due to the
effects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage and elastic shortening of the pier shall be considered
when significant.
9.7.2.2.2
Non-prestressed positive moment connection reinforcement at piers may be designed at a
working stress of 0.6 times the yield strength but not to
exceed 36 ksi.
9.7.2.3
Negative Moments
9.7.2.3.1
Negative moment reinforcement shall
be proportioned by strength design with load factors in
9.7.2.3.2
The ultimate negative resisting moment shall be calculated using the compressive strength
of the girder concrete regardless of the strength of the
diaphragm concrete.
9.7.3
9.7.1
Bridges Composed of Simple-Span

Precast Prestressed Girders Made
Continuous
Segmental Box Girders
Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges

9.7.3.1
The effect of secondary moments due to prestressing

shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In
calculating ultimate strength moment and shear require-
General
9.7.3.1.1
Elastic analysis and beam theory may
be used in the design of segmental box girder structures.
SECTION 9
9-5
9.7.3.1.2
In the analysis of precast segmental
box girder bridges, no tension shall be permitted across
any joint between segments during any stage of erection
or service loading.
9.7.3.1.3
In addition to the usual substructure
design considerations, unbalanced cantilever moments
due to segment weights and erection loads shall be
accommodated in pier design or with auxiliary struts.
Erection equipment which can eliminate these unbalanced moments may be used.
9.7.3.2
Flexure
The transverse design of segmental box girders for

flexure shall consider the segments as rigid box frames.
Top slabs shall be analyzed as variable depth sections
considering the fillets between the top slab and webs.
Wheel loads shall be positioned to provide maximum
moments, and elastic analysis shall be used to determine
the effective longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for
each load location (see Article 3.11). Transverse prestressing of top slabs is generally recommended.
9.7.3.3
Torsion
In the design of the cross section, consideration shall

be given to the increase in web shear resulting from
eccentric loading or geometry of structure.
9.8
9.8.1
EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH

T-Beams
9.8.1.1
For composite prestressed construction
where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with
the beam, the effective flange width shall conform to the
provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 8.10.1.
9.8.1.2
For monolithic prestressed construction,
with normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective
flange width shall be the distance center-to-center of
beams. For very short spans, or where girder spacing is
excessive, analytical investigations shall be made to
determine the anticipated width of flange acting with the
beam.
9.8.1.3
For monolithic prestressed design of isolated beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times
the web width and shall be adequate for all design loads.
9-6
SECTION 9
9.8.2
Box Girders
9.8.2.1
For cast-in-place box girders with normal slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are
considered an integral part of the girder, the entire slab
width shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
9.8.2.2
For box girders of unusual proportions,
including segmental box girders, methods of analysis
which consider shear lag shall be used to determine
stresses in the cross-section due to longitudinal bending.
9.8.2.3
Adequate fillets shall be provided at the
intersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder,
except at the junction of web and bottom flange where
none are required.
9.8.3
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams

with Wide Top Flanges
9.8.3.1
For composite prestressed concrete
where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with
the precast beam, the effective web width of the precast
beam shall be the lesser of (1) six times the maximum
thickness of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of
the web plus the web and fillets, and (2) the total width of
the top flange.
9.8.3.2
The effective flange width of the composite section shall be the lesser of (1) one-fourth of the
span length of the girder, (2) six (6) times the thickness of
the slab on each side of the effective web width as
determined by Article 9.8.3.1 plus the effective web
width, and (3) one-half the clear distance on each side of
the effective web width plus the effective web width.
9.9
9.9.1
FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS

BOX GIRDERS
Top Flange
The minimum top flange thickness for non-segmental

box girders shall be 1/30th of the clear distance between
fillets or webs but not less than 6 inches, except the
minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced
precast, pretensioned elements to 51/2 inches.
The top flange thickness for segmental box girders
shall be determined in accordance with Article 9.7.3.2.
+
+
+
+
9.9.2
Bottom Flange
+
The minimum bottom flange thickness for non-seg+ mental and segmental box girders shall be determined by
+ maximum allowable unit stresses as specified in Article
+ 9.15, but in no case shall be less than 1/30th of the clear
distance between fillets or webs or 51/2 inches, except the
minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced
precast, pretensioned elements to 5 inches.
9.9.3
9.10.3.4
For segmental box girders, diaphragms
shall be placed within the box at span ends. Intermediate
diaphragms are not required for bridges with inside
radius of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
9.10.3.5
For all types of prestressed boxes in
bridges with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet,
intermediate diaphragms may be required and the spacing and strength of diaphragms shall be given special
consideration in the design of the structure.
Web
9.11
DEFLECTIONS
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for

a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web
thickness.
9.11.1
9.10
Deflection calculations shall consider dead load, live

load, prestressing, erection loads, concrete creep and
shrinkage, and steel relaxation.
9.10.1
DIAPHRAGMS
General
General
9.11.2
Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with

Article 9.10.2 and 9.10.3 except that diaphragms may be
omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate
strength.
9.10.2
T-Beams, Precast I and Bulb-tee

Girders
Segmental Box Girders
Deflections shall be calculated prior to casting of

segments and they shall be based on the anticipated
casting and erection schedules. Calculated deflections
shall be used as a guide against which actual deflection
measurements are checked.
9.11.3
Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends
to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit
lateral forces to the substructure. Intermediate diaphragms shall be placed between the beams at the points
of maximum moment for spans over 40 feet.
9.10.3
Box Girders
9.10.3.1
For spread box beams, diaphragms shall
be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends
and at the points of maximum moment for spans over 80
feet.
9.10.3.2
For precast box multi-beam bridges, diaphragms are required only if necessary for slab-end
support or to contain or resist transverse tension ties.
9.10.3.3
For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to
resist lateral forces and maintain section geometry. Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges with
inside radius of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
Superstructure Deflection
Limitations
When making deflection computations, the following

criteria are recommended.
9.11.3.1
Members having simple or continuous
spans preferably should be designed so that the deflection
due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1/800
of the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part
by pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not
exceed 1/1000.
9.11.3.2
The deflection of cantilever arms due to
service live load plus impact preferably should be limited
to 1/300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including
9.12
DECK PANELS
9.12.1
General
9.12.1.1
Precast prestressed deck panels used as
permanent forms spanning between stringers may be
SECTION 9
9-7
designed compositely with the cast-in-place portion of

the slabs to support additional dead loads and live loads.
9.12.1.2
The panels shall be analyzed assuming
they support their self-weight, any construction loads,
and the weight of the cast-in-place concrete, and shall be
analyzed assuming they act compositely with the cast-inplace concrete to support moments due to additional dead
loads and live loads.
9.12.2
Bending Moment
9.12.2.1
Live load moments shall be computed in
accordance with Article 3.24.3.
9.12.2.2
In calculating stresses in the deck panel
due to negative moment near the stringer, no compression due to prestressing shall be assumed to exist.
9-8
SECTION 9
Part C
Design
9.13
9.13.1
GENERAL
Design Theory and General
Considerations
9.13.1.1
Members shall meet the strength requirements specified herein.
9.13.1.2
Design shall be based on strength (Load
Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions
(Allowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be
critical during the life of the structure from the time the
prestressing is first applied.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The prestressing force and required concrete strength

shall be determined by allowable stress design using
elastic theory for loads at the service level considering
HS loads.
The ultimate moment capacity and the shear design
shall be based on load factor design with factored HS or
P loads.
9.13.1.3
Stress concentrations due to the prestressing shall be considered in the design.
9.13.1.4
The effects of temperature and shrinkage shall be considered.
9.13.2
ments respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall

conform to the provisions of Articles 8.14.2.1 through
8.14.2.4, 8.14.2.6, and the following.
Basic Assumptions
9.13.3.1
Where an entire member is assumed to
resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Articles 9.20.1 through 9.20.3.
9.13.3.2
The design shall provide for full transfer
of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of interconnected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Article 9.20.4.
9.13.3.3
In structures with a cast-in-place slab on
precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause
tensile stresses in the slab and in the bottom of the beams.
Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended
time period, the effect on the beams is reduced by creep.
Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load
and the beam deflection profile. When these factors are
particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage should be added to the effect of loads.
9.14
LOAD FACTORS
The computed strength capacity shall not be less than

the largest value from load factor design in Article 3.22.
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones a load
factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon
jacking force.
The following strength capactity reduction factors
shall be used:
The following assumptions are made for design purposes for monolithic members.
For factory produced precast prestressed concrete members = 1.0
9.13.2.1
Strains vary linearly over the depth of
the member throughout the entire load range.
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete members

= 0.95
9.13.2.2
Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain.
9.13.2.3
neglected.
9.13.3
For shear
= 0.90
For anchorage zones

= 0.85 for normal weight
concrete and
= 0.70 for lightweight concrete.
After cracking, tension in the concrete is
Composite Flexural Members
Composite flexural members consisting of precast

and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in
separate placements but so interconnected that all ele-
9.15
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The design of precast prestressed members ordinarily

shall be based on f 'c = 5,000 psi. An increase to 6,000 psi
is permissible where, in the Engineers judgment, it is
reasonable to expect that this strength will be obtained
consistently. Still higher concrete strengths may be
SECTION 9
9-9
considered on an individual area basis. In such cases, the

Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the controls over materials and fabrication procedures will provide the required strengths. The provisions of this Section
are equally applicable to prestressed concrete structures
and components designed with lower concrete strengths.
In Environmental Area III use f 'c = 5,000 psi maximum because of required air entrainment.
9.15.1
+
+
Prestressing Steel
Pretensioned members:
Stress immediately prior to transfer
Low-relaxation strands ............................... 0.75 f 's
Stress-relieved strands ................................ 0.70 f 's
Post-tensioned members:
Stress immediately after seating
At anchorage ............................................ 0.70 f 's
At the end of the seating loss zone.......... 0.83 f*y
Maximum jacking stress .............................. 0.75 f 's
For longer frame structures, tensioning to
0.90 f*y for short periods of time prior to
seating may be permitted to offset seating
and friction losses provided the stress at
the anchorage does not exceed the above
value.
Stress at service load after losses ................ 0.80 f*y
Service load consists of all loads contained in Article 3.2 but does not include
overload provisions.
9.15.2
Concrete
9.15.2.1
Temporary Stresses Before

Losses Due to Creep and
Shrinkage
Compression:
Pretensioned members .................................0.60f 'ci
Post-tensioned members .............................. 0.55f 'ci
Tension:
Precompressed tensile zone ............. No temporary
allowable stresses are specified. See Article 9.15.2.2 for allowable stresses after
losses.
Other areas:
In tension areas with no bonded
reinforcement............................200 psi or 3
9-10
SECTION 9
Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds

this value, bonded reinforcement shall be
provided to resist the total tension force
in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. The maximum tensile stress shall not
exceed .................................................... 7.5
9.15.2.2
f ci
Stress at Service Load After

Losses Have Occurred
Compression:
(a) The compressive stresses under all load combinations, except as stated in (b) and (c), shall not
exceed 0.60f 'c.
(b) The compressive stresses due to effective prestress plus permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40f 'c.
(c) The compressive stress due to live loads plus onehalf of the sum of compressive stresses due to
prestress and permanent (dead) loads shall not
exceed 0.40f 'c.
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
Service Load Condition:
(a) For members with bonded reinforcement,
including bonded prestressed strands .. 6
f c
(b) For Environmental Area III and Marine

Environment......................................... 3
f c
(c) For members without bonded reinforcement .... 0

Dead and Additional Dead Load Condition: ........... 0
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary stresses specified in Article 9.15.2.1.
9.15.2.3
Cracking Stress (Refer to Article

9.18)
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available.

For normal weight concrete ......................... 7.5 f c
For sand-lightweight concrete ...................... 6.3
f c
For all other lightweight concrete ................ 5.5
f c
+
+
9.15.2.4
Anchorage Bearing Stress
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load .... 3,000 psi

(but not to exceed 0.9 f 'ci)
9.16
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
9.16.1
Friction losses occur prior to anchoring but should be

estimated for design and checked during stressing operations. Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to maintain their correct alignment without visible wobble during placement of concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated
with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of
the welded seam will not be required.
Friction Losses
9.16.2
Friction losses in post-tensioned steel shall be based

on experimentally determined wobble and curvature coefficients, and shall be verified during stressing operations. The values of coefficients assumed for design, and
the acceptable ranges of jacking forces and steel elongations shall be shown on the plans. These friction losses
shall be calculated as follows:
To = Tx e( KL+ )
(9-1)
When ( KL + ) is not greater than 0.3, the following

equation may be used:
f s = SH + ES + CRc + CRs
To = Tx (1 + KL + )
(9-2)
The following values for K and may be used when

experimental data for the materials used are not available:
+
Type of Steel
+
+
+
+
+
Wire or strand Rigid and semirigid galvanized

metal sheathing
Tendon Length:
0 - 600 feet
600 - 900 feet
900 - 1200 feet
>1200 feet
Type of Duct
K/ft.
9.16.2.1
General
Loss of prestress due to all causes, excluding friction,

may be determined by the following method. The method
is based on normal weight concrete and one of the
following types of prestressing steel: 250 or 270 ksi,
seven-wire, stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 240
ksi stress-relieved wires; or 145 to 160 ksi smooth or
deformed bars. Refer to documented tests for data regarding the properties and the effects of lightweight aggregate
concrete on prestress losses.
Should more exact prestressed losses be desired, data
representing the materials to be used, the methods of
curing, the ambient service condition and any pertinent
structural details should be determined for use in accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses that is
supported by appropriate research data. See also FHWA
Report FHWA/RD 85/045, Criteria for Designing Lightweight Concrete Bridges.
TOTAL LOSS
(9-3)
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.25*
Polyethylene
0.0002
0.23
Rigid steel pipe
0.0002
0.25*
High-strength Galvanized metal

bars
sheathing
0.0002
+
Prestress Losses
*Lubrication will probably be required.

**Add effect of horizontal curvature if any.
0.15
where:
fs = total loss excluding friction in pounds per square
inch;
SH = loss due to concrete shrinkage in pounds per
square inch;
ES = loss due to elastic shortening in pounds per
square inch;
CRc = loss due to creep of concrete in pounds per
square inch;
CRs = loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel in
pounds per square inch.
SECTION 9
9-11
9.16.2.1.1
Shrinkage
of the concrete and tendon friction for posttensioned members. The reductions to initial
tendon stress due to these factors can be estimated, or the reduced tendon stress can be taken
as 0.63 f 's for stress relieved strand or 0.69 f 's for
low relaxation strand in typical pretensioned
members.)
Pretensioned Members:
SH = 17,000 150RH
(9-4)
Post-tensioned Members:
SH = 0.80(17,000 150RH)
(9-5)
where RH = mean annual ambient relative humidity in

percent (see Figure 9.16.2.1.1).
9.16.2.1.3
Creep of Concrete
Pretensioned and post-tensioned members

CRc = 12fcir 7fcds
9.16.2.1.2
(9-9)
Elastic Shortening
where:
Pretensioned Members
ES =
Es
fcir
Eci
(9-6)
Post-tensioned Members (certain tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening losses).
ES = 0.5
Es
f cir
Eci
(9-7)
Relaxation of Prestressing Steel
The relaxation losses are based on an initial stress

equal to the stress at anchorages allowed by Article
9.15.1.
250 to 270 ksi Strand
Es = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel strand,

which can be assumed to be 28 x 106 psi;
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete in psi at transfer of stress, which can be calculated from:
Eci = 33w3/ 2 f ci
9-12
9.16.2.1.4
Pretensioned Members
where:
f cir
fcds = concrete stress at the center of gravity of the

prestressing steel due to all dead loads except
the dead load present at the time the prestressing
force is applied.
(9-10)
CRs = 5,000 0.10 ES 0.05 (SH + CRc)

for low relaxation strand
(9-10A)
(9-8)
in which w is the concrete unit weight in pounds

per cubic foot and f ci is in pounds per square
inch;
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
prestressing steel due to prestressing force and
dead load of beam immediately after transfer;
fcir shall be computed at the section or sections of
maximum moment. (At this stage, the initial
stress in the tendon has been reduced by elastic
shortening of the concrete and tendon relaxation
during placing and curing the concrete for
pretensioned members, or by elastic shortening
SECTION 9
CRs = 20,000 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH + CRc)

for stress relieved strand
Post-tensioned Members
250 to 270 ksi Strand
CRs = 20,000 0.3 FR 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH + CRc)
for stress relieved strand
(9-11)
CRs = 5,000 0.07FR 0.1 ES 0.05 (SH + CRc)
for low relaxation strand
(9-11A)
240 ksi Wire
CRs = 18,000 0.3 FR 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH + CRc)
(9-12)
Mean Annual Relative Humidity (%)
ALASKA
HAWAII
9-13
Figure 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity
SECTION 9
Based on 1:30 a.m. & p.m.
and 7:30 a.m. & p.m., e.s.t.
observations for 20 years
or more through 1964.
9.17
145 to 160 ksi Bars
9.17.1
CRs = 3,000
where:
FR
= friction loss stress reduction in psi below

the level of 0.70f 's at the point under consideration, computed according to Article
9.16.1;
ES, SH,
and CRc = appropriate values as determined for either
and CRc pre-tensioned or post-tensioned
members.
9.16.2.2
Estimated Losses
In lieu of the preceding method, the following estimates of total losses may be used for prestressed members or structures of usual design. These loss values are
based on use of normal weight concrete, normal prestress
levels, and average exposure conditions. For exceptionally long spans, or for unusual designs, the method in
Article 9.16.2.1 or a more exact method shall be used.
TABLE 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
General
Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act

as uncracked members subjected to combined axial and
bending stresses within specified service loads. In calculations of section properties, the transformed area of
bonded reinforcement may be included in pretensioned
members and in post-tensioned members after grouting;
prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the open ducts shall
be deducted.
9.17.2
Rectangular Sections
For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing steel only, which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, defined as (A*s f*su)/(0.85f 'cb), is not
greater than the compression flange thickness t, and
which satisfy Eq. (9-20), the design flexural strength
shall be assumed as:
p* f su
*
M n = As* f su
d 1 0.6
f c
(9-13)
Total Loss
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Type of
Prestressing Steel
Pretensioning:
Normal Relaxation
Strand
Low Relaxation
Strand
Post-Tensioning*:
Normal Relaxation
Strand or wires
Low Relaxation
Strand
Bars
Normal Weight Light Weight

Aggregate
Aggregate
Concrete
Concrete
45,000 psi
50,000 psi
35,000 psi
40,000 psi
32,000 psi
40,000 psi
20,000 psi
22,000 psi
30,000 psi
* Losses due to friction are excluded. Friction losses should be

computed according to Article 9.16.1.
9-14
SECTION 9
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the
depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, defined
as (A*s f*su + As fsy)/(0.85 f 'cb), is not greater than the
compression flange thickness t, and which satisfy Eq.
(9-24), the design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
p* f * d pf sy
*
su + t
M n = As* f su
d 1 0.6
f
d
f
c
d p* f *
pf
su + sy
+ As f sy dt 1 0.6
d
fc
f c
t
(9-13a)
9.17.3
Flanged Sections
9.17.4
For sections having prestressing steel only, in which

the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (Asr f*su)/(0.85 f 'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness t, and which satisfy Eq. (921), the design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
A f*
*
M n = Asr f su
d 1 0.6 sr su
bdf c
+ 0.85 fc (b b)(t )(d 0.5t )
Steel Stress
9.17.4.1
Unless the value of f*su can be more
accurately known from detailed analysis, the following
values may be used:
Bonded members ........
with prestressing only (as defined);
*
*
f su
= f s 1
1
(9-14)
For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent
rectangular stress block, defined as (Asr f*su)/(0.85 f 'cb')
is greater than the compression flange thickness t, and
which satisfy Eq. (9-25), the design flexural strength
shall be assumed as:
p * f
s
f c
(9-17)
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement

included;
*
*
f su
= f s 1
1
p* f d
s + t
d
f c
pf sy
f (9-17a)
c
Unbonded members .....
A f*
*
M n = Asr f su
d 1 0.6 sr su
bdf c
+ A f (d d )
s sy t
+ 0.85 fc (b b) (t )(d 0.5t )
where:
(9-14a)
(9-15)
Asr = A*s + (As fsy /f*su) - Asf in Eq. (9-14a) (9-15a)

+
+
+
Asr = the steel area required to develop the ultimate

compressive strength of the web of a flanged
section.
Asf = 0.85 f 'c (b b')t/f*su;
(9-18)
but shall not exceed f*y.
where:
Asr = A*s Asf in Eq. (9-14);
*
f su
= f se + 900((d yu ) / I e )
(9-16)
Asf = the steel area required to develop the ultimate

compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the flange.
yu = distance from extreme compression fiber to the

neutral axis assuming the tendon prestressing
steel has yielded.
le = li/(1 + 0.5Ns); effective tendon length.
li = tendon length between anchorages (in.).
Ns = number of support hinges crossed by the tendon between anchorages or discretely bonded
points.
provided that:
(1) The stress-strain properties of the prestressing
steel approximate those specified in Division II,
Article 10.3.1.1.
(2) The effective prestress after losses is not less than
0.5 f 's.
SECTION 9
9-15
9.17.4.2
At ultimate load, the stress in the prestressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to:
l
2
*
f su
= x + f se
D 3
For flanged sections:
[(
0.85 fc (b b) t (d 0.5 t )]
but shall not be greater than f*su as given by the equations

in Article 9.17.4.1. In the above equation:
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches;
f = effective stress in prestressing strand after losses
se
in kips per square inch;
l x = distance from end of prestressing strand to
center of panel in inches.
9.18
9.18.1
9.18.2
(9-23)
Minimum Steel
9.18.2.1
The total amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop
an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2
* .
times the cracking moment M cr
DUCTILITY LIMITS
*
M n 1.2 M cr
Maximum Prestressing Steel
Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so

that the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In general, the reinforcement index shall be
such that:
f*
p * su (for rectangular sections)
f
(9-20)
and
*
Asr f su
bdf c
(for flanged sections)
(9-21)
does not exceed 0.36 1. (See Article 9.19 for reinforcement indices of sections with non-prestressed reinforcement.).
For members with reinforcement indices greater than
0.36 1, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not
greater than:
where:
M n = 0.36 1 0.08 12 f cbd 2
SECTION 9
(9-22)
*
M cr
= f r + f pe S c M d / nc (Sc / Sb 1)
Appropriate values for Md/nc and Sb shall be used for

any intermediate composite sections. Where beams are
designed to be noncomposite, substitute Sb for Sc in the
* .
above equation for the calculation of M cr
9.18.2.2
The requirements of Article 9.18.2.1 may
be waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed
reinforcement provided at a section is at least one-third
greater than that required by analysis based on the loading combinations specified in Article 3.22.
9.18.2.3
The minimum amount of non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-place
portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels
shall be 0.25 square inch per foot of slab width.
9.19
For rectangular sections:
9-16
M n = 0.36 1 0.08 12 fcbd 2 +
(9-19)
NON-PRESTRESSED
REINFORCEMENT
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as

contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at ultimate
strength in an amount equal to its area times its yield
point, provided that
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section considered, Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is the nominal shear strength provided by
web reinforcement.
For rectangular sections:
*
pf sy dt p* f su
+
f d f
c
c
pf y
0.361
f c
(9-24)
As f y
bdf c

(9-25)
For flanged sections:
As f sy
bdf
c
*
Asr f su
+
bdf
c

0.361
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on

Eq. (9-13a) of Eq. (9-14a) if these values are met, and on
Eq. (9-22) or Eq. (9-23) if these values are exceeded.
9.20
9.20.1.1
Prestressed concrete flexural members,
except solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for
shear and diagonal tension stresses. Voided slabs shall be
investigated for shear, but shear reinforcement may be
omitted if the factored shear force, Vu, is less than half the
shear strength provided by the concrete Vc.
9.20.1.2
Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded
wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis of
the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be
carried as close to the compression and tension surfaces
of the member as cover requirements and the proximity
of other reinforcement permit. Web reinforcement shall
be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength in
accordance with the provisions of Article 8.27.
Members subject to shear shall be de-
Vu (Vc + Vs )
(9-26)
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete
9.20.2.1
The shear strength provided by concrete, Vc, shall be taken as the lesser of the values Vci or
Vcw.
9.20.2.2
puted by:
General
9.20.1.3
signed so that
9.20.1.5
Reinforced keys shall be provided in the
webs of precast segmental box girders to transfer erection
shear. Possible reverse shearing stresses in the shear keys
shall be investigated, particularly in segments near a pier.
At time of erection, the shear stress carried by the shear
key shall not exceed 2 f c .
9.20.2
SHEAR
The method for design of web reinforcement presented in the 1979 Interim AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges is an acceptable alternate.
9.20.1
9.20.1.4
When the reaction to the applied loads
introduces compression into the end regions of the member, sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the
face of the support may be designed for the same shear Vu
as that computed at a distance h/2.
The shear strength, Vci, shall be com-
VM
Vci = 0.6 f c bd + Vd + i cr
M max
(9-27)
but need not be less than 1.7 fc bd and d need not be

taken less than 0.8h.
The moment causing flexural cracking at the section
due to externally applied loads, Mcr, shall be computed
by:
M cr =
I
6 f c + f pe f d
Yt
(9-28)
The maximum factored moment and factored shear at

the section due to externally applied loads, Mmax and Vi,
shall be computed from the load combination causing
maximum moment at the section.
9.20.2.3
puted by:
SECTION 9
The shear strength, Vcw, shall be com-
9-17
Vcw = 3.5 fc + 0.3 f pc bd + V p
(9-29)
9.20.3.3
The minimum area of web reinforcement shall be:
but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
Av =
9.20.2.4
For a pretensioned member in which the
section at a distance h/2 from the face of support is closer
to the end of the member than the transfer length of the
prestressing tendons, the reduced prestress shall be considered when computing Vcw. The prestress force may be
assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of the
tendon to a maximum at a distance from the end of the
tendon equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50
diameters for strand and 100 diameters for single wire.
9.20.2.5
The provisions for computing the shear
strength provided by concrete, Vci and Vcw, apply to
normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used (see definition, concrete, structural
lightweight, Article 8.1.3), one of the following modifications shall apply:
(a) When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vci and
Vcw, shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 for
f ci , but the value of fct/6.7 used shall not
exceed f c .
(b) When fct is not specified, Vci and Vcw shall be
modified by multiplying each term containing
f c by 0.75 for all lightweight concrete, and
0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete. Linear
interpolation may be used when partial sand replacement is used.
9.20.3
Shear Strength Provided by Web

Reinforcement
9.20.3.1
The shear strength provided by web reinforcement shall be taken as:
Vs =
Av f sy d
s
(9-30)
where Av is the area of web reinforcement within a

distance s. Vs shall not be taken greater than 8 f c b d
and d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
9.20.3.2
The spacing of web reinforcing shall not
exceed 0.75h or 24 inches. When Vs exceeds 4 f ci bd ,
this maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half.
9-18
SECTION 9
50bs
f sy
(9-31)
where b' and s are in inches and fsy is in psi.

9.20.3.4
The design yield strength of web reinforcement, fsy, shall not exceed 60,000 psi.
9.20.4
Horizontal Shear DesignComposite

Flexural Members
9.20.4.1
In a composite member, full transfer of
9.20.4.2
Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
Article 9.20.4.3 or 9.20.4.4, or any other shear transfer
design method that results in prediction of strength in
substantial agreement with results of comprehensive
tests.
9.20.4.3
Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be based on:
Vu Vnh
(9-31a)
where Vu is factored shear force at a section considered,

Vnh is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance
with the following, and where d is for the entire composite section.
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean
and free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken greater
than 80bvd, in pounds.
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean,
free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a
full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in., shear
strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 350bvd,
in pounds.
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the

contact surface in excess of the minimum required by article 9.20.4.5, shear strength Vnh may
be increased by (160fy /40,000)bvd, in pounds.
9.20.4.4
Horizontal shear may be investigated by
computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizontal shear strength Vnh in accordance with Article 9.20.4.3,
except that the length of segment considered shall be
substituted for d.
9.21.1.4
For multiple slab anchorages, both width
and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal
to the center-to-center spacing between stressed tendons,
but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of
the tendon axis. The thickness of the anchorage zone
shall be taken equal to the thickness of the slab.
9.21.1.5
For design purposes, the anchorage zone
shall be considered as comprised of two regions; the
general zone as defined in Article 9.21.2.1 and the local
zone as defined in Article 9.21.2.2.
9.21.2
General Zone and Local Zone
9.21.2.1
9.20.4.5
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected
elements. Tie area shall not be less than 50bvs/fy,
and tie spacing s shall not exceed four times the
least web width of support element, nor 24 inches.
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single
bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs
of welded wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately
anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
9.21
9.21.1
General Zone
POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE
ZONES
9.21.2.1.1
The geometric extent of the general
zone is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as
defined in Article 9.21.1 and includes the local zone.
9.21.2.1.2
Design of general zones shall meet the
requirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.3.
9.21.2.2
Local Zone
9.21.2.2.1
The local zone is defined as the rectangular prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular
or oval anchorages) of concrete surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral
confining reinforcement. The dimensions of the local
zone are defined in Article 9.21.7.
Geometry of the Anchorage Zone
9.21.1.1
The anchorage zone is geometrically
defined as the volume of concrete through which the
concentrated prestressing force at the anchorage device
spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across
the entire cross section.
9.21.1.2
For anchorage zones at the end of a
member or segment, the transverse dimensions may be
taken as the depth and width of the section. The longitudinal extent of the anchorage zone in the direction of the
tendon (ahead of the anchorage) shall be taken as not less
than the larger transverse dimension but not more than
11/ 2 times that dimension.
9.21.1.3
For intermediate anchorages in addition
to the length of Article 9.21.1.2 the anchorage zone shall
be considered to also extend in the opposite direction for
a distance not less than the larger transverse dimension.
9.21.2.2.2
Design of local zones shall meet the
requirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.7 or shall be based
on the results of experimental tests required in Article
9.21.7.3 and described in Article 10.3.2.3 of Division II.
Anchorage devices based on the acceptance test of Division II, Article 10.3.2.3, are referred to as special anchorage devices.
9.21.2.3
Responsibilities
9.21.2.3.1
The engineer of record is responsible
for the overall design and approval of working drawings
for the general zone, including the specific location of the
tendons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement, and the specific stressing sequence. The engineer
of record is also responsible for the design of local zones
based on Article 9.21.7.2 and for the approval of special
anchorage devices used under the provisions of Section
SECTION 9
9-19
9.21.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be

approved by the engineer of record.
9.21.2.3.2
Anchorage device suppliers are responsible for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the
anchor efficiency requirements of Division II, Article
10.3.2. In addition, if special anchorage devices are used,
the anchorage device supplier is responsible for furnishing anchorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test
requirements of Article 9.21.7.3 and of Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3. This acceptance test and the anchor
efficiency test shall be conducted by an independent
testing agency acceptable to the engineer of record. The
anchorage device supplier shall provide records of the
acceptance test in conformance with Division II, Article
10.3.2.3.12 to the engineer of record and to the constructor and shall specify auxiliary and confining reinforcement, minimum edge distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum concrete strength at time of stressing
required for proper performance of the local zone.
9.21.2.3.3
The responsibilities of the constructor
are specified in Division II, Article 10.4.
9.21.3
General Zone and Local Zone
9.21.3.1
Design Methods
The following methods may be used for the design of

general zones:
(1) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-andtie models) (see Article 9.21.4)
(2) Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or
equivalent) (see Article 9.21.5)
(3) Approximate methods for determining the compression and tension forces, where applicable.
(See Article 9.21.6)
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall
conform to the requirements of Article 9.21.3.4.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimensional effects shall be considered in the design. When
these three dimensional effects appear significant, they
may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis procedures or may be approximated by considering two or
more planes. However, in these approximations the
interaction of the planes models must be considered, and
the model loadings and results must be consistent.
9-20
SECTION 9
9.21.3.2
Nominal Material Strengths
9.21.3.2.1
The nominal tensile strength of bonded
reinforcement is limited to fsy for non-prestressed reinforcement and to fy for prestressed reinforcement. The
nominal tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is limited to fse + 15,000 psi.
9.21.3.2.2
The effective nominal compressive
strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of
confined concrete, is limited to 0.7f'c. The tensile strength
of the concrete shall be neglected.
9.21.3.2.3
The compressive strength of concrete
at transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construction drawings. If not otherwise specified, stress
shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive
strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders,
cured by methods identical with the curing of the member, is at least 4,000 psi.
9.21.3.3
Use of Special Anchorage Devices
Whenever special anchorage devices which do not

meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 are to be used,
reinforcement similar in configuration and at least equivalent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin reinforcement permitted under the provisions of Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3.4 shall be furnished in the corresponding
regions of the anchorage zone.
9.21.3.4
General Design Principles and

Detailing Requirements
Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential

for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones.
Sizes and details for anchorage zones should respect the
need for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and placement of reinforcement, the size of aggregate and the need
for placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
9.21.3.4.1
Compressive stresses in the concrete
ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the
requiremens of Article 9.21.7.2.
9.21.3.4.2
Compressive stresses in the concrete
ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a
distance measured from the concrete-bearing surface
equal to the smaller of:
(1) The depth to the end of the local confinement

reinforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage
device.
These compressive stresses may be determined according to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article 9.21.5.2,
or by the approximate method outlined in Article 9.21.6.2.
These compressive stresses shall not exceed 0.7f'ci.
9.21.3.4.3
Compressive stresses shall also be
checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within
or ahead of the anchorage zone may cause stress concentrations.
9.21.3.4.4
The bursting force is the tensile force
in the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage
device and transverse to the tendon axis. The magnitude
of the bursting force, Tburst, and its corresponding distance from the loaded surface, dburst, can be determined
using the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article 9.21.5.3,
or by the approximate method outlined in Article 9.21.6.3.
Three-dimensional effects shall be considered for the
determination of the bursting reinforcement requirements.
9.21.3.4.5
Resistance to bursting forces, As f sy
* *
and/or As f y , shall be provided by non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed
hoops, or well-anchored transverse ties. This reinforcement is to be proportioned to resist the total factored
bursting force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting
reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
(1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full
width of the member and must be anchored as
close to the outer faces of the member as cover
permits.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead
of the loaded surface along both sides of the
tendon throughout a distance 2.5dburst for the
plane considered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the
corresponding lateral dimension of the section.
The centroid of the bursting reinforcement shall
coincide with the distance dburst used for the
design.
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed
neither 24 bar diameters nor 12 inches.
9.21.3.4.6
Edge tension forces are tensile forces in
the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to the
transverse edge and longitudinal edges of the member.
The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the anchors.
The tensile force along the transverse edge is referred to
as spalling force. The tensile force along the longitudinal
edge is referred to as longitudinal edge tension force.
9.21.3.4.7
Spalling forces are induced in concentrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded
anchorage zones, and anchorage zones for multiple anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced
when the resultant of the anchorage forces considered
causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The edge
tension forces can be determined from an elastic stress
analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in accordance with the
approximate methods of Article 9.21.6.4.
9.21.3.4.8
In no case shall the spalling force be
taken as less than 2 percent of the total factored tendon
force.
9.21.3.4.9
Resistance to edge tension forces,
As f sy and/or As* f y* , shall be provided in the form of

non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement located close
to the longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete.
Arrangement and anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
(1) Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.4.8 shall extend over the full width of
the member.
(2) Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchorage devices shall effectively tie these anchorage
devices together.
(3) Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and
spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage
devices shall be continuous. The reinforcement
shall extend along the tension face over the full
length of the anchorage zone and shall extend
along the loaded face from the longitudinal edge
to the other side of the eccentric anchorage device
or group of anchorage devices.
9.21.3.5
Intermediate Anchorages
9.21.3.5.1
Intermediate anchorages shall not be
used in regions where significant tension is generated
behind the anchor from other loads. Whenever practical,
SECTION 9
9-21
blisters shall be located in the corner between flange and

webs, or shall be extended over the full flange width or
web height to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters
must be used on a flange or web, local shear, bending and
direct force effects shall be considered in the design.
9.21.3.5.2
Bonded reinforcement shall be provided to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate
anchorage unfactored stressing force into the concrete
section behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are limited to a maximum of 0.6fsy or 36 ksi.
The amount of tie back reinforcement may be reduced
using Equation (9-32), if permanent compressive stresses
are generated behind the anchor from other loads.
Tia = 0.25Ps fcb Acb
(9-32)
where:
Tia = the tie back tension force at the intermediate
anchorage;
Ps = the maximum unfactored anchorage stressing
force;
fcb = the compressive stress in the region behind
the anchor;
Acb = the area of the continuing cross section within
the extensions of the sides of the anchor plate
or blister. The area of the blister or rib shall
not be taken as part of the cross section.
9.21.3.5.3
Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.5.2 shall be placed no further than one plate
width from the tendon axis. It shall be fully anchored so
that the yield strength can be developed at a distance of
one plate width or half the length of the blister or rib ahead
of the anchor as well as at the same distance behind the
anchor. The centroid of this reinforcement shall coincide
with the tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and
ribs, the reinforcement shall be placed in the continuing
section near that face of the flange or web from which the
blister or rib is projecting.
9.21.3.5.4
Reinforcement shall be provided
throughout blisters or ribs are required for shear friction,
corbel action, bursting forces, and deviation forces due to
tendon curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form
of ties or U-stirrups which encase the anchorage and tie
it effectively into the adjacent web and flange. This
reinforcement shall extend as far as possible into the
9-22
SECTION 9
flange or web and be developed by standard hooks bent

around transverse bars or equivalent. Spacing shall not
exceed the smallest of blister or rib height at anchor,
blister width, or 6 inches.
9.21.3.5.5
Reinforcement shall be provided to
resist local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity
of the tendon force and to resist lateral bending in ribs due
to tendon deviation forces.
9.21.3.5.6
Reinforcement required by Article
9.21.3.4.4 through 9.21.3.4.9 shall be provided to resist
tensile forces due to transfer of the anchorage force from
the blister or rib into the overall structure.
9.21.3.6
Diaphragms
9.21.3.6.1
For tendons anchored in diaphragms,
concrete compressive stresses shall be limited within the
diaphragm in accordance with Articles 9.21.3.4.1 through
9.21.3.4.3. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at
the transition from the diaphragm to webs and flanges of
the member.
9.21.3.6.2
Reinforcement shall be provided to
ensure full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the
flanges and webs of the girder. The more general methods of Article 9.21.4 or 9.21.5 shall be used to determine
this reinforcement. Reinforcement shall also be provided
to tie back deviation forces due to tendon curvature.
9.21.3.7
Multiple Slab Anchorages
9.21.3.7.1
Minimum reinforcement meeting the
requirements of Articles 9.21.3.7.2 through 9.21.3.7.4
shall be provided unless a more detailed analysis is made.
9.21.3.7.2
Reinforcement shall be provided for
the bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the
slab and normal to the tendon axis in accordance with
Articles 9.21.3.4.4 and 9.21.3.4.5. This reinforcement
shall be anchored close to the faces of the slab with
standard hooks bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum reinforcement is two #3 bars per anchor
located at a distance equal to one-half the slab thickness
ahead of the anchor.
9.21.3.7.3
Reinforcement in the plane of the slab
and normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist
edge tension forces, T1, between anchorages (Equation
(9-33)) and bursting forces, T2, ahead of the anchorages

(Equation (9-34)). Edge tension reinforcement shall be
placed immediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie adjacent anchors together. Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed over the length of the anchorage
zones. (See Article 9.21.1.4.)
anchorage zone. Other forces acting on the anchorage

zone, such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces,
and applied loads, shall be considered in the selection of
the strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the
anchorage zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural
beam analysis.
9.21.4.2
a
T1 = 0.10Pu 1
s
(9-33)
a
T2 = 0.20 Pu 1
s
(9-34)
Nodes
Local zones which meet the provisions of Article

9.21.7 or Division II, Article 10.3.2.3 are considered as
properly detailed, adequate nodes. The other nodes in the
anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete
stresses in the struts meet the requirements of Article
9.21.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to
develop the full-yield strength of the reinforcement.
where:
9.21.4.3
T1 = the edge tension force;
T2 = the bursting force;
Pu = the factored tendon load on an individual anchor;
a = the anchor plate width;
s = the anchorage spacing.
9.21.3.7.4
For slab anchors with an edge distance
of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness, the
edge tension reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist
25 percent of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement shall preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall
be distributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor.
The legs of the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of
the slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a
distance equal to five plate widths plus development
length.
9.21.4
Application of Strut-and-Tie Models

to the Design of Anchorage Zones
9.21.4.1
General
9.21.4.1.1
The flow of forces in the anchorage
zone may be approximated by a series of straight compression members (struts) and straight-tension members
(ties) that are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression forces are carried by concrete compression
struts and tension forces are carried by non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement.
Struts
9.21.4.3.1
The effective concrete compressive
strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to
0.7fci . In areas where the concrete may be extensively

cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large
plastic rotations are required, the effective compressive
.
strength shall be limited to 0.6f ci
9.21.4.3.2
In anchorage zones the critical section
for compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface with the local zone node. If special anchorage
devices are used, the critical section of the strut can be
taken as that section whose extension intersects the axis
of the tendon at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth
of the local confinement reinforcement or the lateral
dimension of the anchorage device.
9.21.4.3.3
For thin members with a ratio of member thickness to anchorage width of no more than three,
the dimension of the strut in the direction of the thickness
of the member can be approximated by assuming that the
thickness of the compression strut varies linearly from
the transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the
surface of the concrete to the total thickness of the section
at a depth equal to the thickness of the section.
9.21.4.3.4
The compression stresses can be assumed as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as
uniformly distributed over its cross section.
9.21.4.1.2
The selected strut-and-tie model shall
follow a load path from the anchorages to the end of the
SECTION 9
9-23
9.21.4.4
Ties
9.21.4.4.1
Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model
shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement. Tensile strength of
the concrete shall be neglected.
9.21.4.4.2
Tension ties shall be properly detailed
and shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full
tension tie force at the node. The reinforcement layout
must closely follow the directions of the ties in the strutand-tie model.
chorage zone. Anchorage devices can be treated

as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing
does not exceed 11/2 times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered.
(5) The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect to the center line of the member is not larger
than 20 degrees if the anchor force points toward
the centroid of the section and for concentric
anchors, and is not larger than 5 degrees if the
anchor force points away from the centroid of the
section.
9.21.6.2
9.21.5
9.21.5.1
Analyses based on assumed elastic material properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains
are acceptable for analysis and design of anchorage
zones.
9.21.5.2
If the compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of the anchorage device are determined from
a linear-elastic stress analysis, local stress maxima may
be averaged over an area equal to the bearing area of the
anchorage device.
9.21.6.2.1
No additional check of concrete compressive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices
satisfying Article 9.21.7.2.
9.21.6.2.2
The concrete compressive stresses
ahead of special anchorage devices at the interface between local zone and general zone shall be approximated
by Equations (9-35) and (9-36).
f ca =
9.21.5.3
Location and magnitude of the bursting
force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding tensile bursting stresses along the tendon path.
9.21.6
Approximate Methods
9.21.6.1
Limitations
(1) The member has a rectangular cross section and

its longitudinal extent is at least equal to the
largest transverse dimension of the cross section.
(2) The member has no discontinuities within or
ahead of the anchorage zone.
(3) The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in
the main plane of the member is at least 11/2 times
the corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the
anchorage device.
(4) Only one anchorage device or one group of closely
spaced anchorage devices is located in the an-
SECTION 9
0.6 Pu
Ab
1
1
1

1+ lc
beff t
(9-35)
s
n
= 1 + 2
0 .3 +
for s < 2aeff (9-36)
a
15
eff
=1
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete

compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device,
location and magnitude of the bursting force, and edge
tension forces may be estimated by Equations (9-35)
through (9-38), provided that:
9-24
Compressive Stresses
Elastic Stress Analysis
for s 2aeff
where:
fca = the concrete compressive stress ahead of
the anchorage device;
= a correction factor for closely spaced anchorages;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in
Article 9.21.6.2.3;
aeff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the larger
dimension of the cross section or in the
direction of closely spaced anchors;
beff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the smaller
dimension of the cross section;
=
the longitudinal extent of confining reinc
forcement for the local zone, but not more
than the larger of 1.15 aeff or 1.15 beff;

Pu = the factored tendon load;
t = the thickness of the section;
s = the center-to-center spacing of multiple
anchorages;
n = the number of anchorages in a row.
If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two directions, the product of the correction factors, , for each
direction is used in Equation (9-36).
9.21.6.2.3
Effective bearing area, Ab, in Equation
(9-35) shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing
plate area, Aplate, or the bearing area of the confined
concrete in the local zone, Aconf, with the following
limitations:
(1) If Aplate controls, Aplate shall not be taken larger
than
Aconf.
4 /
= The eccentricity (always taken as positive) of

the anchorage device or group of devices with
respect to the centroid of the cross section;
= the lateral dimension of the cross section in
the direction considered;
= the angle of inclination of the resultant of the
tendon forces with respect to the center line of
the member.
9.21.6.4
Edge-Tension Forces
9.21.6.4.1
For multiple anchorages with a centerto-center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the
section, the spalling forces shall be given by Article
9.21.3.4.8. For larger spacings, the spalling forces shall
be determined from a more detailed analysis, such as
strut-and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
(2) If Aconf controls, the maximum dimension of Aconf

shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension of Aplate or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate. If any of these limits is violated the
effective bearing area, Ab, shall be based on Aplate.
(3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct
in the determination of Ab.
9.21.6.4.2
If the centroid of all tendons considered is located outside of the kern of the section both
spalling forces and longitudinal edge tension forces are
induced. The longitudinal edge-tension force shall be
determined from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a
section located at one-half the depth of the section away
from the loaded surface. The spalling force shall be taken
as equal to the longitudinal edge-tension force but not
less than specified in Article 9.21.3.4.8.
9.21.6.3
9.21.7
Bursting Forces
Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst,

and for its distance from the loaded surface, dburst, shall be
estimated by Equations (9-37) and (9-38), respectively.
In the application of Equations (9-37) and (9-38) the
specified stressing sequence shall be considered if more
than one tendon is present.
a
Tburst = 0.25 Pu 1 + 0.5Pu sin (9-37)
h
Design of the Local Zone
9.21.7.1
Dimensions of the Local Zone
9.21.7.1.1
When no independently verified
manufacturers edge-distance recommendations for a
particular anchorage device are available, the transverse
dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be
taken as the larger of:
(9-38)
(1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice

the minimum concrete cover required for the
particular application and environment.
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining
reinforcement plus the required concrete cover
over the confining reinforcing steel for the particular application and environment.
Pu = the sum of the total factored tendon loads for

the stressing arrangement considered;
a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage device
or group of devices in the direction considered;
9.21.7.1.2
When independently verified
manufacturers recommendations for minimum cover,
spacing and edge distances for a particular anchorage
device are available, the transverse dimensions of the
dburst = 0.5 ( h 2e ) + 5e sin

where:
SECTION 9
9-25
f b = the maximum factored tendon load, Pu, divided

by the effective bearing area Ab;
f'ci = the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
A = the maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to the
loaded area and concentric with it;
Ag = the gross area of the bearing plate if the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2.3 are met, or is the area
calculated in accordance with Article 9.21.7.2.4;
Ab = the effective net area of the bearing plate calculated as the area Ag minus the area of openings
in the bearing plate.
local zone in each direction shall be taken as the smaller

of:
(1) Twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage device supplier.
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the
anchorage device supplier.
The manufacturers recommendations for spacing
and edge distance of anchorages shall be considered
minimum values.
9.21.7.1.3
The length of the local zone along the
tendon axis shall be taken as the greater of:
(1) The maximum width of the local zone.
(2) The length of the anchorage device confining
reinforcement.
(3) For anchorage devices with multiple-bearing surfaces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to the bottom of each bearing surface plus the
maximum dimension of that bearing surface.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as
greater than 11/2 times the width of the local zone.
Equations (9-39) and (9-40) are only valid if general zone

reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.4 is provided and
if the extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead
of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the
local zone as defined in Article 9.21.7.1.3.
9.21.7.2.3
The full bearing plate area may be used
for Ag and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is
sufficiently rigid. To be considered sufficiently rigid, the
slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the
value given in equation (9-41). The plate must also be
checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
9.21.7.1.4
For closely spaced anchorages an enlarged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages
shall also be considered.
9.21.7.2
9.21.7.2.1
Anchorage devices may be either basic
anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive
strength limits of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4
or special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of
Section 9.21.7.3.
9.21.7.2.2
The effective concrete bearing compressive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that
of Equations (9-39) or (9-40).
but,
fb 2.25 fci
SECTION 9
t
Eb
= the largest distance from the outer edge of the

wedge plate to the outer edge of the bearing plate.
For rectangular bearing plates this distance is
measured parallel to the edges of the bearing
plate. If the anchorage has no separate wedge
plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be taken as
the distance between the extreme wedge holes in
the corresponding direction.
= the average thickness of the bearing plate.
= the modulus of elasticity of the bearing plate
material.
(9-39)
(9-40)
where:
9-26
(9-41)
where:
Bearing Strength
fb 0.7 f ci A Ag
n t 0.08 3 Eb fb
9.21.7.2.4
For bearing plates that do not meet the
stiffness requirements of Article 9.21.7.2.3, the effective
gross-bearing area, Ag, shall be taken as the area geometrically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer
perimeter of the wedge-hole pattern for plates without
separate wedge plate) with dimensions increased by
assuming load spreading at a 45-degree angle. A larger
effective bearing area may be calculated by assuming an

effective area and checking the new fb and n/t values for
conformance with Articles 9.21.7.2.2 and 9.21.7.2.3.
9.21.7.3
9.22
9.24.2
Reinforcing bars, or equivalent mesh, shall be
placed in the panel transverse to the strands to provide at
least 0.11 square inches per foot of panel.
Deleted
PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE
ZONES
9.22.1
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting
at a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist at least 4 percent of
the total prestressing force shall be placed within the
distance of d/4 of the end of the beam.
9.22.2
For at least the distance d from the end of the
beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose
the prestressing steel in the bottom flange.
9.22.3
For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall
be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the
web of the girder.
9.22.4
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be
transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of
the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by
methods identical with the curing of the member, is at
least 4,000 psi.
9.23
CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS

TRANSFER
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the
concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000
psi for pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500
psi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
9.24
DECK PANELS
9.24.1
Deck panels shall be prestressed with
pretensioned strands. The strands shall be in a direction
transverse to the stringers when the panels are placed on
the supporting stringers. The top surface of the panels
shall be roughened in such a manner as to ensure composite
action between the precast and cast-in-place concrete.
SECTION 9
9-27
Part D
Detailing
9.25
FLANGE REINFORCEMENT
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box

girder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles
8.17.2.2 and 8.17.2.3 except that the minimum reinforcement in bottom flanges shall be 0.3 percent of the flange
section.
9.26
COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL
9.26.1
9.26.2.2
Prestressing strands in deck panels shall
be spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width
of the panel. They shall not be spaced farther apart than
11/2 times the total composite slab thickness or more than
18 inches.
9.26.3
9.26.3.1
When post-tensioning steel is draped or
deflected, post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups
of three maximum, provided that the spacing specified in
Article 9.26.2 is maintained in the end 3 feet of the
member.
Minimum Cover
+
The minimum cover for steel shall be in accordance
+ with Article 8.22.
+
9.26.1.1
Deleted
9.26.1.3
Deleted
9.26.1.3
Deleted
9.26.3.2
Where pretensioning steel is bundled,
all bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam
length and the deflection points shall be investigated for
secondary stresses.
9.26.4
9.26.4.2
For tendons made up of a single wire,
bar, or strand, the duct diameter shall be at least inch
larger than the nominal diameter of the wire, bar, or
strand.
9.27
Minimum Spacing
9.26.2.1
The minimum clear spacing of prestressing steel at the ends of beams shall be as follows:
Pretensioning steel: The clear distance between strands
+
+ shall not be less than 11/3 times the maximum size of the
+ concrete aggregate. Also, the minimum spacing center+ to-center of strand shall be as follows:
Strand Size
0.6 inch
9/ inch
16
1/ inch
2
7/ inch
16
3/ inch
8
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Spacing
2 inches
17/8 inches
13/4 inches
15/8 inches
11/2 inches
Post-tensioning steel: 11/2 inches or 11/2 times the

maximum size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is
greater.
9-28
SECTION 9
Size of Ducts
9.26.4.1
For tendons made up of a number of
wires, bars, or strands, duct area shall be at least twice the
net area of the prestressing steel.
9.26.1.4
When deicer chemicals are used, drainage details shall dispose of deicer solutions without
constant contact with the prestressed girders. Where
such contact cannot be avoided, or in locations where
members are exposed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical
vapor, additional cover should be provided.
9.26.2
Bundling
POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES
AND COUPLERS
9.27.1
Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded
post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95
percent of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the
prestressing steel, tested in an unbonded state without
exceeding anticipated set. Bond transfer lengths between
anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is
required under service and ultimate loads shall normally
be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate
strength of the prestressing steel. Couplers and splices
shall be placed in areas approved by the Engineer and
enclosed in a housing long enough to permit the necessary
movements. When anchorages or couplers are located at
critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength
required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the
ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the
anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
9.27.2
The anchorages of unbonded tendons shall
develop at least 95 percent of the minimum specified
ultimate strength of the prestressing steel without
exceeding anticipated set. The total elongation under
ultimate load of the tendon shall not be less than 2 percent
measured in a minimum gauge length of 10 feet.
9.27.3
For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be
performed on a representative specimen and the tendon
shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60
percent to 66 percent of its minimum specified ultimate
strength, and also 50 cycles from 40 percent to 80 percent
of its minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of
each cycle involves the change from the lower stress level
to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The
specimen used for the second dynamic test need not be
the same used for the first dynamic test. Systems utilizing
multiple strands, wires, or bars may be tested utilizing a
test tendon of smaller capacity than the full size tendon.
The test tendon shall duplicate the behavior of the full
size tendon and generally shall not have less than 10
percent of the capacity of the full size tendon. Dynamic
tests are not required on bonded tendons, unless the
anchorage is located or used in such manner that repeated
load applications can be expected on the anchorage.
9.27.4
Couplings of unbonded tendons shall be used
only at locations specifically indicated and/or approved
by the Engineer. Couplings shall not be used at points of
sharp tendon curvature. All couplings shall develop at
least 95 percent of the minimum specified ultimate strength
of the prestressing steel without exceeding anticipated
set. The coupling of tendons shall not reduce the elongation
at rupture below the requirements of the tendon itself.
Couplings and/or coupling components shall be enclosed
in housings long enough to permit the necessary
movements. All the coupling components shall be
completely protected with a coating material prior to final
encasement in concrete.
9.27.5
Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and
exposed tendons shall be permanently protected against
corrosion.
9.28
EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED
STRAND
9.28.1
Three or seven-wire pretensioning strand shall
be bonded beyond the critical section for a development
length in inches not less than
* 2
f su f se D
3
(9-32)
where D is the nominal diameter in inches, f*su and fse are

in kips per square inch, and the parenthetical expression
is considered to be without units.
9.28.2
Investigations may be limited to those cross
sections nearest each end of the member which are
required to develop their full ultimate capacity.
9.28.3
Where strand is debonded at the end of a
member and tension at service load is allowed in the
precompressed tensile zone, the development length
required above shall be doubled.
9.29
BEARINGS
Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures

shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.29 and
Section 14.
SECTION 9
9-29
SECTION 10 - STRUCTURAL STEEL

(1996 Sixteenth Edition with 1997 - 2001 Interim Revisions)
Part A
10.1
+ 10.1.1
APPLICATION
General
+
+
+
+
+
+
The specifications of this section are intended

for design of steel components, splices and connections
for straight beam and girder structures, frames, trusses,
arches and metal structures, as applicable. For horizontally curved bridges, see the current AASHTO Guide
Specifications for Horizontally Curved Bridges.
10.1.2 Notations
+ A
+
= area of cross section (in.2) (Articles 10.37.1.1,

10.34.4.7, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.4.2, 10.48.5.3
and 10.55.1)
= bending moment coefficient (Article

10.50.1.1.2)
= effective area of a flange or splice plate with
holes (in.2) (Articles 10.18.2.2.1, 10.18.2.2.3 )
+ Ae
+
AF
+ Af
+
+
+ (AFy)bf
+
+ (AFy)c
+
+ (AFy)tf
+
+
+ (AFy)w
+
+ Af
+
= amplification factor (Articles 10.37.1.1 and

10.55.1)
= sum of the area of the fillers on the top and
bottom of the connected plate (in.2) (Article
10.18.1.2)
Afc
= area of compression flange (in.2) (Article +

10.48.4.1)
Ag
= gross area of whole connected material (in.2)

(Article 10.19.4.2)
= gross area of a flange or splice plate (in.2) +
+
(Article 10.18.2.2.1 and 10.18.2.2)
2
= net area of the fastener (in. ) (Article +
+
10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1)
= smaller of either the connected plate area or +
the sum of the splice plate areas on the top +
and bottom of the connected plate (in.2) +
+
(Article 10.18.1.2)
Ag
An
Ap
Ars
As
Asr
Atg
Atn
Avg
= total area of longitudinal slab reinforcement

steel for each beam over interior support
(in.2) (Article 10.38.5.1.3)
= area of steel section (in. 2 ) (Articles
10.38.5.1.2, 10.54.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
= total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at
the interior support within the effective flange
width (in.2) (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
= gross area along the plane resisting tension
(in.2) (Article 10.19.4)
= net area along the plane resisting tension
(in.2) (Article 10.19.4)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
= gross area along the plane resisting shear +

+
(in.2) (Article 10.19.4)
2
= net area along the plane resisting shear (in. ) +
(Article 10.19.4)
= product of area and yield strength for bottom

flange of steel section (lb) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
= product of area and yield strength of that
part of reinforcing which lies in the compression zone of the slab (lb.) (Article
10.50.1.1.1)
Avn
Aw
a
= area of web of beam (in.2) (Article 10.53.1.2) +

= distance from center of bolt under consideration to edge of plate (in.) (Articles +
10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
= product of area and yield strength for top

flange of steel section (lb.) (Article
10.50.1.1.1)
= product of area and yield strength for web of
steel section (lb.) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
= spacing of transverse stiffeners (in.) (Article +

10.39.4.4.2)
= depth of stress block (in.) (Figure 10.50A) +
a
B
= constant based on the number of stress cycles

(Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= area of flange (in.2) (Articles 10.39.4.4.2,

10.48.2.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.56.3)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-1
= constant for stiffeners (Articles 10.34.4.7

and 10.48.5.3)
= clear distance between flanges (in.) (Article

10.15.2)
+ b
= compression flange width (in.) (Tables

10.32.1A and 10.34.2A, Article 10.34.2.1.3)
= distance from center of bolt under consideration to toe of fillet of connected part (in.)
(Articles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
= clear unsupported distance between flange

components (in.) (Table 10.34.3A, 10.37.2A,
10.48.5A, 10.55.2A, Articles 10.18.2.3.4,
10.18.2.3.5, 10.18.2.3.7, 10.18.2.3.8, 10.18.2.3.9,
10.34.3, 10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.37.2, 10.48.1,
10.48.2, 10.48.4, 10.48.5, 10.48.6, 10.48.8,
10.49.2, 10.49.3.2, 10.50.2.1, and 10.55.2)
= distance from the top of concrete slab to the
neutral axis at which a composite section in
positive bending theoretically reaches its
plastic moment capacity when the maximum compressive strain in concrete slab is
at 0.003 (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
b
+
+ b
+
+ b
b
+
b
+
+ b
+ b'
b'
+
+ beb
+
C
+ C
C'
Cb
Cc
+ Cmx
+
+
+
+
+ Cmy
+
+
+
+ c
10-2
= effective flange width (in.) (Articles 10.38.3,

10.38.5.1.2 and 10.50.1.1.1)
= widest flange width (in.) (Article 10.15.2.1)
D'
= distance from edge of plate or edge of perforation to the point of support (in.) (Article
10.35.2.3)
= unsupported distance between points of support (in.) (Table 10.35.2A and Article 10.35.2.3)
Dc
= flange width between webs (in.) (Articles

10.37.3.1, 10.39.4.2, and 10.51.5.1)
= width of stiffeners (in.) (Articles 10.34.5.2,
10.34.6, 10.37.2.4, 10.39.4.5.1, and 10.55.2)
Dcp
= width of a projecting flange element, angle,

or stiffener (in.) Articles 10.34.2.2, 10.37.3.2,
10.39.4.5.1, 10.48.1, 10.48.2, 10.48.5.3,
10.50, 10.51.5.5, and 10.55.3)
= width of the body of the eyebar (in.) (Article
10.25.3)
Dp
= web buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.4,

10.48.5.3, and 10.48.8.)
= compressive force in the slab (lb.) (Article
10.50.1.1.1)
d
d
= compressive force in top portion of steel

section (lb.) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
= bending coefficient (Table 10.32.1A, Article 10.48.4.1)
= column slenderness ratio dividing elastic

and inelastic buckling (Table 10.32.1A)
= coefficient applied to bending term in interaction formula for prismatic members; dependent upon member curvature caused by
applied moments about the X axis (Articles
10.36 and 10.54.2 )
= coefficient applied to bending term in interaction formula for prismatic members; dependent upon member curvature caused by
applied moments about the Y axis (Articles
10.36 and 10.54.2)
= buckling stress coefficient (Article 10.51.5.2)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
db
dc
do
ds
Ec
+
+
+
+
+
= clear distance between the neutral axis and

the compression flange (in.) (Table +
10.34.3A, Articles 10.48.2.1(b), 10.48.4.1,
+
10.49.2, 10.49.3.2.2 and 10.50)
= depth of web in compression at the plastic
moment (in.) (Articles 10.50.1.1.2 and +
10.50.2.1)
= distance from top of the slab to the plastic
neutral axis at the plastic moment (in.) +
(Article 10.50.1.1.2)
+
= bolt diameter (in.) (Table 10.32.3B)
+
= diameter of stud (in.) (Article 10.38.5.1)
= depth of beam or girder (in.) (Article 10.13, +
Table 10.32.1A, Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1,
and 10.50.1.1.2)
= diameter of rocker or roller (in.) (Article +
10.32.4.2)
+
= beam depth (in.) (Article 10.56.3)
+
= column depth (in.) (Article 10.56.3)
= spacing of intermediate stiffener (in.) (Ar- +
ticles 10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.6.3,
and 10.48.8)
= distance from the centerline of a plate longi- +
tudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle +
longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or +
the leg of the compression flange compo- +
nent (in.) (Table 10.34.3A, 10.34.5A, Ar- +
+
ticles 10.34.5 and 10.49.3.2)
= modulus of elasticity of steel (psi) (Table
10.32.1A and Articles 10.15.3, 10.36, 10.37,
10.39.4.4.2, 10.54.1, 10.54.2 and 10.55.1) +
= modulus of elasticity of concrete (psi) (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS F EBRUARY 2004
+ e
= distance from the centerline of the splice to

the centroid of the connection on the side of
the joint under consideration (in.) (Articles
10.18.2.3.3, 10.18.2.3.5 and 10.18.2.3.7)
Fu m
= maximum bending strength of either the top

or bottom flange, whichever flange has the
larger ratio of (f s /Fum ) (Article 10.48.8.2)
+ Fa
= allowable axial stress (psi) (Table 10.32.1A

and Articles 10.36, 10.37.1.2, and 10.55.1)
+ Fb
Fv
= allowable shear stress (psi) (Tables 10.32.1A, +

10.32.3B and 10.34.3A, and Articles 10.18.2.3.6, +
10.32.2, 10.32.3, 10.34.4, 10.40.2.2)
+
= allowable bending stress (psi) (Table

10.32.1A and Articles 10.37.1.2 and 10.55.1)
Fv
= shear strength of a fastener (psi) (Article

10.56.1.3)
+ Fbc
+
= allowable compression flange stress specified

in Table 10.32.1A (psi) (Article 10.18.2.3.8)
Fw
+ Fbs
+
= allowable block shear rupture stress (psi)

(Article 10.19.14)
+ Fbt
+
= allowable tension flange stress specified in

Table 10.32.1A (psi) (Article 10.18.2.3.8)
+ Fbx
+
+ Fby
+
= allowable compressive bending stress about

the X axis (psi) (Article 10.36)
= design shear stress in the web at the point of +

splice defined in Article 10.18.2.3.6 (psi) (Ar- +
ticles 10.18.2.3.6, 10.18.2.3.7 and 10.18.2.3.9)
+
= specified minimum yield strength of steel +
(psi) (Table 10.34.2A, 10.34.3A, 10.34.5A, +
10.35.2A, 10.48.5A, and Articles 10.15.2.1, +
10.15.3, 10.16.11, 10.19.4, 10.32.1, 10.32.4, 10.34, +
Fcr
= critical stress of the compression flange plate

or member (psi) (Articles 10.51.1, 10.51.5,
10.54.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
+
+
= allowable compressive bending stress about

the Y axis (psi) (Article 10.36)
Fcu
= design stress for the flange at a point of

splice (psi) (Article10.18.2.2.2)
+ FD
= maximum horizontal force (lb.) (Article

10.20.2.2)
+ Fe
= Euler buckling stress (psi) (Articles 10.37.1,

10.54.2, and 10.55.1)
Fe
= Euler stress divided by a factor of safety

(psi) (Article 10.36)
+ Fp
+
= allowable bearing stress on high-strength

bolts or connected material (psi) (Table
10.32.3B)
+ Fs
= limiting bending stress (psi) (Article 10.34.4)
+ Fsr
= allowable range of fatigue stress (psi) (Table

10.3.1A)
F.S.
+
+
Ft
Fu
+
+
+
Fu
Fy
+
+
+
+
+
10.35, 10.37.1.3, 10.38.5, 10.39.4, 10.40.2.2,

10.41.4.6, 10.46, 10.48, 10.49, 10.50, 10.51.5,
and 10.54)
Fyr
= specified minimum yield strength of the

reinforcing steel (psi) (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
Fyf

flange (psi) (Articles 10.18.2.2.2, +
10.18.2.3.4, 10.48.1.1, and 10.53.1)
+
= specified minimum yield strength of the +
web (psi) (Articles 10.18.2.3.4 and 10.53.1) +
= maximum induced stress in the bottom flange +
+
(psi) (Article 10.21.2)
+
= maximum compressive stress (psi) (Article
+
10.41.4.6)
+
= non-composite dead-load stress in the com- +
pression flange (psi) (Articles 10.34.5.1 and +
10.49.3.2)
+
= total non-composite and composite dead +
load plus the composite live-load stress in +
compression flange at the most highly +
stressed section of the web (psi) (Articles +
10.34.5.1 and 10.49.3.2)
+
Fy w
f
f
fDL
fDL+LL
= factor of safety (Table 10.32.1A and Articles 10.36 and 10.37.1.3)
fa
= reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or

bolt due to the applied shear stress (psi)
(Articles 10.32.3.3.4 and 10.56.1.3.3)
= calculated axial compression stress (psi) +

(Table 10.35.2A, 10.37.2A, 10.55.2A, and +
Articles 10.36 and 10.37)
fb
= specified minimum tensile strength (psi)

(Tables 10.2C, 10.32.1A and 10.32.3B, Articles 10.18.4 and 10.19.4)
fbx
= calculated compressive bending stress (psi) +

(Table 10.34.2A, 10.34.3A, 10.37.2A, +
10.55.2A, and Articles 10.37 and 10.39)
+
= calculated compressive bending stress about +
= tensile strength of electrode classification

(psi) (Table 10.56A and Article 10.32.2)
the x axis (psi) (Article 10.36)

fby
= calculated compressive bending stress about

the y axis (psi) (Article 10.36)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-3
+
+
f c
= specified compressive strength of concrete

as determined by cylinder tests at age of 28
days (psi) (Articles 10.38.1, 10.38.5.1.2,
10.45.3, and 10.50.1.1.1)
fdl1
= top flange compressive stress due to

noncomposite dead load (psi) (Table
10.34.2A)
= maximum flexural stress due to Group I
loading divided by 1.3 at the mid-thickness
of the flange under consideration for the
smaller section at the point of splice (psi)
(Articles 10.18.2.2.2 and 10.18.2.3.5)
+
+
+
+ fo
+ fof
fr
+
fs
+
+ ft
+ fv
+ g
+ H
+ Hw
+ Hwo
+
+ Hwu
+ h
+ I
+
+
Is
It
10-4
= flexural stress due to Group I loading divided by 1.3 at the mid-thickness of the
other flange at the point of splice concurrent
with fo in the flange under consideration
(psi) (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
= range of stress due to live load plus impact,
in the slab reinforcement over the support
(psi) (Article 10.38.5.1.3)
= maximum longitudinal bending stress in the
flange of the panels on either side of the
transverse stiffener (psi) (Article 10.39.4.4)
= calculated tensile stress (psi) (Articles
10.32.3.3.3 and 10.56.1.3.3)
= calculated shear stress (psi) (Table 10.34.3A,
Articles 10.32.3.2.3 and 10.34.4.4)
= gage between fasteners (in.) (Articles
10.16.14 and 10.24.5)
= height of stud (in.) (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= horizontal design force resultant in the web
at a point of splice (lb.) (Articles 10.18.2.3.8
and 10.18.2.3.9)
= overload horizontal design force resultant in
the web at a point of splice (lb.) (Article
10.18.2.3.5)
=horizontal design force resultant in the web
at a point of splice (lb.) (Articles 10.18.2.3.4
and 10.18.2.3.5)
= average flange thickness of the channel
flange (in.)(Article 10.38.5.1.2)
= moment of inertia (in.4) (Articles 10.34.4, 10.34.5,
10.38.5.1.1, 10.48.5.3, and 10.48.6.3)
= moment of inertia of stiffener (in.4) (Articles
10.37.2, 10.39.4.4.1, and 10.51.5.4)
= moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners
(in.4) (Article 10.39.4.4.2)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Iy
= moment of inertia of member about the

vertical axis in the plane of the web (in.4) +
(Article 10.48.4.1)
Iyc
= moment of inertia of compression flange

about the vertical axis in the plane of the web
(in.4) (Table 10.32.1A, Article 10.48.4.1)
= required ratio of rigidity of one transverse +
stiffener to that of the web plate (Articles
10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3)
J
K
Kb
Kh
k
k
k
k1
L
L
L
Lb
Lc
Lc
Lp
Lr
= St. Venant torsional constant (in.4) (Table

10.32.1A, Article 10.48.4.1)
= effective length factor in plane of buckling
(Table 10.32.1A and Articles 10.37, 10.54.1,
10.54.2 and Appendix C)
+
= effective length factor in plane of buckling +
(Article 10.36)
= hole size factor (Articles 10.32.3.2 and
10.57.3.1)
= constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-strength
bolts with thread excluded from shear plane
(Article 10.32.3.3.4)
= buckling coefficient (Table 10.34.3A, Articles +
10.34.4, 10.39.4.3, 10.48.8, and 10.51.5.4)
= distance from outer face of flange to toe of
web fillet of member to be stiffened (in.)
(Article 10.56.3)
+
= buckling coefficient (Article 10.39.4.4)
= actual unbraced length (in.) (Table 10.32.1A
and Articles 10.7.4, 10.15.3, and 10.55.1) +
= 1/2 of the length of the arch rib (in.) (Article +
10.37.1)
= distance between transverse beams (in.) (Ar- +
ticle 10.41.4.6)
= unbraced length (in.) (Table 10.48.2.1A and +
Articles 10.36, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1,
10.48.4.1, and 10.53.1.3)
= length of member between points of support
+
(in.)(Article 10.54.1.1)
= clear distance between the holes or between
the hole and the edge of the material in the
direction of the applied bearing force (in.) +
(Table 10.32.3B and Article 10.56.1.3.2)
= limiting unbraced length for the yield mo- +
+
ment capacity (in.) (Article 10.48.4.1)
= limiting unbraced length for elastic lateral +
torsional buckling moment capacity (in.) +
(Article 10.48.4.1)
+ l
+
= member length (in.) (Table 10.32.1A and

Article 10.35.1)
+ M
+
+ M1
+
= maximum bending moment (lb-in.) (Articles

10.48.2, 10.48.8 and 10.54.2)
= smaller end moment at the end of a member
(lb-in.) (Table 10.36A)
+ M1 & M2 = moments at two adjacent braced points (lb+

in.) ( Table 10.36A)
+ MA
= absolute value of moment at quarter point of
+
the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.) (Table
32.1.A and Article 10.48.4.1)
+
+ MB
+
+
+ MC
+
+
= absolute value of moment at midpoint of the

unbraced beam segment (lb-in.) (Table
32.1.A and Article 10.48.4.1)
= absolute value of moment at three-quarter
point of the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
(Table 32.1.A and Article 10.48.4.1)
+ Mc
+ McD
+
= column moment (lb-in.) (Article 10.56.3.2)

= moments caused by dead load acting on
composite girder (lb-in.) (Article 10.50.1.2.2)
+ Mmax
+
+
+ Mp
= absolute value of maximum moment in the

unbraced beam segment (lb-in.) (Table
32.1.A and Article 10.48.4.1)
= full plastic moment of the section (lb-in.)
(Articles 10.50.1.1.2 and 10.54.2.1)
+ Mr
+
Ms
= lateral torsional buckling moment capacity

(lb-in.) (Articles 10.48.4.1 and 10.53.1.3)
= elastic pier moment for loading producing
maximum positive moment in adjacent span
(lb-in.) (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
+
+ MsD
+
+ Mu
+
= moments caused by dead load acting on

steel girder (lb-in.) (Article 10.50.1.2.2)
= design bending strength (lb-in.) (Articles
10.18.2.2.2, 10.48, 10.51.1, 10.53.1, and
10.54.2.1)
+ Mv
+
+
+ Mvo
+
+
= design moment due to the eccentricity of the

design shear at a point of splice (lb-in.)
(Articles 10.18.2.3.7 and 10.18.2.3.9)
= overload design moment due to the eccentricity of the design shear at a point of splice
(lb-in.) (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
+ Mvu
+
+
+ Mw
+
+
+
= design moment due to the eccentricity of the

design shear at a point of splice (lb-in.)
(Articles 10.18.2.3.3 and 10.18.2.3.5)
= overload design moment at the point of splice
representing the portion of the flexural moment assumed to be resisted by the web (lb-in.)
(Articles 10.18.2.3.8 and 10.18.2.3.9)
Mwo
Mwu
My
= overload design moment at the point of

splice representing the portion of the flexural moment assumed to be resisted by the
web (lb-in.) (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
= design moment at a point of splice representing the portion of the flexural moment
assumed to be resisted by the web (lb-in.)
(Articles 10.18.2.3.4 and 10.18.2.3.5)
= moment capacity at first yield (lb-in.) (Articles 10.18.2.2.2 and 10.50.1.1.2)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N1 & N2 = number of shear connectors (Article

10.38.5.1.2)
Nb
= number of bolts in the joint (Articles +
10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1)
+
Nc
= number of additional connectors for each
beam at point of contraflexure (Article
10.38.5.1.3)
Ns
= number of slip planes in a slip critical connection (Articles 10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1)
Nw
n
n
P
P
= number of roadway design lanes (Article

10.39.2)
= ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that
of concrete (Article 10.38.1)
= number of longitudinal stiffeners (Articles
10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and 10.51.5.4)
= allowable compressive axial load on members (lb.) (Article 10.35.1)
+
= axial compression on the member (lb.) (Ar- +
ticles 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, and 10.54.2.1)
P, P1,P2
& P3
= force in the slab or in the steel girder (lb.)
+
(Article 10.38.5.1.2)
Pcf
= design force for the flange at a point of splice +
(lb.) (Article10.18.2.2.3)
+
Pcu
= design force for the flange at a point of splice +
(lb.) (Article10.18.2.2.2)
+
Pfo
= overload design force for the flange at a +
point of splice (lb.) (Article10.18.2.2.2)
+
Ps
= allowable slip resistance (lb.) (Article 10.32 +
+
2.2.1)
Pu
= design axial compression strength (lb.) (Ar- +
+
ticle 10.54.1.1)
p
Q
= allowable bearing (lb/in.) (Article 10.32.4.2) +

= prying tension per bolt (lb.) (Articles +
+
10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-5
+ Q
= statical moment about the neutral axis (in.3)

(Article 10.38.5.1.1)
Sxt
R
R
= radius (ft.) (Article 10.15.2.1)

= number of design lanes per box girder (Article 10.39.2.1)
= reduction factor for hybrid girders (Articles

10.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.2.4, 10.18.2.2.8,
10.40.2.1.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.53.1.3)
= bending capacity reduction factor (Articles
10.48.4.1, and 10.53.1.3)
= a range of stress involving both tension and

compression during a stress cycle (psi) (Table
10.3.1B)
= design slip strength of a fastener (lb.) (Article 10.57.3.1)
Tb
Rb
Rev
+
+ Rs
+
Rs
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Rt
Tbs
t
t
t
Rv
= design shear strength of a fastener (lb.) (Article 10.56.1.3.2)
Rw
r
= vertical web force (lb.) (Article 10.39.4.4.7)

= radius of gyration (in.) (Articles 10.35.1,
10.37.1, 10.41.4.6, 10.48.6.3, 10.54.1.1,
10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
+ rb
+ ry
+
r'
+
+ S
+
+ S
r
+ Ss
St
+
+ Su
+
+
= vertical force at connections of vertical stiffeners to longitudinal stiffeners (lb.) (Article

10.39.4.4.8)
= design tension strength of a fastener (lb.)
(Article 10.56.1.3.3)
Sxc
10-6
= radius of gyration in plane of bending (in.)

(Article 10.36)
= radius of gyration with respect to the YY
axis (in.) (Article 10.48.1.1)
t
t
tb
= radius of gyration of the compression flange

about the axis in the plane of the web (in.)
(Table 10.32.1A, and Article 10.48.4.1)
= section modulus (in.3) (Articles 10.48.2,
10.51.1, and 10.53.1.3)
tc
= range of horizontal shear (lb.) (Article

10.38.5.1.1)
= section modulus of transverse stiffener (in.3)
(Articles 10.39.4.4 and 10.48.6.3)
th
= section modulus of longitudinal or transverse stiffener (in.3) (Article 10.48.6.3)

= design shear strength of the shear connector
(lb.) (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
= section modulus with respect to the compression flange (in.3) (Table 10.32.1A, and
Article 10.48.4.1)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
tf
ts
ts
section modulus with respect to the tension +

flange (in.3) (Article 10.53.1.2)
+
= pitch of any two successive holes in the +
chain (in.) (Article 10.16.14.2)
+
= range in tensile stress (psi) (Table 10.3.1B) +
=
= calculated direct tension per bolt (lb.) (Ar- +

ticles 10.32.3 and 10.56.2)
= arch rib thrust at the quarter point from dead
+ live + impact loading (lb.) (Articles 10.37.1 +
and 10.55.1)
= required minimum bolt tension stress (psi) +
(Articles 10.32.3.2 and 10.57.3.1)
+
= design block shear rupture strength (lb.) +
(Article 10.19.4)
+
= thickness of the thinner outside plate or
shape (in.) (Article 10.24.6)
+
= thickness of members in compression (in.) +
(Table 10.35.2A and Article 10.35.2)
+
= thickness of thinnest part connected (in.)
(Articles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
= thickness of the wearing surface (in.) (Article 10.41.2)
= flange thickness (in.) (Articles 10.18.2.2.1,
10.34.2.1, 10.39.4.2, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1,
10.50, and 10.51.5.1)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
= thickness of a flange angle (in.) (Article +
10.34.2.2)
+
= thickness of stiffener (in.) (Article 10.48.5.3) +
= thickness of flange delivering concentrated
force (in.) (Article 10.56.3.2)
+
= thickness of flange of member to be stiffened (in.) (Article 10.56.3.2)
+
= thickness of the flange (in.) (Table 10.37.2A, +
10.55.2A, and Articles 10.37.3, 10.55.3 and
+
10.39.4.3)
= thickness of the concrete haunch above the
beam or girder top flange (in.) (Article +
10.50.1.1.2)
= thickness of stiffener (in.) (Table 10.34.5A,
10.37.2A, 10.48.5A, 10.55.2A, and Article
10.34.5, 10.37.2, 10.48.5.3 and 10.55.2)
= slab thickness (in.) (Articles 10.38.5.1.2,
10.50.1.1.1, and 10.50.1.1.2)
+
+
+
+
+ ttf
= thickness of top flange (in.) (Article

10.50.1.1.1)
Yo
= distance from the neutral axis to the extreme

outer fiber (in.) (Article 10.15.3)
+ tw
+
= web thickness (in.) (Table 10.34.3A, 10.48.5A,

10.55.2A, Articles 10.15.2.1, 10.18.2.3.4,
10.18.2.3.5, 10.18.2.3.7, 10.18.2.3.8,
10.18.2.3.9, 10.34.3, 10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.37.2,
10.48, 10.49.2, 10.49.3, 10.55.2, and 10.56.3)
= location of steel sections from neutral axis

(in.) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
+ t'
= thickness of outstanding stiffener element

(in.) (Articles 10.39.4.5.1 and 10.51.5.5)
+ V
= shearing force (lb.) (Articles 10.35.1,

10.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.51.3)
+ Vo
+
= maximum shear in the web due to Group I

loading divided by 1.3 at the point of splice
(lb.) (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
+
+ Vp
Vr
+
+ Vu
= shear yielding strength of the web (lb.) (Articles 10.48.8 and 10.53.1.4)
(in.3 )
Vv
= calculated vertical shear (lb.) (Article 10.39.3.1)
+ Vw
= design shear for a web (lb.) (Articles

10.39.3.1 and 10.51.3)
+ Vwu
+
+
= design shear in the web at the point of splice

(lb.) (Articles 10.18.2.3.2, 10.18.2.3.3 and
10.18.2.3.5)
+
+
= plastic section modulus

(Articles
10.48.1, 10.53.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
Zr
= allowable range of horizontal shear on an

individual connector (lb.) (Article 10.38.5.1) +
= constant based on the number of stress cycles
(Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= specified minimum yield strength of the +
web divided by the specified minimum yield +
strength of the tension flange (Articles
+
10.40.2, 10.40.4 and 10.53.1.2 )
=factor for flange splice design equal to 1.0

except that a lower value equal to (Mu /My)
may be used for flanges in compression at
sections where Mu is less than My (Article
10.18.2.2.2)
= area of the web divided by the area of the tension

flange (Articles 10.40.2 and 10.53.1.2)
= factor applied to gross area of flange and

splice plate in computing the effective area
(Article 10.18.2.2.1)
= angle of inclination of the web plate to the

vertical (Articles 10.39.3.1 and 10.51.3)
= range of shear due to live loads and impact

(lb.) (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= design shear strength (lb.) (Articles
10.18.2.3.2, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.53.1.4)
= length of a channel shear connector, (in.)

(Article 10.38.5.1.2)
= ratio of total cross sectional area to the cross

sectional area of both flanges (Article 10.15.2)
WL
= fraction of a wheel load (Article 10.39.2)
Wc
= roadway width between curbs or barriers if

curbs are not used (ft.) (Article 10.39.2.1)
+ Wn
+
w
= least net width of the flange or splice plate

(in.) (Article10.18.2.2.1)
= distance from the outer edge of the tension

flange to the neutral axis divided by the
depth of the steel section (Articles 10.40.2
and 10.53.1.2)
= amount of camber (in.) (Article 10.15.3)
DL
= dead load camber at any point (in.) (Article

10.15.3)
= maximum value of DL (in.) (Article 10.15.3) +

= reduction factor (Articles 10.38.5.1.2, and
+
Table 10.56A )
+
+ w
+ x
+
+ y
+
= length of a channel shear connector measured in a transverse direction on the flange

of a girder (in.) (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
(pcf) (Article
= width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners (in.) (Articles 10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4,

and 10.51.5.4)
= longitudinal stiffener coefficient (Articles

10.39.4.3 and 10.51.5.4)
bs
= 0.8, reduction factor for block shear rupture

strength (Article 10.19.4)
= ratio of Af to Ap (Article 10.18.1.2)
= slip coefficient in a slip-critical joint (Articles 10.32.3.2 and 10.57.3)
= unit weight of concrete

10.38.5.1.2)
= subscript, represents the x-x axis (Article

10.54.2)
= subscript, represents the y-y axis (Article
10.54.2)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.1.3 Definition
The following terms are defined for general use in
Section 10. Specialized definitions appear in individual
Articles.
Allowable Design Strength The capacity based on
allowable stress in the case of SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD, or the capacity based on design strength
in the case of STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD.
Allowable Fatigue Stress Range The maximum
stress range that can be sustained without failure of the
detail for a specified number of cycles.
Allowable Stress The maximum stress permitted
under full service load.
Anchor Rod - A fastener that is typically used to
connect superstructure element to substructure and made
from threaded rod or stud material.
Arch A curved vertical structure in which the horizontal component of the force in the rib is resisted by a
horizontal tie or its foundation.
Beam A straight or curved horizontal structural
member, primarily supporting transverse loads through
flexure, shear and torsion actions. Generally, this term is
used when the member is made of rolled shapes.
Beam-Column A member subjected to a combination of axial force and bending moment.
Block Shear Rupture Failure of a bolted web connection of coped beams or any tension connection when a
portion of a plate tears out along the perimeter of the
connecting bolts.
Bolt - A threaded fastener with a head, generally
available in stock lengths up to about eight inches.
Bolt Assembly The bolt, nut(s) and washer (s).
Bracing Member A member intended to brace a
main member, or part thereof, against lateral movement.
Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirement The minimum
energy required to be absorbed in a Charpy V-notch test
conducted at a specified temperature.
Charpy V-notch Test An impact test complying with
the AASHTO T243M (ASTM A673M).
Clear Distance of Fasteners The distance between
edges of adjacent fastener holes.
Column A vertical framed structural member primary supporting axial compression loads.
Collapse Load That load which can be carried by a
structural member or structure when failure is imminent.
Compact Section A section which is capable of
developing the fully plastic stress distribution in flexure.
The rotational capacity required to comply with analysis
assumptions used in various articles of this section is
10-8
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
provided by satisfying various flange and web slenderness and bracing requirements.
Component A constituent part of a structure or
structural system.
Composite Beam/Girder A beam/girder in which a
steel beam/girder and concrete deck are interconnected
by shear connectors and respond to force effects as a unit.
Cross Frame Transverse truss framework connecting adjacent longitudinal flexural components.
Deck Truss A truss system in which the roadway is
at or above the elevation of the top chord of the truss.
Detail Category A grouping of components and
details having essentially the same fatigue resistance.
Diaphragm A transverse flexural component connecting adjacent longitudinal flexural components.
Edge Distance of Fasteners The distance perpendicular to the line of force between the center of a fastener
hole and the edge of the component.
End Panel The end section of a truss or girder.
Eyebar A tension member with a rectangular section
and enlarged ends for a pin connection.
Fastener A rivet, bolt, threaded rod, or threaded stud
that is used to fasten individual elements together.
Fatigue The initiation and/or propagation of a crack
due to repeated variation of normal stress with a tensile
component.
Fatigue Design Life The number of years that a
detail is expected to resist the assumed traffic loads
without fatigue cracking. In the development of these
Specifications it has been taken as 75 years.
Fatigue Life The number of repeated stress cycles
that results in fatigue failure of a detail.
Finite Fatigue Life The number of cycles to failure
of a detail when the maximum probable stress range
exceeds the constant amplitude fatigue threshold.
FCM Fracture Critical Member A tension member
or a tension component of a flexural member (including
those subject to reversal of stress) whose failure is expected to result in the collapse of the bridge
Fracture Toughness A measure of a structural material or element to absorb energy without fracture, generally determined by the Charpy V-notch test.
Gage of Bolts The distance between adjacent lines of
bolts or the distance from the back of an angle or other
shape to the first line of bolts.
Girder A straight or curved structural horizontal
member, primarily supporting transverse loads through
flexure, shear and torsional actions. Generally, this term
is used when the member is made of fabricated sections.
Grip Distance between the nut and the bolt head.
Gusset Plate Plate used to interconnect vertical,
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diagonal and horizontal truss members at a panel point.

Half-Through Truss Spans A truss system with the
roadway located somewhere between the top and bottom
chords and which precludes the use of a top lateral system.
Horizontally Curved Beam/Girder A beam/girder
which is curved in plan.
Hybrid Girder Fabricated steel girder with a web
that has a specified minimum yield strength which is
lower than one or both flanges.
Inelastic Action A condition in which deformation is
not fully recovered upon removal of the load that produces it.
Inelastic Redistribution The redistribution of internal force effects in a component or structure caused by
inelastic deformation at one or more sections.
Interior Panel The interior section of a truss or girder
component.
Lacing Plates or bars to connect main components of
a member.
Lateral Bracing Component A component utilized
individually or as part of a lateral bracing system to
prevent lateral buckling of components and/or to resist
lateral loads.
Load Path A succession of components and joints
through which a load is transmitted from its origin to its
destination.
Longitudinally Loaded Weld Weld with applied load
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld.
Main Member Any member on a critical path that
carries bridge gravity load. The loss of capacity of these
members would have serious consequences on the structural integrity.
Net Tensile Stress The algebraic sum of two or more
stresses in which the net effect is tension.
Non-Compact Section A section that can develop the
yield strength in compression elements before onset of local
buckling, but cannot resist inelastic local buckling at strain
levels required for a fully plastic stress distribution.
Orthotropic Deck A deck made of steel plates
stiffened with open or closed steel ribs welded to the
underside.
Permanent Deflection A type of inelastic deflection
which remains in a component or system after the load is
removed.
Pitch of Bolts The distance along the line of force
between the centers of adjacent holes.
Plate A flat steel plate product whose thickness
exceeds 0.25 in.
Portal Frames End transverse truss bracing or
Vierendeel bracing that provides for stability and resists
wind or seismic loads.
Redistribution Moment An internal moment caused

by yielding in a continuous span bending component and
held in equilibrium by external actions.
Redistribution of Moments A process which results
from formulation of inelastic deformation in continuous
structures.
Redistribution Stress The bending stress resulting
from the redistribution moment.
Redundancy The multiple load paths of a bridge
which enables it to perform its design function in a
damaged state.
Redundant Member A member whose failure does
not cause failure of the bridge.
Secondary Member - All members other than main
member not designed to carry primary load.
Sheet A flat rolled steel product whose thickness is
between 0.006 in. and 0.25 in.
St. Venant Torsion A torsional moment producing
pure shear stresses on a cross-section in which plane
sections remain plane.
Stress Range The algebraic difference between
extreme stresses resulting from the passage of a defined
load.
Subpanel A stiffened web panel divided by one or
more longitudinal stiffeners.
Sway Bracing Transverse vertical bracing between
truss members.
Threaded Rod - An unheaded rod that is threaded its
entire length, typically an off-the-shelf item.
Threaded Stud An unheaded rod which is not threaded
its entire length and typically threaded each end or one
end.
Through Truss Spans A truss system where the
roadway is located near the bottom chord and which
contains a top chord lateral system.
Tie Plates Plates used to connect components of a
member.
Transversely Loaded Weld Weld with applied force
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the weld.
Unbraced Length Distance between brace points
resisting the mode of buckling or distortion under consideration; generally, the distance between panel points or
brace locations.
Warping Torsion A twisting moment producing
shear stress and normal stresses, and under which the
cross-section does not remain plane.
Yield Strength The stress at which a material exhibits
a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of
stress to strain.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-9
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.2
10.2.1
MATERIALS
General
These specifications recognize steels listed in the

following subparagraphs. Other steels may be used;
however, their properties, strengths, allowable stresses,
and workability must be established and specified.
10.2.2
Structural Steels
Structural steels shall conform to the material designated in Table 10.2A. The modulus of elasticity of all
grades of structural steel shall be assumed to be
29,000,000 psi and the coefficient of linear expansion
0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit. The shear modulus of
elasticity shall be assumed to be 11,200,000 psi.
10.2.3
Steels for Pins, Rollers, and

Expansion Rockers
Steels for pins, rollers, and expansion rockers shall

conform to one of the designations listed in Table 10.2A
and 10.2B, or shall be stainless steel conforming to
ASTM A 240 or ASTM A 276 HNS 21800.
10.2.4
Fasteners
Fasteners may be carbon steel bolts (ASTM A 307);

power-driven rivets, AASHTO M 228 Grades 1 or 2
(ASTM A 502 Grades 1 or 2); or high-strength bolts,
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325), AASHTO M 253
(ASTM A 490) or fasteners conforming to ASTM A354
and ASTM A449. Structural fasteners shall conform the
material designated in Table 10.2C.
In the Standard Specifications of California Department of Transportation, the following fastener descriptions are defined: Bolt is ASTM A307; HS Bolt is
ASTM A325; Threaded Rod is ASTM A307 Grade C.
HS Threaded Rod is ASTM A449. Thread Stud is
ASTM A307 Grade C. HS Threaded Stud is ASTM
A449; tensioning requirements only apply to A325 and
A490 bolts; and Bolt is a generic term that applies to
threaded rods, threaded studs, and anchor rods. The
provisions and specifications in ASTM A325, A490, and
A307 Grades A and B, are for headed bolts only and do not
apply to threaded rods and studs. While ASTM A449 or
A354 bolts seem to be the equal of ASTM A325 or A490 for
certain diameters and grades, there are differences in the
10-10
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
requirements for inspection and quality assurance, and

heavy-hex head and nut dimensions. The tensioning
requirements in the Standard Specifications only apply to
ASTM A325 and A490 bolts.
10.2.5
Weld Metal
Weld metal shall conform to the current requirements

of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
TABLE 10.2A
Minimum Material Properties Structural Steel
AASHTO Designationa,c
M 270
Grade 36
M 270
Grade 50
M 270
Grade 50W
M 270
Grades 100/100W
Equivalent ASTM
Designationc
A 709
Grade 36
A 709
Grade 50
A 709
A 709
Grade 50W Grade HPS 70W
A 709
Grades 100/100Wb
Thickness of Plates
Up to 4 in.
incl.e
Up to 4 in. Up to 4 in.
incl.
incl.
Shapesd
All Groupse
All
Groups
All Groups
Not Applicable
Minimum Tensile
Strength, Fu, psi
58,000
65,000
70,000
90,000
110,000
100,000
Minimum Yield
Strength, Fy, psi
36,000
50,000
50,000
70,000
100,000
90,000
Up to 4 in. incl.
Up to 21/2 in.
incl.
Over 21/2 in. to

4 in. incl.
Not Applicable Not Applicable
Except for the mandatory notch toughness and weldability requirements, the ASTM designations are similar to the AASHTO
designations. Steels meeting the AASHTO requirements are prequalified for use in welded bridges.
b Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes and seamless mechanical tubing meeting all mechanical and chemical
requirements of A 709 Grades 100/100W, except that the specified maximum tensile strength may be 140,000 psi for structural shapes
and 145,000 psi for seamless mechanical tubing, shall be considered as A 709 Grades 100/100W.
c M 270 Grade 36 and A 709 Grade 36 are equivalent to M 183 and A 36.
M 270 Grade 50 and A 709 Grade 50 are equivalent to M 223 Grade 50 and A 572 Grade 50.
M 270 Grade 50W and A 709 Grade 50W are equivalent to M 222 and A 588.
M 270 Grade 70W and A 709 Grade 70W are equivalent to A 852.
M 270 Grades 100/100W and A 709 Grades 100/100W are equivalent to M 244 and A 514.
ASTM A 709, Grade HPS 70W replaces AASHTO M 270, Grade 70W. The intent of this replacement is to encourage the
use of HPS steel over conventional bridge steels due to its enhanced properties. AASHTO M 270, Grade 70W is still
available, but should be used only with the owners approval.
d Groups 1 and 2 include all shapes except those in Groups 3, 4, and 5. Group 3 includes L-shapes over 3/4 inch in thickness. HP shapes
over 102 pounds/foot, and the following W shapes:
Designations:
W36 x 230 to 300 included
Group 4 includes the following W shapes: W14 x 219 to 550 included
Group 5 includes the following W shapes: W14 x 605 to 730 included
For breakdown of Groups 1 and 2 see ASTM A 6.
e For nonstructural applications or bearing assembly components over 4 in. thick, use AASHTO M 270 Grade 36
(ASTM A 270 Grade 36).
TABLE 10.2B
Minimum Material Properties Pins, Rollers, and Rockers
Expansion rollers shall be not less than 4 inches in diameter
b May
M 102
to 20 in. in
dia.
M 102
to 10 in. in
dia.
M 102
to 20 in. in
dia.
ASTM Designation
Grade or Class
A 668
Class D
A 668
Class F
A 668b
Class G
Minimum Yield
Strength Fy, psi
37,500
50,000
50,000
+
+
AASHTO Designation
w ith Size Limitations
+
+
+
+
substitute rolled material of the same properties.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-11
+
+
TABLE 10.2C Minimum Material Properties Fasteners
Availability
+
+
+
Type
ASTM
Design
Material
Typea
Grade
Diameter
(in.)
Minimum
Yield
Fy (psi)
Minimum
Tensile
Fu (psi)
A36
to 8
36,000
58,000
A572
HSLA
42
to 2
42,000
60,000
50
to 6
50,000
65,000
to 4
50,000
70,000
A588
HSLA
ACR
over 4 to 5
46,000
67,000
over 5 to 8
42,000
63,000
36,000
58,000
+
+
Unheaded Rod
and Stud
Material (only)
+
+
A307
+
+
+
Rivets
Strength
A502
HSLA
HSLA,
ACR
60,000d
-
+
+
Headed Bolt or
Unheaded Rod
Material
A354
A, QT
/4 to 21/2
130,000
150,000
over 21/2 to 4
115,000
140,000
/4 to 21/2
109,000
125,000
over 21/2 to 4
99,000
115,000
BC
80,000d
80,000d
BD
NA
+
+
+
A449
C, QT
/4 to 1
1 /8 to 11/2
13/4 to 3
92,000
81,000
58,000
120,000
105,000
90,000
A307
A, B
to 4
NA
60,000
A325b,c
C, QT
/2 to 1
92,000
120,000
11/8 to 11/2
81,000
105,000
A490b,c
A, QT
/2 to 11/2
130,000
150,000
Headed Bolt
Material (only)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
A
= Alloy Steel
ACR = Atmospheric-Corrosion-Resistant Steel
C
= Carbon Steel
HSLA = High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel
QT
= Quenched and Tempered Steel
b Available with weathering (atmospheric corrosion resistance) characteristics comparable to ASTM A242 and A588 Steels.
c Threaded rod material with properties meeting ASTM A325,A490,and A449 specifications may be obtained with the use of an
appropriate steel (such as ASTM A193,grade B7),quenched and tempered after fabrication.
d ASTM Specifications do not specify tensile strength for A502 rivets. A reasonable lower bound estimate F = 60,000 psi for Grade
u
1 and 80,000 for Grades 2 and 3 are a reasonable lower bound estimate (See Kulak, Fisher and Struik, Guide to Design for Bolted
and Riveted Joints, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1987, New York, NY).
10-12
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.2.6
Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings,

Malleable Castings and Cast Iron
10.2.6.1
Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
Cast steel shall conform to specifications for Steel

Castings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM
A 486); Mild-to-Medium-Strength Carbon-Steel Castings for General Application, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM
A 27); and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium, IronChromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings for
General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A 743).
Ductile iron castings shall conform to ASTM A 536.
10.2.6.2
Malleable Castings
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for

+ Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47, Grade 35018
+ (specified minimum yield strength 35,000 psi).
10.2.6.3
Cast Iron
Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications for

Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105, Class 30.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-13
Part B
Design Details
10.3
+ 10.3.1
REPETITIVE LOADING AND

TOUGHNESS CONSIDERATIONS
Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges
Members and fasteners subject to repeated variations

or reversals of stress shall be designed so that the maximum stress does not exceed the basic allowable stresses
given in Article 10.32 and that the actual range of stress
does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range given
in Table 10.3.1A for the appropriate type and location of
material given in Table 10.3.1B and shown in Figure
10.3.1C. For members with shear connectors provided
throughout their entire length that also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.38.4.3, the range of stress may be
computed using the composite section assuming the
concrete deck to be fully effective for both positive and
negative moment.
TABLE 10.3.1A Allowable Fatigue Stress Range

Redundant Load Path Structures*
Category
(See Table
10.3.1B)
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (psi)a

For
For over
2,000,000 2,000,000
Cycles
Cycles
For
100,000
Cycles
For
500,000
Cycles
63,000
49,000d
37,000
29,000d
24,000
18,000d
24,000
16,000d
+
+
49,000
29,000
18,000
16,000
B'
39,000
23,000
14,500
12,000
35,500
21,000
13,000
10,000
12,000b
+
+
28,000
16,000
10,000
7,000
22,000
13,000
8,000
4,500
E'
16,000
9,200
5,800
2,600
15,000
12,000
9,000
8,000
+
+
Nonredundant Load Path Structures
For unpainted weathering steel, A709, all grades, the

values of allowable fatigue stress range, Table 10.3.1A,
as modified by footnote d, are valid only when the design
and details are in accordance with the FHWA Technical
Advisory on Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures,
dated October 3, 1989.
Category
(See Table
10.3.1B)
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (psi)a

For
For over
2,000,000 2,000,000
Cycles
Cycles
For
500,000
Cycles
50,000
39,000d
29,000
23,000d
24,000
16,000d
24,000
16,000d
39,000
23,000
16,000
16,000
B'
31,000
18,000
11,000
11,000
9,000
11,000b
+
+
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
28,000
16,000
22,000
13,000
8,000
5,000
Ec
17,000
10,000
6,000
2,300
E'
12,000
7,000
4,000
1,300
12,000
9,000
7,000
6,000
a member cannot lead to the collapse. For example, a simply supported single span multi-beam bridge or a multi-element eye bar truss
member has redundant load paths.
a The range of stress is defined as the algebraic difference between the
maximum stress and the minimum stress. Tension stress is considered to
have the opposite algebraic sign from compression stress.
b For transverse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges.
c Partial length welded cover plates shall not be used on flanges
more than 0.8 inches thick for nonredundant load path structures.
d For unpainted weathering steel, A 709, all grades, when used in
conformance with the FHWA Technical Advisory on Uncoated
Weathering Steel in Structures, dated October 3, 1989.
SECTION 10
+
+
10,000
12,000b
* Structure types with multi-load paths where a single fracture in
10-14
For
100,000
Cycles
TABLE 10.3.1B
Stress
Kind of
Stress
Illustrative
Category E x a m p l e
(See Table (See Figure
10.3.1A)
10.3.1C)
General
Condition
Situation
Plain Member
Base metal with rolled or cleaned surface. Flame cut

edges with ANSI smoothness of 1,000 or less.
T or Rev a
1, 2
Built-Up
Members
Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up

plates or shapes (without attachments) connected by
continuous full penetration groove weld (with backing
bars removed) or by continuous fillet weld parallel to the
direction of applied stress.
Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up
plates or shapes (without attachments) connected by
continuous full penetration groove welds with backing
bars not removed, or by continuous partial penetration
groove welds parallel to the direction of applied stress.
Calculated flexural stress at the toe of transverse
stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges.
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates
with high-strength bolted slip-critical end connections.
(See Note f.)
narrower than the flange having square or tapered ends,
with or without welds across the ends, or wider than
flange with welds across the ends:
(a) Flange thickness 0.8 inches
T or Rev
3, 4, 5, 7
T or Rev
3, 4, 5, 7
T or Rev
T or Rev
22
T or Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
E
E
E
7
7
7
T or Rev
8, 10
T or Rev
13
T or Rev
11
T or Rev
11
(b) Flange thickness > 0.8 inches

wider than the flange without welds across the ends.
Groove Welded
Connections
continue next page
Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full

penetration groove weld splices of rolled or welded
sections having similar profiles when welds are ground
flush with grinding in the direction of applied stress
and weld soundness established by nondestructive
inspection.
penetration groove weld splices with 2 foot radius
transitions in width, when welds are ground flush with
grinding in the direction of applied stress and weld
soundness established by nondestructive inspection.
penetration groove weld splices at transitions in width or
thickness, with welds ground to provide slopes no
steeper than 1 to 21/2, with grinding in direction of the
applied stress, and weld soundness established by nondestructive inspection:
(a) AASHTO M 270 Grades 100/100W
(ASTM A 709) base metal
(b) Other base metal
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-15
TABLE 10.3.1B (continued)

General
Condition
Situation
Kind of
Stress
Stress
Illustrative
Category
Example
(See Table (See Figure
10.3.1A)
10.3.1C)
Groove Welded
Connections
(continued)

penetration groove weld splices, with or without
transitions having slopes no greater than 1 to 21/2,
when reinforcement is not removed and weld
soundness is established by nondestructive inspection.
T or Rev
8, 10, 11
Groove Welded
Attachments
Longitudinally
Loaded b
Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or

partial penetration groove welds when the detail
length, L, in the direction of stress, is less than 2 in.
T or Rev
Fillet Welded
Connections
Base metal at intermittent fillet welds.
T or Rev
Shear
T or Rev
18,20
Shear stress on throat of fillet welds.

Fillet Welded
Attachments
Longitudinally
Loaded b, c, e
Mechanically
Fastened
Connections
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds

with length, L, in the direction of stress, less than 2
inches and stud-type shear connectors.
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds
with length, L, in the direction of stress greater than
12 times the plate thickness or greater than 4 inches:
(a)
Detail thickness < 1.0 in.
T or Rev
7,9
(b)
Detail thickness
T or Rev
7,9
T or Rev
21
T or Rev
21
T or Rev
21
23,24
(a) rolled or smoothly ground surfaces
23,24
(b) flame-cut edges
23,24
1.0 in.
Base metal at gross section of high strength bolted

slip resistant connections, except axially loaded joints
which induce out-of-plane bending in connecting
materials.
Base metal at net section of high strength bolted
bearing-type connections.
Base metal at net section of riveted connections.
Eyebar or Pin
Plates
Base metal at the net section of eyebar head, or pin

plate
Base metal in the shank of eyebars, or through the
gross section of pin plates with:
See next page for footnotes
10-16
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Footnotes for Table 10.3.1B

a
T signifies ranges in tensile stress only, Rev signifies a range of stress involving both tension and compression during a stress
cycle.
b Longitudinally Loaded signifies direction of applied stress is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld. Transversely Loaded
signifies direction of applied stress is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the weld.
c Transversely loaded partial penetration groove welds are prohibited.
d Allowable fatigue stress range on throat of fillet welds transversely loaded is a function of effective throat and plate thickness. (See
Frank and Fisher, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, No. ST9, September 1979.)
tp
0. 06 + 0. 79H / t p
S r = S rc
1/6
1
.
1
t
p
e
f
Sr
where Scr is equal to the allowable stress range for Category C given in Table 10.3.1A. This assumes no penetration at the weld root.
Gusset plates attached to girder flange surfaces with only transverse fillet welds are prohibited.
See Wattar, Albrecht and Sahli, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. III, No. 6, June 1985, pp. 1235-1249.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-17
Note: Illustrative examples 12, 14 17 are deleted.
FIGURE 10.3.1C
10-18
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Illustrative Examples
TABLE 10.3.2A
Stress Cycle
Main (Longitudinal) Load Carrying Members

Type of Road
Case
ADTTa
Truck Loading
Lane Loadingb
Permit Loading
Freeways, Expressways,
Major Highways, and
Streets
2,500 or more
2,000,000 c
500,000
100,000
Major Highways, and
Streets
II
Less than 2,500
500,000
100,000
Other Highways and

Streets not included in
Case I or II
III
100,000
100,000
Transverse Members and Details Subjected to Wheel Loads

Longitudinal Span
Type of Road
Case
ADTTa
40 Feet
+
+
> 40 Feet
Truck Loading
Truck Loading
Lane Loading
Permit Loading
+
+
Major Highways, and Streets
2,500
or more
Over
2,000,000
2,000,000
500,000
100,000
Major Highways, and Streets
II
Less than
2,500
Over
2,000,000
500,000
100,000
Other Highways and Streets
III
2,000,000
100,000
100,000
a
b
c
+
+
Average Daily Truck Traffic (one direction).

Longitudinal members should also be checked for truck loading.
Members shall also be investigated for over 2 million stress cycles produced by placing a single truck on the bridge distributed
to the girders as designated in Article 3.23.2.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-19
Main load carrying components subjected to tensile

force that may be considered nonredundant load path
membersthat is, where failure of a single element could
cause collapseshall be designed for the allowable stress
ranges indicated in Table 10.3.1A for Nonredundant Load
Path Structures. Examples of nonredundant load path members are flange and web plates in one or two girder bridges,
main one-element truss members, hanger plates, and caps at
single or two-column bents.
+
See AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture
+ Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members.
10.3.2
Load Cycles
10.3.2.1
The number of cycles of maximum stress

range to be considered in the design shall be selected
from Table 10.3.2A unless traffic and loadometer surveys or other considerations indicate otherwise.
+
For new structures and widenings, the number of
+ stress cycles shall be based on Case I.
10.3.2.2
Allowable fatigue stress ranges shall apply to those Group Loadings that include live load or
wind load.
10.3.2.3
The number of cycles of stress range to
be considered for wind loads in combination with dead
loads, except for structures where other considerations
indicate a substantially different number of cycles, shall
be 100,000 cycles.
10.3.3
TABLE 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designation for

Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
Charpy V-Notch Impact

Requirements
Minimum
Service Temperature
Temperature Zone
Designation
0F and above
1F to 30F
31F to 60F
10.3.3.3
Components requiring mandatory impact properties shall be designated on the drawings and
the appropriate Charpy V-notch impact values shall be +
designated in the contract documents.
10.3.3.4
M 270 Grades 100/100W steel shall be
supplied to Zone 2 requirements as a minimum.
10.3.4
Shear
When longitudinal beam or girder members in +

bridges designed for Case 1 roadways are investigated for
over 2 million stress cycles produced by placing a single
truck on the bridge (see footnote (c) of Table 10.3.2A), the
total shear force in the beam or girder under this single-truck
loading shall be limited to 0.58 FyDtwC. The constant C, the
ratio of the buckling shear stress to the shear yield stress is
defined in Article 10.34.4.2 or Article 10.48.8.1.
10.3.5
Loading
10.3.3.1
Main load carrying member components

+ subjected to tensile force require supplemental impact
properties.
10.3.3.2
These impact requirements vary depending on the type of steel, type of construction, welded or
mechanically fastened, and the average minimum service
temperature to which the structure may be subjected.***
Table 10.3.3A contains the temperature zone designations.
+
The Standard Specifications of the California Depart+ ment of Transportation, Section 55, lists the required
+ minimum impact values for Zone 2.
The fatigue loading shall be at service load and shall

include permit loading. The load combination for permit
loading shall be a P load with a = 1.15 and an associated
HS loading. The load shall be calculated according to
footnote (f) in Table 3.23.1.
10.4
+
+
+
+
EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN
For the calculation of stresses, span lengths shall be

assumed as the distance between centers of bearings or
other points of support.
10.5
DEPTH RATIOS
***
The basis and philosophy used to develop these requirements are given in a paper entitled The Development of AASHTO
Fracture-Toughness requirements for Bridge Steels by John M.
Barsom, February 1975, available from the American Iron and
Steel Institute, Washington, DC.
10-20
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
For noncomposite beams or girders, the ratio
of the depth of girder to the length of span preferably
+
should not be less than 0.04.
10.5.1
For composite girders, the ratio of the overall

+ 10.5.2
depth of girder (concrete slab plus steel girder) to the
+ length of span preferably should not be less than 0.045 for
+ simple spans and 0.04 for continuous spans.
10.6.7
The foregoing requirements as they relate to

beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
of the designer.*
10.7
LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS
10.5.3
For trusses the ratio of depth to length of span

preferably should not be less than 0.1.
10.7.1
The foregoing requirements as they relate to

beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
of the designer.*
For compression members, the slenderness

ratio, KL/r, shall not exceed 120 for main members, or those
in which the major stresses result from dead or live load, or
both; and shall not exceed 140 for secondary members, or
those whose primary purpose is to brace the structure against
lateral or longitudinal force, or to brace or reduce the
unbraced length of other members, main or secondary.
10.6
10.7.2
+ 10.5.4
Deleted
10.5.5
DEFLECTION
10.6.1
The term deflection as used herein shall be the

deflection computed in accordance with the assumption
made for loading when computing the stress in the member.
10.6.2
Members having simple or continuous spans
+ preferably should be designed so that the ratio of the
+ deflection to the length of the span due to service live load
+ plus impact shall not exceed 1/800 , except on bridges in
urban areas used in part by pedestrians whereon the ratio
preferably shall not exceed 1/1000.
In determining the radius of gyration, r, for the

purpose of applying the limitations of the KL/r ratio, the area
of any portion of a member may be neglected provided that
the strength of the member as calculated without using the
area thus neglected and the strength of the member as
computed for the entire section with the KL/r ratio applicable
thereto, both equal or exceed the computed total force that +
the member must sustain.
10.7.3
10.6.4
The radius of gyration and the effective area

of a member containing perforated cover plates shall be
computed for a transverse section through the maximum
width of perforation. When perforations are staggered in
opposite cover plates the cross-sectional area of the +
member shall be considered the same as for a section
having perforations in the same transverse plane.
+
10.7.4
The unbraced length, L, shall be assumed as
+
follows:
10.6.5
For the compression chords of trusses, the length +

between panel points laterally supported as indicated
under Article 10.16.12; for other members, the length
between panel point intersections or centers of braced
points or centers of end connections.
The ratio of the deflection to the cantilever

+ 10.6.3
+ arm length due to service live load plus impact preferably
+ should be limited to 1/300 except for the case including
When spans have cross-bracing or diaphragms
sufficient in depth or strength to ensure lateral distribution
of loads, the deflection may be computed for the standard
+ H or HS loading considering all beams or stringers as
acting together and having equal deflection.
The moment of inertia of the gross crosssectional area shall be used for computing the deflections
of beams and girders. When the beam or girder is a part
of a composite member, the service live load may be
considered as acting upon the composite section.
10.6.6
The gross area of each truss member shall be

used in computing deflections of trusses. If perforated
plates are used, the effective area shall be the net volume
divided by the length from center to center of perforations.
10.7.5
For tension members, except rods, eyebars,

cables, and plates, the ratio of unbraced length to
radius of gyration shall not exceed 200 for main
members, shall not exceed 240 for bracing members,
and shall not exceed 140 for main members subject to
a reversal of stress.
* For consideration to be taken into account when exceeding

these limitations, reference is made to Bulletin No.19, Criteria for
the Deflection of Steel Bridges, available from the American Iron
and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-21
10.8
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL
+ 10.8.1
The plate thickness of structural steel including
+ bracing, cross frames, and all types of gusset plates, shall
+ be not less than 5/16 inch. The web thickness of rolled
beams or channels shall be not less than 0.23 inches. The
+ thickness of closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers, and
+ in railings, shall be not less than 3/16 inch.
10.8.2
Where the metal will be exposed to marked

corrosive influences, it shall be increased in thickness or
specially protected against corrosion.
10.8.3
It should be noted that there are other

provisions in this section pertaining to thickness for
fillers, segments of compression members, gusset plates,
etc. As stated above, fillers need not be 5/16 inch minimum.
centerline of symmetry of the cross-section, as +

shown in Fig. 10.9.2A
+
L = length of connection in the directions of loading +
(in.)
Larger values of U are permitted to be used when +
justified by tests or other rational criteria.
+
(a) When the tension load is transmitted only by +
+
bolts or rivets:
A = An = net area of member (in.2)
(b) When the tension load is transmitted only by +

longitudinal welds to other than a plate member or by +
longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds: +
A = Ag = gross area of member (in.2)
10.8.4
For compression members, refer to Trusses

(Article 10.16).
+ 10.8.5
For flexural members, refer to Plate Girders
(Article 10.34).
10.8.6
For stiffeners and outstanding legs of angles,
+ etc., refer to relevant Articles 10.10, 10.34, 10.37, 10.48,
+ 10.51 and 10.55.
+ 10.9
+
EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR

TENSION MEMBERS
+
+
(d) When the tension load is transmitted to a plate +

by longitudinal welds along both edges at the end of the +
+
plate for Lw > W
for Lw
2W
for 2W > Lw
+
U = 1.0
1.5 W
U = 0.87
U = 0.75
for 1.5W > Lw
+
+
+
+
10.9.2
When a tension load is transmitted by bolts or

rivets through some but not all of the cross-sectional
elements of the member, the effective net area Ae shall be
calculated as:
Ae = UA
A = area as defined below (in.2)

U = reduction coefficient
= 1 - (x/L) 0.9 or as defined in (c) and (d)
x = connection eccentricity (in.); for rolled or builtup shapes, it is referred to the center of gravity
of the material lying on either side of the
10-22
where:
Lw = length of weld (in.)

W = plate width (distance between welds) (in.)
+
+
(10-1a)
+ where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
A = area of directly connected elements (in.2)

U = 1.0
A = area of plate (in.2)
+ 10.9.1
When a tension load is transmitted directly to
+ each of the cross-sectional elements by fasteners or
+ welds, the effective net area Ae is equal to the net area An.
+
+
+
+
(c) When the tension load is transmitted only by +

transverse welds:
+
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.9.3
Deleted
10.9.4
Deleted
C
L
Gusset
plate
Gusset
plate
x
C
L
Gusset
plate
FIGURE 10.9.2A Determination of x

10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES
The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compression (except where reinforced by plates) shall not exceed
the following:
In main members carrying axial compression load, 12

times the thickness.
In bracing and other secondary members, 16 times the
thickness.
For other limitations see Article 10.35.2.
10.11 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design
to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be
provided for movement caused by temperature changes.
Provisions shall be made for changes in length of span
+ resulting from live loads. In spans more than 300 feet
long, allowance shall be made for expansion and contraction in the floor. The expansion end shall be secured
against lateral movement.
10.12 MEMBERS
10.12.1 Flexural Members
Flexural members shall be designed using the elastic

section modulus except when utilizing compact sections
under Strength Design as specified in Articles 10.48.1,
10.50.1.1, and 10.50.2.1. In determining flexural strength,
the gross section shall be used, except that if more than 15
percent of each flange area is removed, that amount removed in excess of 15 percent shall be deducted from the
gross area. In no case shall the design tensile stress on the net
section exceed 0.50 Fu, when using service load design
method or 1.0 Fu, when using strength design method,
where Fu equals the specified minimum tensile strength of
the steel, except that for M 270 Grades 100/100W steels the
design tensile stress on the net section shall not exceed 0.46
Fu when using the service load design method.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.12.2 Compression Members
+
+
The strength of compression members connected +

by high-strength bolts and rivets shall be determined by +
+
the gross section.
10.12.3 Tension Members
The strength of tension members connected by bolts or

rivets shall be determined by the gross section unless the
net section area is less than 85 percent of the corresponding
gross area, in which case that amount removed in excess
of 15 percent shall be deducted from the gross area. In no
case shall the design tensile stress on the net section
exceed 0.50 Fu, when using service load design method
or 1.0 Fu, when using strength design method, where Fu
equals the specified minimum tensile strength of the
steel, except that for M 270 Grades 100/100W steels the
design tensile stress on the net section shall not exceed
0.46 Fu when using the service load design method.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.13 COVER PLATES

10.13.1
The length of any cover plate added to a rolled

beam shall be not less than (2d + 36) in. where (d) is the +
+
depth of the beam (in.).
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-23
10.13.2
Partial length welded cover plates shall not be

used on flanges more than 0.8 inches thick for
nonredundant load path structures subjected to repetitive
loadings that produce tension or reversal of stress in the
member.
10.13.3
The maximum thickness of a single cover

plate on a flange shall not be greater than 2 times the
thickness of the flange to which the cover plate is
attached. The total thickness of all cover plates should
not be greater than 2 1 /2 times the flange thickness.
10.13.4
Any partial length welded cover plate shall

extend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance,
and it shall extend to a section where the stress range in
the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress
range for base metal adjacent to or connected by fillet
welds. The theoretical end of the cover plate, when using
service load design methods, is the section at which the
stress in the flange without that cover plate equals the
allowable service load stress, exclusive of fatigue
considerations. When using strength design methods, the
theoretical end of the cover plate is the section at which
the flange strength without that cover plate equals the
required strength for the design loads, exclusive of fatigue
requirements. The terminal distance is two times the
nominal cover plate width for cover plates not welded
across their ends, and 1 1 /2 times for cover plates welded
across their ends. The width at ends of tapered cover
+ plates shall be not less that 3 inches. The weld connecting
the cover plate to the flange in its terminal distance shall
be continuous and of sufficient size to develop a total
force of not less than the computed force in the cover
plate at its theoretical end. All welds connecting cover
plates to beam flanges shall be continuous and shall not
be smaller than the minimum size permitted by Article
10.23.2.2.
connections of the cover plate ends to the flange, shall be

of sufficient numbers to develop a total force of not less
than the computed force in the cover plate at the theoretical
end. The slip resistance of the end-bolted connection
shall be determined in accordance with Article 10.32.3.2
for service load design, and 10.56.1.4 for load factor
design. The longitudinal welds connecting the cover
plate to the beam flange shall be continuous and stop a
distance equal to one bolt spacing before the first row of
bolts in the end-bolted portion.
10.14 CAMBER
Girder should be cambered to compensate for dead
load deflections and vertical curvature required by profile grade.
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS

AND WELDED PLATE GIRDERS
10.15.1
This section pertains to rolled beans and welded Isection plate girders heat-curved to obtain a horizontal
curvature. Steels that are manufactured to a specified
minimum yield strength greater than 50,000 psi, except +
for Grade HPS 70W Steel, shall not be heat-curved.
10.15.2
10-24
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Minimum Radius of Curvature
10.15.2.1 For heat-curved beams and girders, the

horizontal radius of curvature measured to the centerline
of the girder web shall not be less than 150 feet and shall
not be less than the larger of the values calculated (at any
and all cross sections throughout the length of the girder)
from the following two equations:
440 b D
Fy tw
(10-1) +
7, 500,000 b
Fy
(10-2) +
R=
10.13.5
Any partial length end-bolted cover plate shall

extend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance
equal to the length of the end-bolted portion, and the
cover plate shall extend to a section where the stress range
in the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress
range for base metal at ends of partial length welded
cover plates with high-strength bolted, slip-critical end
connections (Table 10.3.1B). Beams with end-bolted
cover plates shall be fabricated in the following sequence:
drill holes; clean faying surfaces; install bolts; weld. The
theoretical end of the end-bolted cover plate is determined
in the same manner as that of a welded cover plate, as
specified in Article 10.3.4. The bolts in the slip-critical
Scope
R=
where:
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the web (psi) +
+
+
+
+
+
+
y
b
D
tw
R
= ratio of the total cross-sectional area to the

cross-sectional area of both flanges
= widest flange width (in.)
= clear distance between flanges (in.)
= web thickness (in.)
= horizontal radius of curvature (in.)
10.15.2.2 In addition to the above requirements,

the radius shall not be less than 1,000 feet when the flange
thickness exceeds 3 inches or the flange width exceeds 30
inches.
10.15.3
Camber
DL
( M + R )
M
(10-3)
0.02 L2 Fy 1,000 R
R =
0
E Yo 850
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Note: Part of the camber loss is attributable to construction loads and will occur during construction of
the bridge; total camber loss will be complete after
several months of in-service loads. Therefore, a
portion of the camber increase (approximately 50
percent) should be included in the bridge profile.
Camber losses of this nature (but generally smaller
in magnitude) are also known to occur in straight
beams and girders.
10.16 TRUSSES
To compensate for possible loss of camber of heatcurved girders in service as residual stresses dissipate, the
+ amount of camber, (in.) at any section along the length
L of the girder shall be equal to:
Camber loss between dead load contraflexure points

adjacent to piers is small and may be neglected.
DL = camber at any point along the length L calculated by usual procedures to compensate for
deflection due to dead loads or any other
specified loads (in.)
M = maximum value of DL within the length L (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (psi)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of girder
flange (psi)
Yo = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
outer fiber (in.) (maximum distance for nonsymmetrical sections)
R = radius of curvature (ft.)
L
= span length for simple spans or for continuous
spans, the distance between a simple end support and the dead load contraflexure point, or
the distance between points of dead load
contraflexure (in.)
10.16.1
General
10.16.1.1
Component parts of individual truss

members may be connected by welds, rivets, or highstrength bolts.
10.16.1.2 Preference should be given to trusses

with single intersection web systems. Members shall be
symmetrical about the central plane of the truss.
10.16.1.3 Trusses preferably shall have inclined
end posts. Laterally unsupported hip joints shall be
avoided.
10.16.1.4 Main trusses shall be spaced a sufficient
distance apart, center to center, to be secure against
overturning by the design lateral forces.
10.16.1.5 For the calculation of forces, effective
depths shall be assumed as follows:
Riveted and bolted trusses, distance between centers
of gravity of the chords.
Pin-connected trusses, distance between centers of
chord pins
10.16.2
Truss Members
10.16.2.1
Chord and web truss members shall usually be made in the following shapes:
H sections, made with two side segments (composed of angles or plates) with solid web, perforated
web, or web of stay plates and lacing.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-25
Channel sections, made with two angle segments,

with solid web, perforated web, or web of stay plates
and lacing.
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
angles, and plates or side segments of plates only,
connected top and bottom with perforated plates or
stay plates and lacing.
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
angles and plates only, connected at top with solid
cover plates and at the bottom with perforated plates
or stay plates and lacing.
Double Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
angles and plates or side segments of plates only,
connected with a conventional solid web, together
with top and bottom perforated cover plates or stay
plates and lacing.
10.16.2.2 If the shape of the truss permits, compression chords shall be continuous.
10.16.2.3
10.16.4
Diaphragms
10.16.4.1
There shall be diaphragms in the trusses

at the end connections of floor beams.
10.16.4.2 The gusset plates engaging the pedestal

pin at the end of the truss shall be connected by a
diaphragm. Similarly, the webs of the pedestal shall, if
practicable, be connected by a diaphragm.
10.16.4.3 There shall be a diaphragm between
gusset plates engaging main members if the end tie plate
is 4 feet or more from the point of intersection of the
members.
10.16.5
Camber
The length of the truss members shall be such that the

camber will be equal to or greater than the deflection
produced by the dead load.
10.16.6
Working Lines and Gravity Axes
10.16.6.1
In chords composed of angles in channel

shaped members, the vertical legs of the angles preferably shall extend downward.
Main members shall be proportioned so

that their gravity axes will be as nearly as practicable in
the center of the section.
10.16.2.4 If web members are subject to reversal

of stress, their end connections shall not be pinned.
Counters preferably shall be rigid. Adjustable counters,
if used, shall have open turnbuckles, and in the design of
+ these members an allowance of 10,000 psi shall be
made for initial stress. Only one set of diagonals in any
panel shall be adjustable. Sleeve nuts and loop bars
shall not be used.
10.16.6.2 In compression members of unsymmetrical section, such as chord sections formed of side segments and a cover plate, the gravity axis of the section
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the working
line, except that eccentricity may be introduced to counteract dead load bending. In two-angle bottom chord or
diagonal members, the working line may be taken as the
gage line nearest the back of the angle or at the center of
gravity for welded trusses.
10.16.3
Secondary Stresses
10.16.7
The design and details shall be such that secondary

stresses will be as small as practicable. Secondary
stresses due to truss distortion or floor beam deflection
usually need not be considered in any member, the width
of which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is
less than one-tenth of its length. If the secondary stress
+ exceeds 4,000 psi for tension members and 3,000 psi for
+ compression members, the excess shall be treated as a
primary stress. Stresses due to the flexural dead load
moment of the member shall be considered as additional
secondary stress.
10-26
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Portal and Sway Bracing
10.16.7.1
Through truss spans shall have portal

bracing, preferably, of the two-plane or box type, rigidly
connected to the end post and the top chord flanges, and
as deep as the clearance will allow. If a single plane portal
is used, it shall be located, preferably, in the central
transverse plane of the end posts, with diaphragms between the webs of the posts to provide for a distribution
of the portal stresses. The portal bracing shall be designed
to take the full end reaction of the top chord lateral
system, and the end posts shall be designed to transfer this
reaction to the truss bearings.
10.16.7.2 Through truss spans shall have sway

bracing 5 feet or more deep at each intermediate panel
point. Top lateral struts shall be at least as deep as the top
chord.
10.16.7.3 Deck truss spans shall have sway bracing in the plane of the end posts and at all intermediate
panel points. This bracing shall extend the full depth of
the trusses below the floor system. The end sway bracing
+ shall be proportioned to carry the entire upper lateral load
to the supports through the end posts of the truss.
10.16.8
Perforated Cover Plates
When perforated cover plates are used, the following

provisions shall govern their design.
10.16.8.1 The ratio of length, in direction of stress,

to width of perforation, shall not exceed two.
10.16.8.2
The clear distance between perforations

in the direction of stress shall not be less than the distance
between points of support.
10.16.8.3
The clear distance between the end perforation and the end of the cover plate shall not be less
than 1.25 times the distance between points of support.
10.16.8.4 The point of support shall be the inner

line of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the perforated
plate to the flanges. For plates butt welded to the flange
edge of rolled segments, the point of support may be
taken as the weld whenever the ratio of the outstanding
flange width to flange thickness of the rolled segment is
less than seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be
the root of the flange of the rolled segment.
10.16.8.5 The periphery of the perforation at all
points shall have a minimum radius of 11/2 inches.
end stay plates between end fasteners shall be not less

than 11/4 times the distance between points of support and
the length of intermediate stay plates not less than 3/4 of
that distance. In lateral struts and other secondary members, the overall length of end and intermediate stay
plates shall be not less than 3/4 of the distance between
points of support.
10.16.9.2 The point of support shall be the inner

line of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the stay plates
to the flanges. For stay plates butt welded to the flange edge
of rolled segment, the point of support may be taken as the
weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width to
flange thickness or the rolled segment is less than seven.
Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of flange of
rolled segment. When stay plates are butt welded to rolled
segments of a member, the allowable stress in the member
shall be determined in accordance with Article 10.3. Terminations of butt welds shall be ground smooth.
10.16.9.3
The separate segments of tension members composed of shapes may be connected by perforated
plates or by stay plates or end stay plates and lacing. End
stay plates shall have the same minimum length as
specified for end stay plates on main compression members, and intermediate stay plates shall have a minimum length of 3/ 4 of that specified for intermediate stay
plates on main compression members. The clear distance
between stay plates on tension members shall not exceed
3 feet.
10.16.9.4 The thickness of stay plates shall be not

less than 1/50 of the distance between points of support for
main members, and 1/60 of that distance for bracing
members. Stay plates shall be connected by not less than
three fasteners on each side, and in members having
lacing bars the last fastener in the stay plates preferably
shall also pass through the end of the adjacent bar.
10.16.10 Lacing Bars
10.16.8.6
For thickness of metal, see Article
10.35.2.
10.16.9
When lacing bars are used, the following provisions

shall govern their design.
Stay Plates
10.16.9.1
Where the open sides of compression

members are not connected by perforated plates, such
members shall be provided with lacing bars and shall
have stay plates as near each end as practicable. Stay
plates shall be provided at intermediate points where the
lacing is interrupted. In main members, the length of the
10.16.10.1 Lacing bars of compression members

shall be so spaced that the slenderness ratio of the portion
of the flange included between the lacing bar connections
will be not more than 40 or more than 2/3 of the slenderness ratio of the member.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-27
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.16.10.2 The section of the lacing bars shall be

determined by the formula for axial compression in
which L is taken as the distance along the bar between its
connections to the main segments for single lacing, and
as 70 percent of that distance for double lacing.
10.16.10.3 If the distance across the member between fastener lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches
and a bar with a single fastener in the connection is used,
the lacing shall be double and fastened at the intersections.
10.16.11.4 Listed below are the values of the expression 11,000 / Fy for the following grades of steel:
Fy (psi)
11,000 / Fy
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
58
49
42
37
35
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans

10.16.10.4 The angle between the lacing bars and
the axis of the member shall be approximately 45 degrees
for double lacing and 60 degrees for single lacing.
10.16.10.5 Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars.
For main members, the minimum thickness of flat bars
shall be 1/40 of the distance along the bar between its
connections for single lacing and 1/60 for double lacing.
For bracing members, the limits shall be 1/50 for single
lacing and 1/75 for double lacing.
10.16.10.6 The diameter of fasteners in lacing bars
shall not exceed one-third the width of the bar. There
shall be at least two fasteners in each end of lacing bars
connected to flanges more than 5 inches in width.
10.16.12.1 The vertical truss members and the floor

beams and their connections in half-through truss spans
shall be proportioned to resist a lateral force of not less
than 300 pounds per linear foot applied at the top chord
panel points of each truss.
10.16.12.2 The compression chord shall be designed as a compression member with elastic lateral
supports at the panel points. The strength of the compression chord, so determined, shall exceed the maximum
force from dead load, live load, and impact in any panel
of the compression chord by not less than 50 percent.*
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of
Compression Members
10.16.11 Gusset Plates

10.16.11.1 Gusset or connection plates preferably
shall be used for connecting main members, except when
the members are pin-connected. The fasteners connecting each member shall be symmetrical with the axis of the
member, so far as practicable, and the full development
of the elements of the member shall be given consideration. The gusset plates shall be designed to resist shear,
axial force, and bending moments acting on the weakest
or critical section.
10.16.11.2 Re-entrant cuts, except curves made for
appearance, shall be avoided as far as practicable.
10.16.11.3 If the length of unsupported edge of a

gusset plate exceeds the value of the expression
11,000 / Fy times its thickness, the edge shall be stiffened.
In the ends of compression members, the pitch of

fasteners connecting the component parts of the member
shall not exceed four times the diameter of the fastener for
a length equal to 11/2 times the maximum width of the
member. Beyond this point, the pitch shall be increased
gradually for a length equal to 11/2 times the maximum
width of the member until the maximum pitch is reached.
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or HighStrength Bolted Tension Members

10.16.14.1 The net section of a riveted or highstrength bolted tension member is the sum of the net
sections of its component parts. The net section of a part
is the product of the thickness of the part multiplied by its
least net width.
* For a discussion of columns with elastic lateral supports, refer

to Timoshenko & Gere, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGrawHill Book Co., Second Edition, P.70.
10-28
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
10.16.14.2 The net width for any chain of holes

extending progressively across the part shall be obtained
by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each gage
space in the chain, the quantity:
10.17.2
Single bents shall have hinged ends or else shall be

designed to resist bending.
10.17.3
Batter
s
4g
(10-4)
where:
+
+
+
Single Bents
= pitch of any two successive holes in the chain

(in.)
g = gage of the same holes (in.)
The net section of the part is obtained from the chain
that gives the least net width.
10.16.14.3 For angles, the gross width shall be the

sum of the widths of the legs less the thickness. The gage
for holes in opposite legs shall be the sum of gages from
back of angle less the thickness.
10.16.14.4 At a splice, the total force in the member
+
+ being spliced is transferred by fasteners to the splice
material.
10.16.14.5 When determining the stress on any least
net width of either splice material or member being
+ spliced, the amount of the force previously transferred by
fasteners adjacent to the section being investigated shall
+ be considered in determining the stress on the net section.
+
10.16.14.6 The diameter of the hole shall be taken

as 1/8 inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivet
or high-strength bolt, unless larger holes are permitted in
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS
10.17.1
General
Bents preferably shall be composed of two supporting

columns, and the bents usually shall be united in pairs to
form towers. The design of members for bents and towers
is governed by applicable articles.
Bents preferably shall have a sufficient spread at the base

to prevent uplift under the design lateral loadings. In +
general, the width of a bent at its base shall be not less than
one-third of its height.
10.17.4
Bracing
10.17.4.1 Towers shall be braced, both transversely

and longitudinally, with stiff members having either
welded, high-strength bolted or riveted connections. The
sections of members of longitudinal bracing in each
panel shall not be less than those of the members in
corresponding panels of the transverse bracing.
10.17.4.2 The bracing of long columns shall be

designed to fix the column about both axes at or near the
same point.
10.17.4.3 Horizontal diagonal bracing shall be
placed in all towers having more than two vertical panels,
at alternate intermediate panel points.
10.17.5 Bottom Struts
The bottom struts of towers shall be strong enough to
slide the movable shoes with the structure unloaded, the
coefficient of friction being assumed at 0.25. Provision
for expansion of the tower bracing shall be made in the
column bearings.
10.18 SPLICES
10.18.1
General
10.18.1.1 Design Strength

Splices may be made by rivets, by high-strength bolts,
or by the use of welding. In general, splices whether in
tension, compression, bending, or shear, shall be designed in the cases of the service load design or the
strength design methods for a capacity based on not less
than 100 percent of the allowable design strength in the
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-29
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
member taking into account the bolt holes. Bolted and

riveted splices in flexural members shall satisfy the
requirements of Article 10.18.2. Bolted and riveted splices
in compression members shall satisfy the requirements of
Article 10.18.3. Bolted and riveted splices in tension
members shall satisfy the requirements of Article 10.18.4.
Bolted and riveted splices in tension members shall also
satisfy the requirements of Article 10.19.4. Welded splices
shall satisfy the requirements of Article 10.18.5. Where
a section changes at a splice, the small section is to be
used to satisfy the above splice requirements.
10.18.1.2
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fillers
10.18.1.2.1 For fillers 1/4 inch and thicker in bolted or

riveted axially loaded connections, including girder flange
splices, additional fasteners shall be required to distribute
the total stress in the member uniformly over the combined
section of the member and the filler. The filler shall either be
extended beyond the splice material and secured by additional fasteners, or as an alternate to extending the filler, an
equivalent number of fasteners may be included in the
connection. Fillers 1/4 inch and thicker need not be extended
and developed provided that the design shear strength of the
fasteners, specified in Article 10.56.1.3.2 in the case of the
strength design method and in the Tables 10.32.3A and
10.32.3B in the case of the service load design method, is
reduced by the following factor R:
R=[(1+g)/(1+2g)]
(10-4a)
where =Af /Ap

+
+
+
+
+
Af =
Ap =
sum of the area of the fillers on the top and

bottom of the connected plate (in.2)
smaller of either the connected plate area or
the sum of the splice plate areas on the top and
bottom of the connected plate (in.2)
10.18.1.2.2 For bolted web splices with thickness

differences of 1/16 inch or less, no filler plates are
required.
SECTION 10
10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates

For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates,
the flange design force may be assumed to be divided
equally to the inner and outer plates and their connections
when the areas of the inner and outer plates do not differ
by more than 10 percent. When the areas of the inner and
outer plates differ by more than 10 percent, the design
force in each splice plate and its connection shall be
determined by multiplying the flange design force by the
ratio of the area of the splice plate under consideration to
the total area of the inner and outer splice plates. For this
case, the shear strength of the connection shall be checked
for the maximum calculated splice plate force acting on
a single shear plane. The slip resistance of high-strength
bolted connections for a flange splice with inner and
outer splice plates shall always be checked for the flange
design force divided equally to the two slip planes.
10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns
Splices in truss chords and columns shall be located as
near to the panel points as practicable and usually on the
side where smaller stress occurs. The arrangement of
plates, angles, or other splice elements shall be such as to
make proper provision for the stresses, both axial and
bending, in the component parts of the member spliced.
10.18.2 Flexural Member
The design slip force, specified in Article 10.56.1.3.2

+
+ in the case of the strength design method and in Article
10.32.3.2.1 in the case of the service load design method,
for slip-critical connections shall not be adjusted for the
effect of the fillers. Fillers 1/4 inch or more in thickness
shall consist of not more than two plates, unless special
permission is given by the Engineer.
10-30
10.18.1.2.3 Fillers for welded splices shall conform to the

requirements of the AISI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge
Welding Code.
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.18.2.1 General
10.18.2.1.1 Splices shall preferably be made at or near +
points of dead load contraflexure in continuous spans and +
at points of the section change.
+
10.18.2.1.2 In both flange and web splices, there shall
be not less than two rows of bolts on each side of the joint.
10.18.2.1.3 Oversize or slotted holes shall not be used
in either the member or the splice plates at the bolted
splices.
10.18.2.1.4 In both flange and web splices, highstrength bolted connections shall be proportioned to
prevent slip during erection of the steel and during the
casting or placing of the deck.
10.18.2.1.5 Deleted
10.18.2.1.6 Flange and web splices in areas of stress reversal
shall be checked for both positive and negative flexure.
10.18.2.1.7 Riveted and bolted flange angle splices
shall include two angles, one on each side of the flexural
member.
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices
+
10.18.2.2.1 For checking the strength of flange splices,
+ an effective area, Ae, shall be used for the flanges and for
+ the individual splice plates as follows:
+
For flanges and their splice plates subject to
+ tension:
Ae= wnt + Ag Ag
(10-4b)
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Wn = least net width of the flange or splice plate

computed as specified in Article10.16.14 (in.)
t = flange or splice plate thickness (in.)
Ag = gross area of the flange or splice plate (in.2)
= 0.0 for M 270 Grade 100/100W steels, or when
holes exceed 1 1/4 inch in diameter
= 0.15 for all other steels and when holes are less
than or equal to 1 1/4 inch in diameter
+
+
The diameter of the holes shall be taken as specified

in Article 10.16.14.6.
+
For the flanges and their splice plates subject to
+ compression:
+
Ae = A g
+
+
+
+
+
10.18.2.2.2 In the case of the strength design method,

the splice plates shall be proportioned for a design force,
Pcu equal to a design stress, Fcu, times the smaller effective area, Ae, on either side of the splice. Fcu is defined as
follows:
Fcu = Fyf
Mu = design bending strength of the section in positive or negative flexure at the point of splice,
whichever causes the maximum compressive
stress due to the factored loads at the mid-thickness of the flange under consideration (lb-in.)
My = moment capacity at first yield for the section at
the point of splice used to compute Mu (lb-in.). +
For composite sections, My shall be calculated +
in accordance with Article10.50(c). For hybrid
sections, My shall be computed in accordance
with Article 10.53.
Fyf = specified minimum yield strength of the flange
(psi)
In calculating Mu and My, holes in the flange subject

to tension shall be accounted for as specified in Article
10.12. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice
plates, the flange design forces shall be proportioned to
the inner and outer plates and their connections as
specified in Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ae, of
each splice plate shall be sufficient to prevent yielding
of the splice plate under its calculated portion of the
design force. As a minimum, the connections for both
the top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned
to develop the design force in the flange through shear
in the bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified
in Article 10.56.1.3.2. Where filler plates are required,
the requirements of Article 10.18.1.2.1 shall also be
satisfied.
As a minimum, high-strength bolted connection for
both top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned
to prevent slip at an overload design force, Pfo, defined as
follows:
(10-4c)
(10-4d)
where:
a = 1.0 except that a lower value equal to (Mu/My)
may be used for flanges in compression at sections where Mu is less than My
Pfo=fo /RAg
(10-4e) +
where:
fo
= maximum flexural stress due to Group I loading

divided by 1.3 at the mid-thickness of the flange
under consideration for the smaller section at
the point of splice (psi)
R = reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
Article 10.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0
when fo is less than or equal to the specified
minimum yield strength of the web, Fyw. For
homogeneous girders, R shall always be taken
equal to 1.0
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-31
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ag = smaller gross flange area on either side of the

splice (in.2)
fo and R shall be computed using the gross section of the
member. The slip resistance of the connection shall be
computed from Equation (10-172).
+
10.18.2.2.3 In the case of the service load design
+ method, the splice plates shall be proportioned for a
+ design force, Pcf equal to the allowable flexural stress for
+ the flange under consideration at the point of splice, Fb,
times the smaller effective area, Ae, on either side of the
splice.
+
For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates,

the flange design forces shall be proportioned to the inner
and outer plates and their connections as specified in
Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ae, of each splice
plate shall be sufficient to ensure that the stress in the
splice plate does not exceed the allowable flexural stress
under its calculated portion of the design force. As a
minimum, the connections for both the top and bottom
flange splices shall be proportioned to develop the design
force in the flange through shear in the bolts and bearing
at the bolt holes, as specified in Table 10.3.23B. Where
filler plates are required, the requirements of Article
10.18.1.2.1 shall also be satisfied.
As a minimum, high-strength bolted connection for

+
+ both top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned
to prevent slip at a force equal to the flange design stress
times the smaller value of the gross flange area on either
side of the splice. The slip resistance of the connection
shall be determined as specified in Article 10.32.3.2.1.
+

web splice plates and their connections shall be proportioned for a design shear, Vwu equal to the shear capacity
of the smaller web at the point of splice, Vu.
+
+
+
+

web splice plates and their connections shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mvu due to the eccentricity of
the design shear at the point of splice defined as follows:
Mvu=Vwue
(10-4f)
Vwu = design shear in the web at the point of splice

defined in Article 10.18.2.3.2 (lb.)
e = distance from the centerline of the splice to the
centroid of the connection on the side of the joint
under consideration (in.)
+
+

web splice plates and their connections shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mwu, representing the portion of the flexural moment that is assumed to be resisted
by the web. Mwu shall be applied at the mid-depth of the
web. For sections where the neutral axis is not located at
mid-depth of the web, a horizontal design force resultant
in the web at the point of splice, Hwu, shall also be applied
at the mid-depth of the web. Mwu and Hwu may be
computed as follows:
where:
+
+
For non-compact sections:
M wu =
tw D 2
( RFcr + Fyf )
12
(10-4g)
H wu =
tw D
( Fyf RFcr )
2
(10-4h)
10.18.2.2.4 (Deleted)
10.18.2.3
Web Splices
10.18.2.3.1 In general, web splice plates and their

connections shall be proportioned for shear, a moment
due to eccentricity of the shear at the point of splice, and
a portion of the flexural moment that is assumed to be
resisted by the web at the point of splice. Webs shall be
spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The web
splice plates shall extend as near as practical for the full
depth between flanges.
10-32
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
For compact sections:
M wu =
tw Fyw
4
(D
4 yc2 )
H wu = 2t w yo Fyw
(10-4i)
(10-4j)
where:
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fcr = design flexural strength specified in Articles

10.50.1.2 and 10.50.2.2 for composite sections,
or determined by Mu /S xcRb , where Mu is defined
as in Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.3, 10.48.4 for
noncomposite sections (psi)
(psi)
Fyw = specified minimum yield strength of the web (psi)
yo = distance form the mid-depth of the web to the
plastic neutral axis (in.)
D = clear unsupported distance between flange components (in.)
tw = web thickness (in.)
fo = maximum flexural stress due to Group I loading

divided by 1.3 at the mid-thickness of the flange
under consideration for smaller section at the
point of splice (positive for tension; negative for
compression) (psi)
fof = flexural stress due to Group I loading divided by
1.3 at the mid-thickness of the other flange at
the point of splice concurrent with fo in the
flange under consideration (positive for ten- +
sion; negative for compression) (psi)
+
+
+ web splice plates and their connections shall be propor+ tioned for the most critical combination of Vwu , Mvu, Mwu ,
+ and Hwu . The connections shall be proportioned as eccentrically loaded connections to resist the resultant design force
through shear in the bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as
specified in Article 10.56.1.3.2. In addition, as a minimum,
high-strength bolted connections for web splices shall be
proportioned as eccentrically loaded connections to prevent
slip under the most critical combination of: 1) an overload
design shear, Vwo , 2) an overload design moment, Mvo, due
to the eccentricity of the overload design shear, 3) an
overload design moment, Mwo , applied at mid-depth of the
web representing the portion of the flexural moment that is
assumed to be resisted by the web, and 4) for sections where
the neutral axis is not located at mid-depth of the web, an
overload horizontal design force Hwo , applied at mid-depth
of the web, as follows:
+
Vwo = Vo
(10-4k)
Mvo = Vwo e
(10-4l)
where:
+
Vo = maximum shear in the web due to Group I

loading divided by 1.3 at the point of splice (lb.)
Mwo and Hwo may be determined as follows:
M wo =
Hwo =
tw D2
f o f of
12
t wD
( fo + f of )
2
(10-4m)
(10-4n)
fo and fof shall be computed using the gross section of the

member. The maximum resultant force on the eccentrically loaded connection shall not exceed the slip resistance computed from Equation (10-172) with Nb taken
equal to 1.0.
method, web splice plates and their connections shall be
proportioned for a design shear stress in the web at the
point of splice, Fw equal to the allowable shear stress in
the web at the point of splice, Fv.
+
+
+
+

method, web splice plates and their connections shall
be proportioned for a design moment, Mv due to the
eccentricity of the design shear at the point of splice
defined as follows:
Mv = FwDt we
(10-4o) +
where:
Fw = design shear stress in the web at the point of +
splice defined in Article 10.18.2.3.6 (psi)
+
D =
web depth (in.)
+
tw =web thickness (in.)
+
10.18.2.3.8 In the case of the service design method, +
web splice plates and their connections shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mw, representing the portion of
the flexural moment that is assumed to be resisted by the
web. Mw shall be applied at the mid-depth of the web. For
sections where the neutral axis is not located at mid-depth of
the web, a horizontal design force resultant in the web at the
point of splice, Hw, shall also be applied at the mid-depth of
the web. Mw and Hw may be computed as follows:
Mw =
SECTION 10
tw D2
( RFbc + Fbt )
12
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(10-4p) +
10-33
tw D
( Fbt RFbc )
2
Hw =
(10-4q)
maximum resultant force on the eccentrically loaded

connection shall not exceed the slip resistance computed
from Table 10.32.3.2.1 with Nb taken equal to 1.0.
where:
10.18.3
Compression Members
Compression members such as columns and chords

shall have ends in close contact at riveted and bolted splices.
Splices of such members which will be fabricated and
erected with close inspection and detailed with milled ends
in full contact bearing at the splices may be held in place by
means of splice plates and rivets or high-strength bolts
proportioned for not less than 50 percent of the lower
allowable design strength of sections spliced. The strength
of compression members connected by high-strength bolts
or rivets shall be determined using the gross section.

method, web splice plates and their connections shall be
proportioned for the most critical combination of FwDtw,
+ M , M , and H . The connections shall be proportioned
v
w
w
+ as eccentrically loaded connections to resist the resultant
design force through shear in the bolts and bearing at the
bolt holes, as specified in Table 10.32.3B. In addition, as
a minimum, high-strength bolted connections for web
splices shall be proportioned as eccentrically loaded
connections to prevent slip under the most critical combination of FwDtw, Mv, Mw, and Hw. Mw, and Hw shall be
computed using the gross section of the member. The
10.18.4
Tension Members
11/32"
3 /4 "
The tension strength of splice components shall be +

based on Article 10.12.3. For calculating the net section, +
the provisions of Articles 10.9 and 10.16.14 shall apply. +
6"
Fbt =
allowable compression flange stress specified in Table 10.32.1A (psi)

allowable tension flange stress specified in
Table 10.32.1A (psi)
3/32"
Fbc =
2'-0"
Radius
+
+
+
+
Butt Joint
4"
2"
Width of
Wider
Plate
2'-0
"R
adi
us
DETAIL OF WIDTH TRANSITION
Note: (b) deleted
us
adi
"R
2'-0
Butt Joint
Width of
Narrow Plate
(a) 2'-0" Radius

Transition
FIGURE 10.18.5A
10-34
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Splice Details
As a minimum, in the case of the strength design

method, high-strength bolted connections for splices in
tension members shall be proportioned to prevent slip at
an overload design force, Po, equal to the maximum
tensile stress in the member due to Group I loading
divided by 1.3 times the gross section of member. The
slip resistance shall be computed from Equation (10172). In the case of the service load design method, highstrength bolted connections shall be proportioned to
prevent slip at a force equal to the allowable design
strength specified in Article 10.18.1.1 times the gross
area of the member. The slip resistance of the connection
shall be determined as specified in Article 10.32.3.2.1.
10.18.5
Welding Splices
10.18.5.1
Tension and compression members may
be spliced by means of full penetration butt welds,
preferably without the use of splice plates.
10.18.5.2
Splices shall not be welded in field.
10.18.5.3
Material of different widths spliced by
butt welds shall have transitions conforming to Figure
10.18.5A. At butt weld splices joining material of different thicknesses there shall be a uniform slope between the
offset surfaces of not more than 1 in 2 1/2 with respect to
the surface of either part.
10.19
+ 10.19.1
+
+
+
+
CONNECTIONS
General
10.19.1.1 Except as otherwise provided herein, connections for main members shall be designed in the cases
of the service load design and the strength design methods for a capacity based on not less than 100 percent of
the allowable design strength in the member.
10.19.1.4 In the case of connections which transfer

total member shear at the end of the member, the gross
section shall be taken as the gross section of the connected elements.
10.19.2
End Connections of Floor Beams

and Stringers
10.19.2.1 The end connection shall be designed for

calculated member loads. The end connection angles of
floor beams and stringers shall be not less than 3/8 inch in
finished thickness. Except in cases of special end floor
beam details, each end connection for floor beams and
stringers shall be made with two angles. The length of
these angles shall be as great as the flanges will permit.
Bracket or shelf angles which may be used to furnish
support during erection shall not be considered in determining the number of fasteners required to transmit end
shear.
10.19.2.2
End connection details shall be designed
with special care to provide clearance for making the
field connection.
10.19.2.3
End connections of stringers and floor
beams preferably shall be bolted with high-strength bolts;
however, they may be riveted or welded. In the case of
welded end connections, they shall be designed for the
vertical loads and the end bending moment resulting
from the deflection of the members.
10.19.2.4
Where timber stringers frame into steel
floor beams, shelf angles with stiffeners shall be provided to carry the total reaction. Shelf angles shall be not
less than 7/16 inch thick.
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and

Cross Frames
10.19.3.1
10.19.1.2 Connections shall be made symmetrical

about the axis of the members insofar as practicable.
Connections, except for lacing bars and handrails, shall
contain not less than two fasteners or equivalent weld.
The end connections for diaphragms or

cross frames in straight rolled-beam and plate girder
bridges shall be designed for the calculated member
loads.
10.19.1.3 Members, including bracing, preferably shall

be so connected that their gravity axes will intersect in a
point. Eccentric connections shall be avoided, if practicable, but if unavoidable the members shall be so propor+ tioned that the combined forces will not exceed the
+ allowable design strength.
10.19.3.2 Vertical connection plates such as transverse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or cross frames
to the beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to both
top and bottom flanges.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-35
+ 10.19.4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Block Shear Rupture Strength
10.19.4.1
Allowable Block Shear Rupture

Stress
+
In the Service Load Design Method, calculated ten+ sion stress based on the gross section shall not exceed the
+ allowable block shear rupture stress obtained from the
+ following equations:
Atn 0.6 Avn
for
Fbs = (0.33 Fy Avg + 0.5 5Fu Atn ) / Ag
for
Fbs = (0.33 Fu Avn + 0.55 Fy Atg ) / Ag
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ag =
Avg =
Avn =
Atg =
Atn =
Fy =
+
+
(10-4r)
Atn < 0.6 Avn
SECTION 10
In the Strength Design Method, calculated tension +

force shall not exceed the design block shear rupture +
strength obtained from the following equations:
+
+
Atn 0.58 Avn
for
+
Tbs = bs (0.58 Fy Avg + Fu Atn )

for
(10-4s)
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(10-4t)
+
+
Atn < 0.58 Avn
Tbs = bs (0.58 Fu Avn + Fy Atg )
(10-4u) +
+
+
where:
+
Tbs = design block shear rupture strength (lb.)
bs = 0.8, reduction factor for block shear rupture +
+
strength
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES

10.20.1
gross area of whole connected material (in.2)

gross area along the plane resisting shear (in.2)
net area along the plane resisting shear (in.2)
gross area along the plane resisting tension (in.2)
net area along the plane resisting tension (in.2)
specified minimum yield strength of the connected materials (psi)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the connected materials (psi)
Fbs = allowable block shear rupture stress (psi)
10-36
Design Block Shear Rupture

Strength
General
Block shear rupture is one of several possible failure

modes for splices, connections, gusset plates and tension
members. Block shear rupture failure is developed when
the net section of one segment ruptures and the gross
section of a perpendicular segment yields. The web
connections of coped beams, all tension connections
including connection plates, splice plates and gusset
plates, and tension members shall be investigated to
ensure that the adequate block shear rupture strength is
provided.
10.19.4.2
10.19.4.3
General
Rolled beam and plate girder spans shall be provided

with cross frames or diaphragms at each support and with
cross frames or diaphragms placed in all bays and spaced
at intervals not to exceed 25 feet. Diaphragms for rolled
beams shall be at least 1/3 and preferably 1/2 the beam
depth and for plate girders shall be at least 1/2 and
preferably 3/4 the girder depth. Cross frames shall be as
deep as practicable. Cross frames shall preferably be of
the cross type or vee type. End cross frames or diaphragms shall be proportioned to adequately transmit all
the lateral forces to the bearings. Intermediate cross
frames shall be normal to the main beams and girders
when the supports are skewed more than twenty degrees
(20). Cross frames on horizontally curved steel girder
bridges shall be designed as main members with adequate provisions for transfer of lateral forces from the
girder flanges. Cross frames and diaphragms shall be
designed for horizontal wind loads as described in Article
10.21.2, seismic loads and other applicable loads.
+
+
+ 10.20.2
+
Horizontal Force
The maximum horizontal force, FD (lb.), in the transverse diaphragms and cross frames is obtained from the
following:
FD = 1.14WSd
(10-5)
+
+
+
where:
W = wind load along the exterior flange (lb/ft)
Sd = diaphragm spacing (ft)
10.20.2.1
Deleted
10.20.2.2
Deleted
10.20.3
Deleted
L = span length (ft.)

tf = thickness of flange (in.)
bf = width of flange (in.)
+
+
The stresses in flanges of each girder in the system

when top flanges are not continuously supported shall be
computed using the structural system in the plane of the
flanges under consideration. The allowable stress shall
be factored in accordance with Article 3.22.
10.21.3
When required, lateral bracing shall be placed

in the exterior bays between diaphragms or cross frames.
All required lateral bracing shall be placed in or near the
plane of the flange being braced.
10.21.4
+ 10.21 LATERAL BRACING
10.21.1
The need for lateral bracing shall be

+ investigated for wind loads, seismic loads and other
+ applicable lateral loads. Flanges attached to concrete
decks or other decks of comparable rigidity will not
require lateral bracing.
Where beams or girders comprise the main

members of through spans, such members shall be
stiffened against lateral deformation by means of gusset
plates or knee braces with solid webs which shall be
connected to the stiffeners on the main members and the
floor beams. If the unsupported length of the edge of the
gusset plate (or solid web) exceeds 60 times its thickness,
the plate or web shall have a stiffening plate or angles
connected along its unsupported edge.
10.21.5
+
+
+
+
+
10.21.2 A horizontal wind force of 50 pounds per

square foot shall be applied to the area of the superstructure
exposed in elevation. Half this force shall be applied in
the plane of each flange. The maximum induced stresses,
f (psi), in the bottom flange of each girder in the system
when top flanges are continuously supported can be
computed from the following:
f = R f cb
Through truss spans, deck truss spans, and

spandrel braced arches shall have top and bottom lateral
bracing.
10.21.6
Bracing shall be composed of angles, other

shapes, or welded sections. The smallest angle used in
bracing shall be 3 by 21/2 inches. There shall be not less
than 2 fasteners or equivalent weld in each end connection
of the angles.
(10-6)
10.21.7
+
when no bottom lateral
R = [0.2272 L 11]S d 2 / 3
bracing is provided
(10-7)
If a double system of bracing is used, both

systems may be considered effective simultaneously if
the members meet the requirements both as tension and
compression members. The members shall be connected
at their intersections.
10.21.8
The lateral bracing of compression chords

preferably shall be as deep as the chords and effectively
connected to both flanges.
when bottom lateral
R = [0.059 L 0.64]S d1 / 2
bracing is provided
(10-8)
f cb =
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS
72 M cb
t f b 2f
M cb = 0.08W S
(10-9)
10.22.1
2
d
(10-10)
Closed sections, and pockets or depressions

that will retain water, shall be avoided where practicable.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-37
+
+
+
+
Pockets shall be provided with effective drain holes or be

filled with waterproofing material.
10.22.2
Details shall be so arranged that the destructive

effects of bird life and the retention of dirt, leaves, and
other foreign matter will be reduced to a minimum.
Where angles are used, either singly or in pairs, they
preferably shall be placed with the vertical legs extending
downward. Structural tees preferably shall have the web
extending downward.
10.23 WELDING
10.23.1
General
10.23.1.2 Welding symbols shall conform with

the latest edition of the American Welding Society Publication AWS A2.4.
10.23.1.3 Fabrication shall conform to the Standard Specifications of the California Department of Transportation. For fracture critical members see the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members.
10.23.2
Effective Size of Fillet Welds
10.23.2.1
Maximum Size of Fillet Welds
The maximum size of a fillet weld that may be assumed in the design of a connection shall be such that the
stresses in the adjacent base material do not exceed the
values allowed in Article 10.32. The maximum size that
may be used along edges of connected parts shall be:
Base Metal
Thickness of
Minimum Size
Thicker Part
of Fillet Weld*
Jointed (T)
in.
mm
in.
mm
T 3/4 T 19.0 1/4
6
Single-pass Welds
10-38
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
T> 19.0
5/
16
} must be used
* Except that the weld size need not exceed the

thickness of the thinner part jointed. For this exception, particular care should be taken to provide
sufficient preheat to ensure weld soundness.
** Smaller fillet welds may be approved by the
Engineer based upon applied stress and the use of
appropriate preheat.
10.23.3
Minimum Effective Length

of Fillet Welds
The minimum effective length of a fillet weld shall be

four times its size and in no case less than 11/2 inches.
10.23.4
Fillet Weld End Returns
Fillet welds which support a tensile force that is not

parallel to the axis of the weld, or which are proportioned
to withstand repeated stress, shall not terminate at corners
of parts or members but shall be returned continuously,
full size, around the corner for a length equal to twice the
weld size where such return can be made in the same
plane. End returns shall be indicated on design and detail
drawings.
10.23.5
(1) Along edges of material less than 1/4 inch thick,
the maximum size may be equal to the thickness
of the material.
(2) Along edges of material 1/4 inch or more in
thickness, the maximum size shall be 1/16 inch less
than the thickness of the material, unless the weld
is especially designated on the drawings to be
built out to obtain full throat thickness.
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in

the following table**.
T > 3/4
10.23.1.1
Steel base metal to be welded, weld
metal, and welding design details shall conform to the
requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge
+ Welding Code and the current Standard Specifications of
+ the California Department of Transportation.
+
+
+
+
+
10.23.2.2
Seal Welds
Seal welding shall preferably be accomplished by a

continuous weld combining the functions of sealing and
strength, changing section only as the required strength
or the requirements of minimum size fillet weld, based on
material thickness, may necessitate.
+ 10.24 FASTENERS
10.24.1
General
10.24.1.1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
In proportioning fasteners, for shear and

tension the cross-sectional area based upon the nominal
diameter shall be used. Galvanization of AASHTO M253
(ASTM A490) and A354 Grade BD high strength bolts is
not permitted due to hydrogen embrittlement problems.
These fasteners must be carefully evaluated before being
utilized. Requirements for bolts in these specifications
shall be used for threaded rods, threaded studs and anchor
rods, where applicable.
10.24.1.2 High-strength bolts may be substituted for

Grade 1 rivets (ASTM A 502) or ASTM A307 bolts. When
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) high-strength bolts are
+ substituted for ASTM A307 bolts they shall be tightened to
the full effort of a man using an ordinary spud wrench.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.24.1.3 All bolts, except high-strength bolts

tensioned to the requirements of the Standard Specifications
of the California Department of Transportation, shall have
single self-locking nut, double nuts, or a nut with a thread
locking system (anaerobic adhesive) to prevent nut loosening. The thread locking system is the preferred method for
bolt diameters of one inch or less. The thread locking system
shall not be used on bolt diameters greater than one inch.
When using the double nut method a torque value for the jam
nut, relative to the main nut, shall be shown on the plans to
assure that a reasonable effort will be made to lock the two
nuts together.
10.24.1.4 Joints required to resist shear between

their connected parts are designated as either slip-critical
+ or bearing-type connections. Slip-critical joints are re+ quired for joints subject to stress reversal, heavy impact
loads, severe vibration or where stress and strain due to
joint slippage would be detrimental to the serviceability
of the structure. They include:
(4) Joints subject to significant load reversal.

(5) Joints in which welds and bolts share in transmitting load at a common faying surface.
(6) Joints in which, in the judgment of the Engineer,
any slip would be critical to the performance of
the joint or the structure and so designated on the
contract plans and specifications.
10.24.1.5 High-strength bolted connections subject to tension, or combined shear and tension shall be
designed as slip-critical connections.
10.24.1.6 Bolted bearing-type connections using
high-strength bolts shall be limited to members in compression and secondary members.
10.24.1.7 The effective bearing area of a fastener
shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the
metal on which it bears. In metal less than 3/8 inch thick,
countersunk fasteners shall not be assumed to carry
stress. In metal 3/8 inch thick and over, one-half the depth
of countersink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing
area.
10.24.1.8 In determining whether the bolt threads
are excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces, thread length of bolts shall be calculated as two
thread pitches greater than the specified thread length as
an allowance for thread run out.
10.24.1.9 In bearing-type connections, pull-out
shear in a plate should be investigated between the end of
the plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table 10.32.3B,
footnote h or Article 10.56.1.3.).
(1) Joints subject to fatigue loading.

(2) Joints with bolts installed in oversized holes.
(3) Except where the Engineer intends otherwise and
so indicates in the contract documents, joints with
bolts installed in slotted holes where the force on
the joint is in a direction other than normal (between approximately 80 and 100 degrees) to the
axis of the slot.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-39
+
+
TABLE 10.24.2 Nominal Hole Dimension
Bolt
Diameter (in.)
Standard
Oversize
(Diameter) (Diameter)
/8
11
/16
13
/4
13
/16
15
/8
15
/16
11/16
11/16
11/4
11/8
d + 1/16
d + 5/16
5
3
57
10.24.2
Hole Dimension (in.)

Long Slot
(Width x Length)
/16 x 7/8
11
13
/16 x 1
13
/16 x 11/8
15
/16
11
/16
15
11/16 x 15/16
+
+
/16 x 19/16
/16 x 17/8
/16 x 23/16
11/16 x 21/2
(d + 1/16) x (d + 3/8) (d + 1/16) x (2.5 x d)
Hole Types
Hole types for high-strength bolted connections are

standard holes, oversize holes, short slotted holes and long
slotted holes. The nominal dimensions for each type hole
+ shall be not greater than those shown in Table 10.24.2.
10.24.2.1 In the absence of approval by the Engineer for use of other hole types, standard holes shall be
used in high-strength bolted connections.
10.24.2.2 When approved by the Engineer, oversize, short slotted hole or long slotted holes may be used
subject to the following joint detail requirements.
10.24.2.2.1 Oversize holes may be used in all plies
of connections which satisfy the requirements of Article
10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3, as applicable. Oversize
holes shall not be used in bearing-type connections.
10.24.2.2.2 Short slotted holes may be used in any
or all plies of high-strength bolted connections designed
on the basis of Table 10.32.3B or Table 10.56A, as
applicable, provided the load is applied approximately
normal (between 80 and 100 degrees) to the axis of the
slot. Short slotted holes may be used without regard for
the direction of applied load in any or all plies of connections which satisfy the requirements of Article 10.32.3.2.1
or Article 10.57.3.1, as applicable.
10.24.2.2.3 Long slotted holes may be used in one

of the connected parts at any individual faying surface in
high-strength bolted connections designed on the basis of
Table 10.32.3B or Table 10.56A, as applicable, provided
the load is applied approximately normal (between 80
10-40
Short Slot
(Width x Length)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
and 100 degrees) to the axis of the slot. Long slotted holes
may be used in one of the connected parts at any individual
faying surface without regard for the direction of applied
load on connections which satisfy the requirements of
Article 10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3.1, as applicable.
10.24.3 Washer Requirements

Design details shall provide for washers in highstrength bolted connections as follows:
10.24.3.1 Where the outer face of the bolted parts

has slope greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal
to the bolt axis, a hardened beveled washer shall be used
to compensate for the lack of parallelism. Beveled washers other than the standard 1:6 slope shall be detailed in
the plans.
+
+
+
10.24.3.2 Hardened washers are not required for

connections using AASHTO M164 (ASTM A325) and
AASHTO M253 (ASTM A490) bolts except as required
in Articles 10.24.3.3 through 10.24.3.7.
10.24.3.3 Hardened washers shall be used under
the element turned in tightening and to cover oversize or
short slotted holes in the outer ply.
+
+
10.24.3.4 Irrespective of the tightening method,

hardened washers shall be used under both the head and
the nut when AASHTO M253 (ASTM A490) bolts are to
be installed in material having a specified yield strength
less than 40,000 psi.
+
+
+
10.24.3.5 Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)

bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be
installed in an oversize or short slotted hole in an outer
ply, a hardened washer conforming to ASTM F 436 shall
be used.
10.24.4.4 Structural shapes which do not admit the

use of 5/8-inch diameter fasteners shall not be used except
in handrails.
10.24.5
Spacing of Fasteners
10.24.5.1
Pitch and Gage of Fasteners
10.24.3.6
When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)

bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in an oversize
or short slotted hole in an outer ply, hardened washers
conforming to ASTM F 436 except with 5/16 inch minimum
thickness shall be used under both the head and the nut in lieu
of standard thickness hardened washers. Multiple hardened
washers with combined thickness equal to or greater than 5/
16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
The pitch of fasteners is the distance along the line of

principal stress, between centers of adjacent fasteners, +
measured along one or more fastener lines. The gage of
fasteners is the distance between adjacent lines of fasten- +
ers or the distance from the back of angle or other shape
to the first line of fasteners.
10.24.5.2
Minimum Spacing of Fasteners
10.24.3.7
Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)

bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be installed
in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a plate washer or
continuous bar of at least 5/16 inch thickness with standard
holes shall be provided. These washers or bars shall have a
size sufficient to completely cover the slot after installation
and shall be of structural grade material but need not be
hardened except as follows. When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM
A 490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be used in long
slotted holes in external plies, a single hardened washer
conforming to ASTM F436 but with 5/16 inch minimum
thickness shall be used in lieu of washers or bars of structural
grade material. Multiple hardened washers with combined
thickness equal to or greater than 5/16 inch do not satisfy this
requirement.
10.24.4
Size of Fasteners (Rivets or

High-Strength Bolts)
10.24.4.1
Fasteners shall be of the size shown on

the drawings, but generally shall be 3/4 inch or 7/8 inch in
diameter. Fasteners 5/8 inch in diameter shall not be used
+ in members carrying design loads except in 21/2-inch
legs of angles and in flanges of sections.
10.24.4.2
The diameter of fasteners in angles car+ rying design loads shall not exceed one-fourth the width
of the leg in which they are placed.
The minimum distance between centers of fasteners in

standard holes shall be three times the diameter of the
fastener but, preferably, shall not be less than the following:
+
Fastener Diameter
(in.)
Minimum Spacing
(in.)
31/2
/8
/4
21/2
/8
2 /4
7
3
10.24.5.3
+
+
Minimum Clear Distance

between Holes
When oversize or slotted holes are used, the minimum

clear distance between the edges of adjacent holes in the
direction of the force and transverse to the direction of the
force shall not be less than twice the diameter of the bolt.
10.24.5.4
Maximum Spacing of Fasteners
The maximum spacing of fasteners shall be in accordance with the provisions of Articles 10.24.6, as applicable.
10.24.4.3 In angles whose size is not determined

+ by design loads, 5/8-inch fasteners may be used in 2-inch
legs, 3/4-inch fasteners in 21/2-inch legs, 7/8-inch fasteners
in 3-inch legs, and 1-inch fasteners in 31/2-inch legs.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-41
10.24.6
Maximum Spacing of Sealing and

Stitch Fasteners
10.24.6.1
Sealing Fasteners
For sealing against the penetration of moisture in

joints, the fastener spacing along a single line of fasteners
adjacent to a free edge of an outside plate or shape shall
not exceed 4 inches + 4t or 7 inches. If there is a second
line of fasteners uniformly staggered with those in the
line adjacent to the free edge, at a gage g less than 11/
2 inches + 4t therefrom, the staggered pitch in two such
lines, considered together, shall not exceed 4 inches + 4t
3g/4 or 7 inches, but need not be less than one-half the
+ requirement for a single line, where t is the thickness of
+ the thinner outside plate or shape (in.), and g is the gage
+ between fasteners (in.).
10.24.6.2
The maximum pitch of fasteners in built-up members

shall be governed by the requirements for sealing or stitch
fasteners, which is minimum.
For pitch of fasteners in the ends of compression
members, see Article 10.16.13.
Edge Distance of Fasteners
10.24.7.1
General
The distance from the center of any fastener in a

+ standard hole to an edge of a connected part shall not be
+ less than the applicable value specified in Table
+ 10.24.7.1.A.
10-42
10.24.7.2 When there is only a single transverse

fastener in the direction of the line of force in a standard
or short slotted hole, the distance from the center of the
hole to the edge of the connected part shall not be less than
11/2 times the diameter of the fastener, unless accounted
for by the bearing provisions of Table 10.32.3B or Article
10.56.1.3.2.
10.24.7.3 When oversize or slotted holes are used,
the distance between edges of holes and edges of members shall not be less than the diameter of the bolt.
TABLE 10.24.7.1A Minimum Edge Distance from +
Center of Standard Hole to Edge of Connected Part +
Stitch Fasteners
In built-up members where two or more plates or

shapes are in contact, stitch fasteners shall be used to
ensure that the parts act as a unit and, in compression
members, to prevent buckling. In compression members
the pitch of stitch fasteners on any single line in the
direction of stress shall not exceed 12t, except that, if the
fasteners on adjacent lines are staggered and the gage, g,
between the line under consideration and the farther
adjacent line (if there are more than two lines) is less than
24t, the staggered pitch in the two lines, considered
together, shall not exceed 12t or 15t 3g/8. The gage
between adjacent lines of fasteners shall not exceed 24t.
In tension members the pitch shall not exceed twice that
specified for compression members and the gage shall
not exceed that specified for compression members.
10.24.7
The maximum distance from the center of any fastener

to any edge shall be eight times the thickness of the
thinnest outside plate, but shall not exceed 5 inches.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Fasteners
Diameter
(in.)
At Sheared
or Thermally
Cut Edges
(in.)
At Rolled
or Planed
Edges
(in.)
At Flange
Edges of
Beams and
Channels
(in.)
+
+
+
+
+
1
/8
3
/4
5
/8
13/4
11/2
11/4
11/8
11/2
11/4
11/8
1
11/4
11/8
1
7
/8
+
+
+
+
10.24.8
Long Rivets
Rivets subjected to design forces and having a grip in +

excess of 41/2 diameters shall be increased in number at
least 1 percent for each additional 1/16 inch of grip. If the
grip exceeds six times the diameter of the rivet, specially
designed rivets shall be used.
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS

10.25.1
Net Section
In pin-connected tension members other than eyebars,

the net section across the pin hole shall be not less than
140 percent, and the net section back of the pin hole not
less than 100 percent of the required net section of the
body of the member. The ratio of the net width (through
the pin hole transverse to the axis of the member) to the
thickness of the segment shall not be more than 8. Flanges
not bearing on the pin shall not be considered in the net
section across the pin.
Pin plates are not recommended in new construction.

+
The
thickness required shall be full length. Hanger plates
+
shall
be designed to provide free movement of the parts.
+
10.25.2
Location of Pins
10.26 UPSET ENDS
Pins shall be so located with respect to the gravity axis

of the members as to reduce to a minimum the stresses
due to bending.
10.25.3
Size of Pins
Pins shall be proportioned for the maximum shears

and
bending moments produced by the members con+
nected.
If there are eyebars among the parts connected,
+
the diameter of the pin shall be not less than
Fy
3
4 + 400,000 beb
(10-11)
where:
+
+
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of steel (psi)

b eb = width of the body of the eyebar (in.)
10.25.4
Pin Plates
When necessary for the required section or bearing

area, the section at the pin holes shall be increased on each
segment by plates so arranged as to reduce to a minimum
the eccentricity of the segment. One plate on each side
shall be as wide as the outstanding flanges will allow. At
least one full-width plate on each segment shall extend to
the far edge of the stay plate and the others not less than
6 inches beyond the near edge. These plates shall be
+ connected by enough rivets, bolts, or fillet welds to
transmit the bearing pressure, and so arranged as to
distribute it uniformly over the full section.
10.25.5
10.25.5.2
Members shall be restrained against lateral movement on the pins and against lateral distortion
due to the skew of the bridge.
Pins and Pin Nuts
10.25.5.1
Pins shall be of sufficient length to secure
a full bearing of all parts connected upon the turned body of
the pin. They shall be secured in position by hexagonal
recessed nuts or by hexagonal solid nuts with washers. If the
pins are bored, through rods with cap washers may be used.
+ Pin nuts shall be malleable castings or steel. They shall be
+ secured by cotter pins or other suitable locking devices
+ which will not affect the removal of the nut.
Bars and rods with screw ends, where specified, shall

be upset to provide a section at the root of the thread,
which will exceed the net section of the body of the
member by at least 15 percent.
10.27 EYEBARS
10.27.1
Thickness and Net Section
Eyebars shall be of a uniform thickness without reinforcement at the pin holes. The thickness of eyebars shall
be not less that 1 /8 of the width, nor less than 1 /2 inch, and
not greater than 2 inches. The section of the head through
the center of the pin hole shall exceed the required section
of the body of the bar by at least 35 percent. The net
section back of the pin hole shall not be less than 75
percent of the required net section of the body of the
member. The radius of transition between the head and
body of the eyebar shall be equal to or greater than the
width of the head through the centerline of the pin hole.
10.27.2
Packing of Eyebars
10.27.2.1 The eyebars of a set shall be symmetrical

about the central plane of the truss and as nearly parallel
as practicable. Bars shall be as close together as practicable and held against lateral movement, but they shall be
so arranged that adjacent bars in the same panel will be
separated by at least 1 /2 inch.
10.27.2.2 Intersecting diagonal bars not far enough
apart to clear each other at all times shall be clamped
together at the intersection.
10.27.2.3 Steel filling rings shall be provided, if
needed, to prevent lateral movement of eyebars or other
members connected on the pin.
10.28 FORKED ENDS
Forked ends will be permitted only where unavoidable. There shall be enough pin plates on forked ends to
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-43
make the section of each jaw equal to that of the member.

The pin plates shall be long enough to develop the pin
plate beyond the near edge of the stay plate, but not less
than the length required by Article 10.25.4.
10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS

10.29.1
General
10.29.1.1
Fixed ends shall be firmly anchored.
Bearings for spans less than 50 feet need have no provi+ sion for rotation. Spans of 50 feet or greater shall be
+ provided with a type of bearing to accommodate rotation.
+
10.29.1.2
Expansion ends shall be provided with a
+ type of bearing to accommodate rotation and expansion.
+
10.29.1.3
Deleted
+ 10.29.2
Deleted
+ 10.29.3
Deleted
+ 10.29.4
Sole Plates and Masonry Plates
10.29.4.1
Sole plates and masonry plates shall

have a minimum thickness of 3/4 inch.
10.29.4.2 For spans on inclined grades greater

than 1 percent without hinged bearings, the sole plates
shall be beveled so that the bottom of the sole plate is
level, unless the bottom of the sole plate is radially
curved.
10.29.5
Masonry Bearings
Beams, girders, or trusses on masonry shall be so

supported that the bottom chords or flanges will be above
the bridge seat, preferably not less than 6 inches.
+ 10.29.6
Anchor Rods
10.29.6.1
+
+
+
+
+
+
Trusses, girders, and rolled beam spans

preferably shall be securely anchored to the substructure.
Anchor rods shall be headed, hooked, or threaded with
a nut to secure a satisfactory grip upon the material used
to embed them in the holes. All anchor rods shall conform
to specifications shown in Table 10.2C. High strength
steels (quenched and tempered) are not recommended for
use in hooked anchor rods since bending with heat may
10-44
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
affect their strength. The embedded end of a threaded rod

with a nut shall have a positive locking device or system to
prevent rod rotation when a nut is installed on other end.
+
+
+
10.29.6.2 The following are the minimum requirements for each bearing:
For rolled beam spans the outer beams shall be anchored at each end with 2 rods, 1 inch in diameter, set
10 inches in the masonry.
For trusses and girders:

Spans 50 feet in length or less; 2 rods, 1 inch in
diameter set 10 inches in the masonry.
Spans 51 to 100 feet; 2 rods, 11/4 inches in

diameter, set 12 inches in the masonry.
Spans 101 to 150 feet; 2 rods, 11/2 inches in diameter, set 15 inches in the masonry.
Spans greater than 150 feet; 4 rods, 11/2 inches in

diameter, set 15 inches in the masonry.
10.29.6.3 Anchor rods shall be designed to resist

uplift as specified in Article 3.17 and seismic forces
specified in Article 3.21. Other restraining devices may
be used in conjunction with anchor rods.
+
+
+
+
10.29.7
Pedestals and Shoes
10.29.7.1 Pedestals and shoes preferably shall be

made of cast steel or structural steel. The difference in
width between the top and bottom bearing surfaces shall
not exceed twice the distance between them. For hinged
bearings, this distance shall be measured from the center
of the pin. In built-up pedestals and shoes, the web plates
and angles connecting them to the base plate shall be not
less than 5/8 inch thick. If the size of the pedestal permits,
the webs shall be rigidly connected transversely. The
minimum thickness of the metal in cast steel pedestals
shall be 1 inch. Pedestals and shoes shall be so designed
that the load will be distributed uniformly over the entire
bearing.
10.29.7.2 Webs and pin holes in the webs shall be
arranged to keep any eccentricity to a minimum. The net
section through the hole shall provide 140 percent of the

net section required for the design load transmitted through
the pedestal or shoe. Pins shall be of sufficient length to
secure a full bearing. Pins shall be secured in position by
appropriate nuts with washers. All portions of pedestals
and shoes shall be held against lateral movement of the
pins.
10.30.5
End Floor Beams
There shall be end floor beams in all square-ended

trusses and girder spans and preferably in skew spans.
End floor beams for truss spans preferably shall be
designed to permit the use of jacks for lifting the superstructure. For this case the allowable stresses may be
increased 50 percent.
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM

10.30.6
10.30.1
Stringers preferably shall be framed into floor beams.

Stringers supported on the top flanges of floor beams
preferably shall be continuous.
10.30.2
End Panel of Skewed Bridges
Stringers
Floor Beams
Floor beams preferably shall be at right angles to the

trusses or main girders and shall be rigidly connected
thereto. Floor beam connections preferably shall be located so the lateral bracing system will engage both the
floor beam and the main supporting member. In pinconnected trusses, if the floor beams are located below
the bottom chord pins, the vertical posts shall be extended
sufficiently below the pins to make a rigid connection to
the floor beam.
In skew bridges without end floor beams, the end

panel stringers shall be secured in correct position by end
struts connected to the stringers and to the main truss or
girder. The end panel lateral bracing shall be attached to
the main trusses or girders and also to the end struts.
Adequate provisions shall be made for the expansion
movement of stringers.
10.30.7
Sidewalk Brackets
Sidewalk brackets shall be connected in such a way

that the bending stresses will be transferred directly to the
floor beams.
10.30.8
Stay-in-Place Deck Forms
10.30.8.1
10.30.3
In bridges with wooden floors and steel stringers,

intermediate cross frames (or diaphragms) shall be
placed between stringers more than 20 feet long.
10.30.4
Concrete Deck Panels
Cross Frames
Expansion Joints
10.30.4.1 To provide for expansion and contraction movement, floor expansion joints shall be provided
at all expansion ends of spans and at other points where
they may be necessary.
10.30.4.2
Apron plates, when used, shall be designed to bridge the joint and to prevent, so far as
practicable, the accumulation of roadway debris upon
the bridge seats. Preferably, they shall be connected
rigidly to the end floor beam.
When precast prestressed deck panels are used as

permanent forms spanning between beams, stringers, or
girders, the requirements of Article 9.12, Deck Panels,
and Article 9.23, Deck Panels, shall be met.
10.30.8.2
Metal Stay-in-Place Forms
When metal stay-in-place forms are used as permanent forms spanning between beams, stringers, or girders,
the forms shall be designed a minimum of, to support the
weight of the concrete (including that in the corrugations, if
applicable), a construction load of 50 psf, and the weight of
the form. The forms shall be designed to be elastic under
construction loads. The elastic deformation caused by the
dead load of the forms, plastic concrete and reinforcement,
shall not exceed a deflection greater than L/80 or one half
inch, for form work spans (L) of 10 feet or less, or a
deflection of L/240 or three-quarter inch, for form work for
spans L over 10 feet. Dead load due to metal stay-in-place
forms shall be taken into account in design of girders.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-45
+
+
+
+
+
Part C
10.31 SCOPE
Allowable stress design is a method for proportioning
structural members using design loads and forces, allowable stresses, and design limitations for the appropriate
material under service conditions. See Part D Strength
+ Design Method Load Factor Design for a preferred
design procedure.
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Steel
Allowable stresses for steel shall be as specified in

Table 10.32.1A.
10.32.2
Weld Metal
Unless otherwise specified, the ultimate strength of

weld metal shall be equal to or greater than specified
+ minimum value of the base metal. Allowable stresses on
the effective areas of weld metal shall be as follows:
Butt Welds
The same as the base metal joined, except in the case
of joining metals of different yields when the lower
yield material shall govern.
Fillet Welds
Fv = 0.27 Fu
(10-12)
where:
+
Fv = allowable basic shear stress (psi)

Fu = tensile strength of the electrode classification
(psi).
When detailing fillet welds for quenched and tempered steels the designer may use electrode classifications with strengths less than the base metal provided
that this requirement is clearly specified on the plans.
10-46
SECTION 10
Fasteners
Allowable stresses for fasteners shall be as listed in

Tables 10.32.3A and 10.32.3B, and the allowable force
on a slip-critical connection shall be as provided by
Article 10.32.3.2.1.
10.32.1
10.32.3
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.32.3.1
General
10.32.3.1.1 In proportioning fasteners for shear or

tension, the cross sectional area based upon the nominal
diameter shall be used except as otherwise noted.
10.32.3.1.2 The effective bearing area of a fastener
shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the
metal on which it bears. In metal less than 3/8 inch thick,
countersunk fasteners shall not be assumed to carry load.
In metal 3/8 inch thick and over, one-half of the depth of
countersink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing
area.
10.32.3.1.3 In determining whether the bolt threads

are excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces, thread length of bolts shall be calculated as at least
two thread pitches greater than the specified thread length
as an allowance for thread run out.
10.32.3.1.4 In bearing-type connections, pull-out

shear in a plate should be investigated between the end of
the plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table 10.32.3B,
footnote g.).
10.32.3.1.5 Deleted
10.32.3.1.6 Joints, utilizing high-strength bolts,
required to resist shear between their connected parts are
designated as either slip-critical (see Article 10.24.1.4) or
bearing-type connections. Shear connections subjected
to stress reversal, or where slippage would be undesirable, shall be slip-critical connections. Potential slip of
joints should be investigated at intermediate load stages
especially those joints located in composite regions.
10.32.3.1.7 The percentage of stress increase shown
in Article 3.22, Combination of Loads, shall apply to
allowable stresses in bolted slip-critical connections using high-strength bolts, except that in no case shall the
percentage of allowable stress exceed 133 percent, and
the requirements of Article 10.32.3.3 shall not be exceeded.
10.32.3.1.8 Bolted bearing-type connections shall

be limited to members in compression and secondary
members.
+
+
+
+
10.32.3.2 The allowable stress in shear, bearing

and tension for AASHTO M164 (ASTM A325) and
AASHTO M253 (ASTM A490) bolts shall be as listed in
Table 10.32.3B.
High strength bolts installed according to the Standard
Specifications of the California Department of Transportation, Section 55, will be fully tensioned and the contact
surface condition of the assembly will be Class B.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-47
+
+
TABLE 10.32.1A Allowable StressesStructural Steel (psi)
AASHTO Designation
M 270
Grade 36
M 270
Grade 50
M 270
Grade 50W
M 270
Grades 100/100W
Equivalent ASTM Designation
A 709
Grade 36
A 709
Grade 50
A 709
A 709
Grade 50W Grade HPS 70W
A 709
Grades 100/100W
Thickness of Plates
Up to
4" included
Up to
4" included
Up to
4" included
Shapes
All Groups
All Groups
All Groups
N/A
N/A
Axial tension in members with no

holes for high-strength bolts or rivets.
0.55 Fy
20,000
27,000
27,000
38,000
N/A
Use net section when member has

any open holes larger than 11/4 inch
diameter such as perforations.
0.46 Fu
Axial tension in members with holes

for high-strength bolts or rivets and
tension in extreme fiber of rolled
shapes girders, and built-up sections
subject to bending. Satisfy both
Gross and Net Section criterion.
Gross Sectioni
0.55 Fy
20,000
27,000
27,000
38,000
N/A
Net Section
0.50 Fu
29,000
32,500
35,000
45,000
N/A
+
+
N/A
Net Section
0.46 Fu
Axial compression, gross section:
stiffeners of plate girders. Compression
in splice material, gross section
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Compression in extreme fibers of

doubly symmetrical I- and H-shape
members with compact flanges
continuously connected to the web
and bent about their weak axes (except
members with the yield strength
greater than 65,000 psi); solid round
and square bars; and solid rectangular
sections bent about their weak axes
Up to
Up to
Over 21/2" to
4" included 21/2" included 4" included
51,000
N/A
46,000
51,000
46,000
20,000
27,000
27,000
38,000
55,000
49,000
0.625 Fy
22,000
31,000
31,000
43,000
62,000
62,000
0.55 Fy
20,000
27,000
27,000
38,000
55,000
49,000
Compression in extreme fibers of

rolled shapes, girders, and built-up
sections subject to bending. Gross
section, when compression flange is:
(A) Supported laterally its full length
by embedment in concrete
(B) Partially supported or is unsupported a, b

2
Fb =
10-48
50 106 Cb I yc
J
d
0.772 + 9.87 0.55Fy
Sxc
I yc
l
l
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
TABLE 10.32.1A Allowable StressesStructural Steel (psi) (continued)
+
+
12.5M max
Cb =
2.5M max + 3M A+ 4 M B + 3M c
+
where:
Mm a x
MA
MB
MC
=
=
=
=
+
+
+
+
absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)

absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
absolute value of moment at midpoint of the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
absolute value of moment at three- quarter point of the unbraced segment (lb-in.)
C b = 1.0 for unbraced cantilevers and for members where the moment within a significant portion of the unbraced segment is greater than or equal to
the larger of the segment end moments.
Compression in concentrically loaded columns
with C c = (2 2E/Fy)1/2 =
126.1
107.0
107.0
90.4
75.7
79.8
16,980
0.53 (KL/r)2
23,580
1.03 (KL/r)2
23,580
1.03 (KL/r)2
33,020
2.02 (KL/r)2
47,170
4.12 (KL/r)2
42,450
3.33 (KL/r)2
when KL/r C c
Fa =
2
Fy ( KL / r ) F y
1
=
F . S.
4 2 E
when KL/r > C c
Fa =
2E
=
2
F . S. (KL / r )
135,000, 740
(KL / r )2
with F.S. = 2.12

Shear in girder webs, gross section
Fv = 0.33 Fy
12,000
17,000
17,000
23,000
33,000
30,000
Bearing on milled stiffeners and

other steel parts in contact (rivets
and bolts excluded)
0.80 Fy
29,000
40,000
40,000
56,000
80,000
72,000
Stress in extreme fiber of pins d
0.80 Fy
29,000
40,000
40,000
56,000
80,000
72,000
Fv = 0.40 Fy
14,000
20,000
20,000
28,000
40,000
36,000
Bearing on pins not subject to

rotation g
0.80 Fy
29,000
40,000
40,000
56,000
80,000
72,000
Bearing on pins subject to rotation

(such as used in rockers and hinges)
0.40 Fy
14,000
20,000
20,000
28,000
40,000
36,000
Shear in pins
Bearing on connected material at Low

Carbon Steel Bolts (ASTM A 307),
Turned Bolts, Ribbed Bolts, and Rivets
(ASTM A 502 Grades 1 and 2)
Governed by Table 10.32.3A
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-49
Footnotes for Table 10.32.1A Allowable StressesStructural Steel (psi)

a
For the use of larger Cb values, see Structural Stability Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 3rd
Ed., pg. 135. If cover plates are used, the allowable static stress at the point of theoretical cutoff shall be as determined by the formula.
b = length in inches, of unsupported flange between lateral connections, knee braces, or other points of support.
Iyc = moment of inertia of compression flange about the vertical axis in the plane of the web in.4
d = depth of girder, in.
[(bt ) + (bt )
3
Sxc
c E
r
L
K
=
=
=
=
=
+ Dtw3
] where b and t represent the flange width and thickness of the compression and tension flange,
respectively (in.4).
section modulus with respect to compression flange (in.3).
modulus of elasticity of steel
governing radius of gyration
actual unbraced length
effective length factor (see Appendix C)
F.S. =
factor of safety = 2.12
For graphic representation of these formulas, see Appendix C.
The formulas do not apply to members with variable moment of inertia. Procedures for designing members with variable moments
of inertia can be found in the following references: Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, January 1969,
Volume 6, No. 1, and October 1972, Volume 9, No. 4; and Steel Structures, by William McGuire, 1968, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. For members with eccentric loading, see Article 10.36.
Singly symmetric and unsymmetric compression members, such as angles, or tees, and doubly symmetric compression members,
such as cruciform or built-up members with very thin walls, may also require consideration of flexural-torsional and torsional
buckling. Refer to the Manual of Steel Construction, Ninth Edition, 1989, American Institute of Steel Construction.
d See also Article 10.32.4.
g This shall apply to pins used primarily in axially loaded members, such as truss members and cable adjusting links. It shall not apply
to pins used in members having rotation caused by expansion of deflection.
i When the area of holes deducted for high strength bolts or rivets is more than 15 percent of the gross area, that area in excess of
15 percent shall be deducted from the gross area in determining stress on the gross section. In determining gross section, any open
holes larger than 11/4 inch diameter, such as perforations, shall be deducted.
10-50
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
TABLE 10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for LowCarbon Steel Bolts and Power Driven Rivets (psi)
Type of Fastener
(A)
Low-Carbon Steel
Boltsa Turned Bolts
(ASTM A 307)
Ribbed Bolts
Shear
Tensionb Bearingc Bearing-Type
Connectionb
18,000
20,000
11,000
(B)
Power-Driven Rivets
(rivets driven by
pneumatically or
electrically operated
hammers are
considered power
driven)
40,000
13,500
Structural Steel Rivet

(high strength) Grade
2 (ASTM A 502
Grade 2)
40,000
20,000
b
c
Load Condition
ASTM A 307 bolts shall not be used in connections subject

to fatigue.
Applies to fastener cross sectional area based upon nominal
body diameter.
Applies to nominal diameter of fastener multiplied by the
thickness of the metal.
Allowable Stress
Applied Static Tensiona, b
0.315 Fud
Shear, Fv, on bolt with

threads included in shear
planec
0.16 Fud
Shear, Fv, on bolt with

threads excluded from
shear plane
0.20 Fud
Bearing, Fp, on connected

material in standard,
oversize, short-slotted
holes in any direction, or
long-slotted holes parallel
to the applied bearing force
Structural Steel Rivet

Grade 1 (ASTM A
502 Grade 1)
TABLE 10.32.3B Allowable Stress for HighStrength Bolts or Connected Material (psi)
Bearing, Fp, on connected

material in long-slotted
holes perpendicular to the
applied bearing force
0.5Lc Fu
e, f , g
Fu
d
0.4 Lc Fu
e, f ,g
0.8 Fu
d
a Bolts must be tensioned to requirements of the Standard

Specifications of California Department of Transportation
b See Article 10.32.3.4 for bolts subject to tensile fatigue
c In connection transmitting axial force whose length between
extreme fasteners measured parallel to the line of force
exceeds 50 inches, tabulated values shall be reduced 20
percent.
d F = specified minimum tensile strength of the fastener given
u
in Table10.2C (psi)
e F = specified minimum tensile strength of connected mate
u
rial (psi)
L c = clear distance between the holes or between the hole and
the edge of the material in the direction of the applied bearing
force (in.)
d = nominal diameter of the bolt (in.)
f Connection using high-strength bolts in slotted holes with the
load applied in a direction other than approximately normal
(between 80 and 100 degrees) to the axis of the hole and
connections with bolts in oversized holes shall be
designed for resistance against slip in accordance with Article
10.32.3.2.1.
g Allowable bearing force for the connection is equal to the sum
of the allowable bearing force for the individual bolts in the
connection
h AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M253
(ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts are available in three
types, designated as Types 1, 2,or 3. Type 3 shall be required
on the plans when using unpainted AASHTO M 270 Grade
50W (ASTM A709 Grade 50W).
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-51
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.32.3.2.1 In addition to the allowable stress requirements of Article 10.32.3.2 the force on a slip-critical
connection as defined in Article 10.24.1.4 shall not
exceed the allowable slip resistance (Ps) of the connection according to:
Ps = K h Tb An N b N s
(10-13)
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
net cross section area of the bolt (in.2)

number of bolts in the joint
number of slip planes
required minimum bolt tension stress specified
in the Standard Specifications of California Department of Transportation or equal to 70% of
specified minimum tensile strength of bolts given
in Table 10.2C (psi)
= slip coefficient specified in Table10.32.3C
Kh = hole size factor specified in Table 10.32.3D
An
Nb
Ns
Tb
=
=
=
=
Class A, B or C surface conditions of the bolted parts

as defined in Table 10.32.3C shall be used in joints
designated as slip-critical except as permitted in Article
10.32.3.2.2.
+
+
10.32.3.2.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer, coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33
may be used provided the mean slip coefficient is established by test in accordance with the requirements of
Article 10.32.3.2.3, and the slip resistance per unit area is
established.
10.32.3.2.3 Paint, used on the faying surfaces of
connections specified to be slip-critical, shall be qualified by test in accordance with Test Method to Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted
Joints as adopted by the Research Council on Structural
Connections. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM
A325 or A490 Bolts published by the Research Council
on Structural Connections.
TABLE 10.32.3C Slip Coefficient
Class
Types
Contact Surface of Bolted Parts
Class A Clean mill scale and blastcleaned surfaces with Class A

coating
0.33
+
+
+
Class B Blast-cleaned surfaces and

blast-cleaned surfaces with
Class B coating
0.5
+
+
+
Class C Hot-dip galvanized surfaces

roughened by hand wired
brushing after galvanizing
0.33
+
+
+
Note: Coatings classified as Class A or Class B include

those coatings which provide a mean slip coefficient not less than 0.33 or 0.5, respectively, as
determined by Testing Method to Determine the
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in the Bolted
Joints. See Article 10.32.3.2.3.
+
+
+
+
+
+
TABLE 10.32.3D Hole Size Factor Slip Kh
Kh
Standard
1.0
Oversize and Short-slotted
0.85
Long-slotted holes with the slot

perpendicular to the direction of the force
0.70
Long-slotted holes with the slot parallel to

the direction of the force
0.60
+
+
+
+
Hole Types
10.32.3.3
Applied Tension, Combined

Tension and Shear
10.32.3.3.1 High-strength bolts preferably shall be

used for fasteners subject to tension or combined tension
and shear.
10.32.3.3.2 Bolts required to support applied load

by means of direct tension shall be so proportioned that
their average tensile stress computed on the basis of
nominal bolt area will not exceed the appropriate stress in
Table 10.32.3B. The applied load shall be the sum of the
external load and any tension resulting from prying
action. The tension due to the prying action shall be
10-52
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
3b
t3
Q=
T
8 a 20
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(10-14)
fv2 + (k f t )2 Fv2
= calculated tensile stress in rivet or bolt including any stress due to prying action (psi)
= calculated shear stress in rivet or bolt (psi)
= allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt from
Table 10.32.3A or Table 10.32.3B (psi)
= reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt
due to the applied shear stress (psi)
= allowable shear stress on rivet or bolt from
Table 10.32.3A or Table 10.32.3B (psi)
= a constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-strength
bolts with threads excluded from shear plane
+
+
+
Q = the prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when

negative) (lb.)
T = the direct tension per bolt due to external load
(lb.)
a = distance from center of bolt under consideration
to edge of plate (in.)
b = distance from center of bolt under consideration
to toe of fillet of connected part (in.)
t = thickness of thinnest part connected (in.)
ft
10.32.3.3.3 For combined shear and tension in slipcritical joints using high-strength bolts where applied
forces reduce the total clamping force on the friction
plane, the shear stress, fv (psi), shall meet the following
requirement:
(10-15)
where:
= calculated tensile stress in the bolt including any
stress due to prying action (psi)
Fs = allowable slip stress (psi)
= Kh Tb
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the bolt
from Table 10.2C (psi)
ft
10.32.3.3.4 Where rivets or high-strength bolts in

+
+
+
+
where:
bearing type connections are subject to both shear and

tension, the tensile stress shall not exceed the reduced
allowable tensile stress obtained from the following
equations. The combined stresses shall meet the requirement of Equation (10-18).
for fv / Fv 0.33
Ft = Ft
for fv / Fv > 0.33
(10-16)
fv
Ft
Ft
Fv
k
(10-17)
(10-18)
where:
fv Fs (1 1. 88 ft / Fu )
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ft = Ft 1 ( f v / Fv )
10.32.3.4
+
+
+
Fatigue
When subject to tensile fatigue loading, the tensile

stress in the bolt due to the service load plus the prying
force resulting from application of service load shall not
exceed the following allowable stresses (psi). The nominal diameter of the bolt shall be used in calculating the
bolt stress. The prying force shall not exceed 80 percent
of the externally applied load.
AASHTO M 164
(ASTM A 325)
AASHTO M 235
(ASTM A 490)
Not more
than 20,000
38,000
47,000
From 20,000
to 500,000
35,500
44,000
More than
500,000
27,500
34,000
Number of Cycles
10.32.4
Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers
10.32.4.1 The effective bearing area of a pin shall

be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the material
on which it bears. When parts in contact have different
yield strength, Fy shall be the smaller value.
10.32.4.2 Design stresses for Steel Bars, Carbon

Cold Finished Standard Quality, AASHTO M 169 (ASTM
A 108), and Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for General Industrial Use, AASHTO M 102 (ASTM A 668), are
given in Table 10.32.4.2A.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-53
TABLE 10.32.4.2A
b
c
Allowable StressesSteel Bars and Steel Forgings
AASHTO Designation with Size

Limitations
M 102 To
20" in dia.
M 102 To 10"
in dia.
M 102 To
20" in dia.
ASTM Designation Grade or Class
A 668
Class D
A 668
Class F
A 668 b
Class G
+
+
Minimum Yield Strength, psi
Fy
37,500
50,000
50,000
Stress in Extreme Fiber, psi
0.80 F y
30,000
40,000
40,000
Shear, psi
0.40 F y
15,000
20,000
20,000
Bearing on Pins not Subject to

Rotation, psic
0.80F y
30,000
40,000
40,000
Bearing on Pins Subject to Rotation,

psi (such as used in rockers and
hinges)
0.40F y
15,000
20,000
20,000
+
+
May substitute rolled material of the same properties.

This shall apply to pins used primarily in axially loaded members, such as truss members and cable adjusting links. It shall not apply
to pins used in members having rotation caused by expansion or deflection.
10.32.5
Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings,

Malleable Castings, and Cast Iron
10.32.5.1
Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
10.32.5.1.1 For cast steel conforming to specifications for Steel Castings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M
192 (ASTM A 486), Mild-to-Medium-Strength CarbonSteel Castings for General Application, AASHTO M103
(ASTM A27), and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium,
Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings
for General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A 743),
and for Ductile Iron Castings (ASTM A 536), the allowable
+ stresses shall be in accordance with Table 10.32.5.1A.
10.32.5.1.2 When in contact with castings or steel
of a different yield strength, the allowable bearing stress
+ of the material with the lower yield strength shall govern.
+ For riveted or bolted connections, Article 10.32.3 shall
govern.
10.32.5.2
Malleable Castings
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for

Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47 Grade 35018.
10-54
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
The following allowable stresses (psi) and modulus of +

+
elasticity (psi) shall be used:
Tension 18,000
Bending in Extreme Fiber 18,000
Modulus of Elasticity 25,000,000
10.32.5.3
Cast Iron
Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications

for Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A
48), Class 30B. The following allowable stresses (psi) +
shall be used:
Bending in Extreme Fiber ..3,000
Shear ...3,000
Direct Compression, short columns .12,000
10.32.5.4
Deleted
TABLE 10.32.5.1A
Allowable StressesCast Steel and Ductile Iron (psi)
AASHTO Designation
M 103
M 192
M 192
M 163
None
ASTM Designation
A 27
A 486
A 486
A 743
A 536
Class or Grade
70-36
70
120
CA-15
60-40-18
Minimum Yield Strength, Fy
36,000
60,000
95,000
65,000
40,000
Axial Tension
14,500
22,500
34,000
24,000
16,000
Tension in Extreme Fiber
14,500
22,500
34,000
24,000
16,000
Axial Compression, Short Columns
20,000
30,000
45,000
32,000
22,000
Compression in Extreme Fibers
20,000
30,000
45,000
32,000
22,000
Shear
09,000
13,500
21,000
14,000
10,000
Bearing, Steel Parts in Contact
30,000
45,000
68,000
48,000
33,000
Bearings on Pins not subject to Rotation
26,000
40,000
60,000
43,000
28,000
Bearings on Pins subject to Rotation

(such as used in rockers and hinges)
13,000
20,000
30,000
21,500
14,000
10.32.6
+
Bearing on Masonry
10.32.6.1 The allowable bearing stress (psi) on the

following types of masonry shall be:
Granite .800
Sandstone and Limestone 400
10.32.6.2 The above bridge seat stress will apply

only where the edge of the bridge seat projects at least 3
inches (average) beyond the edge of shoe or plate. Oth+ erwise, the stresses permitted will be 75 percent of the
above amounts.
+
90
10.33.1.2 The compression flanges of rolled

beams supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be laterally supported by the flooring unless
the floor and fastenings are specially designed to
provide adequate support.
10.33.2
Bearing Stiffeners
Suitable stiffeners shall be provided to stiffen the

webs of rolled beams at bearings when the calculated +
shear stress in the web adjacent to the bearing exceeds 75 percent of the allowable shear stress for +
girder webs. See the related provisions of Article
10.34.6.
10.32.6.3 For allowable bearing stress on concrete

masonry, refer to Article 8.15.2.1.3.
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS
10.34.1
10.33.1
10.34.1.1 Girders shall be proportioned by the moment of inertia method. For members primarily in bending,
the entire gross section shall be used when calculating
tensile and compressive stresses. Holes for high-strength
bolts or rivets and/or open holes not exceeding 11/4 inches,
may be neglected provided the area removed from each
flange does not exceed 15 percent of that flange. That area
in excess of 15 percent shall be deducted from the gross area.
General
10.33.1.1 Rolled beams, including those with

welded cover plates, shall be designed by the moment of inertia method. Rolled beams with riveted
cover plates shall be designed on the same basis as
riveted plate girders.
General
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-55
10.34.1.2 The compression flanges of plate girders supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be
laterally supported by the flooring unless the floor and
fastenings are specially designed to provide support.
10.34.2
Flanges
10.34.2.1
Welded Girders
10.34.2.1.1 Each flange may comprise a series of

plates joined end to end by full penetration butt welds.
Changes in flange areas may be accomplished by varying
the thickness and/or width of the flange plate, or by
+ adding cover plate. Varying the thickness and/or width of
+ the flange plate is preferred. Where plates of varying
thicknesses or widths are connected, the splice shall be
made in accordance with Article 10.18 and welds ground
smooth before attaching to the web. The compressionflange width, b, on fabricated I-shaped girders preferably
shall not be less than 0.2 times the web depth, but in no
case shall it be less than 0.15 times the web depth. If the
area of the compression flange is less than the area of the
tension flange, the minimum flange width may be based
on 2 times the depth of the web in compression rather than
the web depth. The compression-flange thickness, t,
preferably shall not be less than 1.5 times the web
thickness. The width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of flanges
subject to tension shall not exceed 24.
10.34.2.1.2 When cover plates are used, they shall

be designed in accordance with Article 10.13.
10.34.2.1.3 The width-thickness ratio (b/t) of com+
+ pression flange plate shall not exceed the limiting values
+ specified in Table 10.34.2A.
+
10.34.2.1.4 Deleted
10-56
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
TABLE 10.34.2A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Flanges of Plate Girders
Description of Component
+
+
Compression flange plate of

noncomposite welded plate girders
+
+
Compression flange plate of

composite welded plate girders
+
+
+
Outstanding legs of flange angles of

noncomposite riveted or bolted
girders
+
+
Outstanding legs of flange angles of

composite riveted or bolted girders
+
+
+
+
+
+
Limiting (b/t)
3,250
24 (10-19)
fb
When fb = 0.55 Fy
Fy (psi)
Limiting b/t
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
23
20
17
15
14
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
11.5
10
8.5
7.5
7.0
3,860
24 (10-20)
f dl1
1,625
12 (10-21)
fb
1,930
12 (10-22)
f dl 1
b = flange plate width for welded plate girders or outstanding leg width of flange angles for riveted and bolted
girders (in.)
fb = calculated compressive bending stress in flange (psi)
fdl1 = top flange compressive stress due to noncomposite dead load (psi)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the component under consideration (psi)
t = component plate thickness (in.)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-57
10.34.2.1.5 In the case of a composite girder the

+ width-thickness ratio (b/t) ratio of the top compression
+ flange plate shall not exceed the limiting values specified
+ in Table 10.34.2A.
10.34.2.2
Riveted or Bolted Girders
10.34.2.2.1 Flange angles shall form as large a part

of the area of the flange as practicable. Side plates shall
not be used except where flange angles exceeding 7/8 inch
in thickness otherwise would be required.
+
10.34.2.2.2 The width-thickness ratio (b'/t) of outstanding legs of flange angles in compression, except
+ those reinforced by plates, shall not exceed the limiting
+ values specified in Table 10.34.2A
+
10.34.2.2.9 Legs of angles 6 inches or greater in

width, connected to web plates, shall have two lines of
fasteners. Cover plates over 14 inches wide shall have
four lines of fasteners.
10.34.3
Web Plates
10.34.3.1
Girders Not Stiffened

Longitudinally
The girder without longitudinal stiffeners is usually

preferred. The width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the web
plate of plate girders without longitudinal stiffeners shall
not exceed the limiting values specified in Table
10.34.3A.
10.34.2.2.5 The gross area of the compression

flange, except for composite design, shall be not less than
the gross area of the tension flange.
10.34.2.2.6 Flange plates shall be of equal thickness, or shall decrease in thickness from the flange angles
outward. No plate shall have a thickness greater than that
of the flange angles.
10.34.2.2.7 At least one cover plate of the top
flange shall extend the full length of the girder except when
the flange is covered with concrete. Any cover plate that is
not full length shall extend beyond the theoretical cutoff
point far enough to develop the capacity of the plate or shall
extend to a section where the stress in the remainder of the
girder flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress, whichever is greater. The theoretical cutoff point of the cover plate
is the section at which the stress in the flange without that
cover plate equals the allowable stress, exclusive of fatigue
considerations.
10.34.2.2.8 The number of fasteners connecting
the flange angles to the web plate shall be sufficient to
develop the increment of flange stress transmitted to the
flange angles, combined with any load that is applied
directly to the flange.
10-58
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
10.34.3.1.1 Deleted
10.34.3.1.2 Deleted
10.34.2.2.3 Deleted
10.34.2.2.4 In the case of a composite girder the

+ width-thickness ratio (b'/t) of outstanding legs of top
flange angles in compression, except those reinforced by
+ plates, shall not exceed the limiting values specified in
+ Table 10.34.2A.
10.34.3.2
Girders Stiffened Longitudinally
The width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the web plate of plate +

girders equipped with longitudinal stiffeners shall not ex- +
+
ceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.34.3A.
10.34.3.2.1 Deleted
10.34.3.2.2 Deleted
TABLE 10.34.3A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Web Plates of Plate Girders
Description of Web Plates
When fb = Fb
or fv = Fv
Limiting (D/tw)
Without longitudinal stiffeners
23,000
170
fb
(10-23)
(See Figure 10.34.3A)

+
With longitudinal stiffeners
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(Note: When fb = Fb, limiting

width-thickness ratio (D/tw)
shall apply to a symmetical
girder stiffened with transverse
stiffeners in combination with
one longitudinal stiffener
located a distance D/5 from the
compression flange)
Without transverse stiffeners
4 ,050 k
fb
for
for
ds
0.4
Dc
ds
< 0. 4
Dc
340
D
D
= 5.17 9
ds
Dc
2
D
k = 1 1.6 4
Dc d s
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
165
140
115
105
100
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
327
278
235
207
196
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
78
66
56
50
47
for symmetrical girder see Figure 10.34.3.1A
8,510
80
fv
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Limiting
(D/tw)
(10-24)
2
Fy
(psi)
D = depth of web or the clear unsupported distance between flange components (in.)
D c = depth of web in compression calculated by summing the stresses from applicable stages of loadings (in.). In
composite sections subjected to negative bending, Dc may be taken as the depth of the web in compression
of the composite section without summing the stresses from various stage of loadings
ds = distance from the centerline of a plate longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener
to the inner surface or the leg of the compression flange component (in.)
fb = calculated flange bending stress in the compression flange (psi)
fv = calculated average shear stress in the gross section of the web plate (psi)
Fb = allowable bending stress (psi)
Fv = allowable shear stress (psi)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of steel (psi)
k = buckling coefficient
tw = web plate thickness (in.)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-59
120
tw = 11/ 16"
240
110
tw = 5/ 8"
220
100
tw = 9/ 16"
200
Depth of web in inches for a symetrical girder with transverse

stiffeners and one longitudinal stiffener located a distance D/5
from the compression flange.
260
tw = 3/4"
fb
Depth of web in inches with

transverse stiffeners only
D=
23,000 tw
130
90
180
tw = 1/ 2"
80
160
tw = 7/ 16"
70
140
tw = 3/8"
60
120
tw = 5/16"
50
100
40
80
30
60
10.34.4.2 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners are required, the spacing of the transverse intermediate stiffener shall be such that the calculated shearing +
stress will not exceed the value given by the following
equation (the maximum spacing is limited to 3D subject
to the handling requirements below):
Fv =
Fy
0.87 (1 C )
C +
2
3
(
)
1
d
/
D
+
o
(10-26)
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress

divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
follows:
D 6,000 k
<
tw
Fy
for
C = 1.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
fb (ksi)
6,000 k
D 7,500 k
tw
Fy
Fy
for
WEB THICKNESS AND GIRDER DEPTH

(A Function of Bending Stress)
D = depth of web
tw = thickness of web
fb = calculated compressive bending stress in flange
C =
6,000 k
Fy
(D / tw )
(10-27)
FIGURE 10.34.3.1A Web Thickness vs. Girder

Depth for Non-Composite Symmetrical Sections
D 7,500 k
>
tw
Fy
for
10.34.4
+
Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners
10.34.4.1
Transverse intermediate stiffeners may

be omitted if the average calculated shearing stress in the
gross section of the web plate at the point considered, fv,
is less than the value given by the following equation:
7.33 107 Fy
Fv =
3
(D / tw )2
(10-25)
Fv = allowable shear stress (psi)
10-60
SECTION 10
4.5 1 07 k
(D / tw )2 Fy
(10-28)
where:
where:
+
C =
STRUCTURAL STEEL
k = 5+
(do / D )2
do = spacing of intermediate stiffener (in.)

+
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the web +
plate (psi)
+
(Fy/3) in Equation (10-26) can be replaced by the

allowable shearing stress given in Table 10.32.1A.
Transverse stiffeners shall be required if D/tw is
greater than 150. The spacing of these stiffeners shall not
2
exceed
260
the handling requirement D
.
D / tw
10.34.4.3 The spacing of the first intermediate

stiffener at the simple support end of a girder shall be such
that the shearing stress in the end panel shall not exceed
the value given by the following equation (the maximum
spacing is limited to 1.5 D):
Fv =
+
+
+
+
C Fy
Fy
3
3
(10-29)
(10-30)
where:
+
+
+
+
+
10.34.4.7 The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts ) of the

transverse stiffener shall not exceed the limiting values
specified in Table 10.34.5A. The moment of inertia of
any type of transverse stiffener with reference to the
plane defined in Article 10.34.4.8 shall meet the following requirement:
I d o tw3 J
10.34.4.4
If a girder panel is subjected to simultaneous action of shear and bending moment with the
magnitude of the shear stress higher than 0.6Fv, the
calculated bending stress shall not exceed the reduced
allowable bending stress, Fs determined by the following
equation:
0.34 fv
Fs = 0.754
F
Fv y
10.34.4.6
Intermediate stiffeners preferably shall
be made of plates for welded plate girders and shall be
made of angles for riveted plate girders. They may be in
pairs, one stiffener fastened on each side of the web plate,
with a tight fit at the compression flange. They may,
however, be made of a single stiffener fastened to one
side of the web plate. Stiffeners provided on only one side
of the web must be welded to the compression flange and +
fitted tightly to the tension flange.
+
fv = average calculated shearing stress at the section;

live load shall be the load to produce maximum moment at the section under consideration (psi)
Fv = allowable shear stress obtained from Equation
(10-26) (psi)
Fs = reduced allowable bending stress (psi)
+
+
+
+
+
(10-31) +
where:
2
D
J = 2.5 2 0. 5
do
(10-32) +
= minimum required moment of inertia of any

type of transverse intermediate stiffener (in4 )
J = ratio of rigidity of one transverse stiffener to that
of the web plate
do = spacing of transverse stiffeners (in.)
D = unsupported depth of web plate between flange
components (in.)
tw = thickness of the web plate (in.)
I
10.34.4.5
Where the calculated shear stress equals
the allowable shear stress, transverse intermediate stiffeners may be omitted if the width-thickness ratio (D/tw)
of the web plate does not exceed the limiting values
specified in Table 10.34.3A.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-61
+
+
+
The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate transverse

stiffeners, A (in.2 ) shall meet the following require+
ment:
+
F
f
D
A 0 .15 B (1 C ) v 18 yweb tw2 (10-32a)
tw
Fv
Fc r
10.34.5
where:
Fcr =
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
b
ts
Fyweb
9,025,000
b

ts
Fystiffener
(10-32b)
= projecting width of the stiffener (in.)
= thickness of the stiffener (in.)

web (psi)
Fystiffener = specified minimum yield strength of the
stiffener (psi)
B
= 1.0 for stiffener pairs
1.8 for single angles and
2.4 for single plates
C = constant computed by Article 10.34.4.2.
When values computed by Equation (10-32a) approach
zero or are negative, then transverse stiffeners need only
meet the requirements of Equation (10-31), and the
requirements of Article 10.34.4.10.
10.34.4.8 When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment

of inertia shall be taken about the centerline of the web
plate. When single stiffeners are used, the moment of
inertia shall be taken about the face in contact with the
web plate.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.34.4.10 The width of a plate or the outstanding

leg of an angle intermediate stiffener shall not be less than
2 inches plus 1 /30 the depth of the girder, and it shall
preferably not be less than 1 /4 the full width of the girder
flange. The thickness of a plate or the outstanding leg of
an angle intermediate stiffener shall not be less than 1 /16 +
its width.
10.34.4.9 Transverse intermediate stiffeners shall

be preferably fitted tightly to the tension flange. If the
intermediate stiffener is used for attaching a cross frame
or diaphragm, a positive connection using either bolts or
welds must be made to the tension flange. The distance
between the end of the vertical weld on the stiffener to the
web-to-flange weld shall be 4tw but not less than 1 1 /2
inches. Stiffeners at points of concentrated loading shall
be placed in pairs and should be designed in accordance
with Article 10.34.6.
Longitudinal Stiffeners
10.34.5.1 The optimum distance, d s , of a plate

longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener from the inner surface or the leg of the
compression flange component is D/5 for a symmetrical
girder. The optimum distance, d s , for an unsymmetrical
composite girder in positive-moment regions may be
determined from the equation given below:
+
ds
=
Dcs
1
1 +1. 5
f DL+ LL
f DL
(10-32c)
where:
Dc s = depth of the web in compression of the noncomposite steel beam or girder (in.)
fDL = non-composite dead-load stress in the compression flange (psi)
fDL+L L = total non-composite and composite dead
load plus the composite live-load stress in
compression flange at the most highly
stressed section of the web (psi)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The optimum distance, d s , of the stiffener in negativemoment regions of composite sections is 2 Dc/5, where Dc
is the depth of the web in compression of the composite
section at the most highly stressed section of the web.
The longitudinal stiffener shall be proportioned so
that:
d2
I = D tw3 2.4 o2 0. 13
D
(10-33)
where:
I
10-62
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
= required moment of inertia of the longitudinal

stiffener about its edge in contact with the web
plate (in.4 )
+
+
+
+
+
D = unsupported distance between flange components (in.)

tw = thickness of the web plate (in.)
10.34.5.2 The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of the

+
+ longitudinal stiffener shall not exceed the limiting values
+ specified in Table 10.34.5A.
10.34.5.3 The stress in the stiffener shall not be
greater than the basic allowable bending stress for the
material used in the stiffener.
+
+
TABLE 10.34.5A Limiting Width-Thickness

Ratios for Stiffeners
+
+
Longitudinal and Transverse

stiffeners
2,600
Fy
(10-34)
Bearing stiffeners
2,180
Fy
(10-35)
& (10-36)
+
+
Compression flange
stiffeners
2,600
Fy
(10-88)
Limiting (b' /ts)
+
+
+
+
+
+
b' = width of stiffener plate or outstanding legs of

angle stiffener (in.)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of stiffener
(psi)
ts = thickness of stiffener plate or outstanding legs
of angle stiffener (in.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.34.5.4 Longitudinal stiffeners are usually placed

on one side only of the web plate. They shall preferably
be continuous where required. The termination and intersection of the longitudinal stiffener with transverse attachments shall consider the effects of fatigue. The interrupted element shall maintain the same strength characteristics as an uninterrupted element.
transverse stiffener at the simple support end of a longitudinally stiffened girder shall be such that the shearing
stress in the end panel does not exceed the value given in
Article 10.34.4.3. The total web depth D shall be used in
determining the shear capacity of longitudinally stiffened girders in Articles 10.34.4.2 and 10.34.4.3.
10.34.5.6 Transverse stiffeners for girder panels

with longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed according
to Article 10.34.4.7.
10.34.6
Bearing Stiffeners
10.34.6.1
Welded Girders
Over the end bearings of welded plate girders and over

the intermediate bearings of continuous welded plate
girders there shall be stiffeners. They shall extend as
nearly as practicable to the outer edges of the flange
plates. They shall be made of plates placed on both sides
of the web plate. Bearing stiffeners shall be designed as
columns, and their connection to the web shall be designed to transmit the entire end reaction to the bearings.
For stiffeners consisting of two plates, the column section
shall be assumed to comprise the two plates and a centrally
located strip of the web plate whose width is equal to not
more than 18 times its thickness. For stiffeners consisting of
four or more plates, the column section shall be assumed to
comprise the four or more plates and a centrally located strip
of the web plate whose width is equal to that enclosed by the
four or more plates plus a width of not more than 18 times
the web plate thickness. (See Article 10.40 for Hybrid
Girders.) The radius of gyration shall be computed about the
axis through the centerline of the web plate. The stiffeners
shall be ground to fit against the flange through which they
receive their reaction, or attached to the flange by full
penetration groove welds. Only the portions of the stiffeners
outside the flange-to-web plate welds shall be considered
effective in bearing. The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of the
bearing stiffener plates shall not exceed the limiting values
specified in Table 10.34.5A.
The allowable compressive stress and the bearing
pressure on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values
specified in Article 10.32.
10.34.5.5 For longitudinally stiffened girders,

transverse stiffeners shall be spaced a distance, do, according to shear capacity as specified in Article 10.34.4.2,
but not more than 1.5 times the web depth. The handling
requirement given in Article 10.34.4.2 shall not apply to
longitudinally stiffened girders. The spacing of the first
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-63
+
+
+
10.34.6.2
Riveted or Bolted Girders
10.35.2
Over the end bearings of riveted or bolted plate girders

there shall be stiffener angles, the outstanding legs of
which shall extend as nearly as practicable to the outer
edge on the flange angle. Bearing stiffener angles shall be
proportioned for bearing on the outstanding legs of
flange angles, no allowance being made for the portions
of the legs being fitted to the fillets of the flange angles.
Bearing stiffeners shall be arranged, and their connections to the web shall be designed to transmit the entire
end reaction to the bearings. They shall not be crimped.
The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of the bearing stiffener angles shall not exceed the limiting values specified
in Table 10.34.5A.
The allowable compressive stress and the bearing
pressure on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values
specified in Article 10.32.
Compression Members
10.35.2.1
Compression members shall be so designed that the main elements of the section will be
connected directly to the gusset plates, pins, or other
members.
10.35.2.2 The center of gravity of a built-up section shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the center
of the section. Preferably, segments shall be connected
by solid webs or perforated cover plates.
10.35.2.3 The with-thickness ratio (b/t) of elements of compression members shall not exceed the
limiting values specified in Table 10.35.2A.
+
+
+
10.35.2.4
Deleted
10.35.2.5
Deleted
10.35.2.6
Deleted
10.35.2.7
Deleted
10.35.2.8
Deleted
10.35.2.9
Deleted
10.35.2.10 Deleted
10.35.2.11 Deleted
10.35 TRUSSES
10.35.1
Perforated Cover Plates and

Lacing Bars
The shearing force normal to the member in the planes

of lacing or continuous perforated plates shall be assumed divided equally between all such parallel planes.
The shearing force shall include that due to the weight of
the member plus any other external force. For compres+ sion members, an additional shear force shall be added as
obtained by the following formula:
V =
(l / r ) Fy
P 100
+
100 l / r + 10 3,300,000
(10-37)
where:
V = normal shearing force (lb.)

P = allowable compressive axial load on members
(lb.)
l = length of member (in.)
r = radius of gyration of section about the axis
perpendicular to plane of lacing or perforated
plate (in.)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of type of
steel being used (psi)
+
+
+
+
+
10-64
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
TABLE 10.35.2A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Member Elements
When fa = 0.44 Fy
Limiting (b/t)
Fy
(psi)
Limiting
b/t
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
12
11
9
8
7.5
(10-39)
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
32
27
23
20
19
(10-40)
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
40
34
28
25
24
(10-41)
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
48
41
34
30
29
+
+
+
+
+
+
Plates supported on one side,

outstanding legs of angles and
perforated platesfor outstanding
plates, outstanding legs of angles, and
perforated plates at the perforations
+
+
+
+
+
+
Plates supported on two edges or

webs of main component segments
for members of box shape consisting
of main plates, rolled sections, or
made up component segments with
cover plates
+
+
+
+
+
+
Solid cover plates supported on two

edges or webs connecting main
members or segmentsfor members of
H or box shapes consisting of solid
cover plates or solid webs connecting
main plates or segments
+
+
+
+
+
+
Perforated cover plates supported on

two edgesfor members of box shapes
consisting of perforated cover plates
connecting main plates or segments,
perforated cover plates supported on
one side
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
b
fa
Fy
t
=
=
=
=
1,625 12 for main members
fa
16 for secondary member
(10-38)
4,000
45
fa
5,000
50
fa
6,000
55
fa
distance between points of support (in.).

calculated compressive stress in the component under consideration (psi)
specified minimum yield strength of the component under consideration (psi)
component plate thickness (in.)
Note: The point of support shall be the inner line of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the plate to the main segment.
For plates butt welded to the flange edge of rolled segments the point of support may be taken as the weld
whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than seven.
Otherwise, point of support shall be the root of flange of rolled segment. Terminations of the butt welds are to
be ground smooth.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-65
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES

All members subjected to both axial compression and
+ flexure shall be proportioned to satisfy the following
requirements:
Cmy fby
fa
Cmx f bx
+
+
1.0
Fa
fa
f
1
Fbx 1 a Fby
(10-42)
F
Fex
ey
and
f
fa
f
+ bx + by 1.0 (at points of support)
0.472 Fy
Fbx Fby
(10-43)
where:
Fe =
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
fa
fbx, fby
Fa
Fbx, Fby
+
+
+
+
F'e
E
Kb
Lb
rb
Cmx, Cmy
F.S.
10-66
2 E
F . S . (Kb Lb / rb )
(10-44)
= calculated axial stress (psi)

= calculated compressive bending stress
about the x axis and y axis, respectively
(psi)
= allowable axial if axial force alone exists,
regardless of the plane of bending (psi)
= allowable compressive bending stress if
bending moment alone exists about the x
axis and the y axis, respectively, as evaluated according to Table 10.32.1A (psi)
= Euler buckling stress divided by a factor
of safety (psi)
= modulus of elasticity of steel (psi)
= effective length factor in the plane of
bending (see Appendix C);
= actual unbraced length in the plane of
bending (in.)
= radius of gyration in the plane of bending
(in.)
= coefficient about the x axis and y axis,
respectively, whose value is taken from
Table 10.36A;
= factor of safety = 2.12.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
TABLE 10.36A
Bending-Compression Interaction Coeffcients
Loading Conditions
Remarks
Computed moments maximum at end; joint translation

not prevented
Computed moments maximum at end; no transverse

+ loading, joint translation prevented
M2 P
M1
M1
M2
Lb
Lb
M3
Transverse loading; joint translation prevented
Moment Amplification and Allowable

Stress
+
10.37.1.1 The calculated compressive bending
+ stress due to live load plus impact loading that are
determined by an analysis which neglects arch rib deflection shall be increased by an amplification factor AF:
1
1.7 T
1
A Fe
(10-45)
where:
+
+
M2
P
0.85
1.0
Lb M
Fe =
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES
AF =
M1
(0.4 ) M + 0.6
M1 = smaller end moment.

M1/M2 is positive when member is bent in single curvature.
M1/M2 is negative when member is bent in reverse curvature.
In all cases Cm may be conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
10.37.1
0.85
Lb
M1
P
Transverse loading; joint translation prevented
Cm
L
A
r
K
=
=
=
=
2E
KL
(10-46) +
one half of the length of the arch rib (in)

area of cross section (in.2)
radius of gyration (in.)
effective length factor of the arch rib
K Values for Use in Calculating Fe and Fa

Rise to Span
Ratio
3-Hinged 2-Hinged
Arch
Arch
Fixed
Arch
0.1 - 0.2
1.16
1.04
0.70
0.2 - 0.3
1.13
1.10
0.70
0.3 - 0.4
1.16
1.16
0.72
T = arch rib thrust at the quarter point from dead plus

live plus impact loading (lb.)
Fe = Euler buckling stress (psi)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-67
+
+
10.37.1.2 The arch rib shall be proportioned to

satisfy the following requirement:
fa
f
+ b 1.0
Fa
Fb
(10-47)
I s 2.2 Dtw3
where:
+
+
+
+
+
fa = the calculated axial stress (psi)

fb = the calculated bending stress, including moment amplification, at the extreme fiber (psi)
Fa = the allowable axial stress (psi)
Fb = the allowable bending stress (psi)
10.37.1.3
For buckling in the vertical plane:
Fy
Fa =
1
F . S.
2
K L
Fy
r
4 2 E
10.37.1.4 The effects of lateral slenderness should

be investigated. Tied arch ribs, with the tie and roadway
suspended from the rib, are not subject to moment amplification, and Fa shall be based on an effective length
equal to the distance along the arch axis between suspenders, for buckling in the vertical plane. However, the
smaller cross-sectional area of cable suspenders may
result in an effective length slightly longer than the
distance between suspenders.
Web Plates
10.37.2.1 The width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the

+
+ web plates shall not exceed the limiting values specified
+ in Table 10.37.2A.
10.37.2.2 If one longitudinal stiffener is used at
mid-depth of the web, the moment of inertia of the
stiffener about an axis parallel to the web and at the base
+ of the stiffener shall meet the following requirement:
I s 0.75Dtw3
10-68
SECTION 10
(10-53) +
10.37.2.4 The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of any

outstanding element of the web stiffeners shall not ex+
ceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.37.2A.
10.37.2.5
10.37.3
Deleted
Flange Plates
The width-thickness ratio (b'/tf) of flange plates shall not +

+
exceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.37.2.A.
10.37.3.1
Deleted
10.37.3.2
Deleted
(10-48)
+ where KL as defined above and F.S. is factor of safety =

+ 2.12.
10.37.2
10.37.2.3 If two longitudinal stiffeners are used at

the one-third points of the web depth D, the moment of
inertia of each stiffener shall meet the following require- +
ment:
+
(10-51)
STRUCTURAL STEEL
TABLE 10.37.2A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Solid Rib Arches
Width
Thickness
Ratio
Web
Plates
D / tw
With two longitudinal stiffeners at the

one-third point of the web design
Outstanding element of stiffiners
Flange
Plates
0.2
fb
fa + f b / 3
Plates between webs
b / t f
Overhang plates
b'
fa
fb
tf
ts
tw
=
=
=
=
=
=
5,000
60
fa
(10-49)
7,500
90
fa
(10-50)
10,000
120
fa
(10-52)
(10-54)
1,625
12
f a + fb / 3
b / ts
Web plate equations apply between limits
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratio
Without longitudinal stiffiners
With one longitudinal stiffener at the

one-third point of the web depth
0.7
(10-55)
4,250
47
f a + fb
(10-56)
1,625
12
fa + fb
(10-57)
width of flange plate or width of outstanding element of web stiffeners (in.)

calculated axial compressive stress in the component under consideration (psi)
calculated compressive bending stress in the component under consideration (psi)
flange plate thickness (in.)
web stiffener outstanding element thickness (in.)
web plate thickness (in.)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
+
10-69
+
+
10.38 COMPOSITE BEAMS AND GIRDERS

10.38.1
General
10.38.1.1
This section pertains to structures composed of steel beams or girders with concrete slabs
connected by shear connectors.
10.38.1.2 General specifications pertaining to the

design of concrete and steel structures shall apply to structures utilizing composite girders where such specifications
are applicable. Composite girders and slabs shall be designed and the stresses computed by the composite moment
of inertia method and shall be consistent with the predetermined properties of the various materials used.
+
10.38.1.3 The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of

steel (29,000,000 psi) to those of normal weight concrete
(W = 145 pcf) of various design strengths shall be as
follows:
f 'c = specified compressive strength of concrete as

determined by cylinder tests at the age of 28
days (psi)
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of
concrete. The value of n, as a function of the
specified compressive strength of concrete, shall
be assumed as follows:
f 'c = 2,000 - 2,300
n = 11
2,400 - 2,800
n = 10
2,900 - 3,500
n= 9
3,600 - 4,500
n= 8
4,600 - 5,900
n= 7
6,000 or more n = 6
10.38.1.4
+
+
The effect of creep shall be considered

in the design of composite girders which have dead loads
acting on the composite section. In such structures, bending stresses and horizontal shears produced by dead loads
acting on the composite section shall be computed for n
as given above or for this value multiplied by 3, whichever gives the higher bending stresses and shears.
10.38.1.5 If concrete with expansive characteristics is used, composite design should be used with caution and provision must be made in the design to accommodate the expansion.
10.38.1.6 Composite sections in simple spans and
the positive moment regions of continuous spans should
10-70
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
preferably be proportioned so that the neutral axis lies

below the top surface of the steel beam. Concrete on the
tension side of the neutral axis shall not be considered in
calculating resisting moments. In the negative moment
regions of continuous spans, only the slab reinforcement
can be considered to act compositely with the steel beams
in calculating resisting moments. Mechanical anchorages shall be provided in the composite regions to develop stresses on the plane joining the concrete and the
steel. Concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may
be considered in computing moments of inertia for deflection calculations, for determining stiffness used in +
calculating moments and shears, and for computing fatigue stress ranges and fatigue shear ranges as permitted
under the provisions of Article10.3.1and 10.38.5.1.
10.38.1.7 The steel beams or girders, especially if

not supported by intermediate falsework, shall be investigated for stability and strength for the loading applied
during the time the concrete is in place and before it has
hardened. The casting or placing sequence specified in
the plans for the composite concrete deck shall be considered when calculating the moments and shears on the
steel section. The maximum flange compression stress
shall not exceed the value specified in Table 10.32.1A for
partially supported or unsupported compression flanges
multiplied by a factor of 1.4, but not exceed 0.55Fy. The
sum of the non-composite and composite dead-load shear
stresses in the web shall not exceed the shear-buckling
capacity of the web multiplied by a factor of 1.35, nor the
allowable shear stress, as follows:
Fv = 0.45CFy 0.33Fy
(10-57a)
where:
C = constant specified in Article 10.34.4.2.
10.38.2
Shear Connectors
10.38.2.1 The mechanical means used at the junction of the girder and slab for the purpose of developing
the shear resistance necessary to produce composite
action shall conform to the specifications of the respective materials. The shear connectors shall be of types that +
permit a thorough compaction of the concrete in order to
ensure that their entire surfaces are in contact with the
concrete. They shall be capable of resisting both horizontal and vertical movement between the concrete and the
steel.
10.38.2.2 The capacity of stud and channel shear

connectors welded to the girders is given in Article
10.38.5. Channel shear connectors shall have at least
3/16-inch fillet welds placed along the heel and toe of the
channel.
10.38.2.3 The clear depth of concrete cover over
the tops of the shear connectors shall be not less than 2
inches. Shear connectors shall penetrate at least 2 inches
above bottom of slab.
10.38.2.4 The clear distance between the edge of a
girder flange and the edge of the shear connectors shall be
not less than 1 inch. Adjacent stud shear connectors shall
not be closer than 4 diameters center to center.
10.38.3
Effective Flange Width
10.38.3.1
In composite girder construction the assumed effective width of the slab as a T-beam flange shall
not exceed the following:
(1)
(2)
(3)
One-fourth of the span length of the girder.

The distance center to center of girders.
Twelve times the least thickness of the slab.
10.38.3.2
For girders having a flange on one side

only, the effective flange width shall not exceed onetwelfth of the span length of the girder, or six times the
thickness of the slab, or one-half the distance center to
center of the next girder.
10.38.4
Stresses
10.38.4.1
Maximum compressive and tensile stresses

in girders that are not provided with temporary supports
during the placing of the permanent dead load shall be the
sum of the stresses produced by the dead loads acting on the
steel girders alone and the stresses produced by the superimposed loads acting on the composite girder. When girders
are provided with effective intermediate supports that are
kept in place until the concrete has attained 75 percent of its
required 28-day strength, the dead and live load stresses
shall be computed on the basis of the composite section.
10.38.4.2
A continuous composite bridge may be

built with shear connectors either in the positive moment
regions or throughout the length of the bridge. The
positive moment regions may be designed with composite sections as in simple spans. Shear connectors shall be
provided in the negative moment portion in which the

reinforcement steel embedded in the concrete is considered a part of the composite section. In case the reinforcement steel embedded in the concrete is not used in
computing section properties for negative moments, shear
connectors need not be provided in these portions of the
spans, but additional anchorage connectors shall be placed
in the region of the point of dead load contra-flexure in
accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.3. Shear connectors
shall be provided in accordance with Article 10.38.5.
10.38.4.3 The minimum longitudinal reinforcement including the longitudinal distribution reinforcement must equal or exceed one percent of the crosssectional area of the concrete slab whenever the longitudinal tensile stress in the concrete slab due to either the
construction loads or the design loads exceeds ft specified
in Article 8.15.2.1.1. The area of the concrete slab shall
be equal to the structural thickness times the entire width
of the bridge deck. The required reinforcement shall be
No. 6 bars or smaller spaced at not more than 12 inches.
Two-thirds of this required reinforcement is to be placed
in the top layer of slab. Placement of distribution steel as
specified in Article 3.24.10 is waived.
10.38.4.4 When shear connectors are omitted from
the negative moment region, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be extended into the positive moment region
beyond the anchorage connectors at least 40 times the
reinforcement diameter. For epoxy-coated bars, the length
to be extended into the positive moment region beyond
the anchorage connectors should be modified to comply
10.38.5
Shear
10.38.5.1
Horizontal Shear
The maximum pitch of shear connectors shall not

exceed 24 inches except over the interior supports of
continuous beams where wider spacing may be used to
avoid placing connectors at locations of high stresses in
the tension flange.
Resistance to horizontal shear shall be provided by mechanical shear connectors at the junction of the concrete
slab and the steel girder. The shear connectors shall be
mechanical devices placed transversely across the flange
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-71
of the girder spaced at regular or variable intervals. The

shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue* and
+ checked for design strength.
The allowable range of horizontal shear, Zr (lb.) on an +

individual connector is as follows:
Channels:
10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue
Zr = Bw
The range of horizontal shear shall be computed by
the formula:
VQ
Sr = r
(10-58)
I
+
+
+
+
+
+
(10-59)
Welded studs (for H/d 4):

Zr = d2
(10-60)
where:
where:
Sr = range of horizontal shear (lb/in.), at the junction

of the slab and girder at the point in the span
under consideration
Vr = range of shear due to live loads and impact (lb.);
at any section, the range of shear shall be taken
as the difference in the minimum and maximum
shear envelopes (excluding dead loads)
Q = statical moment about the neutral axis of the
composite section of the transformed concrete
area (in 3 ). Between points of dead-load
contraflexure, the static moment about the neutral axis of the composite section of the area of
reinforcement embedded in the concrete may be
used unless the transformed concrete area is
considered to be fully effective for the negative
moment in computing the longitudinal ranges of
stress.
I = moment of inertia of the transformed short-term
composite section (in4). Between points of deadload contraflexure, the moment of inertia of the
steel girder including the area of reinforcement
embedded in the concrete may be used unless
the transformed concrete area is considered to
be fully effective for the negative moment in
computing the longitudinal ranges of stress.
w = length of a channel shear connector (in.), measured in a transverse direction on the flange of a
girder
d = diameter of stud (in.)
= 13,000 for 100,000 cycles
10,600 for 500,000 cycles
7,850 for 2,000,000 cycles
5,500 for over 2,000,000 cycles;
B = 4,000 for 100,000 cycles
3,000 for 500,000 cycles
2,400 for 2,000,000 cycles
2,100 for over 2,000,000 cycles;
H = height of stud (in.).
(In the formula, the concrete area is transformed into

an equivalent area of steel by dividing the effective
concrete flange width by the modular ratio, n.)
Reference is made to the paper titled Fatigue Strength of

Shear Connectors, by Roger G. Slutter and John W. Fisher, in
Highway Research Record, No. 147, published by the Highway
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1966.
10-72
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
The required pitch of shear connectors is determined

by dividing the allowable range of horizontal shear of all
connectors at one transverse girder cross-section (Zr)
by the horizontal range of shear Sr, but not to exceed the
maximum pitch specified in Article 10.38.5.1. Over the
interior supports of continuous beams the pitch may be
modified to avoid placing the connectors at locations of
high stresses in the tension flange provided that the total
number of connectors remains unchanged.
10.38.5.1.2
Design Strength
The number of connectors so provided for fatigue

shall be checked to ensure that adequate connectors are
provided for design strength.
+
+
The number of shear connectors required shall meet
+ the following requirement:
N1
P
Su
(10-61)
N1 = number of connectors between points of maximum positive moment and adjacent end supports
Su = design strength of the shear connector as given
below (lb.)
= reduction factor = 0.85;
P = horizontal shear force transferred by shear connectors as defined hereafter as P1 or P2 .
+
+
where:
Asr
where:
+
+
At points of maximum negative moment the force

in the slab is taken as:
P3 = Asr Fyr
(10-65)
Fyr
= total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at

the interior support within the effective flange
width (in.2 )
+
= specified minimum yield strength of the rein- +
forcing steel (psi)
+
The design strength of the shear connector is given

as follows:
Channels:
Su = 550 h + W
2
At points of maximum positive moment, the force in

the slab is taken as the smaller value of the formulas:
P1 = As Fy
(10-62)
(10-66)
Welded studs (for H/d > 4):
or
P2 = 0.85 f c b ts
f c
Su = 0.4d 2
f 'c Ec 60,000Asc
(10-67)
(10-63)
where:
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
As = total area of the steel section including cover plates (in.2 )

Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the steel
being used (psi)
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete at
age of 28 days (psi)
b = effective flange width given in Article 10.38.3 (in.)
ts = thickness of the concrete slab (in.)
The number of connectors, N2 , required between the

points of maximum positive moment and points of adja+ cent maximum negative moment shall meet the follow+ ing requirement:
N2
P + P3
Su
Ec = modulus of elasticity of the concrete (psi)

+
E c = w 3/ 2 33 f c
(10-68)
Su = design strength of individual shear connector
(lb.)
h = average flange thickness of the channel flange
(in.)
t = thickness of the web of a channel (in.)
W = length of a channel shear connector (in.)
fc = specified compressive strength of the concrete
at 28 days (psi)
d = diameter of stud (in.)
w = unit weight of concrete (pcf)
Asc = area of welded stud cross section (in.2 )
(10-64)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-73
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to

Develop Slab Stresses
The number of additional connectors required at
points of contraflexure when reinforcing steel embedded
in the concrete is not used in computing section properties for negative moments shall be computed by the
formula:
Nc =
s
r r
A f
Zr
(10-69)
where:
Nc
+
Ars
fr
Zr
= number of additional connectors for each beam

at point of contraflexure
= total area of longitudinal slab reinforcing steel
for each beam over interior support (in.2 )
= range of stress due to live load plus impact in
the slab reinforcement over the support (psi)
(in lieu of more accurate computations, fr may
be taken as equal to 10,000 psi);
= allowable range of horizontal shear on an
individual shear connector (lb.)
The additional connectors, Nc, shall be placed adjacent

to the point of dead load contraflexure within a distance
equal to one-third the effective slab width, i.e., placed
either side of this point or centered about it. It is preferable to locate field splices so that they clear the connectors.
+
10.38.5.2
Vertical Shear
The intensity of shearing stress in a composite girder

may be determined on the basis that the web of the steel
girder carries the total external shear, neglecting the
effects of the steel flanges and of the concrete slab. The
shear may be assumed to be uniformly distributed
throughout the gross area of the web.
10.38.6
Deflection
10.38.6.2 When the girders are not provided with

falsework or other effective intermediate support during
SECTION 10
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS

10.39.1
General
10.39.1.1 This section pertains to the design of

simple and continuous bridges of moderate length supported by two or more single cell composite box girders.
The distance center-to-center of flanges of each box
should be the same and the average distance center-tocenter of flanges of adjacent boxes shall be not greater
than 1.2 times and not less than 0.8 times the distance
center-to-center of flanges of each box. In addition to the
above, when nonparallel girders are used, the distance
center-to-center of adjacent flanges at supports shall be
no greater than 1.35 times and not less than 0.65 times the
distance center-to-center of flanges of each box. The
cantilever overhang of the deck slab, including curbs and
parapets, shall be limited to 60 percent of the average
distance center-to-center of flanges of adjacent boxes,
but shall in no case exceed 6 feet.
+
10.39.1.2 The provisions of these Specifications
shall govern where applicable, except as specifically
modified by Articles 10.39.1 through 10.39.8.
10.39.2
Lateral Distribution of Loads for

Bending Moment
10.39.2.1 The live load bending moment for each

box girder shall be determined by applying to the girder,
the fraction WL of a wheel load (both front and rear),
determined by the following equation:
WL = 0. 1 + 1.7 R +
0.85
Nw
(10-70)
where:
10.38.6.1 The provisions of Article 10.6 in regard

to deflections from live load plus impact also shall be
applicable to composite girders.
10-74
the placing of the concrete slab, the deflection due to the

weight of the slab and other permanent dead loads added
before the concrete has attained 75 percent of its required
28-day strength shall be computed on the basis of
noncomposite action.
STRUCTURAL STEEL
R=
Nw
Number of Box Girders
(10-71)
Nw = Wc/12 reduced to the nearest whole number

Wc = roadway width between curbs (ft.), or barriers
if curbs are not used.
10.39.4
R shall not be less than 0.5 or greater than 1.5.
The tension flange and the compression flange shall

be considered completely effective in resisting bending if
its width does not exceed one-fifth the span length. If the
flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of the span, an
amount equal to one-fifth of the span only shall be
considered effective. Effective flange plate width shall
be used to calculate the flange bending stress. Full flange
plate width shall be used to calculate the allowable
compressive bending stress.
10.39.2.2 The provision of Article 3.12, Reduction of Load Intensity, shall not apply in the design of box
girders when using the design load WL given by the above
equation.
+ 10.39.3
Web Plates
10.39.3.1
Bottom Flange Plates
10.39.4.1
General
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Vertical Shear
+
10.39.4.1.2 Deleted
The design shear Vw for a web shall be calculated using
the following equation:
Vw =
Vv
cos
10.39.4.2
Compression Flanges Unstiffened
10.39.4.2.1 For unstiffened compression flanges, +

(10-72)
the calculated bending stress shall not exceed the allow- +

able bending stress, Fb (psi), determined by either of the +
following equations:
+
where:
+
Vv = vertical shear (lb.)

vertical.
10.39.3.2
for
b
6,140
t
Fy
Fb = 0.55 Fy
Secondary Bending Stresses
10.39.3.2.1 Web plates may be plumb (90 to bottom of flange) or inclined. If the inclination of the web
plates to a plane normal to bottom flange is no greater
than 1 to 4, and the width of the bottom flange is no
greater than 20 percent of the span, the transverse bending stresses resulting from distortion of the span, and the
transverse bending stresses resulting from distortion of
the girder cross section and from vibrations of the bottom
plate need not be considered. For structures in this category transverse bending stresses due to supplementary
loadings, such as utilities, shall not exceed 5,000 psi.
10.39.3.2.2 For structures exceeding these limits, a
detailed evaluation of the transverse bending stresses due
to all causes shall be made. These stresses shall be limited
to a maximum stress or range of stress of 20,000 psi.
for
(10-73) +
+
6,140 b 13,300
<
t
Fy
Fy
b Fy
13,300
t
Fb = 0.55Fy 0.224 Fy 1 sin
2
7,160
(10-74)
for
b 13,300
t
Fy
t
Fb = 57.6 106
b
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(10-75) +
10-75
Fb = 0.55 Fy
where:
+
+
b
t
10.39.4.2.2 Deleted
10.39.4.2.3 Deleted
= flange width between webs (in.)

= flange thickness (in.)
3,070 k
w
< smaller of {60}or
for
t
Fy
10.39.4.2.4 The b/t ratio preferably should not exceed 60 except in areas of low stress near points of dead
load contraflexure.
(10-78)
for
10.39.4.2.6 Deleted
6,650 k
F y
w Fy
6,650 k
Fb = 0.55Fy 0.224 Fy 1 sin
3,580 k
10.39.4.2.5 If the b/t ratio exceeds 45, longitudinal

+
stiffeners
may be considered.
+
+
(10-77) +
6,650 k w
60
t
Fy
+
2
10.39.4.3
Compression Flanges Stiffened

Longitudinally*
t
Fb = 14.4 k 106
w
(10-79) +
10.39.4.3.1 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be at equal
10.39.4.3.3 Deleted
spacings across the flange width and shall be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener
about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the
+ stiffener, Is (in.4) shall meet the following requirement:
10.39.4.3.4 Deleted
I s t 3f w
(10-76)
where:
tf
w
+
n
k
0.07 k3n4 for values of n greater than 1;

0.125 k3 for a value of n = 1;
thickness of the flange (in.)
width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners
or distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal stiffener (in.)
= number of longitudinal stiffeners;
= buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
=
=
=
=
10.39.4.3.2 For the longitudinally stiffened flange,

+
+ including stiffeners, the calculated bending stress shall
+ not exceed the allowable bending stress, Fb (psi), deter+ mined by either of the following equations:
w
3,070 k
t
Fy
+ for
In solving these equations a value of k between 2 and 4

generally should be assumed.
10-76
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.39.4.3.5 When longitudinal stiffeners are used,

it is preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The
stiffener should have a size equal to that of a longitudinal
stiffener.
10.39.4.3.6 If the longitudinal stiffeners are placed

at their maximum w/t ratio to be designed for the basic
allowable design stresses of 0.55Fy and the number of
longitudinal stiffeners exceeds 2, then transverse stiffeners should be considered.
10.39.4.3.7 Deleted
100
k=4
k=4
k=4
80
n=4
k = 2.56
k = 2.56
40
WITHOUT TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS
fb =
0.47
Fy
Fcr =
0.85
Fy
fb = 0.5
Is
bt3
fb = 0
.53 F
y
Fcr =
0.96 F
5 Fy
Fcr = F
50
k = 2.56
n=3
Note:
Fcr refers to Load Factor Design
fb refers to Working Stress Design
Fy is in lb/in2
n=3
60
NO STIFFENERS REQUIRED
Fcr = Fy , fb = 0.55 Fy , b Fy = 06,140
t
Fcr = 0.96 Fy , fb = 0.53 Fy , b Fy = 08,200
t
b
Fcr = 0.85 Fy , fb = 0.47 Fy ,
t Fy = 10,060
n=3
70
n=4
n=4
90
30
k=4
k=4
k=4
k = 1.78
0
5,000
n=1
10,000
k=4
1
n=
15,000
k=4
1
n=
k = 2.25
k = 2.25
n=
10
k = 2.25
n=
n=
20
k=4
k = 1.78
k = 1.78
20,000
25,000
30,000
WITH TRANSVERSE
STIFFENERS
n = 2, Is = 2.67bt3
n = 3, Is = 2.00bt3
n = 4, Is = 1.60bt3
n = 5, Is = 1.33bt3
35,000
40,000
b
F
t y
FIGURE 10.39.4.3A Longitudinal StiffenersBox Girder Compression Flange
SECTION 10 STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-77
0.09
k1 = 2
n=
It E ( fs = 0.55 Fy)
(Fs = Fy)
b2 Af Fy
It E ( fs = 0.53 Fy)
b2 Af Fy (Fs = 0.96 Fy)
Note:
fs refers to Working Stress Design
Fs refers to Load Factor Design
Fy is in lb/in.2
k1 = 2.78
k1 = 4
0.08
n=
n=
0.07
n=
k1 = 1.78
0.06
k1 = 2.56
k1 = 4
n=
n=
2.5
0.05
n=
n=2
It E ( fs = 0.47 Fy)
b2 Af Fy (Fs = 0.85 Fy)
n=2
n=
k1 = 2.25
k1 = 4
a
b
1.5
n=
n=
k1 = 4
k1 = 2.25
n=
n=
n=
=3
It E
b2 Af Fy
k1 = 4
k1 = 1.78
k1 = 2.56
n=4
n=4
k1 = 4
n = 5 k1 = 2.78
a
( f = 0.53 Fy)
b s
(Fs = 0.96 Fy)
0.5
Is for longitudinal stiffeners = 8t 3w (in.4)
0
10,000
b F
t y
15,000
0.03
a
( f = 0.47 Fy)
b s
n = 3 (Fs = 0.85 Fy)
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
a
b
SECTION 10 STRUCTURAL STEEL
0.02
n=4
k1 = 4
n=5
0.01
( fs = 0.55 Fy)
(Fs = Fy)
40,000
FIGURE 10.39.4.3B Spacing and Size of Transverse Stiffeners

(for Flange Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely)
10-78
0.04
0
45,000
10.39.4.4
Compression Flanges Stiffened

Longitudinally and Transversely
10.39.4.4.1 The longitudinal stiffeners shall be at

equal spacings across the flange width and shall be
proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffeners about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base
+ of the stiffeners meet the following requirement:
I s 8 t 3f w
(10-80)
w Fy
6,650 k
t
Fb = 0.55Fy 0.224 Fy 1 sin
2
+
3,580 k1
(10-83)
6,650 k1
for
Fy
10.39.4.4.2 The transverse stiffeners shall be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener
about an axis through the centroid of the section and parallel
+ to its bottom edge meets the following requirement:
It 0.10 ( n + 1) w3
3
fs Af
E do
3,070 k1
w
t
Fy
+ for
Fb = 0.55 Fy
3,070 k1
Fy
<
w
smaller of {60} or
t
[1 + (a / b) ]
2 2
Af = area of bottom flange including longitudinal

stiffeners (in.2)
fs = maximum longitudinal bending stress in the
flange of the panels on either side of the transverse stiffeners (psi)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (psi)
(10-84) +
where:
(10-81)
+
10.39.4.4.3 For the flange, including stiffeners, the
+ calculated bending stress shall not exceed the allowable
+ bending stress, Fb (psi), determined by either of the
+ following equations:
+ for
where:
+
+
w
60
t
t
Fb = 14.4 k1 106
w
k1 =
+
+
(10-85) +
10.39.4.4.4 Deleted
10.39.4.4.5 Deleted
10.39.4.4.6 The maximum value of the buckling

coefficient, k1, shall be 4. When k1 has its maximum
value, the transverse stiffeners shall have a spacing, a,
equal to or less than 4w. If the ratio a/b exceeds 3,
transverse stiffeners are not necessary.
10.39.4.4.7 The transverse stiffeners need not be

connected to the flange plate but shall be connected to the
webs of the box and to each longitudinal stiffener. The
connection to the web shall be designed to resist the
vertical force determined by the formula:
Rw =
(10-82)
6,650 k
1
F y
+ 87.3
(n + 1) (a / b ) [1 + 0.1 (n + 1)]
2
Fy Ss
2b
(10-86)
where:
Ss = section modulus of the transverse stiffener (in.3) +
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-79
10.39.4.4.8 The connection to each longitudinal

stiffener shall be designed to resist the vertical force
determined by the formula:
Rs =
Fy S s
nb
(10-87)
10.39.8
Access and Drainage
Consistent with climate, location, and materials, consideration shall be given to the providing of manholes, or other
openings, either in the deck slab or in the steel box for form
removal, inspection, maintenance, drainage, etc.
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS

10.39.4.5
Compression Flange Stiffeners,

General
10.39.4.5.1 The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of any

outstanding element of the flange stiffeners shall not
+ exceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.34.5A.
10.39.4.5.2 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be extended to locations where the maximum stress in the
flange does not exceed that allowed for base metal
adjacent to or connected by fillet welds.
+ 10.39.5
Flange to Web Welds
The total effective thickness of the web-flange welds

shall
be not less than the thickness of the web. Regardless
+
of the type weld used, welds shall be deposited on both
sides of the connecting flange or web plate.
10.39.6
Diaphragms
10.39.6.2 Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames

are not required for steel box girder bridges designed in
accordance with this specification.
10.40.1.1
This section pertains to the design of

girders that utilize a lower strength steel in the web than in
one or both of the flanges. It applies to composite and
noncomposite plate girders, and composite box girders. At
any cross section where the bending stress in either flange
exceeds 55 percent of minimum specified yield strength of
the web steel, the compression-flange area shall not be less
than the tension-flange area. The top-flange area shall
include the transformed area of any portion of the slab or
reinforcing steel that is considered to act compositely with
the steel girder.
10.40.1.2 The provisions of these Specifications,

shall govern where applicable, except as specifically +
modified by Articles 10.40.1 through 10.40.4.
Allowable Stresses
10.40.2.1
SECTION 10
Bending
10.40.2.1.1 The bending stress in the web may

exceed the allowable stress for the web steel provided
that the stress in each flange does not exceed the allowable stress from Articles 10.3 or 10.32 for the steel in that
flange multiplied by the reduction factor, R.
R =1
Lateral Bracing
Generally, no lateral bracing system is required between box girders. A horizontal wind load of 50 pounds
per square foot shall be applied to the area of the superstructure exposed in elevation. Half of the resulting force
shall be applied in the plane of the bottom flange. The
section assumed to resist the horizontal load shall consist
of the bottom flange acting as a web and 12 times the
thickness of the webs acting as flanges. A lateral bracing
system shall be provided if the combined stresses due to
the specified horizontal force and dead load of steel and
deck exceed 150 percent of the allowable design stress.
10-80
General
10.40.2
10.39.6.1 Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other

means shall be provided within the box girders at each
support to resist transverse rotation, displacement, and
distortion.
10.39.7
10.40.1
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(1 )2 (3 + )
6 + (3 )
(10-89)
(See Figures 10.40.2.1A and 10.40.2.1B)

where:
= specified minimum yield strength of the web

divided by the specified minimum yield strength +
of the tension flange;*
= area of the web divided by the area of the tension
flange;*
* Bottom
flange of orthotropic deck bridge
= distance from the outer edge of the tension

flange* to the neutral axis (of the transformed
section for composite girders) divided by the
depth of the steel section.
10.40.4
In designing bearing stiffeners at interior supports of

continuous hybrid girders for which is less than 0.7, no
part of the web shall be assumed to act in bearing.
10.40.2.1.2 The bending stress in the concrete slab

in composite girders shall not exceed the allowable stress
for the concrete multiplied by R.
the bending stress in both flanges does not exceed the
allowable stress for the web.
10.40.2.1.4 Longitudinal web stiffness preferably

shall not be located in yielded portions of the web.
10.40.2.2
Shear
The design of the web for a hybrid girder shall be in

compliance with the specification Articles 10.34.3 except that Equation (10-26) of Article 10.34.4.2 for the
allowable average shear stress in the web of transversely
stiffened non-hybrid girders shall be replaced by the
following equations for the allowable average shear
stress in the web of transversely stiffened hybrid girders:
Fv =
C Fy
3
Fy
3
100
y = 0.50
REDUCTION FACTOR, R, percent
10.40.2.1.3 R shall be taken 1.0 at sections where
90
85
OC
= 0.72
80
75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
RATIO OF WEB AREA TO TENSION FLANGE AREA,
Figure 10.40.2.1A
100
10.40.2.3
Fatigue
Hybrid girders shall be designed for the allowable

fatigue stress range given in Article 10.3, Table 10.3.1A.
Plate Thickness Requirements
In calculating the maximum width-to-thickness ratio

of the flange plate according to Article 10.34.2, fb shall be
taken as the lesser of the calculated bending stress in the
compression flange divided by the reduction factor, R, or the
allowable bending stress for the compression flange.
REDUCTION FACTOR, R, percent
The provisions of Article 10.34.4.4 and the equation for

A in Article 10.34.4.7 are not applicable to hybrid girders.
* Bottom
y = 1.00
y = 0.75
(10-90)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the web

(psi)
10.40.3
95
70
where:
Bearing Stiffener Requirements
95
90
y = 0.7
y = 0.50
5
85
= 0.50
OC
y = 1.00
80
75
70
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
RATIO OF WEB AREA TO TENSION FLANGE AREA,
Figure 10.40.2.1B
flange of orthotropic deck bridge
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-81
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK
SUPERSTRUCTURES
In the above table, t is the thickness of the wearing

surface (in.)
+
10.41.1
10.41.3
General
10.41.1.1
This section pertains to the design of

steel bridges that utilize a stiffened steel plate as a deck.
Usually the deck plate is stiffened by longitudinal ribs
and transverse beams; effective widths of deck plate act
as the top flanges of these ribs and beams. Usually the
deck including longitudinal ribs, acts as the top flange of
the main box or plate girders. As used in Articles 10.41.1
through 10.41.4.10, the terms rib and beam refer to
sections that include an effective width of deck plate.
+
10.41.1.2 The provisions of these Specifications,

shall govern where applicable, except as specifically
modified by Articles 10.41.1 through 10.41.4.10.
An appropriate method of elastic analysis, such as the
equivalent-orthotropic-slab method or the equivalentgrid method, shall be used in designing the deck. The
equivalent stiffness properties shall be selected to correctly simulate the actual deck. An appropriate method of
elastic analysis, such as the thin-walled-beam method,
that accounts for the effects of torsional distortions of the
cross-sectional shape shall be used in designing the
girders of orthotropic-deck box-girder bridges. The boxgirder design shall be checked for lane or truck loading
arrangements that produce maximum distortional (torsional) effects.
Effective Width of Deck Plate
10.41.3.1
The effective width of deck plate acting as the top

flange of a longitudinal rib or a transverse beam may be
calculated by accepted approximate methods.*
10.41.3.2
10.41.1.3 For the preferred design method

(Strength Design), see Article 10.60.
10.41.2
Wheel Load Contact Area
The wheel loads specified in Article 3.7 shall be

uniformly distributed to the deck plate over the rectangular area defined below:
Wheel Load
(kip)
Width
Perpendicular to
Traffic (in.)
Length in
Direction of
Traffic (in.)
20 + 2t
8 + 2t
12
20 + 2t
8 + 2t
16
24 + 2t
8 + 2t
10-82
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Girders
10.41.3.2.1 The full width of deck plate may be

considered effective in acting as the top flange of the
girders if the effective span of the girders is not less than:
(1) 5 times the maximum distance between girder webs
and (2) 10 times the maximum distance from edge of the
deck to the nearest girder web. The effective span shall be
taken as the actual span for simple spans and the distance
between points of contraflexure for continuous spans.
Alternatively, the effective width may be determined by
accepted analytical methods.
10.41.3.2.2 The effective width of the bottom flange
of a box girder shall be determined according to the
provisions of Article 10.39.4.1.
10.41.4
Allowable Stresses
10.41.4.1
+
Ribs and Beams
Local Bending Stresses in Deck

Plate
The term local bending stresses refers to the stresses

caused in the deck plate as it carries a wheel load to the
ribs and beams. The local transverse bending stresses
caused in the deck plate by the specified wheel load plus
30-percent impact shall not exceed 30,000 psi unless a
higher allowable stress is justified by a detailed fatigue
analysis or by applicable fatigue-test results. For deck
configurations in which the spacing of transverse beams
is at least 3 times the spacing of longitudinal-rib webs, the
local longitudinal and transverse bending stresses in the
deck plate need not be combined with the other bending
stresses covered in Articles 10.41.4.2 and 10.41.4.3.
* Design Manual for Orthotropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges,

AISC, 1963, or Orthotropic Bridges, Theory and Design, by
M.S. Troitsky, Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1967.
10.41.4.2
Bending Stresses in Longitudinal

Ribs
The total bending stresses in longitudinal ribs due to a

combination of (1) bending of the rib and (2) bending of
the girders may exceed the allowable bending stresses in
Article 10.32 by 25 percent. The bending stress due to
each of the two individual modes shall not exceed the
allowable bending stresses in Article 10.32.
10.41.4.3
Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and

Girders
Connections between ribs and the webs of beams,

holes in the webs of beams to permit passage of ribs,
connections of beams to the webs of girders, and rib
splices may affect the fatigue life of the bridge when they
occur in regions of tensile stress. Where applicable, the
number of cycles of maximum stress and the allowable
fatigue stresses given in Article 10.3 shall be applied in
designing these details; elsewhere, a rational fatigue
analysis shall be made in designing the details. Connections between webs of longitudinal ribs and the deck plate
shall be designed to sustain the transverse bending fatigue stresses caused in the webs by wheel loads.
10.41.4.5
Thickness of Plate Elements
10.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate

Plate elements comprising longitudinal ribs, and
deck-plate elements between webs of these ribs, shall
meet the minimum thickness requirements of Article
10.35.2. The quantity fa may be taken as 75 percent of the
sum of the compressive stresses due to (1) bending of the
rib and (2) bending of the girder, but not less than the
compressive stress due to either of these two individual
bending modes.
Maximum Slenderness of
Longitudinal Ribs
The slenderness, L/r, of a longitudinal rib shall not

exceed the value given by the following formula unless
it can be shown by a detailed analysis that overall buckling of the deck will not occur as a result of compressive
stress induced by bending of the girders:
1,500 2,700 f
L
= 1,000
Fy
Fy
r max
Bending Stresses in Transverse

Beams
The bending stresses in transverse beams shall not

exceed the allowable bending stresses in Article 10.32.
10.41.4.4
10.41.4.6
(10-91) +
where:
L = distance between transverse beams (in.)
r = radius of gyration about the horizontal centroidal
axis of the rib including an effective width of
deck plate (in.)
f = maximum compressive stress in the deck plate
as a result of the deck acting as the top flange
of the girders; this stress shall be taken as
positive (psi)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of rib material (psi)
10.41.4.7
Diaphragms
Diaphragms, cross frames, or other means shall be

provided at each support to transmit lateral forces to the
bearings and to resist transverse rotation, displacement,
and distortion. Intermediate diaphragms or cross frames
shall be provided at locations consistent with the analysis
of the girders. The stiffness and strength of the intermediate and support diaphragms or cross frames shall be
consistent with the analysis of the girders.
10.41.4.8
Stiffness Requirements
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections
10.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams
The deflections of ribs, beams, and girders due to live

load plus impact may exceed the limitations in Article
10.6 but preferably shall not exceed 1/500 of their span.
The calculation of the deflections shall be consistent with
the analysis used to calculate the stresses.
Plate elements of box girders, plate girders, and transverse beams shall meet the requirements of Articles
10.34.2 to 10.34.6 and 10.39.4.
To prevent excessive deterioration of the wearing

surface, the deflection of the deck plate due to the
specified wheel load plus 30-percent impact preferably
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-83
+
+
+
+
+
+
shall be less than 1/300 of the distance between webs of

ribs. The stiffening effect of the wearing surface shall not
be included in calculating the deflection of the deck plate.
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations
The vibrational characteristics of the bridge shall be
considered in arriving at a proper design.
10.41.4.9
Wearing Surface
A suitable wearing surface shall be adequately bonded

to the top of the deck plate to provide a smooth, nonskid
riding surface and to protect the top of the plate against
corrosion and abrasion. The wearing surface material
shall provide (1) sufficient ductility to accommodate,
without cracking or debonding, expansion and contraction imposed by the deck plate, (2) sufficient fatigue
strength to withstand flexural cracking due to deck-plate
deflections, (3) sufficient durability to resist rutting,
shoving, and wearing, (4) imperviousness to water and
motor-vehicle fuels and oils, and (5) resistance to deterioration from deicing salts, oils, gasolines, diesel fuels,
and kerosenes.
10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs

Closed ribs without access holes for inspection, cleaning, and painting are permitted. Such ribs shall be sealed
against the entrance of moisture by continuously welding
(1) the rib webs to the deck plate, (2) splices in the ribs,
and (3) diaphragms, or transverse beam webs, to the ends
of the ribs.
10-84
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Part D
Load Factor Design
10.42 SCOPE
+
Load factor design is the preferred method of proportioning structural members for multiples of the design
loads. To ensure serviceability and durability, consideration is given to the control of permanent deformations
under overloads, to the fatigue characteristics under
service loadings, and to the control of live load deflec+ tions under service loadings.
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS
10.45.1
Strain in flexural members shall be assumed

directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
10.45.2 Stress in steel below the yield strength, Fy, of

the grade of steel used shall be taken as 29,000,000 psi
times the steel strain. For strain greater than that
corresponding to the yield strength, Fy, the stress shall be
considered independent of strain and equal to the yield
strength, Fy. This assumption shall apply also to the
longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete floor slab in
the region of negative moment when shear connectors are
provided to ensure composite action in this region.
10.45.3
10.43 LOADS
10.43.1
Service live loads are vehicles which may

operate on a highway legally without special load permit.
10.43.2
For design purposes, the service loads are

taken as the dead, live, and impact loadings described in
+ Section 3 Loads.
10.43.3
At maximum strength the compressive stress

in the concrete slab of a composite beam shall be assumed
independent of strain and equal to 0.85 f c .
10.45.4
Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected

in flexural calculations, except as permitted under the
provisions of Articles 10.57.2, 10.58.1 and 10.58.2.
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL

STEEL
Overloads are the live loads that can be allowed

on a structure on infrequent occasions without causing
permanent damage. For design purposes, the maximum
overload is taken as 5(L + I)/3.
The design stress for structural steel shall be the

specified minimum yield strength, Fy, of the steel used as +
set forth in Article 10.2.
10.43.4
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS
The maximum loads are the loadings specified

in Article 10.47.
The moments, shears and other forces shall be

determined by assuming elastic behavior of the structure
except as modified in Article 10.48.1.3.
The maximum moments, shears or forces to be sustained by a load-carrying member shall be computed +
from the formulas shown in Article 3.2. Each part of the
structure shall be proportioned for the group loads that
are applicable and the maximum design required by the
group loading combinations shall be used.
10.44.2
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS
10.44.3
Flexural members are subject to the following requirements in this article in addition to any applicable
requirements from Articles 10.49 through 10.61 that may
supersede these requirements. The compression-flange
width, b, on fabricated I-shaped girders preferably shall
not be less than 0.2 times the web depth, but in no case
shall it be less than 0.15 times the web depth. If the area
of the compression flange is less than the area of the
tension flange, the minimum flange width may be based
on 2 times the depth of the web in compression rather than
10.44 DESIGN THEORY

10.44.1
The members shall be proportioned by the

methods specified in Articles 10.48 through 10.56 so that
their computed maximum strengths shall be at least equal
to the total effects of design loads multiplied by their
respective load factors specified in Article 3.2.
Service behavior shall be investigated as
specified in Articles 10.57 through 10.59.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-85
D
19,230
tw
Fy
the web depth. The compression-flange thickness, t,

preferably shall not be less than 1.5 times the web
thickness. The width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of flanges
subject to tension shall not exceed 24.
10.48.1
(10-94)
where:
D = clear distance between the flanges (in.)

+
+
Compact Sections
Sections of properly braced constant-depth flexural

members without longitudinal web stiffeners, without
holes in the tension flange and with high resistance to
local buckling qualify as compact sections.
Sections of rolled or fabricated flexural members
meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1 below
shall be considered compact sections and the design
+ bending strength shall be computed as:
M u = Fy Z
(10-92)
where:
+
+
+
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the steel

being used (psi)
Z = plastic section modulus* (in.3)
When both b/t and D/tw exceed 75% of the above

limits, the following interaction equation shall apply
D
b 33,650
+ 4.68
tw
Fyf
t
(10-95)
where:
Fyf = specified minimum yield strength

of compression flange (psi)
+
+
(c) Lateral bracing for compression flange:
Lb
[3.6 2.2 (M 1 / M u )]106
ry
Fy
10.48.1.1 Compact sections shall meet the following requirements: (for certain frequently used steels these
requirements are listed in Table 10.48.1.2A).
(10-96)
where:
(a)
Compression flange:
b 4,110
t
Fy
+
where:
+
+
b
t
(b)
(10-93)
= compression flange width (in.)

Web thickness:
Lb = distance between points of bracing of the compression flange(in.)

ry = radius of gyration of the steel section with
respect to the Y-Y axis (in.)
M1 = smaller moment at the end of the unbraced
length of the member (lb-in.)
Mu = design strength from Equation (10-92) at the
other end of the unbraced length: (M1/Mu) is
positive when moments cause single curvature
between brace points (lb-in.). (M1/Mu) is negative when moments cause reverse curvature
between brace points.
The required lateral bracing shall be provided by
braces capable of preventing lateral displacement and
twisting of the main members or by embedment of the top
and sides of the compression flange in concrete.
* Values for rolled sections are listed in the Manual of Steel

Construction, Ninth Edition, 1989, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Appendix D shows the methods of computing Z as
presented in the Commentary of AISI Bulletin 15.
10-86
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(d)
Maximum axial compression:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
P 0.15Fy A
(10-97)
Braced Non-Compact Sections
For sections of rolled or fabricated flexural members not meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1
but meeting the requirement of Article 10.48.2.1 below,
the design strength shall be computed as the lesser of
where:
+
10.48.2
A = area of the cross section (in.2 )

Members with axial loads in excess of 0.15Fy A should
be designed as beam-columns as specified in Article
10.54.2.
Mu=FyS xt
10.48.1.2 Article 10.48.1 is applicable to steels

with a demonstrated ability to reach Mp . Steels such as
AASHTO M 270 Grades 36, 50 and 50W (ASTM A 709
Grades 36, 50 and 50W) and ASTM A 709, Grade HPS
70W meet these requirements. The limitations set forth in
Article 10.48.1 are given in Table 10.48.1.2A.
Mu=Fcr S xcR b
TABLE 10.48.1.2A Limitations for Compact

Sections
36,000
50,000
70,000
b/t
21.6
18.4
15.0
D/t w
101
86
70
L b /r y (M 1 /M u = 0*)
100
72
51
L b /r y (M 1 /M u = 1*)
39
28
20
F y (psi)
For values of M1/Mu other than 0 and 1, use Equation (10-96).
10.48.1.3
In the design of a continuous beam with

compact negative-moment support sections of AASHTO
M 270 Grade 36, 50 and 50W (ASTM A 709 Grade 36,
50 and 50W) steel complying with the provision of
Article 10.48.1.1, negative moments over such supports
at Overload and Maximum Load determined by elastic
analysis may be reduced by a maximum of 10 percent.
Such reduction shall be accompanied by an increase in
moments throughout adjacent spans statically equivalent
and opposite in sign to the decrease of the negative
moments at the adjacent supports. For example, the
increase in moment at the center of the span shall equal
the average decrease of the moments at the two adjacent
supports. The reduction shall not apply to the negative
moment of a cantilever. This 10-percent redistribution of
moment shall not apply to compact sections of ASTM A
709 Grade HPS 70W or AASHTO M 270, Grade 70W
steel.
(10-98)
or
(10-99)
subject to the requirement of Article 10.48.2.1 (c) where

2
Fcr = 4,400
t
Fy
b
b = compression flange width (in.)

t = compression flange thickness (in.)
S xt = elastic section modulus with respect to tension
flange (in.3 )
S xc = elastic section modulus with respect to compression flange (in.3 )
Rb = flange-stress reduction factor determined from
the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1, with fb substituted for the term Mr /S xc when Equation (10103b) applies
fb = factored bending stress in the compression flange
(psi), but not to exceed Fy
10.48.2.1
The above equations are applicable to
sections meeting the following requirements:
(a) Compression flange:
b
24
t
(b)
(10-100)
Web thickness:
The web thickness shall not exceed the requirement

given by Equation (10-104) or Equation (10-109), as
applicable, subject to the corresponding requirements as
shown in Table 10.48.5A of Article 10.49.2 or 10.49.3.
For unstiffened web, the web thickness shall not be less
than D/150.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-87
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(c)
Spacing of lateral bracing for compression

flange:
20,000,000 Af
Lb
(10-101)
Fd
y
where:
+
+
d = depth of beam or girder (in.)

Af = flange area (in.2)
If Equation (10-101) is not satisfied, M u calculated from Equation (10-99) shall not exceed M u
calculated from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1
(d)
Maximum axial compression:
P 0.15Fy A
(10-102)
10.48.4
Members not meeting the lateral bracing requirement

of Article 10.48.2.1(c) shall be braced at discrete locations spaced at a distance, Lb, such that the design bending strength of the section under consideration satisfies
the requirements of Article 10.48.4.1. Bracing shall be
provided such that lateral deflection of the compression
flange is restrained and the entire section is restrained
against twisting.
10.48.4.1 If the lateral bracing requirement of Article 10.48.2.1(c) is not satisfied and the ratio of the
moment of inertia of the compression flange to the
moment of inertia of the member about the vertical axis
of the web, Iyc/Iy, is within the limits of 0.1 Iyc/Iy
0.9, the design bending strength for the limit state of
lateral-torsional buckling shall be computed as:
M u = M r Rb
Members with axial loads in excess of 0.15Fy A should

be designed as beam-columns as specified in Article
10.54.2.
b/t *
L bd
Af
D/t w
36,000
50,00 0
7 0 , 0 00
90,000
10 0 , 0 0 0
23.2
19.7
16.6
14 . 7
13.9
556
400
2 86
2 22
200
Refer to Articles 10.48.5.1, 10.48.6.1, 10.49.2

or 10.49.3, as applicable. For unstiffened webs, the
limit is 150.
10.48.2.2 The limitations set forth in Article

10.48.2.1 above are given Table 10.48.2.1A .
Transitions
The design strength of sections with geometric properties falling between the limits of Articles 10.48.1 and
10.48.2 may be computed by straight-line interpolation,
except that the web thickness must always satisfy Article
10.48.1.1(b).
10-88
D
5,460
tw
k
fb
where:
* Limits shown are for F cr = Fy. Refer also to article

10.48.2.1(a)
10.48.3
(10-103a)
Rb = 1 for longitudinally stiffened girders if the web

slenderness satisfies the following requirement:
TABLE 10.48.2.1A Limitations for Braced NonCompact Sections

Fy (psi)
Partially Braced Sections
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
ds
0.4
for
Dc
D
D
k = 5.17 9
ds
Dc
for
ds
< 0.4
Dc
D
= 11.64
D
c
ds
ds = distance from the centerline of a plate longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or the leg of
the compression flange component (in.)
fb = factored bending stress in compression flange
(psi)
Otherwise, for girders with or without longitudinal
stiffeners, Rb shall be calculated as
+
+
D t D
Rb = 1 0.002 c w c
A t
fc w
Lb Lp
Mr = CbFy Sx c 1 0.5
My
Lr Lp

1. 0
Mr
Sxc
(10-103e)
1/2
572 106 I yc d
Lr =
Fy Sx c
(10-103b)
Dc
+
+
+
tw
Afc
Mr
S xc
= depth of web in compression (in.). For composite beams and girders, Dc shall be calculated in accordance with the provisions specified in Article 10.50(b).
= thickness of web (in.)
= area of compression flange (in.2 )
= lateral torsional buckling moment defined below (lb.-in.)
= section modulus with respect to compression
flange (in.3 ). Use S xc for live load for a composite section
= 15,400 for all sections where Dc is less than or
equal to D/2
= 12,500 for sections where Dc is greater than D/2
Dc
For sections with t F or with longitudinally stiffw

y
ened webs:
I
d
J
M r = 91 10 6 Cb yc 0.772
+ 9. 87
L
I
b
yc
Lb
for Lb > Lr
2
FS L
M r = Cb y xc r M y
2 Lb
Lb = unbraced length of the compression flange (in.)

Lp = limiting unbraced length for the yield moment
capacity (in.)
Lr = limiting unbraced length for elastic lateral torsional buckling moment capacity (in.)
r' = radius of gyration of compression flange about
the vertical axis in the plane of the web (in)
Iy c = moment of inertia of compression flange about
the vertical axis in the plane of the web (in.4 )
d = depth of girder (in.)
J
(10-103c)
For sections with
Cb =
for Lb Lp
Mr = My
Lp =
9,500 r
Fy
(b t ) + (b t ) + D t
3
D
< c
tw
Fy
(10-103d)
(10-103g) +
where:
My
(10-103f)
+
+
+
+
+
3
w
t
where b and t represent
3
the flange width and the thickness of the compression and tension flange, respectively (in.4 ) +
c
12.5M max
2.5M max + 3M A+ 4M B + 3M c
where:
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the

unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
MA
= absolute value of moment at quarter point of
the unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
+
+
+
+
(10-103d1)
for Lr Lb > Lp
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-89
+
+
+
+
MB
= absolute value of moment at midpoint of the

unbraced beam segment (lb-in.)
= absolute value of moment at three- quarter
point of the unbraced segment (lb-in.)
= 1.0 for unbraced cantilevers and for members where the moment within a significant
portion of the unbraced segment is greater
than or equal to the larger of the segment end
moments.a
Mc
Cb
The compression flange shall satisfy the requirement

of Article 19.48.2.1(a). The web thickness shall not
exceed the requirement given by Equation (10-104) or
Equation (10-109), as applicable, subject to the corresponding requirements of Articles 10.49.2 or 10.49.3.
For unstiifened web, the web thickness shall not be less
than D/150.
10.48.5
Transversely Stiffened Girders
10.48.5.1
For girders not meeting the shear requirements of Article 10.48.8.1 (Equation 10-113) transverse stiffeners are required for the web. For girders with
transverse stiffeners but without longitudinal stiffeners
the width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the web shall not
exceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.48.5A
subject to the web thickness requirement of Article
10.49.2. If the web slenderness D/tw exceeds the upper
limit, either the section shall be modified to comply with
the limit, or a longitudinal stiffener shall be provided.
10.48.5.2 The design bending strength of transversely stiffened girders meeting the requirements of
Article 10.48.5.1 shall be computed by Articles 10.48.1,
10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, 10.50, 10.51, or 10.53, as applicable,
subject to the requirements of Article 10.48.8.2.
10.48.4.2 Members with axial loads in excess of

0.15 Fy A should be designed as beam-columns as specified in Article 10.54.2.
TABLE 10.48.5A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Web Plates and Stiffeners
WidthThickness
Ratio
With transverse
stiffeners only
Web
Plates
Longitudinal
stiffeners
Stiffeners
36,500
(10-104)
Fy
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
192
163
138
122
115
+
+
+
+
+
73,000 (10-109)
Fy
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
385
326
276
243
231
+
+
+
+
+
2,600
Fy
(10-144)
16
(10-105)
Fy
(psi)
= width of flange plate or width of outstanding element of web stiffeners (in.)

= specified minimum yield strength of the component under consideration (psi)
= web stiffener outstanding element thickness (in.)
= web plate thickness (in.)
a For
the use of larger Cb values, see Structural Stability Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures,
4th Ed., pg. 157.
10-90
b' /ts
Transverse stiffeners
b'
D
Fy
ts
tw
Limiting
WidthThickness
Ratios
Limiting
Width-Thickness
Ratio
D/tw
With transverse
stiffeners and one
longitudinal stiffener
+
+
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
10.48.5.3 The shear capacity of transversely stiffened girders shall be computed by Article 10.48.8. The
+ width-to-thickness ratio (b'/ts ) of transverse stiffeners
+ shall not exceed the limiting values specified in Table
+ 10.48.5A.
The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate transverse
stiffeners, A (in.2 ) shall meet the following require+
ment:
D
V
A 0.15 B (1 C )
tw
Vu
Fyweb 2
18
tw
Fcr
(10-106a)
where:
Fcr =
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
b
ts
Fyweb
9,025,000
b

ts
(10-106b)
= projecting width of the stiffener (in.)
When values computed by Equation (10-106a) approach zero or are negative, then transverse stiffeners
need only meet the requirements of Equations (10-107),
(10-105) and Article 10.34.4.10.
The moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners with
+ reference to the plane defined below shall meet the
+ following requirement:
I d o t3w J
(10-107)
where:
2
D
J = 2. 5 2 0. 5
do
Transverse intermediate stiffeners shall be preferably

fitted tightly to the tension flange. If the intermediate
stiffener is used for attaching a cross frame or diaphragm,
a positive connection using either bolts or welds must be
made to the tension flange. The distance between the end
of the vertical weld on the stiffener to the web-to-flange
weld shall be 4 tw but not less than 1 1 /2 inches. Transverse
stiffeners provided only on one side of the web must be
welded to the compression flange and fitted tightly to the
tension flange for the stiffener to be effective. Stiffener
properties shall be as covered in Article 10.34.4.10.
10.48.6
Fystiffener
= thickness of the stiffener (in.)

web (psi)
Fystiffener = specified minimum yield strength of the
stiffener (psi)
B
= 1.0 for stiffener pairs, 1.8 for single angles,
and 2.4 for single plates;
C
= constant computed by Article 10.48.8.1.
When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment of inertia

shall be taken about the centerline of the web plate. When
single stiffeners are used, the moment of inertia shall be
taken about the face in contact with the web plate.
(10-108)
do = distance between transverse stiffeners
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Longitudinally Stiffened Girders
10.48.6.1 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be required

on symmetrical girders when the web thickness is less
than that specified by Article 10.48.5.1 and shall be
placed at a distance D/5 from the inner surface of the
compression flange.
+
The width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the web of plate
girders with transverse stiffeners and one longitudinal
stiffener shall not exceed the limiting values specified in +
Table 10.48.5A.
Singly symmetric girders are subject to the requirements of Article 10.49.3
+
10.48.6.2 The design bending strength of longitudinal stiffened girders meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.6.1 shall be computed by Articles 10.48.2,
10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2, 10.50.2.2, 10.51, or 10.53 as applicable, subject to the requirements of Article 10.48.8.2.
10.48.6.3 The shear capacity of girders with one

longitudinal stiffener shall be computed by Article 10.48.8.
The dimensions of the longitudinal stiffener shall be
such that:
(a) the width-to-thickness ratio meets the require- +
ment given in Table 10.48.5A. The factored bending
stress in the longitudinal stiffener is not greater than the
yield strength of the longitudinal stiffener.
(b) the moment of inertia of the stiffener meets the +
following requirement:
+
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-91
do 2
I D tw 2.4 0.13
D
(10-110)
For stiffened web panels complying with the provisions of Article 10.48.8.3, the shear capacity shall be
determined by including post-buckling resistance due to
tension-field action as follows:
(c) the radius of gyration of the stiffener meets the

+
d o Fy
23,000
(10-111)
In computing I and r values above, a centrally located

web strip not more than 18tw in width shall be considered
as a part of the longitudinal stiffener. Transverse stiffeners for girder panels with longitudinal stiffeners shall be
designed according to Article 10.48.5.3. In addition, the
+ section modulus of the transverse stiffener shall meet the
Ss
1 D
St
3 d o
0.87 (1 C )
Vu = V p C +
2
d
1+ o
D
(10-112)
(10-114)
Vp is equal to the plastic shear strength and is deter- +

mined as follows:
Vp = 0.58 FyDtw
(10-115)
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress

divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
follows:
D 6,000 k
<
for
tw
Fy
where:
C = 1.0
+
+
+
+
D = total panel depth (clear distance between flange

components) (in.)
St = section modulus of the longitudinal stiffener.
(in3.)
10.48.7
for
Bearing Stiffeners
6,000 k
D
7,500 k
tw
Fy
Fy
C=
Bearing stiffeners shall be designed for beams and

girders as specified in Articles 10.33.2 and 10.34.6.
+
Axial compression strength shall be computed as speci+ fied in Article 10.54.1. Bearing strength shall be taken at
+ 1.35 Fy times the bearing area of bearing stiffners.
10.48.8
Shear
fabricated flexural members shall be computed as follows:

+
For unstiffened webs, the design shear strength shall
+ be limited to the plastic or buckling shear strength as
+ follows:
Vu = CVp
SECTION 10
(10-113)
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(10-116)
D
7,500 k
>
tw
Fy
C=
10.48.8.1 The shear capacity of webs of rolled or
10-92
for
6,000 k
D
Fy
tw
4.5 107 k
2
D
Fy
tw
(10-117)
where the buckling coefficient, k = 5 + 5 / (d o /D)2 , except

k shall be taken as 5 for unstiffened beams and girders.
+
+
+
+
+
D = clear, unsupported distance between flange components (in.)

do = distance between transverse stiffeners (in.)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the web
plate (psi)
10.48.8.2 If a girder panel is controlled by Equation (10-114) and is subjected to the simultaneous action
of shear and bending moment with the magnitude of the
+ moment greater than 0.75 Mu , the shear shall meet the
V
1.6 M
2.2
Vu
Mu
Vu = CVp
(10-118a)
where:
= factored bending stress in either the top or bottom flange, whichever flange has the larger ratio
of (fs /Fum)
Fum =maximum bending strength of either the top or
bottom flange, whichever flange has the larger
ratio of (fs /Fum)
fs
10.48.8.3 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners are required, transverse stiffeners shall be spaced at a
distance, d o , according to shear capacity as specified in
Article 10.48.8.1, but not more than 3D. Transverse
stiffeners may be omitted in those portions of the girders
where the maximum shear force is less than the value
given by Article 10.48.8.1 Equation (10-113), subject to
the handling requirements below.
+
For longitudinally stiffened girders, transverse stiffeners shall be spaced a distance, d o , according to shear
capacity as specified in Article 10.48.8.1, but not more
than 1.5 times the web depth. The handling requirement
given above shall not apply to longitudinally stiffened
girders. The total web depth D shall be used in determining the shear capacity of longitudinally stiffened girders
in Article 10.48.8.1 and in Equation (10-119).
The first stiffener space at the simple support end of a
transversely or longitudinally stiffened girder shall be
such that the shear force in the end panel will not exceed
the plastic or buckling shear strength given by the +
following equation:
(10-118)
If a girder panel adjacent to a composite noncompact

section is controlled by Equation (10-114) and is subjected to the simultaneous action of shear and bending
moment with the magnitude of factored bending stress fs
greater than 0.75Fum, the shear shall meet the following
requirement:
1.6f
V
2.2 s
Vu
Fum
260
the handling requirement D D / t .
w
(10-119)
For transversely stiffened girders, the maximum spacing of the first transverse stiffener is limited to 1.5D.
10.49 FLEXURAL MEMBERS WITH

SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS
10.49.1
+
+
General
For sections symmetric about the vertical axis but

unsymmetric with respect to the horizontal centroidal
axis, the provisions of Articles 10.48.1 through 10.48.4
shall be applicable.
10.49.2
Transversely Stiffened Sections
Girders with transverse stiffeners shall be designed

and evaluated by the provisions of Article 10.48.5 except
that when Dc, the clear distance between the neutral axis
and the compression flange, exceeds D/2 the web thickness, tw, shall meet the requirement:
Dc
18, 250
tw
Fy
(10-120)
If the web slenderness Dc/tw exceeds the upper limit,

either the section shall be modified to comply with the
limit, or a longitudinal stiffener shall be provided.
Transverse stiffeners shall be required if D/tw is greater

than 150. The spacing of these stiffeners shall not exceed
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-93
10.49.3
Longitudinally Stiffened Sections
10.49.3.1
Longitudinal stiffeners shall be required

+ on singly symmetric sections when the web thickness
+ does not meet the requirement specified by Articles
+ 10.48.5.1 or 10.49.2.
10.49.4
(a) The optimum distance, ds, of a plate longitudinal

stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal
stiffener from the inner surface or the leg of the
compression flange component is D/5 for a symmetrical girder. The optimum distance, ds, for a
singly symmetric composite girder in positivemoment regions may be determined from the
equation given below:
ds
=
Dcs
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Dcs
fDL
fDL+LL
(10-121)
1
1 +1.5
f DL+ LL
f DL
= depth of the web in compression of the noncomposite steel beam or girder (in.)
= non-composite dead-load stress in the compression flange (psi)
= total non-composite and composite dead
load plus the composite live-load stress in
compression flange at the most highly
stressed section of the web (psi)
The optimum distance ds, of the stiffener in negativemoment regions of composite sections is 2Dc/5, where Dc
is the depth of the web in compression of the composite
section at the most highly stressed section of the web.
(b) When Dc exceeds D/2, the web thickness, tw, shall
meet the requirement:
Dc
36,500
tw
Fy
10-94
SECTION 10
(10-122)
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Singly symmetric braced non-compact sections of

rolled or fabricated flexural members shall be designed
and evaluated by the provisions of Article 10.48.2.
10.49.5
10.49.3.2 For girders with one longitudinal stiffener and transverse stiffeners, the provisions of Article
10.48.6 for symmetrical sections shall be applicable in
addition to the following:
The design strength of singly symmetric sections +

meeting all requirements of Article 10.48.2.1, except for the
lateral bracing requirement given by Equation (10-101),
shall be computed as the lesser of Mu calculated from
Equation (10-98) or Mu calculated from Equation (10-99),
with Mu calculated from Equation (10-99) not to exceed Mu
calculated from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1.
10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS

Composite sections shall be so proportioned that the
following criteria are satisfied:
(a) The design strength of any section shall not be
less than the sum of the computed moments at that +
section multiplied by the appropriate load factors.
(b) The web of the steel section shall be designed to
carry the total external shear and must satisfy the
applicable provisions of Articles 10.48 and 10.49.
The value of Dc shall be taken as the clear distance
between the neutral axis and the compression
flange. In positive-moment regions, the value of
Dc shall be calculated by summing the stresses
due to the appropriate loadings acting on the
respective cross sections supporting the loading.
The depth of web in compression, Dc, in composite section subjected to negative bending may be
taken as the depth of the web in compression of the
composite section without summing the stresses
from the various stages of loading. The web depth in
compression, Dcp, of sections meeting the web
compactness and ductility requirements of Article
10.50.1.1.2 under the maximum design loads shall
be calculated from the full plastic section ignoring
the sequence of load application. Girders with a web
slenderness exceeding the limits of Article 10.48.5.1
or 10.49.2 shall either be modified to comply with
these limits or else shall be stiffened by one longitudinal stiffener.
+
+
+
+
+
(c) The moment capacity at first yield shall be computed considering the application of the dead and
live loads to the steel and composite sections.
(d) steel beam or girder shall satisfy the
constructibility requirements of Article 10.61.
(e) The stress in the top flange of a composite girder
shall be limited to 0.6 Fy under dead load if no
calculations are made for the construction loading stage of the concrete deck. The concrete deck
is assumed to be placed instantaneously.
10.50.1
C =
10.50.1.1.1 The resultant moment of the fully plastic stress distribution (Figure 10.50A) may be computed
as follows:
(a) The compressive force in the slab, C, is equal to
the smallest of the values given by the following
Equations:
C = 0 .85 f cb ts + ( AFy )c
(1)
(10-123)
(2)
+
where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
b
ts
(AF y) c
(AFy)b f
(AFy)t f
(AF y) w
C = (AFy)bf + (AFy)tf + (AFy)w
(10-125)
(c) When the compressive force in the slab is less

than the value given by Equation (10-124), the
top portion of the steel section will be subjected to
+
the following compressive force:
Compact Sections
The design strength, Mu , of compact composite sections in positive-moment regions shall be computed in
accordance with Article 10.50.1.1.2. The steel shall have
the demonstrated ability to reach Mp . Steel such as
AASHTO M 270 Grades 26, 50 and 50W (ASTM A 709
Grades 36, 50 and 50W), and ASTM A 709 Grade HPS
70W meet these requirements.
C ( AFy ) c
0. 85 f c b
a=
Positive Moment Sections
10.50.1.1
+
(b) The depth of the stress block is computed from the

compressive force in the slab.
(AF ) C
y
(10-126)
where:
(AF y ) = product of the area and yield strength of steel +

+
girder section (lb.)
(d) The location of the neutral axis within the steel
section measured from the top of the steel section
may be determined as follows:
for
C' < (AFy)tf
y =
for
C
(AFy )tf ttf
(10-127)
C' (AFy)tf
(10-124)
y = t tf +
C ( AFy )tf
(AF )
(10-128)
y w
= effective width of slab specified in Article

38.3 (in.)
= the slab thickness (in.)
= product of the area and yield strength of
that part of reinforcement which lies in the
compression zone of the slab (lb.)
= product of area and yield strength for bottom flange of steel section (including cover
plate if any) (lb.)
= product of area and yield strength for top
flange of steel section (lb.)
= product of area and yield strength for web
of steel section (lb.)
(e) The plastic moment capacity, Mp of the section in

bending is the first moment of all forces about the
neutral axis, taking all forces and moment arms as
positive quantities.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-95
Fy top
ts t
flange 0.85 f c' 2 s y
ts
th = thickness of the concrete haunch above the

beam or girder top flange (in.)
+
C
Dp
ttf
C'
D
Fy web
Fy web
Fy
Cross-Section
Fy bottom
flange
Stress Distribution
FIGURE 10.50A Plastic Stress Distribution
10.50.1.1.2 Composite sections of constant-depth

members in positive-moment regions without longitudinal web stiffeners and without holes in the tension flange
shall qualify as compact when the web of the steel section
satisfies the following requirement:
2 Dcp 19,230
tw
Fy
(10-129)
Equation (10-129a) need not be checked for sections

where the maximum flange stress does not exceed the
specified minimum flange yield strength.
+
The design bending strength, Mu of compact compos- +
ite sections in simple spans or in the positive-moment
regions of continuous spans with compact non-composite or composite negative-moment pier sections shall be
taken as:
for
Dp D
Mu = M p
for
(10-129b)
D < D p 5D
Mu =
5M p 0.85 M y
4
0.85 M y M p D p
4
D
(10-129c)
where:
+
+
+
+
where:
Dcp = depth of the web in compression at the plastic
moment calculated in accordance with Article
10.50.1.1.1 (in.)
Equation (10-129) is satisfied if the neutral axis at the
plastic moment is located above the web; Otherwise Dcp
shall be computed as y from Equation (10-128) minus
Also, the distance from the top of slab to the neutral
ttf.
axis
at the plastic moment, Dp, shall satisfy:
Dp
5
D
(10-129a)
Mp = plastic moment capacity of the composite positive moment section calculated in accordance
with Article 10.50.1.1.1 (lb-in.)
+
My = moment capacity at first yield of the composite
moment section calculated as Fy times the section modulus with respect to the tension flange
(lb-in.). The modular ratio, n, shall be used to +
compute the transformed section properties.
In continuous spans with compact composite positivemoment sections, but with noncompact noncomposite or
composite negative-moment pier sections, the maximum
bending strength, Mu, of the composite positive-moment
sections shall be taken as either the moment capacity at the
first yield determined as specified in Article 10.50(c), or as: +
where:
D' =
+
+
=
=
d =
ts =
10-96
Mu = My + A(Mu - Ms)pier
(d + ts + th )
7.5
0.9 for Fy = 36,000 psi
0.7 for Fy = 50,000 psi and 70,000 psi
depth of the steel beam or girder (in.)
thickness of the slab (in.)
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
where:
(10-129d)
My
(Mu - Ms)pier
+
A
= the moment at first yield of the compact positive moment section calculated in accordance with Article
10.50(c) (lb-in.)
= moment capacity of noncompact section at the pier, Mu, given by Article
10.48.2 or Article 10.48.4, minus the
elastic moment at the pier, Ms, for the
loading producing maximum positive
bending in the span. Use the smaller
value of the difference for the two pier
sections for interior spans (lb-in.)
= 1 for interior spans
= distance from end support to the location of maximum positive moment
divided by the span length for end
spans.
Mu computed from Equation (10-129d) shall not exceed the applicable value of Mu computed from either
Equation (10-129b) or Equation (10-129c).
For continuous spans where the maximum bending
strength of the positive-moment sections is determined
from Equation (10-129d), the maximum positive moment in the span shall not exceed My, for the loading
which produces the maximum negative moment at the
adjacent pier(s).
For composite sections in positive-moment regions
not satisfying the requirements of Equation (10-129) or
Equation (10-129a), or of variable-depth members or
with longitudinal web stiffeners, or with holes in the
tension flange, the design bending strength shall be
determined as specified in Article 10.50.1.2.
10.50.1.2
Non-Compact Sections
10.50.1.2.1 When the steel section does not satisfy

the compactness requirements of Article 10.50.1.1.2, the
sum of bending stresses due to the appropriate loadings
acting on the respective cross sections supporting the loadings shall not exceed Fy for the tension flange, and FyRb for
compression flange, where Rb is the flange-stress reduction
factor determined from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1.
When Rb is determined from Equation (10-103b), fb shall be
substituted for the term Mr/Sxc and Afc shall be taken as the
effective combined transformed area of the top flange and
concrete deck that yields Dc calculated in accordance with
Article 10.50(b). fb is equal to the factored bending stress in
the compression flange (psi), but not to exceed Fy. The
resulting Rb factor shall be distributed to the top flange and
concrete deck in proportion to their relative stiffness. The

provisions of Article 10.48.2.1(b) shall apply.
10.50.1.2.2 When the girders are not provided with

temporary supports during the placing of dead loads, the
sum of the stresses produced by 1.30MsD acting on the
steel girder alone with 1.30McD and the appropriate
factored live loading according to Table 3.22.1A acting
on the composite girder shall not exceed yield strength at
any point, where MsD and McD are the moments caused by
the dead load acting on the steel girder and composite
girder, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+
10.50.1.2.3 When the girders are provided with

effective intermediate supports that are kept in place until
the concrete has attained 75 percent of its required 28-day
strength, stresses produced by the factored dead load plus +
live loading, acting on the composite girder, shall not +
exceed yield strength at any point.
+
10.50.2
Negative Moment Sections
The design strength of composite sections in negative +

moment regions shall be computed in accordance with
Articles 10.50.2.1 or 10.50.2.2, as applicable. It shall be
assumed that the concrete slab does not carry tensile
forces. In cases where the slab reinforcement is continu- +
ous over interior supports, the reinforcement may be
considered to act compositely with the steel section.
10.50.2.1
Compact Sections
Composite sections of constant-depth members without longitudinal web stiffeners and without holes in the
tension flange in negative bending qualify as compact
when their steel section meets the requirements of Article
10.48.1.1, and has the demonstrated ability to reach Mp.
Steels such as AASHTO M 270 Grade 26, 50 and 50W
(ASTM A 709, Grade 36, 50 and 50W), and ASTM A 709
Grade HPS 70W meet these requirements. Mu shall be
computed as the resultant moment of the fully plastic
stress distribution acting on the section including any
composite slab reinforcement.
+
If the distance from the neutral axis to the compression
flange exceeds D/2, the compact section requirements
given by Equation (10-94) and (10-95) must be modified
by replacing D with the quantity 2Dcp, where Dcp is the
depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment. +
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-97
10.50.2.2
Non-Compact Sections
When the steel section does not satisfy the compactness requirements of Article 10.50.2.1, but does satisfy
the requirement of Article 10.48.2.1, the sum of bending
stresses due to the appropriate loadings acting on the
respective cross sections supporting the loadings shall
not exceed Fy for the tension flange, and FcrRb for
compression flange, where Fcr is the critical compression
flange stress specified in Article 10.48.2 and Rb is the
flange-stress reduction factor determined from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1. When Rb is determined from
Equation (10-103b), fb shall be substituted for the term
M r /Sxc . fb is equal to the factored bending stress in the
compression flange (psi), but not to exceed Fy. When all
requirements of Article 10.48.2.1 are satisfied, except for
lateral bracing requirement given by Equation (10-101),
the design strength of the compression flange shall be
taken to be FcrRb but not to exceed Mu /Sxc, where Mu and
Sxc are determined according to the provisions of Article
10.48.4.1.
10.50.2.3 The minimum longitudinal reinforcement including the longitudinal distribution reinforcement must equal or exceed 1 percent of the cross-sectional area of the concrete slab whenever the longitudinal
tensile stress in the concrete slab due to either the factored
construction loads or the overload specified in Article
10.57 exceeds 0.9fr, where fr is the modulus of rupture
specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1. The area of concrete slab
shall be taken equal to the structural thickness times the
entire width of the bridge deck. The required reinforcement shall be No. 6 bars or smaller spaced at not more
than 12 inches. Two-thirds of this required reinforcement
is to be placed in the top layer of the slab. Placement of
distribution steel as specified in Article 3.24.10 is waived.
10.50.2.4
When shear connectors are omitted from

the negative moment region, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be extended into the positive moment region
beyond the anchorage connectors at least 40 times the
reinforcement diameter.
center-to-center of the flanges of adjacent boxes shall be

not greater than 1.2 times and not less than 0.8 times the
distance center-to-center of the flanges of each box. In
addition to the above, when nonparallel girders are used
the distance center-to-center of adjacent flanges at supports shall be not greater than 1.35 times and not less than
0.65 times the distance center-to-center of the flanges of
each box. The cantilever overhang of the deck slab,
including curbs and parapet, shall be limited to 60 percent
of the distance between the centers of adjacent top steel
flanges of adjacent box girders, but in no case greater than
6 feet.
10.51.1
Design Bending Strength
The design bending strength of box girders shall be +

determined according to the applicable provisions of
Articles 10.48, 10.49, and 10.50. In addition, the design +
strength of the negative moment sections shall be limited +
by:
Mu = FcrS
(10-130)
where:
Fcr = critical stress of the bottom flange plate as given +
in Article 10.51.5 (psi)
+
10.51.2
Live Load Moment Distribution
The live load bending moment for each box girder

shall be determined in accordance with Article 10.39.2.
10.51.3
Web Plates
The design shear Vw for a web shall be calculated using

the following equation:
Vw =
V
cos
(10-131)
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS*
where:
This section pertains to the design of simple and

continuous bridges of moderate length supported by two
or more single-cell composite box girders. The distance
V = one-half of the total vertical shear force on one +

box girder (lb.)
+
vertical
* For
information regarding the design of long-span steel box

girder bridge, Report No. FHWA-TS-80-205, Proposed Design
Specifications for Steel Box Girder Bridges is available from the
Federal Highway Administration.
10-98
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
The inclination of the web plates to the vertical shall

not exceed 1 to 4.
10.51.4
Tension Flanges
b
t
In the case of simply supported spans, the bottom

flange shall be considered fully effective in resisting
bending if its width does not exceed one-fifth the span
length. If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of the
span, only an amount equal to one-fifth of the span shall
be considered effective.
For continuous spans, the requirements above shall be
applied to the distance between points of contraflexure.
10.51.5
10.51.5.2
Deleted
10.51.5.3
Deleted
10.51.5.4
If longitudinal stiffeners are used, they

shall be equally spaced across the flange width and shall
be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each
stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the
base of the stiffener meet the following requirement:
+
Compression Flanges
I s t 3w
For unstiffened compression flanges, the

+
+ critical stress, Fcr , shall be computed as:
10.51.5.1
b
6,140
t
Fy
(10-132)
Fcr = Fy
(10-132a)
6,140 b 13,300
<
t
Fy
Fy
(10-133)
+ for
+
+ for
Fcr = 0.592 Fy 1 + 0.687 sin

(10-134)
2
c=
b
Fy
t
7,160
= 0.07 k3n4 when n equals 2, 3, 4, or 5;

= 0.125 k3 when n equals 1;
w = width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners
or distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal stiffener (in.)
+
n = number of longitudinal stiffeners;
k = buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
10.51.5.4.1 For longitudinally stiffened flanges, +

the critical stress, Fcr , shall be computed as:
+
w
3,070 k
t
Fy
(10-139) +
Fcr = Fy
(10-139a) +
3,070 k
w 6,650 k
<
t
Fy
Fy
(10-140) +
13,300
b
13,300
>
t
Fy
+ for
(10-135)
(10-136)
t
Fcr = 105 106
b
(10-138)
where:
for
+
+
+
= flange width between webs (in.)

(10-137)
for
Fcr = 0.592 Fy 1 + 0.687 sin

(10-141) +
2
where:
c=
SECTION 10
w
Fy
t
3,580
6,650 k
STRUCTURAL STEEL
(10-141a) +
10-99
b
6,650 k
>
t
Fy
+ for
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS

(10-142)
10.52.1
t
Fcr = 26.2k 106
w
10.51.5.4.2 Deleted
10.51.5.4.3 Deleted
(10-143)
10.51.5.4.4 When longitudinal stiffeners are used,

it is preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The
stiffener should have a size equal to that of a longitudinal
stiffener. The number of longitudinal stiffeners preferably shall not exceed 2. If the number of longitudinal
stiffeners exceeds 2, then the use of additional transverse
stiffeners shall be considered.
10.51.5.5
The width-to-thickness ratio of any outstanding element of the flange stiffeners shall not exceed
+ the limiting values specified in Table 10.48.5A.
10.51.5.6 Compression flanges shall also satisfy

the provisions of Article 10.51.4. The effective flange
plate width shall be used to calculate the factored flange
bending stress. The full flange plate width shall be used
to calculate the buckling stress of the flange.
10.51.6
Diaphragms
Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means shall be

provided within the box girders at each support to resist
transverse rotation, displacement, and distortion.
Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames are not required for box girder bridges designed in accordance
with this specification.
+ 10.51.7
Flange to Web Welds
The total effective thickness of the web-flange welds

shall not be less than the thickness of the web, except,
when two or more interior intermediate diaphragms per
span are provided, the minimum size fillet welds specified in Article 10.23.2.2 may be used. Regardless of the
type weld used, welds shall be deposited on both sides of
the connecting flange or web plate.
10-100
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
General
The horizontal shear at the interface between the

concrete slab and the steel girder shall be provided for by
mechanical shear connectors throughout the simple
spans and the positive moment regions of continuous
spans. In the negative moment regions, shear connectors
shall be provided when the reinforcing steel embedded in
the concrete is considered a part of the composite section.
In case the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete is
not considered in computing section properties of negative moment sections, shear connectors need not be
provided in these portions of the span, but additional
connectors shall be placed in the region of the points of
dead load contraflexure as specified in Article
10.38.5.1.3.
+
10.52.2
Number of Connectors
The number of shear connectors shall be determined

in accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.2 and checked for
fatigue in accordance with Articles 10.38.5.1.1 and
10.38.5.1.3.
10.52.3
Maximum Spacing
The maximum pitch shall not exceed 24 inches except

over the interior supports of continuous beams where
wider spacing may be used to avoid placing connectors at
locations of high stresses in the tension flange.
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS

This section pertains to the design of girders that
utilize a lower strength steel in the web than in one or both
of the flanges. It applies to composite and non-composite
plate girders and to composite box girders. At any cross
section where the bending stress in either flange caused
by the maximum design load exceeds the minimum
specified yield strength of the web steel, the compression-flange area shall not be less than the tension-flange
area. The top-flange area shall include the transformed
area of any portion of the slab or reinforcing steel that is
considered to act compositely with the steel girder.
The provisions of Article 10.48 through 10.52 shall
apply to hybrid beams and girders except as modified below.
In all equations of these articles, Fy shall be taken as the
minimum specified yield strength of the steel of the element
under consideration with the following exceptions:
(1) In Articles 10.48.1.1(b), 10.48.4.1, 10.48.5.1,

10.48.6.1, 10.49.2, 10.49.3.2(b), and 10.50.1.1.2,
use Fy of the compression flange.
(2) Articles 10.57.1 and 10.57.2 shall apply to the
flanges, but not to the web of hybrid girders.
Sxt = section modulus with respect to the tension +

flange (in.3)
+
For symmetrical sections,
R=
The provisions specified in Article 10.40.4 shall also

apply. Longitudinal web stiffeners preferably shall not be
located in yielded portion of the web.
12 + (3 3 )
12 + 2
(10-147) +
where:
+ 10.53.1
Non-Composite Sections
10.53.1.1
Compact Sections
The equation of Article 10.48.1 for the maximum

strength of compact sections shall be replaced by the
expression:
Mu = FyfZ
Fyw
Fyf
Aw
Af
(10-145)
for unsymmetrical sections,
where:
+
+
+
R = 1

(psi)
Z = plastic section modulus (in.3)
(1 )2 (3 + )
6 + (3 )
(10-148) +
where:
In computing Z, the web thickness shall be multiplied
+ by the ratio of the specified minimum yield strength of the
+ web, Fyw, to the specified minimum yield strength of the
flange Fyf.
10.53.1.2
+
The equations of Article 10.48.2 for the design bending strength of braced non-compact sections shall be
replaced by the expressions
where:
Mu = FyfSxtR
(10-146)
Mu = FcrSxcRbR
(10-146a)
= distance from the outer fiber of the tension +

flange to the neutral axis divided by depth of the +
+
steel section
R shall be taken 1.0 at sections where the bending
stress in both flanges caused by factored loads does not +
exceed the specified minimum yield strength of the web.
10.53.1.3
The design bending strength of non-compact hybrid +

sections of partially braced members not satisfying the
lateral bracing requirement given by Equation (10-101)
shall be calculated as the lesser of the Mu calculated from
Equation (10-146) or Mu calculated from Equation (10146a). Mu calculated from Equation (10-146a) is not to
exceed Mu calculated from the provisions of Article
10.48.4.1 with Equation (10-103a) replaced by the expression
Mu = Mr Rb R
(10-148a)
and the yield moment calculated as
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-101
My = Fyf S R
(10-148b)
Pu = 0.85 As Fcr
where:
+
+
+
+
where:
R = Reduction factor for hybrid girders determined

from Article 10.53.1.2
Rb = bending reduction factor determined by Equation (10-103)
10.53.1.4
As = gross effective area of the column cross section

(in.2)
Fcr = critical stress determined by one of the following two formulas* (psi)
Transversely Stiffened Girders
Equation (10-114) of Article 10.48.8.1 for the shear

capacity of transversely stiffened girders shall be replaced by the expression
Vu = VpC
KLc
for
(10-149)
Composite Sections
The design strength of a compact composite section

shall be computed as specified in Article 10.50.1.1.2 or
Article10.50.2.1, as applicable, using the specified minimum yield strength of the element under consideration to
compute the plastic moment capacity. The yield moment
in Article 10.50.1.1.2 shall be multiplied by R (for singly
symmetrical sections) from Article 10.53.1.2, where is
calculated as specified below for non-compact composite sections.
The design bending strength of a non-compact composite section shall be taken as the design strength computed from Article10.50.1.2 or Article 10.50.2.2, as applicable times R (for unsymmetrical sections) from Article 10.53.1.2, in which is the distance from the outer
fiber of the tension flange to the neutral axis of the
transformed section divided by the depth of the steel
section.
2 2E
Fy
F KL 2
Fcr = Fy 1 2y c
4 E r
The provisions of Article 10.48.8.2 and equation for A

in Article 10.48.5.3 are not applicable to hybrid girders.
+ 10.53.2
(10-150)
KLc
>
r
for
Fcr =
2 2E
Fy
(10-151) +
(10-152) +
(10-153) +
2E
KLc
(10-154) +
where:
K = effective length factor in the plane of buckling;
Lc = length of the member between points of support
(in.)
r = radius of gyration in the plane of buckling (in.) +
Fy = yield stress of the steel (psi)
+
E = 29,000,000 (psi)
+
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

10.54.1
+
+
Axial Loading
10.54.1.1
Design Axial Strength
The design axial compression strength of concentrically loaded columns shall be computed as:
10-102
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
*Singly symmetric and unsymmetric compression members,

such as angles, or tees, and doubly symmetric compression members, such as cruciform or built-up members with very thin walls,
may also require consideration of flexural-torsional and torsional
buckling. Refer to the Manual of Steel Construction, Ninth Edition,
1989, American Institute of Steel Construction.
10.54.1.2
Effective Length
The effective length factor K shall be determined as

follows:
(a) For members having lateral support in both directions at its end:
K = 0.75 for riveted, bolted, or welded end connections;
K = 0.875 for pinned ends.
(b) For members having ends not fully supported
laterally by diagonal bracing or an attachment to
an adjacent structure, the effective length factor
shall be determined by a rational procedure.*
10.54.2
Combined Axial Load and Bending
The combined maximum axial force P and the maximum bending moment M acting on a beam-column shall
satisfy the following equations:
+
P
+
0.85 As Fcr
Cmx, Cmy = coefficients applied to bending terms in

interaction formula for prismatic members; dependent upon member curvature
caused by applied moments about the xaxis and y- axis, respectively, as determined from Table 10.36A
Mp
= FyZ, the full plastic moment of the section (lb-in.)
Z
= plastic section modulus (in.3)
KLc
= effective slenderness ratio in the plane of
r
bending;
x
= subscript; represents the x axis
y
= subscript; represents the y axis
+
+
+
+
+
10.54.2.1
Deleted
10.54.2.2
Deleted
10.55.1
M yCmy
M xCmx
+
1.0
P
P
M uy 1
M ux 1
AF
As Fex
s ey
M
P
M
+ x + y 1.0
0.85 As Fy M px M py
Moment Amplification and Allowable

Stresses
AF =
Fcr = critical stress as determined by the equations of

Article 10.54.1.1(psi)
Mu = design bending strength as determined by Articles 10.48.1, 10.48.2, or 10.48.4;
E 2
2
Fe = KLc the Euler buckling stress in the plane of

r
1
1.18 T
1
AFe
(10-159)
KL 2
F
Fy r y
and Fb = Fy
Fa =
1
1.18
4 2 E
(10-156)
where:
+
+
+
+
+
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES
(10-155)
+
+
+
(10-160)
10.55.2
Web Plates
10.55.2.1 The width-thickness ratio (D/tw) of the +

web plates shall not exceed the limiting values specified +
+
in Table 10.55.2A.
bending;
(10-157)
B.G. Johnson, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal

Structures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-103
TABLE 10.55.2A Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Solid Rib Arches
WidthThickness
ratio
Without longitudinal
stiffeners
With two longitudinal

stiffeners at the one-third
points of the web depth
Web
Plates
Outstanding element of
stiffeners
D/tw
b' /ts
(10-161)
10,150
fa
(10-162)
13,500
fa
(10-163)
(10-164)
(10-165)
(10-166)
2,200
12
f a + fb / 3
b' /tf
Overhang plates
b'
D
fa
fb
tf
ts
tw
2,200
12
f a + fb
= width of flange plate or width of outstanding element of web stiffeners (in.)

= calculated axial compressive stress in the component under consideration (psi)
= calculated compressive bending stress in the component under consideration (psi)
= flange plate thickness (in.)
= web stiffener outstanding element thickness (in.)
= web plate thickness (in.)
10-104
6,750
fa
5,700
fa + fb
Plates between webs

Flange
Plates
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratio
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10.55.2.2 The width-thickness ratio (b'/ts) of any
+ outstanding element of the web stiffeners shall not ex+ ceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.55.2A.
10.55.3
Flange Plates
+
The width-thickness ratio (b'/tf) of flange plates shall not
+ exceed the limiting values specified in Table 10.55.2.A.
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND

DETAILS
10.56.1
The design strength of the weld metal in groove and fillet

welds shall be equal to or greater than that of the base metal,
except that the designer may use electrode classifications
with strengths less than the base metal when detailing fillet
welds for quenched and tempered steels. However, the
welding procedure and weld metal shall be selected to
ensure sound welds. The effective weld area shall be taken
as defined in ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding
+ Code, Article 2.3 and the Standard Specifications of the
+ California Department of Transportation.
+
+
The design strength of the weld metal, F (psi), shall be
taken as:
+
+
Groove Welds:
Fasteners
10.56.1.3.1 In proportioning fasteners (rivets, bolts, +

threaded studs and threaded rods), the cross sectional +
area based upon nominal diameter shall be used.
+
For fasteners in joints whose length between extreme +

fasteners measured parallel to the line of action of the +
force is less than 50 inches:
Rv = Ab Fv N s
(10-166c) +
Welds
10.56.1.3
The design shear strength of a fastener, Rv (lb.), shall +

+
be taken as:
General
Connectors and connections shall be proportioned so

+ that their design strength as given in this Article, as
applicable, shall be at least equal to the effects of service
loads multiplied by their respective load factors as specified in Article 3.22.
10.56.1.2
+
+
+
+
+
10.56.1.3.2 Design Shear Strength
Connectors
10.56.1.1
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of

connected material (psi)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the welding rod but not greater than the tensile stress of
the connected parts (psi)
F = 1.00 Fy
(10-166a)
F = 0.45 Fu
(10-166b)
where:
Ab = area of the fastener corresponding to the nominal diameter (in.2)

Fv = design shear strength of fastener material specified in Table 10.56A (psi)
Ns = number of shear planes of the fastener
+
+
+
+
+
The design shear strength of a fastener in connections +

greater than 50 inches shall be taken as 0.8 times the value +
+
given by Equation (10-166c).
+
10.56.1.3.3 Design Tension Strength
The design tension strength of a fastener, Rt (lb.), shall +

+
be taken as:
Rt = Ab Ft
(10-166d) +
Fillet Welds:
where:
+
+
where:
Ft = design tension strength of fastener material speci- +

fied in Table 10.56A (psi)
+
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-105
TABLE 10.56A Design Strength of and Fastener Materials
Type of Fasteners
Rivets
Bolts
Threads are excluded from
shear plane
Bolts
Threads are included in
shear plane
Design Shear Strength

Fv = Fnv (psi)
Design Tension Strength

Ft = Fnt (psi)
+
+
Fnv (psi)
Fnt (psi)
0.65
0.58F u
0.65
Fu
+
+
0.48F u
0.78
0.38F u
0.65 (for A307,

A36, A588,
A572)
0.75 (for others)
+
+
+
+
0.75F u
+
+
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the fastener given in Table 10.2C (psi)
10.56.1.3.5 High-strength bolts preferably shall be +

+
10.56.1.3.4 The design bearing strength, R (lb.), on

the connected material in standard, oversized, short-slotted
holes loaded in any direction, or long-slotted holes parallel
to the applied bearing force shall be taken as:
R = 0.9 Lct Fu 1.8 d t Fu
used for fasteners subject tension or combined shear and

tension.
For combined tension and shear, bolts and rivets shall
be proportioned so that the tensile stress does not exceed:
(10-166e)
for
f v / Fv 0.33
The design bearing strength, R (lb.), on the connected

material in long-slotted holes perpendicular to the applied bearing force shall be taken as:
R = 0.75Lc t Fu 1.5 d t Fu
(10-166f)
Ft = Ft
(10-167)
for
Ft = Ft 1 ( f v / Fv )
The design bearing strength for the connection is

equal to the sum of the design bearing force strength for
the individual bolts in the connection.
(10-167a)
where:
where:
+
+
R = design bearing strength (lb.)

Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the connected part (psi)
Lc = clear distance between the holes or between the
hole and the edge of the material in the direction
of the applied bearing force (in.)
d = nominal diameter of bolt (in.)
t = thickness of connected material (in.)
10-106
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
fv = calculated rivet or bolt stress in shear (psi)

Fv = design shear strength of rivet or bolt from Table
10.56A or equal to KhTb as specified in Article
10.57.3.1 (psi)
Ft = design tensile strength of rivet or bolt from
Table 10.56A (psi)
Ft = reduced design tensile strength of rivet or bolt
due to the applied shear stress (psi)
+
+
+
+
+
10.56.1.4
Slip-Critical Joints
Slip-critical joints shall be designed to prevent slip at

the overload in accordance with Article 10.57.3, but as a
minimum the bolts shall be capable of developing the
minimum strength requirements in bearing of Articles
10.18 and 10.19.
Potential slip of joints should be investigated at intermediate load stages especially those joints located in
composite regions.
10.56.2
+
Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by

Connected Parts
Bolts required to carry applied load by means of direct

tension shall be proportioned for the sum of the external
load and tension resulting from prying action produced
by deformation of the connected parts. The total tension
should not exceed the values given in Table 10.56A.
The tension due to prying actions shall be computed
as:
3b
t3
Q=
T
8a 20
Mc
tw 3
F d d
y b c
(10-169)
where:
+
+
+
Mc = column moment (lb-in.)

db = beam depth (in.)
dc = column depth (in.)
When the thickness of the connection web does not +

satisfy the above requirement, the web shall be strength- +
ened by diagonal stiffeners or by a reinforcing plate in
contact with the web over the connection area.
At joints where the flanges of one member are rigidly
framed into one flange of another member, the thickness
of the web, tw, supporting the latter flange and the
thickness of the latter flange, tc, shall be checked by the
formulas below. Stiffeners are required on the web of the
second member opposite the compression flange of the
first member when
tw <
(10-168)
Af
tb + 5k
(10-170)
and opposite the tension flange of the first member when

where:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Q = prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when

negative) (lb.)
T = direct tension per bolt due to external load (lb.)
a = distance from center of bolt under consideration to edge of plate (in.)
b = distance from center of bolt under consideration
to toe of fillet of connected part (in.)
t = thickness of thinnest part connected (in.)
10.56.3
Rigid Connections
10.56.3.1 All rigid frame connections, the rigidity

of which is essential to the continuity assumed as the
basis of design, shall be capable of resisting the moments,
shears, and axial loads to which they are subjected by
maximum loads.
10.56.3.2 The thickness of beam web shall meet
+
+ the following requirement:
tc < 0.4 A f
(10-171)
where:
tw = thickness of web to be stiffened (in.)
k = distance from outer face of flange to toe of web
fillet of member to be stiffened (in.)
tb = thickness of flange delivering concentrated force
(in.)
tc = thickness of flange of member to be stiffened (in.)
Af = area of flange delivering concentrated load (in.2)
+
+
+
+
+
10.57 OVERLOAD
The overload is defined as Group 1 loading divided by +
1.3. If moment distribution is permitted under the provi- +
sions of Article 10.48.1.3, the limitations specified in
Articles 10.57.1 and 10.57.2 shall apply to the modified
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-107
moments, but not to the original moments. Web bendingbuckling shall be checked at overload according to Equation (10-173). For composite sections, Dc shall be calculated in accordance with Article 10.50(b). Sections that do
not satisfy Equation (10-173) shall be modified to comply
with the requirement.
10.57.1
Non-Composite Sections
At non-composite sections, the maximum overload

flange stress shall not exceed 0.8Fy.
10.57.2
= slip coefficient specified in Table10.57A

Kh = hole size factor specified in Table 10.57B
Class A, B or C surface conditions of the bolted parts as
defined in Table 10.57A shall be used in joints designated
as slip-critical except as permitted in Article 10.57.3.2.
High strength bolts done according to the Standard
Specifications of the California Department of Transportation, Section 55, will be tensioned and the contact
surface condition of the assembly will be Class B.
+
+
+
+
TABLE 10.57A Slip Coefficient
Composite Sections
Class Types Contact Surface of Bolted Parts

At composite sections, the maximum overload flange
stress shall not exceed 0.95Fy. In computing dead load
stresses, the presence or absence of temporary supports
during the construction shall be considered. For members
with shear connectors provided throughout their entire
length that also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.50.2.3,
the overload flange stresses caused by loads acting on the
appropriate composite section may be computed assuming the concrete deck to be fully effective for both positive
and negative moment. For this case, the resulting stresses
shall be combined with the stresses due to loads acting on
the non-composite section to calculate Dc for checking
web bend-buckling.
10.57.3
Slip-Critical Joints
10.57.3.1
In addition to the requirements of Articles 10.56.1.3.1 and 10.56.1.3.2 for fasteners, the force
+ caused by the overload on a slip-critical joint shall not
+ exceed the design slip strength, Rs (lb.), given by:
Rs = Kh Tb An NbNs
+
+
+
+
+
An
Nb
Ns
Tb
=
=
=
=
10-108
net cross section area of the bolt (in.2)

number of bolts in the joint
number of slip planes
required minimum bolt tension stress specified
in the Standard Specifications of California Department of Transportation or equal to 70% of
specified minimum tensile strength of bolts given
in Table 10.2C (psi)
SECTION 10
Class A
Clean mill scale and blastcleaned

surfaces with Class A coating
0.33
Class B
Blast- cleaned surfaces and blastcleaned surfaces with Class B

coating
0.5
Class C
Hot- dip galvanized surfaces

roughened by wire brushing after
galvanizing
0.33
STRUCTURAL STEEL
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Note: Coatings classified as Class A or Class B include

those coatings which provide a mean slip coefficient not less than 0.33 or 0.5, respectively, as
determined by Testing Method to Determine the
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in the Bolted
Joints. See Article 10.32.3.2.3.
+
+
+
+
+
+
TABLE 10.57B Hole Size Factor Slip Kh
Hole Types
Kh
Standard
1.0
Oversize and Short-slotted
0.85
Long-slotted holes with the slot

perpendicular to the direction of the force
0.70
Long-slotted holes with the slot parallel to

the direction of the force
0.60
+
+
+
+
(10-172)
where:
+
10.57.3.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer,

coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33 may
be used provided the mean slip coefficient is established
by test in accordance with the requirements of Article
10.57.3.3, and the slip resistance per unit area established. The slip resistance per unit area shall be taken as
equal to the slip resistance per unit area from Table
10.57A for Class A coatings as appropriate for the hole
type and bolt type times the slip coefficient determined
by test divided by 0.33.
10.57.3.3 Paint, used on the faying surfaces of

connections specified to be slip critical, shall be qualified
by test in accordance with Test Method to Determine the
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints as
adopted by the Research Council on Structural Connections. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A 325 or A 490
Bolts, published by the Research Council on Structural
Connections.
10.57.3.4 For combined shear and tension in slip
critical joints where applied forces reduce the total clamping force on the friction plane, the slip force shall not
+ exceed the design slip strength given by:
Rs = Rs (1 1.88 f t / Fu )
(10-172b)
+
+
+
+
+
Composite Construction
10.58.2.1
Slab Reinforcement
When composite action is provided in the negative

moment region, the range of stress in slab reinforcement
shall be limited to 20,000 psi.
10.58.2.2
Shear Connectors
The shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue in

accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.
10.58.3
Hybrid Beams and Girders
Hybrid girders shall be designed for fatigue in accordance with Article 10.3.
10.59 DEFLECTION
The control of deflection of steel or of composite steel
and concrete structures shall conform to the provision of
Article 10.6.
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC
SUPERSTRUCTURES
where:
+
10.58.2
ft
= calculated tensile stress in the bolt due to applied loads including any stress due to prying
actions (psi)
Rs = design slip strength specified in Equation (10172) (lb.)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the bolt
from Table 10.2C (psi)
10.58
10.58.1
FATIGUE
General
The analysis of the probability of fatigue of steel

members or connection under service loads and the
allowable range of stress for fatigue shall conform to
Article 10.3, except that the limitation imposed by the
basic criteria given in Article 10.3.1 shall not apply. For
members with shear connectors provided throughout
their entire length that also satisfy the provisions of
Article 10.50.2.3, the range of stress may be computed
using composite section assuming the concrete deck to be
fully effective for both positive and negative moment.
A rational analysis based on the Strength Design

Method, in accordance with the specifications, will be
considered as compliance with the specifications.
10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY
The Moment and shear capacity of a steel beam or
girder shall meet the requirements specified below to
control local buckling of the web and compression
flange, and to prevent lateral torsional buckling of the
cross section under the non-composite dead load prior to
hardening of the deck slab. The casting or placing sequence of the concrete deck specified in plans shall be
considered in determining the applied moments and
shears. A load factor = 1.3 shall be used in calculating
the applied moments and shears.
10.61.1
Web
The maximum factored non-composite dead load

compressive bending stress in the web shall not exceed
the allowable design bending stress given below:
+
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
10-109
Fb =
26, 200,000 k
D

tw
+
where:
+
+
+
+
Fyw
(10-173)
Fy w = specified minimum yield strength of the web

(psi)
D c = depth of the web of the steel beam or girder in
compression (in.)
D = web depth (in.)
tw = thickness of web (in.)
k = 9(D/Dc)2 for members without a longitudinal
stiffener
= 1.3 for members without a longitudinal stiffener
= 1.0 for members with a longitudinal stiffener
Sections without longitudinal stiffeners that do not
satisfy Equation (10-173) shall either be modified to
comply with the requirement or a longitudinal stiffener
shall be added to the web at a location on the web that
satisfies both Equation (10-173) and all strength requirements, which may or may not correspond to the optimum
location of the longitudinal stiffeners specified in Article
10.49.3.2(a). For longitudinally stiffened girders, the
buckling coefficient, k is calculated as
for
ds
0.4
Dc
D
D
k = 5.17 9
ds
Dc
for
ds
< 0.4
Dc
= 11.64
Dc
ds
where:
+
+
ds = distance from the centerline of a plate longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or the leg of
the compression flange component (in.)
The web thickness requirements specified in Articles
10.48.5.1, 10.48.6.1, 10.49.2 and 10.49.3.2(b) shall not
be applied to the constructibility load case.
10-110
SECTION 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
The sum of the factored non-composite and composite

dead load shears shall not exceed design shear strength of the +
web specified in Article 10.48.8.1 (Equation 10-113).
10.61.2
Deleted
10.61.3
Cross Section
The maximum factored non-composite dead-load

moment shall not exceed the value of Mu calculated for
the steel beams or girder using the equations specified in
Article 10.48.4.1.
+
10.61.4
Compression Flange
The ratio of the compression flange width to thickness

in positive-moment regions shall meet the following
requirement:
b 4,400
24
t
f dl
(10-174) +
where:
fdl = top-flange compressive stress due to the fac- +
tored non-composite dead load divided by the +
factor Rb specified in Article 10.48.4.1, but not
to exceed Fy. (psi)
SECTION 11 - ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1
GENERAL
The purpose of this section is to provide a location for

indexing aluminum design, material fabrication and construction specifications.
11.2
BRIDGES
The Specifications for Aluminum Structures, Fifth

Edition, December 1986, published by the Aluminum
Association, Inc., as it applies to Bridge and Similar
Type Structures, are intended to serve as a standard or
guide for the preparation of plans and specifications and
as a reference for designers, fabricators, and erectors of
aluminum bridge and railing structures and their aluminum structural components. Welding shall conform to
Section 10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural Welding
CodeAluminum, and workmanship requirements for
Class II structures.
11.3
11.5
BRIDGE RAILING
The design of aluminum bridge railing shall be governed by Article 2.7; the fabrication and erection shall
conform to Section 6 of the Specifications for Aluminum
Structures, Fifth Edition, 1986; and the welding shall
conform to Section 10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural Welding CodeAluminum, and workmanship requirements for Class II structures. The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide should be consulted for guidance on
the safety considerations in the design of bridge rail.
SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION

SYSTEMS
The design of aluminum soil-metal plate interaction

+ systems shall be in accordance with Section 12.
11.4
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR

HIGHWAY SIGNS, LUMINAIRES,
AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural

Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic
Signals shall be used for the design and preparation of
plans and specifications, fabrication and erection of aluminum sign supports luminaires, and traffic signals.
Welding shall conform to Section 10 of the current AWS
D1.2 Structural Welding CodeAluminum, and workmanship requirements for Class I structures. Special
consideration may be given to certain support structures,
which may be designed and fabricated according to the
provisions of Article 11.2, Bridges.
SECTION 11 ALUMINUM DESIGN
11-1
SECTION 12 - SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL

STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1
12.1.1
GENERAL
12.1.4
Scope
The specifications of this section are intended for the

structural design of corrugated metal structures. It must
be recognized that a buried flexible structure is a composite structure made up of the metal ring and the soil
envelope, and that both materials play a vital part in the
structural design of flexible metal structures.
Design
12.1.4.1
The thrust in the wall shall be checked
by three criteria. Each considers the mutual function of
the metal wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The
criteria are:
(a) Wall area
(b) Buckling stress
(c) Seam strength (structures with longitudinal seams)
12.1.4.2
12.1.2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
A = area of pipe wall (Article 12.3.1)

Em = modulus of elasticity of metal (Articles 12.3.2
and 12.3.4)
FF = flexibility factor (Article 12.3.4)
fcr = critical buckling stress (Article 12.3.2)
fu = specified minimum tensile strength (Article
12.3.2)
fy = specified minimum yield point (Article 12.3.1)
I = moment of inertia, per unit length, of cross
section of the pipe wall (Article 12.3.4)
k = soil stiffness factor (Article 12.3.2)
P = design load (Article 12.1.4)
r = radius of gyration of corrugation (Article 12.3.2)
S = diameter or span (Article 12.1.4)
s = pipe diameter or span (Articles 12.3.2, and 12.3.4)
SS = required seam strength (Article 12.3.3)
T = thrust (Article 12.1.4)
TL = thrust, load factor (Articles 12.3.1 and 12.3.3)
= load factor
e = effective density increase
= capacity modification factor (Articles 12.3.1 and
12.3.3)
12.1.3
The thrust in the wall is:
Notations
T = P
S
2
(12-1)
where
P
S
T
= design load, in pounds per square foot;

= diameter or span, in feet;
= thrust, in pounds per foot.
12.1.4.3
Handling and installation strength
shall be sufficient to withstand impact forces when shipping and placing the pipe.
12.1.5
Materials
The materials shall conform to the AASHTO specifications referenced herein.
12.1.6
Soil Design
12.1.6.1
Soil Parameters
The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on

soil structure interaction and soil stiffness.
The following must be considered:
Loads
+
Design load, P, shall be the pressure acting on the
+ structure. For earth pressures see Article 6.2. For live load
+ see Articles 3.7 and 6.5. For loading combinations see
+ Article 3.22.
SECTION 12
(a) Soils
(1) The type and anticipated behavior of the
foundation soil must be considered; i.e., stability
SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12-1
for bedding and settlement under load.

(2) The type, compacted density, and strength
properties of the soil envelope immediately
adjacent to the pipe must be established.
Good side fill is obtained from a granular material
with little or no plasticity and free of organic material,
+ i.e., Caltrans classifications shall be followed for the 90%
+ and 95% compaction specified in Figure 12.7.4A and
+ Standard Plan A62-F.
(b) Dimensions of soil envelope
The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
the culvert soil envelope are as follows:
+
+
+
+
(1) Trench installations2 feet minimum each side of

culvert. This recommended limit should be modified as
necessary to account for variables such as poor in-situ
soils.
(2) Embankment installations2 feet minimum on
each side of culvert.
(3) The minimum upper limit of the soil envelope is 2
feet above the culvert.
12.1.6.2
Pipe Arch Design
The design of the corner backfill shall account for

corner pressure which shall be considered to be approximately equal to thrust divided by the radius of the pipe
arch corner. The soil envelope around the corners of pipe
arches shall be capable of supporting this pressure.
12.1.6.3
Arch Design
12.1.6.3.1
Special design considerations may be
applicable; a buried flexible structure may raise two
important considerations. The first is that it is undesirable
to make the metal arch relatively unyielding or fixed
compared with the adjacent side fill. The use of massive
footings or piles to prevent any settlement of the arch is
generally not recommended.
Where poor materials are encountered, consideration
should be given to removing some or all of this poor
material and replacing it with acceptable material.
The footing should be designed to provide uniform
longitudinal settlement, of acceptable magnitude from a
functional aspect. Providing for the arch to settle will
protect it from possible drag down forces caused by the
consolidation of the adjacent side fill.
The second consideration is bearing pressure of soils
under footings. Recognition must be given to the effect of
12-2
SECTION 12
depth of the base of footing and the direction of the

footing reaction from the arch.
Footing reactions for the metal arch are considered to
act tangential to the metal plate at its point of connection
to the footing. The value of the reaction is the thrust in the
metal arch plate at the footing.
12.1.6.3.2
Invert slabs and other appropriate
measures shall be provided to anticipate scour.
12.1.7
Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions
Extra metal thickness, or coatings, may be required for

resistance to corrosion and abrasion. For highly abrasive
conditions, a special design may be required.
12.1.8
Minimum Spacing
When multiple lines of pipes or pipe arches greater

than 48 inches in diameter or span are used, they shall be
spaced so that the sides of the pipe shall be no closer than
one-half diameter or 3 feet, whichever is less to permit
adequate compaction of backfill material. For diameters
up to and including 48 inches, the minimum clear spacing
shall not be less than 2 feet.
12.1.9
End Treatment
Protection of end slopes may require special consideration where backwater conditions may occur, or where
erosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends
constitute a major run-off-the-road hazard if not properly
designed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate
grating that conforms to the embankment slope, extension of culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or
provision for guardrail, are among the alternatives to be
considered. End walls on skewed alignment require a
special design.
12.1.10 Deleted
12.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
Service Load Design method shall not be used.
12.3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Load Factor Design is a method of design based on

ultimate strength principles.
12.3.1
Wall Area
A=
seam strength shall be:
SS =
TL
(12-7)
f y
A = area of pipe wall in square inches per foot;

TL = thrust, load factor in pounds per foot;
fy = specified minimum yield point in pounds per
square inch;
= capacity modification factor.
Buckling
If fcr is less than fy, A must be recalculated using fcr in

lieu of fy.
If s <
r
k
24 E m
fu
2
fu
(ks/r )2
then f cr = f u
48 E m
(12-8)
If s >
24 E m
fu
then f cr =
(12-10)
where
where
12.3.2
TL
12 E m
(ks / r )2
(12-9)
SS = required seam strength in pounds per foot;

TL = thrust multiplied by applicable factor, in pounds
per linear foot;
12.3.4
Handling and Installation Strength
Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor,

FF, determined by the formula
2
s
FF =
(12-11)
Em I
where
FF = flexibility factor in inches per pound;
s = pipe diameter or maximum span in inches;
Em = modulus of elasticity of the pipe material in
pounds per square inch;
I = moment of inertia per unit length of cross section
of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per
inch.
where
fu
fcr
k
s
r
Em
= specified minimum tensile strength in pounds

per square inch;
= critical buckling stress in pounds per square
inch;
= soil stiffness factor = 0.22;
= pipe diameter or span in inches;
= radius of gyration of corrugation in inches;
= modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per
square inch.
12.3.3
Seam Strength
12.4.1
CORRUGATED METAL PIPE

General
12.4.1.1
Corrugated metal pipe and pipe-arches
may be of riveted, welded, or lock seam fabrication with
annular or helical corrugations. The specifications are:
Aluminum
Steel
AASHTO M 190, M 196 AASHTO M 36, M 245, M 190
12.4.1.2
For pipe fabricated with longitudinal seams (riveted,

spot-welded, bolted), the seam strength shall be sufficient to develop the thrust in the pipe wall. The required
SECTION 12
12.4
Service Load DesignSafety

Factor, SF:
12-3
12.4.1.3
E
wall area
& buckling
seam
strength
12.4.1.4
Load Factor DesignCapacity

Modification Factor, .
Helical pipe with Annular pipe with
lock seam or
spot welded, riveted
fully welded seam
or bolted seam
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
12.4.2 Seam Strength

Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strength
1
/2 and 2-2/3
/2 Corrugated Steel Pipe
Riveted or Spot Welded
Thickness Rivet Size Single Rivets Double Rivets
(in.)
(in.)
(kips/ft.)
(kips/ft.)
0.9
0.9
0.064
16.7
21.6
0.67
0.079
/16
18.2
29.8
0.109
23.4
46.8
0.138
24.5
49.0
0.168
25.6
51.3
Flexibility Factor
(a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed

the following values:
For 1/4-in. and 1/2-in. depth corrugation:

FF = 4.3 10-2
For 1-in. depth corrugation:
FF = 3.3 10-2
(b) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not
exceed the following values:
For 1/4-in. and 1/2-in. depth corrugation with:
0.6 in. and thinner material thickness
FF = 3.1 10-2
0.75 in. thickness
FF = 6.1 10-2
All other material thicknesses
FF = 9.2 10-2
For 1-in. depth corrugation:
FF = 6 10-2
12.4.1.5
Minimum Cover
+
The minimum cover for design load shall be Span/5 or
+ 2 feet minimum (flexible pavement or unpaved) and
+ Span/5 or 1.2 feet minimum (rigid pavement).
12-4
SECTION 12
/16
/8
/8
/8
1 Corrugated Steel PipeRiveted or Spot Welded

Thickness
Rivet Size
Double Rivets
(in.)
(in.)
(kips/ft.)
0.064
28.7
0.079
/8
35.7
0.109
/16
53.0
0.138
63.7
0.168
70.7
/8
/16
/16
/2 and 2- /3
Thickness
(in.)
/2 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe

Riveted
Rivet Size SingleRivets Double Rivets

(in.)
(kips/ft.)
(kips/ft.)
0.060
9.0
14.0
0.075
9.0
18.0
0.105
15.6
31.5
0.135
16.2
33.0
0.164
16.8
34.0
/16
/16
/8
/8
/8
1 Corrugated Aluminum PipeRiveted
Thickness
(in.)
Rivet Size
(in.)
Double Rivets
(kips/ft.)
0.060
16.5
0.075
20.5
0.105
28.0
0.135
42.0
0.164
54.5
/8
/8
/2
/2
/2
12.4.3
Section Properties
12.4.3.1
Steel Conduits
11/2
/4 Corrugation
-3
1 Corrugation
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10-3
(in.4/in.)
0.064
0.794
0.3657
8.850
0.079
0.992
0.3663
11.092
0.109
1.390
0.3677
15.650
0.138
1.788
0.3693
20.317
0.168
2.186
0.3711
25.092
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10
(in.4/in.)
0.028
0.304
0.034
0.380
0.040
0.456
0.0816
0.253
0.052
0.608
0.0824
0.344
0.064
0.761
0.0832
0.439
0.079
0.950
0.0846
0.567
0.109
1.331
0.0879
0.857
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10-3
(in.4/in.)
0.138
1.712
0.0919
1.205
0.048
0.608
0.0824
0.344
0.168
2.098
0.0967
1.635
0.060
0.761
0.0832
0.349
22/3
12.4.3.2
Aluminum Conduits
11/2
/2 Corrugation
22/3
-3
/4 Corrugation
/2 Corrugation
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10
(in.4/in.)
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10-3
(in.4/in.)
0.040
0.465
0.1702
1.121
0.060
0.775
0.1712
1.892
0.052
0.619
0.1707
1.500
0.075
0.968
0.1721
2.392
0.064
0.775
0.1712
1.892
0.105
1.356
0.1741
3.425
0.079
0.968
0.1721
2.392
0.135
1.745
0.1766
4.533
0.109
1.356
0.1741
3.425
0.164
2.130
0.1795
5.725
0.138
1.744
0.1766
4.533
0.168
2.133
0.1795
5.725
1 Corrugation
1 Corrugation
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10-3
(in.4/in.)
0.060
0.890
0.3417
8.659
0.075
1.118
0.3427
10.883
Thickness
(inch)
As
(sq.in./ft.)
r
(inch)
I 10-3
(in.4/in.)
0.064
0.890
0.3417
8.659
0.105
1.560
0.3448
15.459
0.079
1.113
0.3427
10.883
0.135
2.088
0.3472
20.183
0.109
1.560
0.3448
15.459
0.164
2.458
0.3499
25.091
0.138
2.008
0.3472
20.183
0.168
2.458
0.3499
25.091
SECTION 12
12-5
12.4.4
Chemical and Mechanical

Requirements
12.5.2
12.4.4.1
Aluminum-corrugated metal pipe and
pipe-arch material requirementsAASHTO M 197.
Design
12.5.2.1
Load Factor Design
Mechanical Properties for Design

Material
Grade
Minimum
Minimum Modulus of
Tensile Strength Yield Point Elasticity
(psi)
(psi)
(psi)
3004-H34
31,000
24,000
10
106
3004-H32
27,000
20,000
10
106
Material Grade 3004-H32 is to be used with helical

corrugated pipe only
12.4.4.2
Steel-corrugated metal pipe and pipearch material requirementsAASHTO M 218 and
M246.
Minimum
Tensile Strength
(psi)
Minimum
Yield Point
(psi)
45,000
33,000
12.4.5
Modulus of
Elasticity
(psi)
29
106
Smooth Lined Pipe
Corrugated metal pipe composed of a smooth liner

+ and corrugated shell integrally with helical seams shall
+ not be used.
12.5
12.5.1
+
+
+
+
+
SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE

General
1.3
1.5
0.9
Service Load Design Method shall not be used.
12.5.2.2
Flexibility Factor

FF = 0.263 I0.33 for 3/4 3/4 71/2 configurations
FF = 0.163 I0.33 for 3/4 1 81/2 and 3/4 1 111/2
configurations
exceed the following value:
FF = 0.420 I0.33 for 3/4 3/4 71/2 configurations
FF = 0.215 I0.33 for 3/4 1 111/2 configurations
12.5.2.3
Minimum Cover
For steel conduit the minimum cover shall not be less

than Span/4 or 2 feet minimum (flexible pavement or
unpaved) and Span/4 or 1.2 feet minimum (rigid pavement).
For aluminum conduits, the minimum cover shall be
less than Span/2.75 or 2 feet minimum.
12.5.3
Section Properties
12.5.3.1
12.5.1.1
Spiral rib metal pipe fabricated from a
single thickness of smooth sheet with helical spaced ribs
projecting outwardly shall be designed in accordance
with Article 12.3 and the effective section properties of
Article 12.5.3. The specifications are:
Steel Conduits
3
/4" @ 71/2" spacing
/4"
10-3
Thickness
As
(in.)
(sq. in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.064
0.509
0.258
2.821
Aluminum
Steel
0.079
0.712
0.250
3.701
AASHTO M 190, M 196
AASHTO M 36, M 245, M 190
0.109
1.184
0.237
5.537
12-6
SECTION 12
+
+
+
+
10-3
Thickness
As
(in.)
(sq. in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.064
0.374
0.383
4.580
0.079
0.524
0.373
6.080
0.109
0.883
0.355
9.260
As
(in.)
(sq. in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.064
0.499
0.379
5.979
0.079
0.694
0.370
7.913
0.109
1.149
0.354
11.983
10
/4"
/4" @ 71/2" spacing

10-3
Thickness
As
(in.)
(sq. in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.060
0.415
0.272
2.558
0.075
0.569
0.267
3.372
0.105
0.914
0.258
5.073
1" @ 111/2" spacing
/4"
10-3
Thickness
As
(in.)
(sq. in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.060
0.312
0.396
4.080
0.075
0.427
0.391
5.450
0.105
0.697
0.380
8.390
12.5.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements

12.5.4.1
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
Minimum
Yield
Point
(psi)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(psi)
31,000
24,000
10 106
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe -Arch

Requirements-AASHTO M 218

Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
Minimum
Yield
Point
(psi)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(psi)
45,000
33,000
29 10 6
SECTION 12
12.5.5
Construction Requirements
The deflection or elongation of the structure shall not

exceed 5% at any time during construction or after.
12.6
Aluminum Conduits
-3
Thickness
12.5.4.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe Arch Requirements-AASHTO M 197
1" @ 81/2" spacing
/4"
12.5.3.2
1" @ 111/2" spacing
/4"
12.6.1
STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE

STRUCTURES
General
12.6.1.1
Structural plate pipe, pipe-arches, and
arches shall be bolted with annular corrugations only.
The specifications are:

Aluminum
Steel
AASHTO M 219
AASHTO M 167
12.6.1.2
Service Load DesignSafety

Factor, SF
Service Load Design Method shall not be used.
12.6.1.3
Load Factor Design Capacity

Modification Factor
1.3
1.5
0.9
See Figure 12.6.1.3A
12-7
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN - SSPP
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group X - Culvert =
Where = 1.3; D = 1.0; E = 1.5; L = 1.67
Grading Plane
Structure Backfill
95% compaction
Minimum: 2, Span/8
140 pcf
Embankment construction
prior to excavation
Staggered
longitudinal joints
140 pcf
Shaped bedding
(for diameters larger
than 84" only)
60 Bedding angle
O.G.
Figure 12.6.1.3A
12.6.1.4
Flexibility Factor

6 in 2 in. corrugation FF = 2.0 10-2 (pipe)
6 in. 2 in. corrugation FF = 3.0 10-2 (pipearch)
6 in. 2 in. corrugation FF = 3.0 10-2 (arch)
exceed the following values:
9 in. 21/2 in. corrugation FF = 2.5 10-2 (pipe)
9 in. 21/2 in. corrugation FF = 3.6 10-2 (pipearch)
9 in. 21/2 in. corrugation FF = 3.6 10-2 (arch)
12.6.1.5
Minimum Cover
The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8

+ or 2 feet minimum (flexible pavement or unpaved) and
+ Span/8 or 1.2 feet minimum (rigid pavement).
12-8
SECTION 12
12.6.2
Seam Strength
Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strengths
6"
2" Steel Structural Plate Pipe
Thickness
Bolt Size
4 Bolts/ft.
6 Bolts/ft. 8 Bolts/ft.
(in.)
(in.)
(kips/ft.)
(kips/ft.)
(kips/ft.)
0.109
/4
42.0
0.138
/4
62.0
0.168
/4
81.0
0.188
/4
93.0
0.218
/4
112.0
0.249
/4
132.0
0.280
/4
144.0
180
194
0.318
/8
235.0
0.380
/8
285.0
+
+
9"
Thickness
(in.)
12.6.4
21/2" Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe
Bolt Size
(in.)
Steel Bolts
Aluminum Bolts
51/2 Bolts
Per ft.
(kips/ft.)
51/2 Bolts
Per ft.
(kips/ft.)
0.100
/4
28.0
26.4
0.125
/4
41.0
34.8
0.150
/4
54.1
44.4
0.175
/4
63.7
0.200
/4
0.225
0.250

Properties
12.6.4.1
Steel Structural Plate Pipe, PipeArch, and Arch Material

RequirementsAASHTO M 167
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR DESIGN
12.6.3
52.8
Minimum
Tensile Strength
(psi)
Minimum
Yield Point
(psi)
73.4
52.8
45,000
33,000
/4
83.2
52.8
12.6.4.2
/4
93.1
52.8
Section Properties
12.6.3.1
2" Corrugations
-3
Thickness
As
(in.)
(sq.in./ft.)
(in.)
(in.4/in.)
0.109
1.556
0.682
60.411
0.138
2.003
0.684
78.175
0.168
2.449
0.686
96.163
0.188
2.739
0.688
108.000
0.218
3.199
0.690
126.922
0.249
3.650
0.692
146.172
0.280
4.119
0.695
165.836
0.318
4.671
0.698
190.0
0.380
5.613
0.704
232.0
12.6.3.2
10
106
Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe,

Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
RequirementsAASHTO M 219,
Alloy 5052.
Thickness
(in.)
Minimum
Minimum Modulus of
Tensile Strength Yield Point Elasticity
(psi)
(psi)
(psi)
0.100 to 0.150
35,000
24,000
10
106
0.175 to 0.250
34,000
24,000
10
106
12.6.5
Structural Plate Arches
The design of structural plate arches should be based

on ratios of a rise to span of 0.30 minimum.
12.7
12.7.1
LONG SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE

STRUCTURES
General
Aluminum Conduits
9" 21/2" Corrugations
Thickness
29
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR DESIGN
Steel Conduits
6"
Modulus of
Elasticity
(psi)
As
10-3
4
(in.)
(sq.in./ft.)
(in.)
(in. /in.)
0.100
1.404
0.8438
83.065
0.125
1.750
0.8444
103.991
0.150
2.100
0.8449
124.883
0.175
2.449
0.8454
145.895
0.200
2.799
0.8460
166.959
0.225
3.149
0.8468
188.179
0.250
3.501
0.8473
209.434
SECTION 12
Long span structural plate structures are short span

bridges defined as follows.
12.7.1.1
Structural plate structures (pipe, pipearch, and arch) that exceed 20 feet diameter or span, or the
maximum sizes imposed by Article 12.6.
12.7.1.2
Special shapes of any size that involve
a relatively large radius of curvature in crown or side
plates. Vertical ellipses, horizontal ellipses, underpasses,
low profile arches, high profile arches, and inverted pear
shapes are the terms describing these special shapes.
12-9
12.7.1.3
Wall strength and chemical and mechanical properties shall be in accordance with Article
12.6.
12.7.2
12.7.2.2.1
Acceptable Special Features

Longitudinally Reinforced Long
Span Structural Plate Structures
Structure Design
12.7.2.1
General
Long span structures shall be designed in accordance

with Articles 12.1, 12.3 and 12.6 except that the requirements for buckling and flexibility factor shall not apply.
The span in the formulae for thrust shall be replaced by
twice the top arc radius. Long span structures shall
include acceptable special features. Minimum requirements are detailed in Table 12.7.1A.
+
These structures may be designed in accordance with
+ Article 12.5 and may omit the special features if all
+ requirements of that article are adhered to.
TABLE 12.7.1A Minimum Requirements for Long
Span Structures with Acceptable Special Features
+
12.7.2.2
I. STRUCTURAL PLATE MINIMUM THICKNESS
6" 2"
Corrugated 0.109"
Steel Plates
12.7.2.2.2
15 17
17 20
20 23 23 25
0.138"
0.168"
0.218"
0.249"
Transversely Reinforced Long

Span Structural Plate Structures
Transversely reinforced long span structures shall

have reinforcing ribs formed from structural shapes curved
to conform to the curvature of the plates, fastened to the
structure as required to ensure integral action with the
corrugated plates, and spaced at such intervals as necessary to increase the moment of inertia of the section to that
required by the design. They shall be considered a special
design.
12.7.3
Foundation Design
12.7.3.1
Top Radius (feet)

< 15
Longitudinally reinforced long span structures shall

have continuous longitudinal structural stiffeners connected to the corrugated plates at each side of the top arc.
Stiffeners shall be reinforced concrete.
+
Settlement Limits
Foundation design requires a geotechnical survey of

the site to ensure that both the structure and the critical
backfill zone on each side of the structure will be properly
supported, within the following limits and considerations.
II. MINIMUM COVER IN FEET
+
+
+
+
+
+
Minimum cover shall be Span/8 or 3 feet mimimum.

Coverage which is less than this shall have a 2 foot thick
layer of Class C concrete placed over the crown. This
concrete shall extend between the longitudinal stiffeners
(if longitudinally stiffened) or between the points of radii
change.
III. GEOMETRIC LIMITS
A. Maximum Plate Radius25 ft.

B. Maximum Central Angle of Top Arc = 80o
C. Minimum Ratio, Top Arc Radius to Side Arc
Radius = 2
D. Maximum Ratio, Top Arc Radius to Side Arc
Radius = 5*
*Note: Sharp radii generate high soil bearing
pressures. Avoid high ratios when significant heights of
fill are involved.
12-10
SECTION 12
12.7.3.1.1
Once the structure has been backfilled
over the crown, settlements of the supporting backfill
relative to the structure must be limited to control
dragdown forces. If the sidefill will settle more than the
structure, a detailed analysis may be required.
12.7.3.1.2
Settlements along the longitudinal
centerline of arch structures must be limited to maintain
slope and preclude footing cracks (arches). Where the
structure will settle uniformly with the adjacent soils,
long spans with full inverts can be built on a camber to
achieve a proper final grade.
12.7.3.1.3
Differential settlements across the
structure (from springline to springline) shall not exceed
0.01 (Span)2/ rise in order to limit excessive rotation of
the structure. More restrictive settlement limits may be
required to protect pavements, or to limit longitudinal
differential deflections.
Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes including Long Span Structures
2 H1
+ 2
Lw
Round
Vertical Ellipse
Pipe Arch
Arch
Underpass
Horizontal Ellipse
Low Profile Arch
Inverted Pear
High Profile Arch
Figure 12.7.3
12.7.3.2
Footing Reactions (Arch

Structures)
Footing reactions are calculated by simple statics to

support the vertical loads. Soil load footing reactions
(VDL) are taken as the weight of the fill and pavement
above the springline of the structure.
Live loads, which provide relatively limited pressure
zones acting on the crown of the structure are distributed
to the footings.
Footing reactions may be taken as
RV = (VDL + VLL) Cos
RH = (VDL + VLL) Sin
Where
RV =
RH =
VDL =
VLL =
(12.7.3.2-1)
(12.7.3.2-2)
Vertical footing reaction component (K/ft)

Horizontal reaction component (K/ft)
[H2(S) AT] /2
n(AL)/(LW + 2H1)
SECTION 12
= Return angle of the structure (degrees)

AL = Axle load (K) = 50% of all axles that can be
placed on the structure in cross-sectional view at
one time.
32K for H20/HS20
40K for H25/HS25
50K for Tandem Axle
160K for E80 Railroad Loading
AT = the area of the top portion of the structure above
the springline (ft.2)
H1 = Height of cover above the footing to traffic
surface (ft.)
H2 = Height of cover from the structure's springline to
traffic surface (ft.)
LW = Lane width (ft.)
n
= interger
number of traffic lanes
= Unit weight of soil (k/ft3)
12-11
O.G. or Grading
Plane
Minimum cover, see Table 12.7.1A
6'-0"
IN TRENCH
6'-0"
Grading
Plane
Minimum cover, see Table 12.7.1A
IN EMBANKMENT
LEGEND
Structure Backfill (Culvert)
90% Relative Compaction
Structure Backfill (Culvert)
95% Relative Compaction
Roadway Embankment
Figure 12.7.4A
12-12
SECTION 12
12.7.3.3
Footing Design
Reinforced concrete footings shall be designed in

accordance with Article 4.4 to limit settlements to the
requirements of 12.7.3.1
Footings should be sized to provide bearing pressures
equal to or greater than those exerted by the structural
backfill on the foundation. This helps to ensure that if
settlements do occur the footings and backfill will settle
in approximately equal amounts avoiding excessive
dragdown loads on the structure.
12.7.4
Soil Envelope Design
+
12.7.4.1
Caltrans specifications shall be fol+ lowed for the 90% and 95% compactions specified in
+ Figure 12.7.4A except that the percentage of fines pass+ ing the No. 200 sieve shall not exceed 25.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
12.7.4.2
The extent of the select structural
backfill about the barrel is dependent on the quality of the
adjacent embankment. For ordinary installations, with
good quality, well compacted embankment or in-situ soil
adjacent to the structure backfill, a width of structural
backfill 6 feet beyond the structure is sufficient. The
structure backfill shall also extend to an elevation 2 to 4
feet over the structure. Where dissimilar materials not
meeting geotechnical filter criteria are used adjacent to
each other, a suitable geotextile must be used to avoid
migration.
12.7.4.3
It shall not be necessary to excavate
native soil at the sides if the quality of the native soil is as
good as the proposed compacted side fill except to create
the minimum width that can be compacted. The soil over
the top shall also be select and shall be carefully and
densely compacted.
12.7.4.5
Concrete backfill or soil cement back- +
fill shall not be used with any aluminum long span +
+
structure.
12.7.4.6
Where the structure has a small radius +
corner arc care must be taken to insure that the soil +
envelope will be capable of supporting the pressure.
+
Forces acting radially off the small radius corner arc of
the structure at a distance d1 from the structure can be
calculated as
P1 =
T
+ d1
Rc
(12.7.4.6-1)
Where
P1 = The horizontal pressure from the structure at a
distance d1 from it (psf)
d1 = Distance from the structure (ft)
T = Total dead load and live load thrust in the
structure (Article 12.7.2.1-psf)
Rc = Corner radius of the structure (ft)
The required envelope width beside the pipe, d, can be
calculated for a known, allowable bearing pressure as
d =
T
PBrg
Rc
(12.7.4.6-2)
Where
d = required envelope width beside the structure (ft)
PBrg = Allowable bearing pressure to limit compression
(strain) in the trench wall or embankment (psf)
See Figure 12.7.4B
12.7.4.4
A geotechnical investigation shall be
+
required
to
ascertain
that the backfill specified is ad+
equate.
+
SECTION 12
12-13
Assumed Pressure Distribution
Pv
P1
d1
Trench
Wall
Embankment
Rt
Rc
d
Rt
Rc
d
P
Pv
=
=
=
=
Top radius of the structure

Corner radius of the structure
Minimum structural backfill width
The horizontal pressure from the structure at a
distance d from it (psf)
= Dead and live load pressure (psf) on the crown
Figure 12.7.4B
12.7.5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
End Treatment
12.7.6
When headwalls are not used, special attention may be

necessary at the ends of the structure. For hydraulic
structures, additional reinforcement of the end is recommended to secure the metal edges at inlet and outlet
against hydraulic forces. Reinforced concrete or structural steel collars, tension tiebacks or anchors in soil,
partial headwalls and cut-off walls below invert elevations are some of the methods which can be used. Square
ends may have side plates beveled up to a maximum 2:1
slope. Skew cut ends must be fully connected to and
supported by a reinforced concrete headwall. The district
Project Engineer shall approve the end treatment for
hydraulic and aesthetic purposes.
Multiple Structures
Care must be exercised on the design of multiple

closely spaced structures to control unbalanced loading.
Fills should be kept level over the series of structures
when possible. Significant roadway grades across a series
of structures require checking of the stability of the
flexible structures under the resultant unbalanced loading.
The clearance may be reduced below that specified in +
Section 12.1.8 to a minimum of 2 feet where Class C +
+
concrete is placed between structures.
12.8
STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX

CULVERT
Structural plate box culverts specifications shall not +

be used, pending research and development of design +
+
standards.
12-14
SECTION 12
SECTION 13 - WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1
GENERAL AND NOTATIONS
13.1.1
General
The following information on wood design is generally based on the National Design Specification for Wood
Construction (NDS), 1991 Edition. See the 1991 Edition of the NDS for additional information.
13.1.2
CH =
CL
CM
CP
CV
=
=
=
=
Net Section
In determining the capacity of wood members, the net

section of the member shall be used. Unless otherwise
noted, the net section shall be determined by deducting
from the gross section, the projected area of all material
removed by boring, grooving, dapping, notching or other
means.
Fcb*
CF =
Cb =
Cf =
Cfu =
Cr =
d =
dmax =
13.1.3
Impact
dmin =
In calculating live load stresses in wood, impact shall

be neglected unless otherwise noted. See Article 3.8.1.
drep =
E
13.1.4
Notations
E =
+
+
+
+
b
c
=
=
CD =
CF =
CF =
coefficient based on support conditions for

tapered columns (Article 13.7.3.4.2)
width of bending member (Article 13.6.4.3)
coefficient based on sawn lumber, round
timber piles, glued laminated timber or
structural composite lumber (Article
13.7.3.3.5)
load duration factor (Article 13.5.5.2)
bending size factor for sawn lumber,
structural composite lumber, and for glued
laminated timber with loads applied parallel
to the wide face of the laminations (Article
13.6.4.2)
compression size factor for sawn lumber
(footnotes to Table 13.5.1A)
Fb =
F'b =
=
Fc =
Fc
=
=
fc
tension size factor for sawn lumber

(footnotes to Table 13.5.1A) and structural
composite lumber (footnotes to Tables
13.5.4A and 13.5.4B)
+
shear stress factor (footnotes to Table
+
13.5.1A)
beam stability factor (Article 13.6.4.4)
wet service factor (Article 13.5.5.1)
column stability factor (Article 13.7.3.3)
volume factor for glued laminated timber
with loads applied perpendicular to the wide
face of the laminations (Article 13.6.4.3)
bearing area factor (Article 13.6.6.3)
from factor (Article 13.6.4.5)
flat use factor for sawn lumber (footnotes to
Table 13.5.1A)
repetitive member factor for sawn lumber
(footnotes to Table 13.5.1A)
depth of member (Article 13.6.4.2.2)
maximum column face dimension (Article
13.7.3.4.2)
minimum column face dimension (Article
13.7.3.4.2)
representative dimension for a tapered
column face (Article 13.7.3.4.2)
tabulated modulus of elasticity (Article
13.6.3)
allowable modulus of elasticity (Article
13.6.3)
tabulated unit stress in bending (Article
13.6.4.1)
allowable unit stress in bending (Article
13.6.4.1)
adjusted tabulated bending stress for beam
stability (Article 13.6.4.4.5)
tabulated unit stress in compression parallel
to grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
allowable unit stress in compression parallel
to grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
adjusted tabulated stress in compression
parallel to grain for column stability (Article
13.7.3.3.5)
actual unit stress in compression parallel to
SECTION 13 WOOD STRUCTURES
13-1
Fc =
Fc
Fg =
=
Ft
=
=
Fv =
=
fv
=
=
KbE =
KcE =
+
+
+
+
lb
le
=
=
le
lu
=
=
m =
RB =
V =
VLD =
VLL =
VLU =
13-2
grain (Article 13.7.3.1)

tabulated unit stress in compression
perpendicular to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
allowable unit stress in compression
perpendicular to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to
allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to
tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to
grain (Article 13.8.1)
allowable unit stress in tension parallel to
grain (Article 13.8.1)
tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain
(Article 13.6.5.3)
allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain
(Article 13.6.5.3)
actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain
(Article 13.6.5.2)
allowable unit stress for bearing on an
inclined surface (Article 13.6.7)
column effective length factor (Article
13.7.3.3.3)
material factor for beam stability (Article
13.6.4.4.5)
material factor for column stability (Article
13.7.3.3.5)
length of bending member between points of
zero moment (Article 13.6.4.3.1)
actual column length between points of
lateral support (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
length of bearing (Article 13.6.6.3)
effective bending member length (Article
13.6.4.4.3)
effective column length (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
unsupported bending member length
(Article 13.6.4.4.3)
parameter for the specific material
determined in accordance with the
requirements of ASTM D-5456 (Tables
13.5.4A and 13.5.4B)
bending member slenderness ratio (Article
13.6.4.4.4)
vertical shear (Article 13.6.5.2)
maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due to
wheel loads distributed laterally as specified
for moment (Article 13.6.5.2)
distributed live load vertical shear (Article
13.6.5.2)
maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due to
undistributed wheel loads (Article 13.6.5.2)
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
13.2
species variable for computing the volume

factor (Article 13.6.4.3.1)
angle between the direction of load and the
direction of grain (Article 13.6.7)
MATERIALS
13.2.1
Sawn Lumber
13.2.1.1
General
Sawn lumber shall comply with the requirements of

AASHTO M 168.
13.2.1.2
Dimensions
13.2.1.2.1
Structural calculations for sawn lumber shall be based on the net dimensions of the member
for the anticipated use conditions. These net dimensions
depend on the type of surfacing, whether dressed, roughsawn or full-sawn.
13.2.1.2.2 For dressed lumber, the net dry dimensions given in Table 13.2.1A shall be used for design,
regardless of the moisture content at the time of manufacture or in use.
13.2.1.2.3 Where the design is based on rough,
full-sawn or special sizes, the applicable moisture content and dimensions used in design shall be noted in the
plans and specifications.
TABLE 13.2.1A Net Dry Dimensions
for Dressed Lumber
Nominal
Thickness
Dry
Thickness
Dimension
Lumber
(inches):
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
4-1/2
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
Beams and
Stringers
5" and
greater
Posts and
Timbers
5" and
greater
1/2" less
than nominal
1/2" less
than nominal
Nominal
Width
Dry
Width
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
5" and
greater
1-1/2
2-1/2
3-1/2
4-1/2
5-1/2
7-1/4
9-1/4
11-1/4
13-1/4
15-1/4
1/2" less
than nominal
1/2" less
than nominal
5" and
greater
13.2.2
Glued Laminated Timber
13.2.2.1
General
Glued laminated timber shall comply with the requirements of AASHTO M 168 and shall be manufactured
using wet-use adhesives.
13.2.2.2
Dimensions
13.2.3.3
Parallel strand lumber shall consist of wood strand

elements with wood fibers oriented primarily along the
length of the member. The least dimension at the strands
shall not exceed 0.25 inches and the average length shall
be a minimum of 150 times the least dimension.
13.2.3.4
13.2.2.2.1
Parallel Strand Lumber
Dimensions
Structural calculations for glued laminated timber shall be based on the net finished dimensions.
Structural calculations for structural composite lumber shall be based on the net finished dimensions.
13.2.2.2.2 For Western Species and Southern Pine,

the standard net finished widths shall be as given in Table
13.2.2A. Other, nonstandard finished widths may be used
subject to design requirements.
13.2.4
TABLE 13.2.2A Standard Net Finished Widths of

Glued Laminated Timber Manufactured from
Western Species or Southern Pine
Wood piles shall comply with the requirements of

AASHTO M 168.
13.3
13.3.1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
13.2.3
Western Species
Net Finished
Width (in.)
Southern Pine
Net Finished
Width (in.)
3-1/8
5-1/8
6-3/4
8-3/4
10-3/4
12-1/4
14-1/4
3-3/4
5-3/4
6-3/4
8-1/2
10-1/2
12-3/4
14-3/4
Structural Composite Lumber
13.2.3.1
General
Structural composite lumber, including laminated

veneer lumber and parallel strand lumber, shall comply
with the requirements of ASTM D 5456 and shall be
manufactured using wet-use adhesives which comply
with requirements of ASTM D 2559.
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
Requirement for Treatment
All wood used for structural purposes in exposed

permanent applications shall be pressure impregnated
with wood preservative in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO M 133.
13.3.2
Treatment Chemicals
All structural members that are not subject to direct

pedestrian contact shall preferably be treated with oiltype preservatives. Members that are subject to direct
pedestrian contact, such as rails and footpaths, shall be
treated with waterborne preservatives or oilborne preservatives in light petroleum solvent. Direct pedestrian
contact is considered to be contact which may be made
while the pedestrian is situated anywhere in the access
route provided for pedestrian traffic.
13.3.3
13.2.3.2
Piles
Field Treating
Laminated Veneer Lumber
Laminated veneer lumber shall consist of a composite

of wood veneer sheet elements with wood fibers oriented
primarily along the length of the member. Veneer thickness shall not exceed 0.25 inches.
Insofar as is practicable, all wood members shall be

designed to be cut, drilled, and otherwise fabricated prior
to pressure treatment with wood preservatives. When
cutting, boring, or other fabrication is necessary after
preservative treatment, exposed, untreated wood shall be
13-3
specified to be field treated in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO M 133.
13.3.4
Fire Retardant Treatments
Fire-retardant chemicals shall not be used unless it is

demonstrated that they are compatible with the preservative treatment. When fire retardants are used, design
values shall be reduced by the strength and stiffness
reduction factors specified by the fire retardant chemical
manufacturer.
13.4
sign, referred to as allowable design values, shall be the

tabulated values modified by all applicable adjustments
required by this Section. The actual stress due to loading
shall not exceed the allowable stress.
DEFLECTION
13.5.2
Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber
13.5.2.1
Tabulated values for sawn lumber are

given in Table 13.5.1A for visually graded lumber and
Table 13.5.1B for mechanically graded lumber. Values
for bearing parallel to grain are given in Table 13.5.2A.
These values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS
and represent a partial listing of available species and
grades. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS for a more
complete listing.
13.4.1
The term deflection as used herein

shall be the deflection computed in accordance with the
assumptions made for loading when computing stress in
the members.
13.4.2
Flexural members of bridge structures

shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit
deflections or any deformations that may adversely affect
the strength or serviceability of the structure.
13.4.3
Members having simple or continuous

spans preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to service live load does not exceed 1/500 of the
span.
13.4.4
For timber deck structures with timber

girders or stringers of equal stiffness, and cross-bracing or
diaphragms sufficient in depth and strength to ensure
lateral distribution of loads, the deflection may be computed by considering all girders or stringers as acting
together and having equal deflection. When the crossbracing or diaphragms are not sufficient to laterally
distribute loads, deflection shall be distributed as specified for moment.
13.4.5
For concrete decks on wood girders or

stringers, the deflection shall be assumed to be resisted by
all beams or stringers equally.
13.5.2.2
13.5.2.2.1
The tabulated unit bending stress for

Dimension (2 to 4 inches thick) and Post and Timber
grades applies to material with the load applied either to
the narrow or wide face.
13.5.2.2.2 The tabulated unit bending stress for

Decking grades applies only when the load is applied to
the wide face.
13.5.2.2.3 The tabulated unit bending stress for
Beam and Stringer grades applies only when the load is
applied to the narrow face. When Post and Timber sizes
are graded to Beam and Stringer grade requirements, the
tabulated unit bending stress for the applicable Beam and
Stringer grades may be used.
13.5.2.2.4 Beam and Stringer grades are normally
graded for use as a single, simple span. When used as a
continuous beam, the grading provisions customarily
applied to the middle third of the simple span length shall
be applied to the middle two-thirds of the length for twospan beams, and to the entire length for beams continuous
over three or more spans.
13.5.3
13.5
Tabulated Values for Glued

Laminated Timber
DESIGN VALUES
13.5.3.1
13.5.1
General
Stress and modulus of elasticity values used for de-
13-4
Stress Grades in Flexure
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
Tabulated values for glued laminated

timber of softwood species are given in Tables 13.5.3A
and 13.5.3B. Values for bearing parallel to grain are given
in Table 13.5.2A. These values are taken from the 1993
TABLE 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded Lumber and Timbers
Design Values in Pounds per Square Inch (psi)
Bending
Fb
Shear
Parallel
to Grain
Fv
Compression
Perpendicular
to Grain
Fc
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
Modulus
of
Grading
Elasticity Rules
E
Agency
13-5
1450
1150
1000
875
1900
1600
1550
1350
875
1750
1500
1400
1200
750
1850
1600
1550
1350
1000
875
1750
1500
1400
1200
800
700
1000
775
675
575
1100
950
775
675
425
1150
1000
950
825
475
1100
950
775
675
500
425
1150
1000
950
825
550
475
95
95
95
95
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
625
625
625
625
730
625
730
625
625
730
625
730
625
625
730
625
730
625
730
625
730
625
730
625
730
625
1700
1500
1450
1300
1300
1100
1100
925
600
1350
1150
1200
1000
700
1300
1100
1100
925
700
600
1350
1150
1200
1000
550
475
1,900,000
1,800,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,300,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,300,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1250
775
575
575
350
275
70
70
70
335
335
335
1200
1000
825
1,200,000
1,100,000
1,100,000
WWPA
WCLIB
WCLIB
WWPA
NELMA
NSLB
Species and
Size
Commercial Grade
Classification
DOUGLAS FIR-LARCH
Select Structural
No. 1 & Btr
2"-4" thick
No. 1
No. 2
2" & wider
Dense Select Structural
Select Structural
Beams and
Dense No. 1
Stringers
No. 1
No. 2
Select Structural
Posts and
Dense No. 1
Timbers
No. 1
No. 2
Select Structural
Dense No. 1
Beams and
No. 1
Stringers
Dense No. 2
No. 2
Select Structural
Dense No. 1
Posts and
No. 1
Timbers
Dense No. 2
No. 2
EASTERN SOFTWOODS
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
No. 2
2" & wider
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Ft
13-6
TABLE 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded Lumber and Timbers (Continued)
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
Bending
Fb
Shear
Parallel
to Grain
Fv
Compression
Perpendicular
to Grain
Fc
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
Modulus
of
Grading
Elasticity Rules
E
Agency
1400
1060
950
850
1300
1050
675
1200
975
575
1250
1050
675
1200
950
525
900
700
600
500
750
525
350
800
650
375
725
525
325
800
650
350
75
75
75
75
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
1500
1350
1300
1250
925
750
500
975
850
575
925
775
475
975
850
375
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,100,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,100,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,100,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,100,000
2050
1450
1300
1850
1300
1150
1750
1200
1050
1500
1050
925
1200
875
775
1100
750
675
1000
700
625
875
600
550
100
100
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
565
1800
1650
1650
1700
1550
1550
1600
1450
1450
1600
1450
1450
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
WWPA
WCLIB
WCLIB
WWPA
SPIB
Species and
Size
Commercial Grade
Classification
HEM-FIR
Select Structural
No. 1 & Btr
2"-4" thick
No. 1
No. 2
2" & wider
Select Structural
Beams and
No. 1
Stringers
No. 2
Select Structural
Posts and
No. 1
Timbers
No. 2
Select Structural
Beams and
No. 1
Stringers
No. 2
Select Structural
Posts and
No. 1
Timbers
No. 2
MIXED SOUTHERN PINE
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
No. 2
2"-4" wide
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
No. 2
5"-6" wide
Select Structural
2"-4" thick
No. 1
No. 2
8" wide
Select Structural
2"-4" thick
No. 1
No. 2
10" wide
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Ft
TABLE 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded Lumber and Timbers
Shear
Parallel
to Grain
Fv
90
90
90
Compression
Perpendicular
to Grain
Fc
565
565
565
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
1550
1400
1400
Modulus
of
Grading
Elasticity Rules
E
Agency
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
13-7
1000
900
550
110
110
95
375
375
375
900
800
525
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
800
575
575
1950
675
425
1000
800
475
110
110
110
105
105
105
105
105
105
885
885
885
885
885
885
885
885
885
1150
925
725
950
800
500
1000
875
400
1,400,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
750
550
525
875
625
400
925
750
425
105
105
105
100
100
100
100
100
100
615
615
615
615
615
615
615
615
615
1100
900
700
900
750
475
950
825
375
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,200,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,200,000
SPIB
NELMA
NELMA
Species and
Size
Bending
Commercial Grade
Classification
Fb
Select Structural
2"-4" thick
1400
No. 1
975
No. 2
12" wide
875
MIXED SOUTHERN PINE (Dry or Wet Service Conditions)
1500
Select Structural
5" 5"
No. 1
& larger
1350
No. 2
850
NORTHERN RED OAK
Select Structural
1400
No. 1
2"-4" thick
1000
No. 2
2" & wider
975
Select Structural
Beams and
1600
No. 1
Stringers
1350
No. 2
875
Select Structural
Posts and
1500
No. 1
Timbers
1200
No. 2
700
RED MAPLE
Select Structural
1300
No. 1
2"-4" thick
925
No. 2
2" & wider
900
Select Structural
Beams and
1500
No. 1
Stringers
1250
No. 2
800
Select Structural
Posts and
1400
No. 1
Timbers
1150
No. 2
650
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Ft
825
575
525
13-8
SECTION 13
Species and
Commercial Grade
RED OAK
Size
Classification
Select Structural
Bending
Fb
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Ft
Shear
Parallel
to Grain
Fv
Compression
Perpendicular
to Grain
Fc
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
Modulus
of
Grading
Elasticity Rules
E
Agency
WOOD STRUCTURES
675
85
820
1000
1,400,000
825
800
500
475
85
85
820
820
825
625
1,300,000
1,200,000
Select Structural
Beams and
1350
800
80
820
825
1,200,000
No. 1
No. 2
Stringers
1150
725
550
375
80
80
820
820
700
450
1,200,000
1,000,000
Select Structural
Posts and
1250
850
80
820
875
1,200,000
No. 1
No. 2
Timbers
1000
575
675
400
80
80
820
820
775
350
1,200,000
1,000,000
1600
1050
100
100
565
565
2100
1850
1,300,000
1,300,000
NELMA
SOUTHERN PINE
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
2850
1850
No. 2
2"-4" wide
1500
825
90
565
1650
1,100,000
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
2550
1650
1400
900
90
90
565
565
2000
1750
1,800,000
1,700,000
No. 2
5"-6" wide
1250
725
90
565
1600
1,600,000
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
2300
1500
1300
825
90
90
565
565
1900
1650
1,800,000
1,700,000
No. 2
8" wide
1200
650
90
565
1550
1,600,000
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
10" wide
2050
1300
1100
725
90
90
565
565
1850
1600
1,800,000
1,700,000
1050
575
90
565
1500
1,600,000
1900
1250
1050
675
90
90
565
565
1800
1600
1,800,000
1,700,000
975
550
90
565
1450
1,600,000
No. 2
Select Structural
No. 1
2"-4" thick
No. 2
12" wide
SPIB
1150
2"-4" thick
2" & wider
No. 1
No. 2
Shear
Parallel
to Grain
Fv
Compression
Perpendicular
to Grain
Fc
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
Modulus
of
Grading
Elasticity Rules
E
Agency
13-9
1200
1000
900
550
110
110
110
100
440
375
375
375
1100
950
825
525
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,200,000
675
425
650
450
300
700
550
325
70
70
65
65
65
65
65
65
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
1400
1100
775
625
425
800
700
500
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
575
400
325
625
450
300
675
550
225
70
70
70
65
65
65
65
65
65
335
335
335
335
335
335
335
335
335
1200
1050
975
675
575
350
700
625
225
1,300,000
1,200,000
1,100,000
1,200,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
575
425
400
75
75
75
420
420
420
900
725
575
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
SPIB
NLGA
NELMA
WCLIB
NSLB
WWPA
NLSB
Species and
Size
Bending
Commercial Grade
Classification
Fb
SOUTHERN PINE (Dry or Wet Service Conditions)
1750
Select Structural
5"x5"
1500
No. 1
& larger
1350
No. 2
850
SPRUCE-PINE-FIR
Select Structural
2"-4" thick
1250
No. 1/No. 2
2" & wider
875
Select Structural
Beams and
1100
No. 1
Stringers
900
No. 2
600
Select Structural
Posts and
1050
No. 1
Timbers
850
No. 2
500
SPRUCE-PINE-FIR (SOUTH)
Select Structural
1300
No. 1
2"-4" thick
850
No. 2
2" & wider
750
Select Structural
Beams and
1050
No. 1
Stringers
900
No. 2
575
Select Structural
Posts and
1000
No. 1
Timbers
800
No. 2
350
YELLOW POPLAR
Select Structural
1000
No. 1
2"-4" thick
725
No. 2
2" & wider
700
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Ft
13-10
SECTION 13
1.
2.
Design values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS and are for a 10-year load duration and dry service conditions. Refer to the 1991 NDS for additional species
and grades and for a summary of grading rules agencies and commercial species classifications.
Wet Services Factor, CM. When dimension lumber, 2" to 4" thick is used where moisture content will exceed 19%, design values shall be multiplied by the following
wet service factors:
WET SERVICE FACTORS, CM
WOOD STRUCTURES
Fb
Ft
Fv
Fc
Fc
0.85*
1.0
0.97
0.67
0.8**
0.9
* when (Fb)(CF) 1,150 psi, CM = 1.0

** when Fc
750 psi, CM = 1.0
3.
Fb
Ft
Fv
1.00
1.00
1.00
Fc
0.67
Fc
0.91
1.00
Size Factor, CF. For all species other than Southern Pine and Mixed Southern Pine, tabulated bending, tension, and compression parallel to grain design values for
dimension lumber 2" to 4" thick shall be multiplied by the following size factors:
SIZE FACTORS, CF
Fb
Grades
Select
Structural,
No. 1 & Btr.
No. 1, No. 2,
No. 3
Width
2", 3" & 4"

5"
6"
8"
10"
12"
14" & wider
Ft
Fc
Thickness
2" & 3"
4"
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.15
1.1
1.1
1.05
1.0
1.0
0.9
When timbers 5" by 5" and larger are used where moisture content will exceed 19%, design values shall be multiplied by the following wet service factors (for Southern
Pine and Mixed Southern Pine, use tabulated values without further adjustment):
For Southern Pine and Mixed Southern Pine dimension lumber, 2" to 4" thick, appropriate size adjustment factors have been incorporated in tabulated values, with
the following exceptions:
For dimension lumber 4" thick, 8" and wider, tabulated bending design values shall be multiplied by the size factor, CF = 1.1.
For dimension lumber wider than 12", tabulated bending, tension, and compression parallel to grain design values for 12" wide lumber shall be multiplied
by the size factor, CF = 0.9.
4.
Flat Use Factor, Cfu. Bending design values are based on edgewise use (load applied to narrow face). When dimension lumber 2" to 4" thick is used flatwise (load
applied to wide face), the bending design value shall be multiplied by the following flat use factors:
FLAT USE FACTORS, Cfu
Thickness
2" & 3"
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.15
1.15
1.2
4"
...
1.0
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.1
5.
Repetitive Member Factor, Cr. Bending design values for dimension lumber 2" to 4" thick shall be multiplied by the repetitive member factor Cr = 1.15, when such
members are used as stringers, decking or similar members which are in contact or are spaced not more than 24" on centers, are not less than 3 in number and are joined
by load distributing elements adequate to support the design load.
6.
Shear Stress Factor, CH. Tabulated shear design values parallel to grain, FV, have been reduced to allow for the occurrence of splits, checks, and shakes and may be
multiplied by the shear stress factors given below when the length of split, or size of check or shake is known and no increase in them is anticipated. When the shear
stress factor is applied to Southern Pine or Mixed Southern Pine, a tabulated design value of FV = 90 lb/in2 shall be used for all grades. Shear stress factors shall be
linearly interpolated.
SHEAR STRESS FACTORS, CH
Length of split on wide face
of 2" (nominal) lumber
Length of split on
wide face of 3" (nominal)
and thicker lumber
13-11
CH
CH
no split
2.00
no split
2.00
1/
1/
1.67
narrow face
1.67
2
2 wide face
3/
3/
narrow face
1.50
wide face
1.50
4
4
1.33
1 narrow face
1.33
1 wide face
1.00
1-1/2 narrow face or more
1.00
1-1/2 wide face or more
* Shake is measured at the end between lines enclosing the shake and perpendicular to the loaded face.
Size of shake* in
2" (nominal) and
thicker lumber
no shake
1/
narrow face
6
1/
narrow face
4
1/
narrow face
3
1/
narrow face or more
2
CH
2.00
1.67
1.50
1.33
1.00
Width
2" & 3"
4"
5"
6"
8"
10" & wider
Table 13.5.1B
Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded Dimension Lumber

Design Values
in Pounds per Square Inch (psi)
Species and
Commercial
Grade
Size
Classification
Bending
Fb
Tension Compression Modulus

Parallel
Parallel
of
to Grain to Grain
Elasticity
Ft
Fc
E
Grading
Rules
Agency
MACHINE STRESS RATED (MSR) LUMBER

900f-1.0E
1200f-1.2E
1350f-1.3E
1450f-1.3E
1500f-1.3E
1500f-1.4E
1650f-1.4E
1650f-1.5E
1800f-1.6E
1950f-1.5E
1950f-1.7E
2100f-1.8E
2250f-1.6E
2250f-1.9E
2400f-1.7E
2400f-2.0E
2550f-2.1E
2700f-2.2E
2850f-2.3E
3000f-2.4E
3150f-2.5E
3300f-2.6E
900f-1.2E
1200f-1.5E
1350f-1.8E
1500f-1.8E
1800f-2.1E
2" & less in thickness

2" & wider
2" & less in thickness

6" & wider
900
1200
1350
1450
1500
1500
1650
1650
1800
1950
1950
2100
2250
2250
2400
2400
2550
2700
2850
3000
3150
3300
350
600
750
800
900
900
1020
1020
1175
1375
1375
1575
1750
1750
1925
1925
2060
2150
2300
2400
2500
2650
1050
1400
1600
1625
1650
1650
1700
1700
1750
1800
1800
1875
1925
1925
1975
1975
2025
2100
2150
2200
2250
2325
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,400,000
1,400,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,700,000
1,800,000
1,600,000
1,900,000
1,700,000
2,000,000
2,100,000
2,200,000
2,300,000
2,400,000
2,500,000
2,600,000
WCLIB, WWPA
NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
NLGA, WCLIB, WWPA
SPIB
SPIB
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB, WWPA
NLGA, SPIB
SPIB
SPIB
900
1200
1350
1500
1800
350
600
750
900
1175
1050
1400
1600
1650
1750
1,200,000
1,500,000
1,800,000
1,800,000
2,100,000
NLGA, WCLIB
NLGA, WCLIB
NLGA
WCLIB
NLGA, WCLIB
1. Design Values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS and are for a 10-year load duration and dry service conditions.
Refer to the 1991 NDS for additional grades and for a summary of grading rules agencies.
2. Design values for shear parallel to grain and compression perpendicular to grain shall be as specified in Table 13.5.1A for
No. 2 visually graded dimension lumber of the appropriate species.
3. Use of the wet service factor, shear stress factor, repetitive member factor, and flat use factor shall be as specified in Table
13.5.1A for visually graded dimension lumber.
+
+
+
+
+
Edition of the American Institute of Timber Construction, AITC 117-93 Design, Standard Specifications for
structural Glued Laminated Timber of Softwood Species. Refer to AITC 117-93 Design for a more complete
listing.
13.5.3.2
Tabulated values for hardwood species shall be as given in the 1985 Edition of American
13-12
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
Institute of Timber Construction, AITC 119, Standard

Specifications for Hardwood Glued Laminated Timber.
13.5.3.3
Species other than those specifically
included or referenced in this Section may be used,
provided that tabulated values are established for each
species in accordance with AASHTO M 168.
Table 13.5.2A
Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain

Dry Service Conditions
Sawn Lumber
Species Combination
Wet Service
Conditions
5" x 5"
& Larger
2" to 4"
Thick
Douglas Fir-Larch (Dense)

Douglas Fir-Larch
Eastern Softwoods
Hem-Fir
Mixed Southern Pine
Northern Red Oak
Red Maple
Red Oak
Southern Pine
Southern Pine (Dense)
Spruce-Pine-Fir
Spruce-Pine-Fir (South)
Yellow Poplar
1570
1350
880
1110
1270
1150
1100
1010
1320
1540
940
810
890
1730
1480
-1220
1390
1270
1210
1110
1450
1690
1040
900
--
2360
2020
1340
1670
1900
1730
1650
1520
1970
2310
1410
1220
1340
Glued
Laminated Timber
2750
2360
-1940
-2010
1930
1770
2300
2690
1650
1430
1560
1. Design Values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS. Refer to the 1991 NDS for additional species.
2. Wet and dry service conditions are as defined in Article 13.5.5.1. The wet service factor has been applied to values tabulated
for wet service conditions and further adjustment by this factor is not required.
13.5.4
Tabulated Values for Structural

Composite Lumber
13.5.4.1
Representative tabulated design values for structural composite lumber are given in Table
13.5.4A for laminated veneer lumber and Table 13.5.4B
for parallel strand lumber.
13.5.5
Adjustments to Tabulated Design

Values
13.5.5.1
Wet Service Factor, CM
13.5.5.1.1 Tabulated values for sawn lumber assume that the material is installed and used under continuously dry conditions where the moisture content of
the wood does not exceed 19 percent. When the moisture
content at installation or in service is expected to exceed
19 percent, tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet
service factors, CM, given in footnotes to Tables 13.5.1A
and 13.5.1B.
13.5.5.1.2 Tabulated values for glued laminated
timber and structural composite lumber assume that the
material is used under continuously dry conditions where
the moisture content in service does not exceed 16

percent. When the moisture content in service is expected
to exceed 16 percent, tabulated values shall be reduced
by the wet service factors, CM, given in the footnotes to
Tables 13.5.3A and 13.5.3B for glued laminated timber
and Tables 13.5.4A and 13.5.4B for structural composite
lumber.
13.5.5.1.3 The moisture content of wood used in

exposed bridge applications will normally exceed 19
percent and tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet
service factor unless an analysis of regional, geographical, and climatological conditions that affect moisture
content indicate that the in-service moisture content will
not exceed 19 percent for sawn lumber and 16 percent for
glued laminated timber and structural composite lumber
over the life of the structure.
13.5.5.2
Load Duration Factor, CD
13.5.5.2.1 Wood can sustain substantially greater

maximum loads for short load durations than for long
load durations. Tabulated stresses for sawn lumber, glued
laminated timber, and structural composite lumber are
based on a normal load duration which contemplates that
13-13
13-14
TABLE 13.5.3A Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending1,2,3,4,12
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES

Bending About X-X Axis
Bending About Y-Y Axis
Axially Loaded
(Loaded Perpendicular to Wide Faces of Laminations)
(Loaded Parallel to Wide Faces of Laminations)
Shear
Compression
Bending
Perpendicular to Grain
(X-X area)
(Y-Y area) Parallel to
Grain (For
Members
with
Multiple
Compression
Compression
Piece
Species
Tension
Zone
Shear
Perpendicular
Laminations
Tension
Outer
Zone
Stressed
Parallel Modulus
to Grain Shear Which are Modulus Parallel Compression Modulus
Laminations/ Stressed
in
Tension Compression
to
of
(Side Parallel Not Edge
of
to
Parallel to
of
Combination
Core
in Tension Tension6 Face9,10
Face9,10
Grain10 Elasticity
Bending Faces) to Grain Glued)13 Elasticity
Grain
Grain
Elasticity
Laminations5
F bx
F bx
Fc x10
Fcx
F vx
Ex
Fby
Fc y
Fvy
Fvy
Ey
Ft
Fc
E
Symbol 4
VISUALLY GRADED WESTERN SPECIES

1000
1000
2000
2000
1200
1200
2400
2400
500 10
650
650
500 10
650
650
650
650
375 10
560 10
650
500 10
650
650
650
650
155
165
165
155
165
155
165
156
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,800,000
1,700,000
1,800,000
1,800,000
1200
1450
1450
1400
1500
1350
1450
1400
375
560
560
375
560
375
560
375
135
145
145
135
145
140
145
140
70
75
75
70
75
70
75
70
1,400,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,600,000
950
1000
1000
975
1150
1100
1100
1150
1350
1550
1600
1400
1650
1450
1650
1600
1,400,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,600,000
E-RATED WESTERN SPECIES

24F-E5
DF/DF
2400
24F-E13
DF/DF
2400
1200
2400
650
650
650 10
650
165
165
1,800,000
1,800,000
1650
1950
560
560
145
145
75
70
1,600,000
1,700,000
1100
1250
1550
1700
1,600,000
1,700,000
VISUALLY GRADED SOUTHERN PINE

20F-V2
SP/SP
2000
1000
20F-V9 8
SP/SP
2000
2000
24F-V3
SP/SP
2400
1200
SP/SP
2400
2400
24F-V5 8
20F-V1
SP/SP
2800
1300
20F-V2
SP/SP
2800
1300
20F-V3
SP/SP
2800
1300
20F-V4
SP/SP
2800
2800
650
650
650
650
650
650
650
650
560 10
650
650
650
650
650
650
650
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
1,600,000
1,600,000
1,800,000
1,700,000
1,800,000
1,900,000
1,900,000
1,900,000
1450
1450
1600
1600
1050
1050
1050
1050
560
560
560
560
560
650
560
560
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
1,400,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,700,000
1,800,000
1,700,000
1050
1050
1150
1150
1150
1200
1150
1150
1550
1550
1700
1700
1600
1650
1600
1600
1,400,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,700,000
1,800,000
1,700,000
E-RATED SOUTHERN PINE

24F-E2
SP/SP
2400
SP/SP
2400
24F-E4 8
650
650
650
650
200
200
1,900,000
1,800,000
1700
2000
560
560
175
175
90
90
1,600,000
1,600,000
1150
1250
1700
1750
1,600,000
1,600,000
24F-V4
24F-V5
24F-V 8
24F-V10 8
HF/HF
DF/DF
DF/DF
HF/HF
DF/DF
DF/HF
DF/DF
DF/HF
1200
2400
2000
2000
2000
2000
2400
2400
2400
2400
20F-V2
20F-V3
20F-V7 8
20F-V9 8
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending (Continued)
1.
13-15
Design values in this table are for a 10-year load duration and dry service conditions and are based on combinations conforming to AITC 117-93 (Design Standard
Specifications for Structural Glued Laminated Timber of Softwood Species), by American Institute of Timber Construction, and manufactured in accordance
with American National Standard ANSI/AITC A190.1-1991 (Structural Glued Laminated Timber). Refer to AITC 117-93 for additional combinations and design
values.
2. The combinations in this table are intended primarily for members stressed in bending due to loads applied perpendicular to the wide faces of the laminations
(bending about X-X axis). Design values are tabulated, however, for loading both perpendicular and parallel to the wide faces of the laminations, and for axial
loading. For combinations applicable to members loaded primarily axial or parallel to the wide faces of the laminations, see Table 13.5.3B.
3. Design values in this table are applicable to members having 4 or more laminations. For members having 2 or 3 laminations, see Table 13.5.3B.
4. The 24F combinations for members 15" and less in depth may not be readily available and the designer should check availability prior to specifying. The 20F
combinations are generally available for members 15" and less in depth.
5. The symbols used for species are Douglas Fir-Larch (DF), Hem-Fir (HF), and Southern Pine (SP). N3 refers to No.3 structural joists and planks or structural
light framing grade.
6. Design values in this column are for bending when the member is loaded such that the compression zone laminations are subjected to tensile stresses. For more
information, see AITC 117-93. The values in this column may be increased 200 psi where end-joint spacing restrictions are applied to the compression zone
when stressed in tension.
7. These combinations are intended for straight or slightly cambered members for dry use and industrial appearance grade, because they may contain wane. If wane
is omitted these restrictions do not apply.
8. These combinations are balanced and are intended for members continuous or cantilevered over supports and provide equal capacity in both positive and negative
bending.
9. For bending members greater than 15" in depth, these design values for compression perpendicular to grain are 650 psi on the tension face.
10. These design values may be increased in accordance with AITC 117-93 when the member conforms with special construction requirements therein. For more
information, see AITC 117-93.
13-16
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending (Continued)
SECTION 13
11. For these combinations manufacturers may substitute E-rated Douglas Fir-Larch laminations that are 200,000 psi higher in modulus of elasticity than the specified
E-rated Hem-Fir, with no change in design values.
12. Species groups for split ring and shear plate connectors should be determined by associated compression design values perpendicular to grain, Fc , as follows:
WOOD STRUCTURES
Species Groups
for Split Ring and
Shear Plate Connectors
650*
590 or 560
500
470 or 375
315
255
A
B
C
C
C
D
For Fc = 650 psi for Douglas Fir-South, use

Group B.
13. The values for shear parallel to grain, Fvx and Fvy, apply to members manufactured using multiple piece laminations with unbonded edge joints. For members
manufactured using single-piece laminations or using multiple-piece laminations with bonded-edge joints, the shear parallel to grain values in the previous column
apply.
14. Wet Service Factor, CM. When glued laminated timber is used where moisture content will exceed 16%, design values shall be multiplied by the appropriate wet
service factors from the following table:
Fb
Ft
Fv
Fc
Fc
0.8
0.8
0.875
0.53
0.73
0.833
Fc
(psi)
TABLE 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression1,2 8,10
All Loading
Axially Loaded
Tension
Parallel
to Grain
Compression
Perpendicular
to
Grain
Fc
2 or
More
Laminations
Ft
VISUALLY GRADED WESTERN SPECIES

2
DF
1,700,000
560 7
1250
Compression
Parallel to Grain
4 or
More
Laminations
Fc
Shear Parallel to Grain4
Bending
2 or 3
Laminations
Fc
4 or
More
Laminations
Fby
3
Laminations
Fby
Bending About X-X Axis

Loaded Perpendicular to Wide
Faces of Laminations
4 or More
Laminations
(for
Members
with
Multiple
4 or
2
Piece
More
LamiLamiLaminations nations)9 nations
F by
F vy
Fvy
Bending
3
Laminations
Fv y
2
Laminations
F vy
2
Laminations
to 15"
deep5
Fbx
Shear
Parallel
to Grain4
4 or
2 or
More
More
Lami- Laminations6 nations
Fbx
Fvx
DF
1,800,000
650
1450
1900
2300
1600
1850
1800
2100
1600
1850
1300
1550
75
75
145
145
135
135
125
125
1700
2000
2000
2300
165
165
5
15
16
17
DF
HF
HF
HF
2,000,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,700,000
650
375 7
375 7
500
1600
1050
1200
1400
2400
1350
1500
1750
2100
1300
1450
1700
2400
1500
1750
2000
2100
1350
1550
1850
1800
1100
1300
1550
75
70
70
70
145
135
135
135
135
130
130
130
125
115
115
115
2200
1450
1600
1900
2400
1700
1900
2200
165
155
155
155
VISUALLY GRADED SOUTHERN PINE

1200
47
SP
1,400,000
560 7
48
SP
1,700,000
650
1400
1900
2200
1150
1350
1750
2000
1550
1800
1300
1500
90
90
175
175
165
165
150
150
1400
1600
1600
1900
200
200
2100
2300
1450
1700
1950
2300
1750
2100
1500
1750
90
90
175
175
165
165
150
150
1800
2100
2100
2400
200
200
49
50
SP
SP
1,170,000
1,900,000
560 7
650
1350
1550
13-17
Combination
Symbol Species3
Modulus
of
Elasticity
E
Bending About Y-Y Axis

Loaded Parallel to Wide
Faces of Laminations
13-18
SECTION 13
TABLE 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression (Continued)
1.
WOOD STRUCTURES
Design values in this table are for a 10-year load duration and dry service conditions and are based on combinations conforming to AITC 117-93 (Design Standard
Specifications for Structural Glued Laminated Timber of Softwood Species), by American Institute of Timber Construction, and manufactured in accordance
with American National Standard ANSI/AITC A190.1-1991 (Structural Glued Laminated Timber). Refer to AITC 117-93 for additional combinations and design
values.
2. The combinations in this table are intended primarily for members loaded either axially or in bending with the loads acting parallel to the wide faces of the laminations
(bending about Y-Y axis). Design values for bending due to loads applied perpendicular to the wide faces of the laminations (bending about X-X axis) are also
included, although the combinations in Table 13.5.3A are usually better suited for this condition of loading.
3. The symbols used for species are Douglas Fir-Larch (DF), Hem-Fir (HF), and Southern Pine (SP).
4. The design values in shear parallel to grain are based on members that do contain wane.
5. The design values in bending about the X-X axis in this column are for members up to 15" in depth without tension laminations.
6. The design values in bending about the X-X axis in this column are for members having specific tension laminations and apply to members having 4 or more
laminations. When these values are used in design and the member is specified by combination symbol, the design should also specify the required bending design
value.
7. These design values may be increased in accordance with AITC 117-93 when member conforms with special construction requirements therein. For more
information see AITC 117-93.
8. Species groups for split ring and shear plate connectors should be determined by associated compression design values perpendicular to grain, Fc , as given
in Table 13.5.3A.
9. The values for shear parallel to grain, Fvyy, apply to members manufactured using multiple-piece laminations with unbonded edge joints. For members using
single-piece laminations or using multiple-piece laminations with bonded-edge joints the shear parallel to grain values tabulated in the next three columns apply.
10. Wet Service Factor, CM. When glued laminated timber is used where moisture content will exceed 16%, design values shall be multiplied by the appropriate wet
service factors given in the footnotes to Table 13.5.3A.
TABLE 13.5.4A Representative Tabulated Design Values for Laminated Veneer Lumber1
Design Values in Pounds Per Square Inch (psi)3
Species
Grade
Extreme Fiber
in Bending
Fb
Douglas-Fir
Southern Pine
2.0E
2.0E
2800
2925
Compression Perpendicular
to Grain
F c
Tension
Parallel
to Grain2
Ft
Compression
Parallel
to Grain2
Fc
Parallel
to glueline
Perpendicular
to glueline
1750
1805
2725
3035
750
880
480
525
Horizontal Shear
Fv
Load Direction
Load Direction
Parallel Perpendicular
to glueline to glueline
285
285
175
150
Modulus
of
Elasticity
E
2,000,000
2,000,000
2. Tabulated values in tension parallel to grain shall be adjusted by the size factor, CF, given by the following equation:
1/m
3
CF =
L
where:
L = length of tension member in feet;

m = parameter for the specific material determined in accordance with the requirements of ASTM D-5456.
3. Wet Service Factor, CM. When laminated veneer lumber is used where moisture content will exceed 16%, design values shall be multiplied by the following wet
service factors:
Fb
Ft
Fv
Fc
Fc
0.8
0.8
0.875
0.53
0.73
0.833
13-19
1. Design values are representative of species and grades that are commonly available from manufacturers and are for a 10-year load duration and dry service
conditions.
13-20
TABLE 13.5.4B Representative Tabulated Design Values for Parallel Strand Lumber1
Values in Pounds Per Square Inch (psi)3
SECTION 13
Compression Perpendicular
to Grain
F c
WOOD STRUCTURES
Species
Grade
Extreme Fiber
in Bending
Fb
Douglas-Fir
Southern Pine
2.0E
2.0E
2900
2900
Horizontal Shear
Fv
Load Direction
Tension
Parallel
to Grain2
Ft
Compression
Parallel
to Grain
Fc
Parallel
to wide face
of strand
Perpendicular
to wide face
of strand
2400
2400
2900
2900
750
880
480
525
Design
Load Direction
Parallel Perpendicular
to wide face to wide face
of strand
of strand
290
290
210
210
Modulus
of
Elasticity
E
2,000,000
2,000,000
2. Tabulated values in tension parallel to grain shall be adjusted by the size factor, CF, given by the following equation:
1/m
3
CF =
L
where:
L = length of tension member in feet:

m = parameter for the specific material determined in accordance with the requirements of ASTM D-5456.
3. Wet Service Factor, CM. When parallel strand lumber is used where moisture content will exceed 16%, design values shall be multiplied by the following wet
service factors:
Fb
Ft
Fv
Fc
Fc
0.8
0.8
0.875
0.53
0.73
0.833
1. Design values are representative of species and grades that are commonly available from manufacturers and are for a 10-year load duration and dry service
conditions.
the member is stressed to the maximum stress level, either

continuously or cumulatively, for a period of approximately 10 years, and/or stressed to 90 percent of the
maximum design level continuously for the remainder of
the member life.
13.5.5.2.2 When the full maximum load is applied

either cumulatively or continuously for periods other
than 10 years, tabulated stresses shall be multiplied by the
load duration factor, CD, given in Table 13.5.5A.
13.5.5.2.3 The provisions of this article do not
apply to modulus of elasticity or to compression perpendicular to grain, but do apply to mechanical fastenings,
except as otherwise noted. The load duration factor for
impact does not apply to members pressure-impregnated
with preservative salts to the heavy retentions required
for marine exposure.
13.5.5.2.4 Increases in tabulated stresses resulting from various load duration factors are not cumulative
and the load duration factor for the shortest duration load
in a combination of loads shall apply for that load
combination. The resulting structural members shall not
be smaller than required for a longer duration of loading
(refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS for additional
commentary).
13.5.5.2.5 Modification of design stresses for load
combinations, as specified in Section 3, are cumulative
with load duration adjustments.
13.5.5.3
Adjustment for Preservative

Treatment
Tabulated values apply to untreated wood and to

wood that is preservatively treated in accordance with the
requirements of AASHTO M 133, Unless otherwise noted,
no adjustment of tabulated values is required for preservative treatment.
TABLE 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, CD

Load Duration
Permanent
2 months (vehicle live load)
7 days
1 day
5 minutes (railing only)
CD
0.90
1.15
1.25
1.33
1.65
13.6
13.6.1
BENDING MEMBERS
General
13.6.1.1
The provisions of this article are applicable to straight members and to slightly curved bending
members where the radius of curvature exceeds the span
in inches divided by 800. Additional design requirements for curved glued laminated timber members shall
be as specified in the 1991 Edition of the NDS.
13.6.1.2
For simple, continuous, and cantilevered bending members, the span shall be taken as the
clear distance between supports plus one-half the required bearing length at each support.
13.6.1.3
Bending members shall be transversely
braced to prevent lateral displacement and rotation and
transmit lateral forces to the bearings. Transverse bracing
shall be provided at the supports for all span lengths and
at intermediate locations as required for lateral stability
and load transfer (Article 13.6.4.4). The depth of transverse bracing shall not be less than the depth of the
bending member.
13.6.1.4
Support attachments for bending members shall be of sufficient size and strength to transmit
vertical, longitudinal and transverse loads from the superstructure to the substructure in accordance with the
requirements of Section 3.
13.6.1.5
Glued laminated timber and structural
composite lumber girders shall preferably be cambered a
minimum 3 times the computed dead load deflection, but
not less than 2 times dead load deflection or 1600 ft
2000 ft radius. See AITC Timber Construction Manual
1994 Edition 4.3 Camber and Table 4.5.
13.6.2
Notching
Notching of bending members can severely reduce

member capacity and is not recommended. When notching is required for sawn lumber members, design limitations and requirements shall be in accordance with the
NDS, 1991 Edition. Design requirements and limitations for notching glued laminated timber members shall
be as given in the Timber Construction Manual, 1994
4th Edition by the American Institute of Timber Construction, published by John Wiley & Sons, New York,
New York. Design requirements and limitations for notch-
13-21
+
+
+
+
+
+
ing structural composite lumber shall be as specified for

glued laminated timber.
13.6.3
The volume factor, CV, shall not be applied simultaneously with the beam stability factor, CL, and the lesser
of the two factors shall apply in Equation 13-2.
Modulus of Elasticity
13.6.4.2
The modulus of elasticity used for stiffness and stability computations shall be the tabulated modulus of elasticity adjusted by the applicable adjustment factor given
in the following equation:
E = ECM
13.6.4.2.1 The tabulated bending stress, for dimension lumber 2 inches to 4 inches thick shall be
multiplied by the bending size factor, CF, given in the
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A.
(13-1)
where:
E' = allowable modulus of elasticity in psi;
E = tabulated modulus of elasticity in psi;
CM = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1.
13.6.4
Size Factor, CF
13.6.4.2.2 For rectangular sawn lumber bending

members 5 inches or thicker and greater than 12 inches in
depth, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied
parallel to the wide face of the laminations and greater
than 12 inches in depth, the tabulated bending stress shall
be multiplied by the size factor, CF, determined from the
Bending
(13-3)
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress

where d is the member depth in inches.
The allowable unit stress in bending shall be the
tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment
factors given in the following equation:
F'b = FbCMCDCFCVCLCfCfuCr
(13-2)
13.6.4.2.3 For structural composite lumber bending members of any width, the tabulated bending stress
shall be reduced by the size factor, CF , given by the
following equation:
C F = (21/L )1/m (12/d )1/m
where:
F'b
Fb
CM
CD
CF
=
=
=
=
=
CV
CL
Cf
Cfu
=
=
=
Cr
13-22
allowable unit stress in bending psi

tabulated unit stress in bending psi
wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1
load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2
bending size factor for sawn lumber and structural composite lumber, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied parallel to
the wide face of the laminations, from Article
13.6.4.2
volume factor for glued laminated timber
with loads applied perpendicular to the wide
face of the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.3
beam stability factor from Article 13.6.4.4.
form factor from Article 13.6.4.5
flat use factor for sawn lumber from footnotes
to Tables 13.5.1A and 13.5.1B
repetitive member factor for sawn lumber
from footnotes to Table 13.5.1A
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
(13-4)
where:
L
d
m
= length of bending member between points of

zero moment in feet;
= depth of bending member in inches;
= parameter for the specific material determined
in accordance with the requirements of ASTM
D 5456.
13.6.4.3
Volume Factor, CV
13.6.4.3.1 The tabulated bending stress for glued

laminated timber bending members with loads applied
perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations shall be
adjusted by the volume factor, CV, as determined by the
following relationship.
C v - (21/L )1/x (12/d )1/x (5.125/b )1/x 1.0
(13-5)
where:
L = length of bending member between points of
zero moment in feet;
d = depth of bending member in inches;
b = width of bending member in inches;
x = 20 for Southern Pine
x = 10 for all other species
13.6.4.3.2 When multiple piece width layups are

used, the width of the bending member used in Equation
13-4 shall be the width of the widest piece used in the
layup.
13.6.4.4
Beam Stability Factor, CL
13.6.4.4.1 Tabulated bending values are applicable to members which are adequately braced. When
members are not adequately braced, the tabulated bending stress shall be modified by the beam stability factor,
CL.
RB =
If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation and

lateral displacement at intermediate points as well as at
the bearings, the unsupported length, lu, is the distance
between such points of intermediate lateral support.
13.6.4.4.4 The slenderness ratio for bending members, RB, is determined from the following equation:
(13-6)
where:
RB = bending member slenderness ratio;
d = depth of bending member in inches;
b = width of bending member in inches.
13.6.4.4.5 The beam stability factor, CL, shall be

computed as follows:
CL =
1 + Fb E /Fb*
1.90
13.6.4.4.2
When the depth of a bending member

does not exceed its width, or when lateral movement of
le d
50 the compression zone is prevented by continuous supb2
port and points of bearing have lateral support to prevent
rotation, there is no danger of lateral buckling and
CL
= 1.0. For other conditions, the beam stability factor shall
be determined in accordance with the following provisions.
FbE =
where:
le = effective length in inches;
l u = unsupported length in inches;
d = depth of bending member in inches.
If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation at the
points of bearing, but no other lateral support is provided
throughout the bending member length, the unsupported
length, lu, is the distance between points of bearing, or the
length of a cantilever.
3.61
FbE /Fb*
0.95
K bE E
R 2B
(13-8)
where:
13.6.4.4.3 The bending member effective length,

le, shall be determined from the following relationships
for any loading condition:
when lu/d < 7
when 7 lu/d
14.3
when lu/d > 14.3
* 2
bE /Fb
(13-7)
Fb*
le = 2.06l u
le = 1.63lu + 3d
le = 1.84l u
) (1 + F
KbE
E'
= tabulated bending stress adjusted by all applicable adjustment factors given in Equation 13-2 except the volume factor, Cv, the
beam stability factor, CL, and the flat-use
factor, Cfu;
= 0.438 for visually graded sawn lumber 0.609
for glued laminated timber, structural composite lumber, and machine stress rated lumber;
= allowable modulus of elasticity in psi as
determined by Article 13.6.3.
13.6.4.5
Form Factor, Cf
For bending members with circular cross sections the

tabulated bending stress shall be adjusted by the form
factor, Cf = 1.18. A tapered circular section shall be
considered as a bending member of variable cross section.
13-23
13.6.5
Shear Parallel to Grain
13.6.5.1
where:
General
13.6.5.1.1
The provisions of this article apply to

shear parallel to grain (horizontal shear) at or near the
points of vertical support of solid bending members.
Refer to the 1991 edition of the NDS for additional
design requirements for other member types.
13.6.5.1.2
The critical shear in wood bending

members is shear parallel to grain. It is unnecessary to
verify the strength of bending members in shear perpendicular to grain.
13.6.5.2
The actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain due to

applied loading on rectangular members shall be determined by the following equation:
3V
2bd
=
=
=
=
13.6.5.3
actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain in psi;

width of bending member in inches;
depth of bending member in inches;
vertical shear in pounds, as determined in
accordance with the following provisions.
For uniformly distributed loads, such as dead load, the

magnitude of vertical shear used in Equation 13-9 shall
be the maximum shear occurring at a distance from the
support equal to the bending member depth, d. When
members are supported by full bearing on one surface,
with loads applied to the opposite surface, all loads
within a distance from the supports equal to the bending
member depth shall be neglected.
For vehicle live loads, the loads shall be placed to
produce the maximum vertical shear at a distance from the
support equal to three times the bending member depth,
3d, or at the span quarter point, L/4, whichever is the lesser
distance from the support. The distributed live load shear
used in Equation 13-9 shall be determined by the following expression:
(13-11)
where:
Fv
VLL = 0.50 [(0.60 VLU ) + VLD ]
Allowable Stress
Fv = FvCMCD
(13-9)
where:
fv
b
d
V
For undistributed wheel loads, one line of wheels is

assumed to be carried by one bending member.
The allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain shall

be the tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors given in the following equation:
Actual Stress
fv =
VLL = distributed live load vertical shear in pounds;

VLU = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
L/4 due to undistributed wheel loads;
VLD = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
L/4 due to wheel loads distributed laterally as
specified for moment in Article 3.23.
CM
CD
= allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain

in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain
in psi;
= wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1;
= load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2.
For sawn lumber beams, further adjustment by the

shear stress factor may be applicable as described in the
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A.
For structural composite lumber, more restrictive adjustments to the tabulated shear stress parallel to grain
shall be as recommended by the material manufacturer.
13.6.6
Compression Perpendicular to
Grain
13.6.6.1
General
When calculating the bearing stress in compression

perpendicular to grain at beam end, a uniform stress
distribution shall be assumed.
13.6.6.2
Allowable Stress
(13-10)
The allowable unit stress in compression perpendicular to grain shall be the tabulated stress adjusted by the
13-24
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
applicable adjustment factors given in the following

equation:
(13-14)
Fc = Fc C M C b
CM
Cb
(13-12)
= allowable unit stress in compression perpendicular to grain, in psi;

= tabulated unit stress in compression perpendicular to grain, in psi;
= bearing area factor from Article 13.6.6.3.
13.6.6.3
= allowable unit stress for bearing on an inclined surface, in psi;

= allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to
grain from Article 13.7.4;
= allowable unit stress in compression perpendicular to the grain from Article 13.6.6;
= angle in degrees between the direction of
load and the direction of grain.
Bearing Area Factor, Cb
Tabulated values in compression perpendicular to

grain apply to bearings of any length at beam ends, and
to all bearings 6 inches or more in length at any other
location. For bearings less than 6 inches in length and not
nearer than 3 inches to the end of a member, the tabulated
value shall be adjusted by the bearing area factor, Cb,
given by the following equation:
Fcg
F =
where:
Fg Fc
Cb =
l b + 0.375
lb
(13-13)
Fg sin 2 + Fc cos 2
where lb is the length of bearing in inches, measured
parallel to the wood grain. For round washers, or other
round bearing areas, the length of bearing shall be the
diameter of the bearing area.
The multiplying factors for bearing lengths on small
areas such as plates and washers are given in Table
13.6.1A.
13.7
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
13.7.1 General
13.7.1.1
The provisions of this article apply to

simple solid columns consisting of a single piece of sawn
lumber, piling, structural composite lumber, or glued
laminated timber. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS
for design requirements for built-up columns, consisting
of a number of solid members joined together with mechanical fasteners, and for spaced columns consisting of
two or more individual members with their longitudinal
axes parallel, separated and fastened at the ends and at one
or more interior points by blocking.
13.7.1.2
The term column refers to all types of
compression members, including members forming part
of a truss or other structural components.
TABLE 13.6.1A Values of the Bearing Area Factor,

Cb, for Small Bearing Areas
13.7.1.3
Column bracing shall be provided
where necessary to provide lateral stability and resist
wind or other lateral forces.
Length of
Bearing, lb
(in.)
Bearing Area
Factor, Cb
13.7.2
13.6.7
1/2
1-1/2
6 or more
1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10
Eccentric Loading or Combined

Stresses
1.00
Bearing on Inclined Surfaces
Members with eccentric loading or combined stresses

shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the
NDS, 1991 Edition.
For bearing on an inclined surface, the allowable unit

stress in bearing shall be as given by the following
equation:
13-25
13.7.3
Compression
13.7.3.1
Actual column length l, may be multiplied by an

effective length factor to determine the effective column
length:
(13-16)
le = Kl
Net Section
The actual unit stress in compression parallel to grain,

fc, shall be based on the net section as described in Article
13.1, except that it may be based on the gross section
when the reduced section does not occur in the critical
part of the column length that is most subject to potential
buckling.
13.7.3.2
where:
le = effective column length in inches
K = effective length factor from Table C-1 of Appendix C
l = actual column length between points of lateral
support in inches.
Allowable Stress
The allowable unit stress in compression parallel to

grain shall not exceed the tabulated stress adjusted by the
applicable adjustment factors given in the following
equation:
Fc = Fc C M C D C F C P
13.7.3.3.4 For columns of rectangular cross section, the column slenderness ratio le/d, shall be taken as
the larger of the ratios, le1/d1 or le2/d2. (See Figure 13.7.1A)
The slenderness ratio shall not exceed 50.
(13-15)
where:
Fc
CM
CD
CF
CP
= allowable unit stress in compression parallel

to grain in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in compression parallel
to grain in psi;
= load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2;
= compression size factor for sawn lumber from
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A;
= column stability factor from Article 13.7.3.3.
13.7.3.3
d2
l2
Column Stability Factor, CP
13.7.3.3.1 Tabulated values in compression parallel to grain are applicable to members which are adequately braced. When members are not adequately
braced, the tabulated stress shall be modified by the
column stability factor, CP.
13.7.3.3.2
When a compression member is supported throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, CP = 1.0. For other conditions, the
column stability factor shall be determined in accordance
with the following provisions.
13.7.3.3.3 The effective column length, le, shall

be determined in accordance with good engineering
practice.
13-26
l1
d1
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
l1 and l2 = distances between points of lateral support in

planes 1 and 2, inches.
d1 and d2 = cross-sectional dimensions of rectangular
compression member in planes of lateral support, inches.
FIGURE 13.7.1A
13.7.3.3.5 The column stability factor, CP, shall

be as given by the following expressions:
(13-17) +
FcE =
K cE E
(l e /d )2
(13-18)
TABLE 13.7.1A Support Condition Coefficients for

Tapered Columns
Support Condition
Large end fixed, small end unsupported
Small end fixed, large end unsupported
Both ends simply supported
Tapered toward one end
Tapered towards both ends
Support
Condition
Coefficient, a
0.70
0.30
where:
drep = representative dimension for a tapered column face, in inches;
d min = minimum column face dimension, in inches;
dmax = maximum column face dimension, in inches;
a
= coefficient based on support conditions.
13.7.3.4.3 For support conditions other than those

in Table 13.7.1A, the representative dimension of each
tapered face shall be as given by the following equation:
0.50
0.70
d rep = d min + 0.33(d max d min )
(13-20)
where:
Fc*
KcE
Fg
= tabulated stress in compression parallel to grain

adjusted by all applicable modification factors
given in Equation 13-14 except Cp;
= 0.300 for visually graded sawn lumber; 0.418
for glued laminated timber, structural composite lumber, and machine stress-rated lumber;
= 0.80 for sawn lumber;
0.85 for round piles;
0.90 for glued laminated timber and structural composite lumber.
For especially severe service conditions or extraordinary hazardous conditions, the use of lower design values
than those obtained above may be necessary. Refer to the
1991 Edition of the NDS.
13.7.3.4
Tapered Columns
13.7.3.4.1 For rectangular columns tapered at one

or both ends, the cross-sectional area shall be based on the
representative dimension of each tapered face. The representative dimension, drep, of each tapered face shall be
based on the support condition coefficient given in Table
13.7.1A.
13.7.3.4.2 For support conditions given in Table
13.7.1A, the representative dimension, drep, of each tapered face shall be as given by the following equation:
d
d rep = d min + (d max d min )a 0.151 min
d max
(13-19)
13.7.3.4.4 For any tapered column, the actual

stress in compression parallel to grain, fc, shall not exceed
the allowable stress determined by Equation 13-14, assuming the column stability factor Cp = 1.0.
13.7.3.5
Round Columns
The design of a round column shall be based on the

design of a square column of the same cross-sectional area
with the same degree of taper.
13.7.4
Bearing Parallel to Grain
13.7.4.1
The actual stress in bearing parallel to
grain shall be based on the net area and shall not exceed
the tabulated stress for bearing parallel to grain adjusted
by the applicable adjustment factor given in the following equation:
Fg = Fg CD
(13-21)
where:
= allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to
Fg
CD
grain in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to
grain from Table 13.5.2A, in psi;
= load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2.
13.7.4.2
When the bearing load is at an angle to
the grain, the allowable bearing stress shall be determined
by Equation 13-14, using the design values for end-grain
13-27
bearing parallel to grain and design values in compression perpendicular to grain.
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS

13.9.1
13.7.4.3
When bearing parallel to grain exceeds
75% of the allowable value determined by Equation 1321, bearing shall be on a metal plate or on other durable,
rigid, homogeneous material of adequate strength and
stiffness to distribute applied loads over the entire bearing area.
13.8
TENSION MEMBERS
13.8.1
Tension Parallel to Grain
The allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain

shall be the tabulated value adjusted by the applicable
adjustment factors given in the following equation:
General
13.9.1.1
Except as otherwise required by this

specification, mechanical connections and their installation shall conform to the requirements of the NDS, 1991
Edition.
13.9.1.2
Components at mechanical connections, including the wood members, connecting elements, and fasteners, shall be proportioned so that the
design strength equals or exceeds the required strength
for the loads acting on the structure. The strength of the
connected wood components shall be evaluated considering the net section, eccentricity, shear, tension perpendicular to grain and other factors that may reduce component strength.
(13-22)
13.9.2
where:
CM
CD
CF
= allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain

in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain
in psi;
= load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2;
= tension size factor for sawn lumber from footnotes to Table 13.5.1A and for structural
composite lumber from footnotes to Tables
13.5.4A and 13.5.4B.
13.8.2
Tension Perpendicular to Grain
Designs which induce tension perpendicular to the

grain of wood members should not be used. When tension
perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided, mechanical
reinforcement sufficient to resist all such forces should be
used. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS for additional
information.
13.9.2.1
Except as permitted by this section, all

steel hardware for wood structures shall be galvanized in
accordance with AASHTO M 232 or cadmium plated in
accordance with AASHTO M 299.
13.9.2.2
All steel components, timber connectors, and castings, other than malleable iron, shall be
galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M111.
13.9.2.3
Alternative corrosion protection coatings, such as epoxies, may be used when the demonstrated
performance of the coating is sufficient to provide adequate protection for the intended exposure conduction.
13.9.2.4
Heat-treated alloy components and fastenings shall be protected by an approved alternative
protective treatment that does not adversely affect the
mechanical properties of the material.
13.9.3
Fasteners
13.9.3.1
Fastener design values shall be adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors for the intended use condition.
13-28
SECTION 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
13.9.3.2
When determining fastener design values, wood shall be assumed to be used under wet-use or
exposed to weather conditions.
13.9.3.3
Glulam rivets shall not be used in permanent structures.
13.9.4
Washers
13.9.4.1
Washers shall be provided under bolt

and lag screw heads and under nuts that are in contact with
wood. Washers may be omitted under heads of special
timber bolts or dome-head bolts when the size and strength
of the head is sufficient to develop connection strength
without excessive wood crushing.
13.9.4.2
Washers shall be of sufficient size and
strength to prevent excessive wood crushing when the
fastener is tightened. For bolts or rods loaded in tension,
washers shall be of sufficient size and strength to develop
the tensile strength of the connection without excessive
bending or exceeding wood strength in compression
perpendicular to grain.
13-29
SECTION 14 - BEARINGS
14.1
SCOPE
This section contains requirements for the design and

selection of structural bearings.
The selection and layout of the bearings shall be
consistent with the proper functioning of the bridge, and
shall allow for deformations due to temperature and other
time dependent causes.
The loads induced in the bearings and structural members depend on the stiffness of the individual elements
and the tolerances achieved during fabrication and erection. These influences shall be taken into account when
calculating design loads for the elements.
Units used in this section shall be taken as KIP, IN,
RAD, F and Shore Hardness, unless noted.
14.2
DEFINITIONS
+
Note: Bearing definitions marked with an * are for
+ informational purposes only and are not covered in these
+ specifications.
Bearing a structural device that transmits loads while
facilitating translation and/or rotation.
*Bronze Bearing A bearing which displacements or
rotations take place by the slip of a bronze surface
against a mating surface.
Cotton Duck Reinforcement Pad (CDP) A pad made
from closely spaced layers of elastomer and cotton
duck, bonded together during vulcanization.
*Disc Bearing A bearing which accommodates rotation by deformation of a single elastomeric disc,
molded from a urethane compound. It may contain a
device for partially confining the disc against lateral
expansion.
*Double Cylindrical Bearing A bearing made from two
cylindrical bearings placed on top of each other with
their axes at right angles to each other, in order to
provide rotation about any horizontal axis.
Fiberglass Reinforced Pad (FRP) A pad made from
discrete layers of elastomer and woven fiberglass,
bonded together during vulcanization.
*Fixed Bearing A bearing which prevents differential
longitudinal translation of abutting structure elements. It may or may not provide for differential
lateral translation or rotation.
*Knuckle Bearing A bearing in which a concave metal
surface rocks on a convex metal surface to provide
rotation capability about any horizontal axis.
Longitudinal The direction associated with the axis of
the main structural trusses or girders in the bridge.
*Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing A bearing which
carries vertical load by direct contact between two
metal surfaces and which accommodates movement
by rolling of one surface with respect to the other.
Movable Bearing A bearing that facilitates differential horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in a longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It
may or may not provide for rotation.
Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP) A pad made exclusively
of elastomer.
*Pot Bearing A bearing which carries vertical load by
compression on an elastomeric disc confined in a
steel cylinder and which accommodates rotations by
deformations of the disc.
PTFE/Elastomeric - A bearing which carries vertical
load by contact stresses between a PTFE sheet and a
stainless steel mating surface that permits movements by sliding of the PTFE over the stainless steel
and accommodates rotation by deformation of the
elastomer.
PTFE Sliding Bearing A bearing which carries vertical load by contact stresses between a PTFE sheet or
woven fabric and its mating surface, and which
permits movements by sliding of the PTFE over the
mating surface.
PTFE/Spherical - A bearing consisting of a PTFE surfaced concave plate and mating stainless steel convex plate which accommodate rotation through sliding of the curved surfaces.
Rotation about the Longitudinal Axis Rotation about
an axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.
Rotation about the Transverse Axis Rotation about an
axis parallel to the transverse axis of the bridge.
RMS Root mean square
Sliding Bearing - A bearing which accommodates movement by slip of one surface over another.
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing A bearing made

from alternate laminates of steel and elastomer,
bonded together during vulcanization.
Translation Horizontal movement of the bridge in the
longitudinal or transverse direction.
Transverse The horizontal direction normal to the
longitudinal axis of the bridge.
14.3
R =
R0 =
S
=
=
Dd =
dj =
E =
Ec =
Es =
e =
Fsr =
Fy =
G =
Hm =
hri =
hrmax=
hrt =
hs =
I
L
=
=
Mm
n
PD
PTL
=
=
=
=
PL =
Plan area of elastomeric bearing (in2)

length of pad if rotation is about its transverse
axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its
longitudinal axis (in)
Diameter of the projection of the loaded
surface of the bearing in the horizontal plane
(in)
Diameter of the disc element (in)
Diameter of the jth hole in an elastomeric
bearing
Young's modulus (ksi)
Effective modulus in compression of
elastomeric bearing (ksi)
Young's modulus for steel (ksi)
Eccentricity of loading on a bearing (in)
Allowable fatigue stress range for over
2,000,000 cycles (ksi)
Yield strength of the least strong steel at the
contact surface (ksi)
Shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi)
Maximum horizontal load on the bearing or
restraint considering all appropriate load
combinations (kip)
Thickness of ith elastomeric layer in
elastomeric bearing (in)
Thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in
elastomeric bearing (in)
Total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric
bearing (in)
Thickness of steel laminate in
steel-laminated elastomeric bearing (in)
Moment of inertia (in4)
Length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing
(parallel to longitudinal bridge axis) (in)
Maximum bending moment (K-in)
Number of elastomer layers
Compressive load due to dead load (kip)
Compressive load due to live plus dead load
(kip)
Compressive load to due to live load (kip)
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
=
=
NOTATIONS
A
B
14-2
Pm =
=
W =
o =
s =
m =
D =
L =
m,x =
m,z =
m =
Maximum compressive load considering all

appropriate load combinations (kip)
Radius of curved sliding surface (in)
Radial distance from center of bearing to
object, such as an anchor bolt, for which
clearance must be provided (in)
Shape factor of one layer of an elastomeric
bearing
Plan Area
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge
LW
for rectangular bearings
2h rmax (L + W )
without holes
D
for circular bearings without holes
4h rmax
Width of the bearing in the transverse
direction (in)
Effective angle of friction angle in PTFE
bearings = tan-1 (Hm/PD)
Maximum service horizontal displacement
of the bridge deck (in)
Maximum shear deformation of the
elastomer (in)
Instantaneous compressive deflection of
bearing (in)
Maximum compressive deflection of
bearing (in)
Instantaneous compressive strain of a plain
elastomeric pad
Instantaneous compressive strain ith elastomer
layer of a laminated elastomeric bearing
Component of maximum service rotation in
direction of interest on an elastomeric
bearing under load for Article 14.6.5.3
Maximum rotation due to dead load (rad)
Maximum rotation due to live load
Maximum rotation considering all
appropriate load and deformation
combinations about transverse axis (rad)
Maximum rotation considering all
combinations about longitudinal axis (rad)
Maximum design rotation considering all
combinations including live and dead load,
bridge movements, and construction
tolerances (rad)
Coefficient of friction
D =
L =
TL =
m =
14.4
Average compressive stress due to dead load

(ksi)
Average compressive stress due to live load
(ksi)
Average compressive stress due to total dead
plus live load (ksi)
Maximum average compressive stress (ksi)
MOVEMENTS AND LOADS
Bearings shall be designed to resist loads and accommodate movements. No damage due to joint or bearing
movement shall be permitted under any appropriate load
and movement combination.
Translational and rotational movements of the bridge
shall be considered in the design of bearings. The sequence of construction shall be considered and all critical
combinations of load and movement shall be considered
in the design. Rotations about two horizontal axes and the
vertical axis shall be considered. The movements shall
include those caused by the loads, deformations and
displacements caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal
effects, and inaccuracies in installation. In all cases, both
instantaneous and long-term effects shall be considered,
but the influence of impact need not be included. The
most adverse combination of movements shall be used
for design. Design requirements may be tabulated in a
rational form such as shown in Figure 14.4.
- the greater of either the rotations due to all

applicable factored loads or the rotation at the
service limit state.
- the maximum rotation caused by fabrication and
installation tolerances, which shall be taken 0.01
rad unless an approved quality control plan
justifies a smaller value.
- an allowance for uncertainties, which shall be taken
as 0.01 rad unless an approved quality control plan
justifies a smaller value.
In no case shall the sum be less than 0.015 radians.
14.5
Bearings may be fixed or movable as required for the

bridge design. Movable bearings may include guides to
control the direction of translation. Fixed and guided
bearings shall have lateral strength adequate to resist all
applied loads and restrain unwanted translation.
Combinations of different types of fixed or moveable
bearings should not be used at the same expansion joint,
bent or pier unless the effects of differing deflection and
rotational characteristics on the bearings and structure
are accounted for in the design.
14.5.1
14.4.1
Design Requirements
The minimum thermal movements shall be computed

+ from the temperature range defined in Article 3.16 of
Division I and the estimated setting temperature. Design
loads shall be based on the load combinations and load
+ factors specified in Section 3.
The design rotation, m, for bearings such as elastomeric pads or steel reinforced elastomeric bearings which
do not achieve hard contact between metal components
shall be taken as the sum of:
- the dead and live load rotations.
- an allowance for uncertainties, which is normally
taken as less than 0.005 rad.
+
The design rotation, m, for bearings such as PTFE
+ spherical and PTFE elastomeric which may develop hard
contact between metal components shall be taken as the
sum of:
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

BEARINGS
Load and Movement Capabilities
The movements and loads to be used in the design of

the bearing shall be clearly defined on the contract
drawings.
14.5.2
Characteristics
The bearing chosen for a particular application must

have appropriate load and movement capabilities. Those
listed in Table 14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide. Figure
14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide in defining the different
bearing systems.
The following terminology shall apply to Table
14.5.2-1:
S
U
L
= Suitable
= Unsuitable
= Suitable for limited applications
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-3
Bridge Name or Ref.

Bearing Identification Mark
Number of bearings required
Seating Material
Allowable contact pressure
(KSI)
Design load effects (KIP)
Translation
Upper Surface
Lower Surface
Average
Edge Load
Vertical
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Irreversible
Reversible
Rotation (RAD)
Irreversible
Reversible
Maximum Bearing
dimensions (IN)
Upper surface
Lower surface
Overall height
Tolerable movement of bearing

under transient loads (IN)
Allowable resistance to translation
under service load (KIP)
Allowable reistance to rotation
under service load (IN-KIP)
Type of attachment to structure
and substructure
Vertical
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
FIGURE 14.4
14-4
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
max.
perm.
min.
Table 14.5.2-1
Type of Bearing
Plain Elastomeric Pad
Fiberglass Reinforced Pad
Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad
Steel-reinforced Elastomeric Bearing
Curved Sliding Spherical Bearing
PTFE/Elastomeric Bearing
Bearing Suitability
Movement
Long
Trans
S
S
S
S
U
U
S
S
R
S
R
S
Rotation about bridge

axis inidicated
Trans
Long
Vert
S
S
L
S
S
L
U
U
U
S
S
L
S
S
S
S
S
S
Resistance to Loads
Vert
Long
Trans
L
L
L
L
L
L
S
L
L
S
L
L
S
S
R
L
R
L
Sole PL
Stainless Steel
Sliding Surface
Intermediate PL
Elastomeric
Bearing Pad
PTFE
PTFE Disk(s)
Disks
PTFE/Elastomeric Bearing
Masonry PL
Rubber Cover
Reinforcement
Rubber
Layer
Elastomeric Bearing
Sole Plate
Stainless Steel
Sliding Surface
Concave Plate
Woven PTFE Pad

Stainless
Steel Convex
Plate
Masonry Plate
PTFE/Spherical Expansion Bearing (Non-Guided)

FIGURE 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-5
= May be suitable but requires special

considerations or additional elements such
as sliders or guideways.
Long. = Longitudinal axis
Trans. = Transverse axis
Vert. = Vertical axis
14.5.3
14.5.3.2
The bridge substructure and superstructure shall be

designed for the largest moment, Mm which can be
transferred by the bearing.
For curved sliding bearings without a companion flat
sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by:
M m = Pm R
Forces in the Structure Caused by

Restraint of Movement at the Bearing
Horizontal forces and moments induced in the bridge

by restraint of movement at the bearing shall be taken into
account in the design of the bridge and the bearings. They
shall be determined using the calculated movements and
the bearing characteristics given in Article 14.6.
14.5.3.1
Horizontal forces may be induced by sliding friction,

rolling friction or deformation of a flexible element in the
bearing. The force used for design shall be the largest one
applicable.
Sliding friction force shall be computed
and for curved sliding bearings with a companion flat

sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by:
M m = 2Pm R
(14.5.3.1-1)
For unconfined elastomeric bearings and pads, Mm

shall be estimated by:
M m = (0.5 E c I) m /h rt
The force required to deform an elastomeric element

shall be computed as:
(14.5.3.1-2)
where:
s
hrt
= Shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi)

= plan area of elastomeric element or bearing
(in2)
= maximum shear deformation of the
elastomer (in)
= total elastomer thickness (in)
Rolling forces shall be determined by test.
14-6
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
(14.5.3.2-2)
where:
I
Ec
Hm = maximum horizontal load (kip)

= coefficient of friction
Pm = maximum compressive load (kip)
G
A
(14.5.3.2-1B)
where:
where:
H m = GA s /h rt
(14.5.3.2-1A)
Mm = maximum bending moment (K-in)

R = radius of curved sliding surface (in)
Horizontal Force
H m = Pm
Bending Moment
= moment of inertia of plan shape of bearing

(in4)
= effective modulus of elastomeric bearing in
compression (ksi)
= maximum design rotation (rad)
14.6
SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR

BEARINGS
The stress increases permitted for certain load combinations by Table 3.22.1A of this specification shall not
apply in the design of bearings.
14.6.1
Deleted
14.6.1.1
Deleted
14.6.1.2
Deleted
14.6.1.3
Deleted
14.6.1.4
Deleted
14.6.2
PTFE Sliding Surfaces
PTFE, polytetrafluorethylene, may be used in sliding

surfaces of bridge bearings to accommodate translation
or rotation. All PTFE surfaces other than guides shall
satisfy the requirements of this section. Curved PTFE
surfaces shall also satisfy Article 14.6.3.
14.6.2.1
PTFE Surface
The PTFE surface shall be made from pure virgin

+ PTFE resin satisfying the requirements of ASTM D 4894
+ or D 4895. It shall be fabricated as unfilled sheet, filled
sheet of fabric woven from PTFE and other fibers.
Unfilled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin alone.
Filled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin uniformly
blended with glass fibers or other chemically inert filler.
The maximum filler content shall be 15%.
Sheet PTFE may contain dimples to act as reservoirs
for lubricant. Their diameter shall not exceed 0.32-in at
the surface of the PTFE and their depth shall be not less
than .08-in. and not more than half the thickness of the
PTFE. The reservoirs shall be uniformly distributed over
the surface area and shall cover more than 20% but less
than 30% of it. Lubricant shall be silicone grease which
satisfies military specification MIL-S-8660.
Woven fiber PTFE shall be made from pure PTFE
fibers. Reinforced woven fiber PTFE shall be made by
interweaving high strength fibers, such as glass, with the
PTFE in such a way that the reinforcing fibers do not
appear on the sliding face of the finished fabric.
14.6.2.2
Mating Surface
The PTFE shall be used in conjunction with a mating

+ surface. Flat and curved mating surfaces shall be stainless
steel. Flat surfaces shall be a minimum #8 mirror finish
Type 304 stainless steel and shall conform to ASTM
+ A167/A264. Curved stainless steel surfaces shall not
+ exceed 16 micro in RMS and shall conform to ASTM
+ designation A 167/A264, Type 304. The mating surface
shall be large enough to cover the PTFE at all times.
14.6.2.3
Minimum Thickness
Requirements
14.6.2.3.1
PTFE
For all applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be

at least 1/16in. after compression. Recessed sheet PTFE
shall be at least -in. thick. Woven fabric PTFE which is +
mechanically interlocked over a metallic substrate shall
have a minimum thickness 1/16-in. and a maximum thickness of 1/8-in. over the highest point of the substrate.
14.6.2.3.2
Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces
The thickness of the stainless steel mating surface

+
shall be at least 1/8-in.
Backing plate requirements are specified in Article
14.6.2.6.2.
14.6.2.4
Contact Pressure
The maximum contact stress, m, between the PTFE

and the mating surface shall be determined with the
maximum compressive load, Pm, using the nominal area.
The average contact stress shall be computed by
dividing the load by the projection of the contact area
onto a plane perpendicular to the direction of the load.
The contact stress at the edge shall be computed by taking
into account the maximum moment, Mm, transferred by
the bearing assuming a linear distribution of stress across
the PTFE.
Stresses shall not exceed those given in Table
14.6.2.4-1. Permissible stresses for intermediate filler
contents shall be obtained by linear interpolation within
Table 14.6.2.4-1.
14.6.2.5
Coefficient of Friction
The design coefficient of friction of the PTFE sliding

surface shall be determined from Table 14.6.2.5-1. Intermediate values may be determined by interpolation. The
coefficient of friction shall be determined by using the
stress level associated with the maximum compressive
load, Pm. Lesser values of the coefficient of friction may
be used if verified by tests.
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-7
Table 14.6.2.4-1
Ave. Contact Stress (KSI)

Dead Load
All Loads
Material
Unconfined PTFE:
Unfilled sheets
Filled sheets - These figures
are for maximum filler content
Confined sheet PTFE
Woven PTFE over a metallic
substrate
Reinforced woven PTFE over
a metallic substate
Type of PTFE
Pressure (psi)
o
Temperature ( F)
Dimpled Lubricated
Unfilled
Filled
Woven
68
-13
-49
68
-13
-49
68
-13
-49
68
-13
-49
2.5
4.5
2.0
3.5
3.0
5.5
3.0
3.0
4.5
4.5
3.5
3.5
5.5
5.5
4.0
5.5
4.5
7.0
Design Coefficients of Friction

500
Coefficient of Friction
1000
2000
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.08
0.20
0.20
0.24
0.44
0.65
0.08
0.20
0.20
0.03
0.045
0.075
0.07
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.32
0.55
0.07
0.18
0.18
Where friction is required to resist applied loads, the

design coefficient of friction under dynamic loading may
be taken as not more than 10% of the value listed in Table
14.6.2.5-1 for the bearing stress and PTFE type.
The coefficients of friction in Table 14.6.2.5-1 are
based on a #8 mirror finish mating surface. Coefficients
of friction for rougher surface finishes must be established by test results in accordance with Division II,
+ Section 18 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
+ Highway Bridges, Sixteenth Edition.
14.6.2.6
Attachment
14.6.2.6.1
PTFE
Sheet PTFE confined in a recess in a rigid metal

+ backing plate for one half its thickness shall be bonded.
Sheet PTFE which is not confined shall be bonded by
14-8
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
Edge Contact Stress (KSI)

Dead Load
All Loads
1.5
3.0
Table 14.6.2.5-1
Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE
0.025
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.13
0.13
0.09
0.25
0.45
0.06
0.13
0.13
>3000
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.20
0.35
0.045
0.10
0.10
an approved method to a metal surface or an elastomeric

layer with a Shore A durometer hardness of at least 90.
Woven PTFE on a metallic substrate shall be attached to
the metallic substrate by mechanical interlocking which
can resist a shear force no less than 0.10 times the applied
compressive force.
14.6.2.6.2
Mating Surface
The mating surface for flat sliding shall be attached to

a backing plate by welding in such a way that it remains
flat and in full contact with its backing plate throughout
its service life. The weld shall be detailed to form an
effective moisture seal around the entire perimeter of the
mating surface so that interface corrosion cannot occur.
The attachment shall be capable of resisting the maximum friction force which can be developed by the bear-
ing under service loads. The welds used for the attachment
shall be clear of the contact and sliding area of the PTFE
surface.
14.6.3
D = diameter of the projection of the loaded surface

of the bearing in the horizontal plane (in)
The two surfaces of a sliding interface shall have equal
radii.
Bearings with Curved Sliding

Surfaces
Bearings with curved sliding surfaces shall consist of

two metal parts with matching curved surfaces and a low
friction sliding interface. The curved surfaces shall be
spherical. The material properties, characteristics, and
+ frictional properties of the sliding interface shall satisfy
the requirements of either Article 14.6.2 or Article 14.6.7.
14.6.3.1
14.6.3.2
In bearings which are required to resist horizontal

loads, either an external restraint system shall be provided, or for a spherical surface the horizontal load shall
be limited to:
+
H m R 2 PTFE sin 2 ( m )sin
Geometric Requirements
The radius of the curved surface shall be large enough

to assure that the maximum average bearing stress, m, on
the horizontal projected area of the bearing at the maximum load, Pm, shall satisfy the average stress requirements of Article 14.6.2.4. The maximum average bearing
+ stress shall be taken as
4Pm
D 2
(14.6.3.2-2)
where
H
= tan 1 m
PD
(14.6.3.2-3)
L
= sin 1
2R
(14.6.3.2-4)
and
For spherical Bearings
m =
Resistance to Lateral Load
and:
(14.6.3.1-2)
Hm
L
where
= maximum horizontal load.

= projected length of the sliding surface
perpendicular to the rotation axis.
= compressive load due to permanent loads.
PD
PD
Hm
ius
nt F
ulta
qm
ad
Res
=R
orc
Surface Area
Available to carry
Compression
Equal
Lengths
L
FIGURE 14.6.3.2-1
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-9
m
PTFE
14.6.4
= radius of the curved sliding surface.

= angle between the vertical and applied loads.
= maximum design rotation angle. See
Article 14.4.1.
= maximum average contact stress permitted
on the PTFE by Table 14.6.2.4-1.
= subtended semi-angle of the curved
surface.
Deleted
tures warrant lower temperatures. The creep deflection

relative to the instantaneous deflection shall be obtained
from Table 14.6.5.2-1. All bearings shall be manufactured from elastomer grade No.3.
+
+
+
+
+
Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer properties at different

hardnesses.
Hardness (Shore A)
50
60
70
Creep deflection at 25 yrs

Instantaneous deflection
25%
35%
45%
14.6.4.1
Deleted
14.6.4.2
Deleted
14.6.5.3
Design Requirements
14.6.4.3
Deleted
14.6.5.3.1
Scope
14.6.4.4
Deleted
14.6.4.5
Deleted
14.6.4.6
Deleted
14.6.4.7
Deleted
14.6.4.8
Deleted
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bearings designed by the provisions of this section

shall be subsequently tested in accordance with the requirements for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings of
Article 18.7 of Division II of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, Sixteenth Edition.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings should only be
designed by these provisions when the provisions of
Article 14.6.6 are exceeded.
14.6.5.3.2
14.6.5
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric

Bearings - Method B
14.6.5.1
Compressive Stress
In any bearing layer, the average compressive stress

(ksi) shall satisfy the following:
General
for bearings subject to shear deformation
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings shall consist of

alternate layers of steel reinforcement and elastomer,
bonded together. Tapered elastomer layers shall not be
used. All internal layers of elastomer shall be of the same
thickness. The top and bottom cover layers shall be no
thicker than 70% of the internal layers. In addition to any
internal reinforcement, bearings may have external steel
load plates bonded to the upper or lower elastomer layers
or both.
14.6.5.2
TL 1.66 GS
L 0.66 GS
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
(14.6.5.3.2-1)
for bearings fixed against shear deformation
TL 1.75 KSI
TL 2.00 GS
L 1.00 GS
Material Properties
The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between

0.095 and 0.120 ksi and a nominal hardness between 50
+ and 60 on the Shore A scale at 70F.
+
The shear modulus of the elastomer at 70F and 0F
+ shall be used as the basis for design, unless site tempera-
14-10
TL 1.6 KSI
where
L
TL
(14.6.5.3.2-2)
= average compressive stress due to the live

load (KSI)
= Average compressive stress due to total dead
+
+
+
+
+
Zone
D
Zone D
Zone C
Zone
C
Zone B
Zone
B
Zone A
Zone
A
Alaska
Alaska Zone
Zone BB
Hawaii
Hawaii Zone
Zone AA
FIGURE 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones
G
S
plus live load (KSI)

= shear modulus of elastomer (KSI)
= shape factor of the thickest layer of the
bearing
14.6.5.3.3
Compressive Deflection
Deflections due to total load and to live load alone

shall be considered separately.
Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as follows:
= i h ri
(14.6.5.3.3-1)
where
i = instantaneous compressive strain in the ith
elastomer layer of a laminated elastomeric
bearing
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric
bearing (in)
Values for i shall be determined from test results or
from stress vs. strain curves found in the Bridge Memos
+ to Designers. The effects of creep of the elastomer shall
+ be added to the instantaneous deflection when consider-
ing long-term deflections. They should be computed from

information relevant to the elastomeric compound used. In
the absence of material-specific data, the values given in
Article 14.6.5.2 shall be used.
14.6.5.3.4
Shear
The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure, 0, shall be taken as the maximum possible displacement caused by creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning, combined with thermal effects computed in accordance with
this Specification. The maximum shear deformation of
the bearing, s, shall be taken as 0, modified to account
for the pier flexibility and construction procedures. If a
low friction sliding surface is installed, s need not be
taken larger than than the deformation corresponding to
first slip.
The bearing shall be designed so that
h rt 2 s
(14.6.5.3.4-1)
where
hrt = total elastomeric thickness (in)
s = maximum service shear deformation of the
elastomer (in)
14.6.5.3.5
Combined Compression and
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-11
14.6.5.3.5-6.
Rotation
Rotations shall be taken as the maximum possible
difference in slope between the top and bottom surfaces
of the bearing. They shall include the effects of initial
lack-of-parallelism and subsequent girder end rotation
due to imposed loads and movements. Bearings shall be
designed so that uplift does not occur under any combination of loads and corresponding rotation.
All rectangular bearings shall satisfy
TL
B
1.0 GS m
n h ri
TL < 2.5GS 1 0.15 m
TL < 3.0GS 1 0.125 m
where
1.875GS 1 0.200 m
h ri
TL 2.250GS 1 0.167 m
h ri
(14.6.5.3.5-2)
(14.6.5.3.5-3)
where
G
hrt
n
S
m
TL
= length of pad if rotation is about its transverse

axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its
longitudinal axis (in)
= shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)
= thickness of the ith layer of elastomer (in)
= number of layers of elastomer
= shape factor of the thickest layer of the
bearing
= component of maximum service rotation in
direction of interest (rad)
= average compressive stress due to the total
dead plus live load (ksi)
h ri
(14.6.5.3.5-4)
A circular bearing subject to shear deformation shall

also satisfy Equation 14.6.5.3.5-5; those fixed against
shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation
14-12
(14.6.5.3.5-5)
(14.6.5.3.5-6)
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
Stability
Bearings shall be proportioned to avoid instability. If
3.84 (h rt /L)
S 1 + 2L/W
2.67
S(S + 2)(1+ L/4W)
(14.6.5.3.6-1)
the bearing is stable for all allowable loads in this specification and no further consideration of stability is required.
For rectangular bearings not satisfying equation
14.6.5.3.6-1, the average compressive stress due to dead
and live load shall satisfy:
If the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally
TL
3.84 (h rt /L )
2.67
S 1 + 2L/W S(S + 2)(1+ L/4W)

(14.6.5.3.6-2)
If the bridge deck is not free to translate

horizontally
TL
All circular bearings shall satisfy
TL > 0.75GS m
n
h ri
(14.6.5.3.5-1)
A rectangular bearing subject to shear deformation

shall also satisfy Equation 14.6.5.3.5-2; those fixed against
shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation
14.6.5.3.5-3.
D = diameter of pad (in)
14.6.5.3.6
TL
h ri
G
1.92 (h rt /L)
2.67
S 1 + 2L/W S(S + 2)(1+ L/4W)
(14.6.5.3.6-3)
If L is greater than W for a rectangular bearing,
stability shall be checked by the above formulas with L
and W interchanged.
For circular bearings, stability may be evaluated by
using the equations for a square bearing with

= L = 0.8 D.
14.6.5.3.7
pads reinforced with closely spaced layers of cotton duck

shall have a shear modulus between 0.095 and 0.250 ksi
and a nominal hardness between 50 and 70 on the shore
A scale.
Reinforcement
14.6.6.3
The thickness of the reinforcement, h s , shall satisfy the

requirements
hs >
3.0h r max s TL
Fy
(14.6.5.3.7-1)
hs >
2.0h r max s L
Fsr
(14.6.5.3.7-2)
and
where
hs
Fsr
= thickness of steel laminate (in)

= allowable fatigue stress range for over
2,000,000 cycles (ksi)
Design Requirements
14.6.6.3.1
Scope
Plain elastomeric pads, fiberglass reinforced pads and

cotton duck reinforced pads shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of this Article. Steel reinforced
elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with the
provisions of this article shall qualify for the test requirements appropriate for elastomeric pads.
The provisions for FGP apply only to pads where the
fiberglass is placed in double layers 1 /8 -in. apart.
The physical properties of neoprene used in these
bearings shall conform to the following ASTM require- +
ments, with modifications as noted:
Neoprene: D4014
If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum

thickness shall be increased by a factor of 2 (gross width)/
(net width).
Modifications:
(1)
14.6.6
Elastomeric Pads and Steel

Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Method A
14.6.6.1
General
This section of the specification covers the design of

plain elastomeric pads, PEP, pads reinforced with discrete layers of fiberglass, FGP, and pads reinforced with
closely spaced layers of cotton duck, CDP and steel
reinforced elastomeric bearings. Layer thicknesses in
FGP may be different from one another. For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with
the provisions of this section, internal layers shall be of
the same thickness and cover layers shall be no more than
70% of thickness of internal layers.
14.6.6.2
Material Properties
The materials for plain elastomeric pads, fiberglass

reinforced
pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearings
+
shall
satisfy
the requirements of Article 14.6.5.2. Bearing
+
+
+
+
+
+
(2)
The Shore A Durometer hardness shall lie within

the limits specified in Article 14.6.6.2.
Samples for compression set tests shall be
prepared using a Type 2 die.
14.6.6.3.2
Compressive Stress
The average compressive stress, TL, in any layer shall

satisfy
for PEP, TL 0.80 ksi, and TL 0.55GS
for FGP, TL 0.80 ksi, and TL 1.00GS
for CDP, TL 1.50 ksi
In FGP, the values of S used shall be that for the
greatest distance between the mid-point of double reinforcement layers at the top and bottom of the elastomer
layer.
For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in
accordance with the provisions of this article TL 1.00
ksi, and TL 1.0 GS where the value of S used shall be
that for the thickest layer of the bearing. The stress limits
may be increased by 10 percent where shear deformation
SECTION 14
BEARINGS
14-13
is prevented.
To ensure stability, the total thickness of pad shall not

exceed the least of L/3, W/3, or D/4.
14.6.6.3.3
Compressive Deflection
14.6.6.3.7
Reinforcement
The provisions of Article 14.6.5.3.3 shall apply.
14.6.6.3.4
Shear
The horizontal bridge movement shall be computed in

accordance with Article 14.4. The maximum shear deformation of the pad, s, shall be taken as the horizontal
bridge movement, reduced to account for the pier flexibility and modified for construction procedures. If a low
friction sliding surface is used, s need not be taken larger
than the deformation corresponding to first slip.
The pad shall be designed as follows:
hrt
2 s for PEP, FGP and steel reinforced
14.6.6.4
elastomeric bearings
hrt
The reinforcement in FGP shall be fiberglass with a

failure strength in each direction of at least 2.2 hri K/in of
width. For the purpose of this article, if the layers of
elastomer are of different thickness, hri shall be taken as
the mean thickness of the two layers of the elastomer
bonded to the reinforcement. If the fiberglass reinforcement contains holes, its strength shall be increased over
the minimum value specified above by two times the
gross width divided by net width.
Reinforcement for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provisions of this
article shall conform to the requirements of Article
14.6.5.3.7.
10 s for CDP
14.6.6.3.5
(14.6.6.3.4-1)
Rotation
The rotation about each axis shall be taken as the

maximum possible rotation between the top and bottom
of the pad caused by initial lack of parallelism and girder
end rotation. The shape factor of CDP shall be defined as
100 for use in equations 14.6.6.6.3.5-1 and 14.6.6.3.5-2.
They shall satisfy:
for rectangular pads
or
W
TL 0.5GS
h rt
The shear force on the structure induced by deformation of the elastomer shall be based on a G value not less
than that of the elastomer at 0F. Effects of relaxation
shall be ignored.
If the design shear force, Hm, due to pad deformation +
exceeds one-fifth of the minimum vertical force, the pad
shall be secured against horizontal movement.
The pad shall not be permitted to sustain uplift forces.
14.6.7
Deleted
14.6.7.2
Deleted
14.6.7.3
Deleted
14.6.7.4
Deleted
m , z
(14.6.6.3.5-1)
for circular pads

D
0.375GS
h rt
14.6.6.3.6
14-14
Deleted
14.6.7.1
14.6.8
TL
Resistance to Deformation
(14.6.6.3.5-2)
Stability
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
Deleted
14.6.8.1
Deleted
14.6.8.2
Deleted
14.6.8.3
Deleted
14.6.8.4
Deleted
14.6.8.5
Deleted
14.6.8.6
Deleted
14.6.9
14.6.9.5.1
Load Location
The horizontal load acting on the guide or restraint

shall be assumed to act at the centroid of the low-friction
interface material. Design of the connection between the
guide or restraint and the body of the bearing system shall
take into account both shear and overturning moment.
Guides and Restraints
14.6.9.1
General
Guides may be used to prevent movement in one

direction. Restraints may be used to permit only limited
movement in one or more directions. Guides and restraints shall have a low-friction material at their sliding
contact surfaces.
14.6.9.2
14.6.9.5.2
The contact stress on the low-friction material shall

not exceed that recommended by the manufacturer. For
PTFE, the stresses due to the maximum loads, Pm and Hm,
shall not exceed those given in Table 14.6.2.4.1 under
sustained loading or 1.25 times those stresses for shortterm loading.
Design Loads
14.6.9.6
The guide or restraint shall be designed using the

maximum load combinations for the larger of
the horizontal design load, or
10% of the maximum vertical load acting on all the
bearings at the bent divided by the number of
guided bearings at the bent.
14.6.9.3
The low-friction material shall be attached by at least

two of the following three methods:
mechanical fastening
bonding
mechanical interlocking with a metal substrate.
14.6.10
Geometric Requirements
Guides shall be parallel, long enough to accommodate

the full design displacement of the bearing in the sliding
direction, and shall permit a minimum of 1/32-in. and a
maximum of 1/16-in. free slip in the restrained direction.
Guides shall be designed to avoid binding under all
design loads and displacements, including rotations.
14.6.9.5
Attachment of Low-Friction
Material
Materials
For steel bearings, the guide or restraint shall be made

from steel conforming to AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50 or 50W, or stainless steel
conforming to ASTM A 240.
The low-friction interface material shall be approved
by the Engineer.
14.6.9.4
Contact stress
Other Bearing System
Bearing systems made from components not described

in Articles 14.6.1 through 14.6.8 may be used, subject to
the approval of the Engineer and Bearing Technical
Specialist. Such bearings shall be adequate to resist the +
forces and deformations imposed on them without mate- +
rial distress and without inducing deformations large +
enough to threaten their proper functioning.
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen to
provide for adequate movements at all times. The materials used shall have sufficient strength, stiffness, and
resistance to creep and decay to ensure the proper functioning of the bearing throughout the design life of the
bridge.
The Engineer shall determine the tests which the
bearing must satisfy. The tests shall be designed to
demonstrate any potential weakness in the system under
individual compression, shear or rotational loading or
Design Basis
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
14-15
combinations thereof. Testing under sustained or cyclic

loading shall be required.
14.7.2
14.7
14.7.1
LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE

FOR BEARINGS
Plates for Load Distribution
Tapered Plates
If, under full dead load at the mean annual temperature

for the bridge site, the inclination of the underside of the
girder to the horizontal exceeds 0.01 rad, a tapered plate
shall be used in order to provide a level load surface to be
placed on the bearing.
The bearing, together with any additional plates, shall

be designed so that
14.7.3
the combined system is stiff enough to prevent
distortions of the bearing which would impair its
proper functioning;
the stresses imposed on the supporting structure
satisfy the limits specified by the Engineer. Allowable stresses on concrete and grout beds shall be
assumed to be based on the maximum compressive
load, Pm, on the bearing;
the bearing can be replaced within the jacking
height limits specified by the Engineer without
damage to the bearing, distribution plates or supporting structure. If no limit is given, a height of
3/ in. shall be used.
8
All load distribution plates and all bearings with

external steel plates shall be positively secured to their
supports by bolting or welding.
All girders shall be positively located on their supporting bearings by a connection which can resist the horizontal forces which may be imposed on it. Separation of
bearing components shall not be permitted. A connection, adequate to resist the least favorable combination of
loads, shall be installed wherever necessary to prevent
separation.
14.8
Computations of the strength of steel components and
beam stiffener requirements of steel girders shall be made
in conformance with Section 10 of Division I of these
specifications.
In lieu of a more precise analysis, the load from a
bearing fully supported by a grout bed may be assumed
to spread out at a slope of 1.5:1, horizontal to vertical,
from the edge of the smallest element of the bearing which
carries the compressive load.
14-16
SECTION 14 BEARINGS
Anchorage
CORROSION PROTECTION
All exposed steel parts of bearings not made from

stainless steel shall be protected against corrosion by zinc
metallization, hot-dip galvanizing or a paint system approved by the Engineer. A combination of zinc metallization or hot-dip galvanizing and a paint system may be
used.
SECTION 15 - TFE BEARING SURFACE
Note to User:
Section 15, "TFE Bearing Surface" has been replaced
by Section 14, "Bearings".
SECTION 15
TFE BEARING SURFACE
15-1
SECTION 16 - STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
16.1
16.1.1
GENERAL AND NOTATIONS

General
16.1.1.1
These criteria cover the design of

coldformed panel steel tunnel liner plates. The minimum
thickness shall be as determined by design in accordance
+ with Articles 16.2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The supporting capacity
of a nonrigid tunnel lining such as a steel liner plate
results from its ability to deflect under load, so that side
restraint developed by the lateral resistance of the soil
constrains further deflection. Deflection thus tends to
equalize radial pressures and to load the tunnel liner as a
compression ring.
16.1.1.2
The load to be carried by the tunnel
liner is a function of the type of soil. In a granular soil,
with little or no cohesion, the load is a function of the
angle of internal friction of the soil and the diameter of the
tunnel being constructed. In cohesive soils such as clays
and silty clays the load to be carried by the tunnel liner is
dependent on the shearing strength of the soil above the
roof of the tunnel.
16.1.1.3
A subsurface exploration program and
appropriate soil tests should be performed at each installation before undertaking a design.
16.1.1.4
Nothing included in this section shall

be interpreted as prohibiting the use of new developments where usefulness can be substantiated.
16.1.2
FS = factor of safety for buckling (Article 16.3.4)

fc = buckling stress (Article 16.3.4)
fu = minimum specified tensile strength (Article
16.3.4)
H = height of soil over the top of the tunnel (Article
16.2.4)
I = moment of inertia (Article 16.3.3)
k = parameter dependent on the value of the friction
angle (Article 16.3.4)
P = external load on tunnel liner (Article 16.2.1)
Pd = vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
liner due to dead load (Article 16.2.1)
Pl = vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
liner due to live load (Article 16.2.1)
r = radius of gyration (Article 16.3.4)
T = thrust per unit length (Article 16.3.4)
W = total (moist) unit weight of soil (Article 16.2.4)
= friction angle of soil (Article 16.3.4.1)
16.2
LOADS
16.2.1
External load on a circular tunnel liner made

up of tunnel liner plates may be predicted by various
methods including actual tests. In cases where more
precise methods of analysis are not employed, the external load P can be predicted by the following:
(a) If the grouting pressure is greater than the computed external load, the external load P on the tunnel
liner shall be the grouting pressure.
(b) In general the external load can be computed by the
formula:
Notations
P = P l + Pd
A = cross-sectional area of liner plates (Article 16.3.4)

Cd = coefficient for tunnel liner, used in Marstons
formula ( Article 16.2.4)
D = horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel (Article
16.2.4)
D = pipe diameter (Article 16.3.3)
Dc = critical pipe diameter (Article 16.3.4)
E = modulus of elasticity (Article 16.3.3)
(16-1)
where:
P
Pl
Pd
SECTION 16
= the external load on the tunnel liner;

= the vertical load at the level of the top of the
tunnel liner due to live loads;
= the vertical load at the level of the top of the
tunnel liner due to dead load.
STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
16-1
16.2.2
16.3
For an H 20 load, values of Pl are approximately the following:
DESIGN
16.3.1
H(ft.)
4
5
6
7
8
Pl (lb. per sq.ft.) 375 260 190 140 110
9
90
10
75
The following criteria must be considered in the design of liner plates:
16.2.3 Values of P d may be calculated using

Marstons formula for load or any other suitable method.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
16.2.4
In the absence of adequate borings and soil

tests, the full overburden height should be the basis for Pd
in the tunnel liner plate design.
=
=
=
=
Joint Strength
16.3.2.1
(16-2)
The seam strength of liner plates must

be sufficient to withstand the thrust developed from the
total load supported by the liner plate. This thrust, T, in
pounds per linear foot is:
where:
Cd
W
D
H
Joint strength.
Minimum stiffness for installation.
Critical buckling of liner plate wall.
Deflection or flattening of tunnel section.
16.3.2
The following is one form of Marstons formula:

Pd = CdWD
Criteria
coefficient for tunnel liner, Figure 16.2.3A;

total (moist) unit weight of soil;
horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel;
height of soil over the top of the tunnel.
T = PD/2
where P = load as defined in Article 16.2, and D =

diameter or span in feet.
8.7)
( =
ted
Cla
y
Sa
tur
a
lay ( = 1
1
Silt & C
Sat
urate
d
Granular Soil ( 17)
Values of H/D (ratio of overburden to Span)
12
10
4
ate)
dequ
e ina
ta ar
en da
e wh
Us
=0
Values of coefficient Cd
= Friction Angle)
FIGURE 16.2.3A. Diagram for Coefficient Cd for Tunnels in Soil (
16-2
SECTION 16
(16-3)
16.3.2.2
The ultimate design longitudinal seam
strengths are:
TABLE 16.3.2.2
For 2-Flange (EI/D2) = 50 minimum

For 4-Flange (EI/D2) = 111 minimum
16.3.4
Ultimate Seam Strength of Liner Plates

Plate Thickness
Ultimate Strength
(in.)
(kips/ft.)
2-Flange
4-Flange
0.075
20.0
0.105
30.0
26.0
0.135
47.0
43.0
0.164
55.0
50.0
0.179
62.0
54.0
0.209
87.0
67.0
0.239
92.0
81.0
0.313
115.0
0.375
119.0
Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall
16.3.4.1
Wall bucking stresses are determined
from the following formulae:
For diameter less than Dc, the ring compression stress
at which buckling becomes critical is:
(16-5)
For diameters greater than Dc:

fc =
16.3.2.3
The thrust, T, multiplied by the safety

factor, should not exceed the ultimate seam strength.
16.3.3
Minimum Stiffness for Installation
f 2 kD 2
fc = f u u
in psi
The liner plate ring shall have enough

48E r 16.3.3.1
rigidity to resist the unbalanced loads of normal construc-
tion: grouting pressure, local slough-ins, and miscellaneous concentrated loads.

The minimum stiffness required for these loads can be
expressed for convenience by the formula below. It must
be recognized, however, that the limiting values given
here are only recommended minima. Actual job conditions may require higher values (greater effective stiffness). Final determination on this factor should be based
on intimate knowledge of the project and practical experience.
16.3.3.2
The minimum stiffness for installation
is determined by the formula:
Minimum stiffness = EI/D2
(kD/r )2
in psi
(16-6)
where:
Dc = (r/k ) 24E/f u = critical pipe
(16-7)
diameter in inches;
fu = minimum specified tensile strength in pounds
per square inch;
fc = buckling stress in pounds per square inch, not to
exceed minimum specified yield strength;
D = pipe diameter in inches;
r = radius of gyration of section in inches per foot;
E = modulus of elasticity in pounds per square inch.
k will vary from 0.22 for soils with >15 to 0.44 for
soils <15.
16.3.4.2
Design for buckling is accomplished
by limiting the ring compression thrust, T, to the buckling
stress multiplied by the effective cross-sectional area of
the liner plate divided by the factor of safety.
T=
(16-4)
where:
12E
fc A
FS
(16-8)
where:
D = diameter in inches;
E = modulus of elasticity, psi (29 106);
I = moment of inertia, inches to the fourth power
per inch.
T
A
= thrust per linear foot from Article 16.3.2;

= effective cross-sectional area of liner plate in
square inches per foot;
FS = factor of safety for buckling.
SECTION 16
16-3
16.3.5
Deflection or Flattening
TABLE 16.5A Section Properties for Four Flange

Liner Plate
16.3.5.1
Deflection of a tunnel depends significantly on the amount of over-excavation of the bore and
is affected by delay in backpacking or inadequate backpacking. The magnitude of deflection is not primarily a
function of soil modulus or the liner plate properties, so
it cannot be computed with usual deflection formulae.
Gage
12
11
10
8
7
5
3
1/4
5/16
3/8
16.3.5.2
Where the tunnel clearances are important, the designer should oversize the structure to provide
for a normal deflection. Good construction methods
should result in deflections of not more than 3 percent of
the normal diameter.
16.4
16.4.1
CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL

REQUIREMENTS
Chemical Composition
Thickness
(in.)
0.075
0.105
0.135
0.164
0.179
0.209
0.239
Minimum Mechanical Properties of

Flat Plate before Cold Forming
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation, 2 inches
= 42,000 psi
= 28,000 psi
= 30 percent
16.6
16.4.3
Moment
of Inertia
(in.4/in.)
0.042
0.049
0.055
0.070
0.075
0.087
0.120
0.101
0.123
0.143
Effective Area
(in.2/in.)
0.096
0.135
0.174
0.213
0.233
0.272
0.312
Moment of Inertia
(in.4/in.)
0.034
0.049
0.064
0.079
0.087
0.103
0.118
COATINGS
Steel tunnel liner plates shall be of heavier gage or

thickness or protected by coatings or other means when
required for resistance to abrasion or corrosion.
16.7
BOLTS
SECTION PROPERTIES
16.7.1
The section properties per inch of plate width, based

on the average of one ring of linear plates, shall conform
to the following:
16-4
Effective
Area
(in.2/in.)
0.067
0.076
0.085
0.105
0.114
0.132
0.150
0.155
0.193
0.230
Dimensions and Tolerances
Nominal plate dimensions shall provide the section

properties shown in Article 16.5. Thickness tolerances
shall conform to Paragraph 14 of AASHTO M 167.
16.5
Area
(in.2/in.)
0.133
0.152
0.170
0.209
0.227
0.264
0.300
0.309
0.386
0.460
TABLE 16.5B Section Properties for Two Flange

Liner Plates
Base metal shall conform to ASTM A 569.
16.4.2
Thickness
(in.)
0.105
0.1196
0.135
0.164
0.179
0.209
0.239
0.250
0.3125
0.375
SECTION 16
Bolts and nuts used with lapped seams shall be

not less than 5/8 inch in diameter. The bolts shall conform
to the specifications of ASTM A 449 for plate thickness
equal to or greater than 0.209 inches and A 307 for plate
thickness less than 0.209 inches. The nut shall conform

to ASTM A 307, Grade A.
16.7.2
Circumferential seam bolts shall be A 307 or

better for all plate thicknesses.
16.7.3
Bolts and nuts used with four flanged plates

shall be not less than 1/2 inch in diameter for plate
thicknesses to and including 0.179 inches and not less
than 5/8 inch in diameter for plates of greater thickness.
The bolts and nuts shall be quick acting coarse thread and
shall conform to ASTM A 307, Grade A.
16.8
SAFETY FACTORS
Longitudinal test seam strength = 3

Pipe Wall Buckling
= 2
SECTION 16
16-5
BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS APRIL 2000
SECTION 17 - SOIL REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1
Specifications in this section govern the design of

buried reinforced concrete structures. A buried reinforced
concrete element becomes part of a composite system
comprising the reinforced concrete section and the soil
envelope, both of which contribute to the structural
behavior of the system.
Bc
Bf
Bfe
BfLL
Bl
=
=
=
=
17.1.2
Bc
CA
CN
Cl
db
dc
Di
fs
=
=
fss
fv
fy
17.1.1
AP
As
Asi
Aso
Avr
Avs
+
+
GENERAL
Awa
Awr
Scope
Notations
= effective tension area, in square inches, of
reinforcement and having the same centroid
as that reinforcement, divided by the number
of bars or wires. When the flexural reinforcement consists of several bar sizes or wire sizes,
the number of bars or wires shall be computed
as the total area of reinforcement divided by
the area of the largest bar or wire used. (Articles 17.6.4 and 17.7.4)
= total active lateral pressure acting on pipe,
lbs/ft (Figure 17.4G)
= tension reinforcement area on width b, in.2/ft.
(Articles 17.4.6.6, 17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and
17.8.5.7)
= total area of inner cage reinforcement required in length b, in.2/ft (Article 17.4.6.6)
= total area of outer cage reinforcement required in length b, in.2/ft (Article 17.4.6.6)
= stirrup reinforcement area to resist radial tension forces on width b, in.2/ft. in each line of
stirrups at circumferential spacing s (Article
17.4.6.6.6.1)
= required area of stirrups for shear reinforcement, in.2 (Article 17.4.6.6.6.2)
= actual steel area of the individual circumferential wire, in.2 (Article 17.4.7)
= steel area required for an individual circumferential wire for flexure at a splice or at the
point of maximum moment for quadrant mat

reinforcement, in.2 (Article 17.4.7)
width of section which resists M, N, V
Usually b = 12 inches (Article 17.4.6)
out-to-out horizontal span of pipe, or box, ft
(Articles 17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
bedding factor (Article 17.4.5)
earth load bedding factor
live load bedding factor
crack control coefficient for effect of cover
and spacing of reinforcement (Article 17.4.6)
out-to-out vertical rise of pipe, ft (Figure
17.4G)
constant corresponding to the shape of pipe
(Article 17.4.5)
parameter which is a function of the distribution of the vertical load and the vertical
reaction (Article 17.4.5)
crack control coefficient for type of reinforcement (Article 17.4.6)
distance from compression face to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in.(Articles 17.4.6.6,
17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and 17.8.5.7)
diameter of reinforcing wire or bar, in. (Ar- +
+
ticle 17.4.7)
thickness of concrete cover measured from
extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto (Articles 17.6.4 and
17.7.4)
D-load of pipe, three-edge bearing test load
expressed in pounds per linear foot per foot
of span to produce a 0.01-inch crack (Article
17.4.5)
inside diameter of pipe, in.
maximum allowable service load stress in the
reinforcing steel for crack control (Articles
17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and 17.8.5.7)
actual service load stress in reinforcing steel
(Articles 17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and 17.8.5.7)
maximum allowable strength of stirrup material, lbs./in.2 (Article 17.4.6.6.6)
specified yield strength of reinforcement,
lbs./in.2 (Article 17.4.6)
SECTION 17 SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17-1
Fc
= factor for effect of curvature on diagonal

tension (shear) strength in curved components (Article 17.4.6.6.5)
Fcr = factor for adjusting crack control relative to
average maximum crack width of 0.01 inch
when F cr = 1.0 (Article 17.4.6.6.4)
Fd = factor for crack depth effect resulting in increase in diagonal tension (shear) strength
with decreasing d (Article 17.4.6.6.5)
Fe
= soil-structure interaction factor (Article
17.4.4)
Frp = factor for process and local materials that
affect the radial tension strength of pipe
(Article 17.4.6)
Frt = factor for pipe size effect on radial tension
strength (Article 17.4.6.6.3)
Fvp = factor for process and local materials that
affect the shear strength of pipe (Article
17.4.6.6.5)
FN = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear strength
(Article 17.4.6.6.5)
f c
= design compressive strength of concrete, lbs./
in.2 (Articles 17.4.6, 17.6.2, and 17.7.2)
h
= overall thickness of member (wall thickness),
in. (Articles 17.4.6.6, 17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and
17.8.5.7)
H
= height of fill above top of pipe, ft. (Articles
17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
HAF = horizontal arching factor (Figure 17.4A)
i
= coefficient for effect of axial force at service
load stress, fs (Articles 17.4.6.6.4, 17.6.4.7,
17.7.4.7 and 17.8.5.7)
j
= coefficient for moment arm at service load
stress, fs (Articles 17.4.6.6.4, 17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7
and 17.8.5.7)
K
= ratio of the active unit lateral soil pressure to
unit veritcal soil pressure - Rankines coefficient of active earth pressure (Figure 17.4G)
Ld = development length of reinforcing wire or
bar, in (Article 17.4.7)
Mnu = factored moment acting on length b as modified for effects of compressive or tensile thrust,
in-lbs/ft (Article 17.4.6)
M s = moment acting on cross section of width, b,
service load conditions, in.-lbs/ft (taken as
absolute value in design equations, always +)
(Articles 17.4.6.6.4, 17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and
17.8.5.7)
Mu = factored moment acting on cross section of
width b, in.-lbs./ft. (Article 17.4.6.6)
n
= number of layers of reinforcement in a cage-
17-2
1 or 2 (Article 17.4.6)
= axial thrust acting on cross section of width
b, service load condition (+ when compressive, - when tensile) lbs./ft. (Articles 17.4.6.6.4,
17.6.4.7, 17.7.4.7 and 17.8.5.7))
Nu = factored axial thrust acting on cross section
of width b, lbs./ft. (Article 17.4.6)
p
= projection ratio (Article 17.4.5.2)
PL = PL denotes the prism load (weight of the
column of earth) over the pipes outside
diameter, lbs/ft
q
= ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total
vertical load (Article 17.4.5)
rs
= radius of the inside reinforcement, in.(Article
17.4.6.6.3.1)
sv
= circumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (Article 17.4.6.6.6)
sl
= spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
(Articles 17.4.6.6.4 and 17.4.7)
Si
= internal horizontal span of pipe, in. (Articles
17.4.5 and 17.4.6)
tb
= clear cover over reinforcement, in. (Article
17.4.6)
Vb = basic shear strength of critical section, lbs./ft.
where M nu/Vud = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6.6.5)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by width b,
of concrete cross section, lbs./ft.
(Article 17.4.6)
Vu = factored shear force acting on cross section of
width b, lbs./ft. (Article 17.4.6)
Vuc = factored shear force at critical section, lbs./ft.
where M nu/Vud = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6.6.5)
VAF = vertical arching factor (Article 17.4.4.2.1.1)
w
= unit weight of soil, lbs per cubic foot (Article
17.4.4)
WE = total earth load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
Wf = fluid load in the pipe as determined according to Article 17.4.4.2.2, lbs/ft
WL = total live load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
WT = total load, earth and live, on pipe or box, lbs/
ft (Article 17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
x
= parameter which is a function of the area of
the vertical projection of the pipe over which
lateral pressure is effective (Article 17.4.5)
= central angle of pipe subtended by assumed

distribution of external reactive force (Figure
17.4F)
= ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area

(Article 17.4.6)
Ns
f
r
v
17.1.3
= strength reduction factor for flexure (Articles

17.4.6.3 and 17.4.6.6)
= strength reduction factor for radial tension
(Article 17.4.6.3 and 17.4.6.6)
= strength reduction factor for shear (Article
17.4.6.3 and 17.4.6.6)
17.3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
17.3.1
Soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems shall be designed to have design

strengths of all sections at least equal to the required
strengths calculated for the factored loads as stipulated in
Article 3.22, except as modified herein.
Loads
17.3.2
Design loads shall be determined by the forces

acting on the structure. For earth loads and live loads, see
+ Section 6. For loading combinations see Article 3.22.
17.1.4
For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, elliptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of threeedge-bearing tests may be used in lieu of load factor +
design.
Design
17.4
Design shall be based on ultimate strength principles.

The design criteria shall include structural aspects (e.g.
flexure, thrust, shear), handling and installation, and
crack control. Footing design for cast-in-places boxes
and arches shall be in conformity with Article 4.4.
+ 17.1.5
17.1.6
Deleted
Soil
Structural performance is dependent on soil structure

interaction. The type and anticipated behavior of the
material beneath the structure, adjacent to the structure,
and over the structure must be considered.
17.1.7
Where abrasive or corrosive conditions exist, suitable

protective measures shall be considered.
17.1.8
End Structures
Structures may require special consideration where

erosion may occur. Skewed alignment may require special end wall designs.
+ 17.1.9
Deleted
17.4.1
REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE

Application
This Specification is intended for use in design for

precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, elliptical pipe,
and arch pipe. Standard dimensions are shown in AASHTO
Material Specifications M 170, M 206, M 207, and M
242. Design wall thicknesses other than the standard wall
dimensions may be used, provided the design complies
with all applicable requirements of Section 17.
17.4.2
Materials
17.4.2.1
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2 except that

evaluation of f c may be based on cores.
17.4.2.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
Service load design shall not be permitted for the

+
+ design of reinforced concrete culvert structures. Service
+ load stresses may be used for crack control only.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Articles

8.3.1 through 8.3.3 only, and shall conform to one of the
following AASHTO Material Specifications: M 31, M 32,
M 55, M 221 or M 255. For smooth wire and smooth
welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 65,000 psi and for
deformed welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 70,000 psi
may be used.
17.4.2.3
17.2
Concrete
Concrete Cover for

Reinforcement
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement in

precast concrete pipe shall be 1 inch in pipe having a wall
thickness of 2 inches or greater and inch in pipe
having a wall thickness of less than 2 inches.
17-3
17.4.3
Installations
17.4.3.1
Standard Installations
Standard Embankment Installations are presented in

Figure 17.4B and Standard Trench Installations are presented in Figure 17.4C; these figures define soil areas and
critical dimensions. Soil types, minimum compaction
requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses are
+ listed in Table 17.4A for three Standard Embankment and
Trench Installation Types.
+
17.4.3.2
17.4.4
Deleted
Design
17.4.4.1
Design shall conform to applicable sections of these

specifications except as provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads, see Article 17.1.3; for standard
installations, see Article 17.4.3.1. Live loads, W L, shall
be included as part of the total load, WT, and shall be
distributed through the earth cover as specified in Article
6.5. Other methods for determining total load and pressure distribution may be used, if they are based on
successful design practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design conditions.
+ TABLE 17.4A Standard Embankment and Trench
Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction
Requirements
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Installation Type
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Haunch and Outer Bedding

90% RC Str. Bkfl w/min SE = 30
and max % passing No 200 (75m)
shall be 12
90% RC Str. Bkfl
or
EMBANKMENT NOTES:
The bedding thickness shall be Bc / 24" minimum but not less
than 3". If an unyielding material is encountered at the
planned elevation of the bedding, it shall be removed to a
depth of H/50 but in no case less than 6" nor more than 12".
The resulting trench below the bottom of the bedding shall
be backfilled with Structure Backfill and compacted.
+ 1.
+
+
+
+
+
17-4
2.
3.
4.
The Lower Side shall be suitable material as determined by

the engineer. See Construction Manual.
Soil in the outer bedding, haunch and lower side zones
except for installation Type 3 shall be compacted to at least
the same compaction as the majority of soil in the over fill
zone.
Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal
elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe.
+
+
5. SUBTRENCHES
5.1 A subtrench is defined as a trench with its top below finished
grade by more than 0.1H or, for roadways, its top is at an
elevation lower than 1' (0.3 m) below the bottom of the
pavement base material.
5.2 For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any portion of the
lower side zone in the subtrench wall shall be at least as firm
as an equivalent soil placed to the compaction requirements
specified for the lower side zone and as firm as the majority
of soil in the overfill zone, or shall be removed and replaced
with soil compacted to the specified level. See Construction
Manual.
TRENCH NOTES:
1. The bedding thickness shall be Bc / 24" minimum but not less
than 3". If an unyielding material is encountered at the
planned elevation of the bedding, it shall be removed to a
depth of H/50 but in no case less than 6" nor more than 12".
The resulting trench below the bottom of the bedding shall
be backfilled with Structure Backfill and compacted.
2. The Lower Side shall be suitable material as determined by
the engineer. See Construction Manual.
3. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than 0.1H below
finished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be no lower than
an elevation of 1' (0.3 m) below the bottom of the pavement
base material.
4. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal
elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe.
5. Soil in the outer bedding, haunch and lower side zones
except for installation Type 3 shall be compacted to at least
the same compaction as the majority of soil in the over fill
zone.
6. The trench width shall be wider than shown if required for
adequate space to attain the specified compaction in the
haunch and bedding zones.
7. For trench walls that are within 10 degrees of vertical, the
compaction or firmness of the soil in the trench walls and
lower side zone need not be considered.
8. For trench walls with greater than 10-degree slopes that
consist of embankment, the lower side shall be compacted
to at least the same compaction as specified for the soil in the
backfill zone.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
17.4.4.2
17.4.4.2.1
Loads
shall be determined by an appropriate soil-structure interaction analysis. See Figure 17.4F for suggested pressure +
distributions.
+
Earth Loads and Pressure

Distribution
17.4.4.2.2
The effects of soil-structure interaction shall be taken
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover,
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics of the
pipe soil installations.
17.4.4.2.1.1
For the Standard Installations given in 17.4.3.1, the

earth load, WE, may be determined by multiplying the
prism load (weight of the column of earth) over the pipes
outside diameter by the soil-structure interaction factor,
Fe, for the specified installation type.
WE=FewBcH
(17-1)
Standard Installations for both embankments and

trenches shall be designed for positive projection, embankment loading conditions where F e = VAF given, in
Figure 17.4A for each Type of Standard Installation.
For Standard Installations the earth pressure distribution shall be the Heger pressure distribution shown in
Figure 17.4A for each type of Standard Installation.
The unit weight of soil used to calculate earth load
shall be the estimated unit weight for the soils specified
for the pipe-soil installation and shall not be less than 110
+ lbs/cu. ft. (120 lbs/cu. ft for pipe designed by the indirect
+ method)
17.4.4.2.1.2
Non-Standard
Installations
When nonstandard installations are used, the earth

+ load on the structure shall be the prism load (PL). The unit
+ weight of soil shall be 140 lbs/cu. ft. Pressure distribution
Pipe Fluid Weight
The weight of fluid, Wf in the pipe shall be considered

in design based on a fluid weight of 62.4 lbs/ft3, unless
otherwise specified. For Standard Installations, the fluid
weight shall be supported by vertical earth pressure that
is assumed to have the same distribution over the lower
part of the pipe as given in figure 17.4A for earth load.
17.4.4.2.3
Live Loads
Live loads shall be the AASHTO HS Series truck load. +

Live loads shall be distributed through the earth cover as
specified in Article 6.5. For Standard Installations the
live load on the pipe shall be assumed to have a uniform
distribution across the top of the pipe and the same
distribution across the bottom of the pipe as given in
Figure 17.4A for earth load.
17.4.4.3
Minimum Fill
For unpaved areas and under flexible pavements the

minimum fill over precast reinforced concrete pipes shall
be two feet. For rigid pavements this distance shall be one +
foot.
+
17.4.4.4
Design Methods
The structural design requirements of installed precast

reinforced concrete circular pipe for both standard and
nonstandard installations may be determined by either
the Indirect or Direct Method. Elliptical pipe in nonstandard installations may be designed by either the
indirect or direct method. Elliptical pipe in standard
installations, and arch pipe regardless of installation type
shall be designed by the indirect method.
17-5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Installation
Type
1
2
3
VAF HAF
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
1.35
1.40
1.40
0.62
0.85
1.05
0.73
0.55
0.35
1.35
1.40
1.40
0.19
0.15
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.45
0.40
0.37
1.40
1.45
1.45
0.40
0.40
0.36
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.80
0.82
0.85
0.80
0.70
0.60
Notes:
1.
VAF and HAF are vertical and horizontal arching factors. These coefficients represent nondimensional total vertical and
horizontal loads on the pipe, respectively. The actual total vertical and horizontal loads are (VAF) X (PL) and (HAF) X
(PL), respectively, where PL is the prism load.
2.
Coefficients A1 through A6 represent the integration of nondimensional vertical and horizontal components of soil pressure
under the indicated portions of the component pressure diagrams (i.e., the area under the component pressure diagrams).
The pressures are assumed to vary either parabolically or linearly, as shown, with the nondimensional magnitudes at
governing points represented by h 1, h 2, uh1, vh1, a and b. Nondimensional horizontal and vertical dimensions of component
pressure regions are defined by c, d, e, uc, vd and f coefficients.
3.
d is calculated as (0.5 c-e)

h1 is calculated as (1.5A1) / (c) (I + u)
h2 is calculated as (1.5A2) / [(d) (1 + v) + (2e)].
Figure 17.4A Heger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors
17-6
Figure 17.4B
Figure 17.4C
17-7
17-8
17-9
17.4.5
Indirect Design Method Based on

Pipe Strength and Load-Carrying
Capacity
17.4.5.1
Loads
The design load-carrying capacity of a reinforced

concrete pipe must equal the design load determined for
the pipe as installed, or
12 W + WF WL
+
D= E
BfLL
Sl Bfe
(17-2)
Table 17.4B Design Values of Parameters in

Bedding Factor Equation
Pipe Shape
Horizontal
Elliptical
And Arch
Vertical
Elliptical
Values Type of Values Projection Values

of CA Bedding of CN
Ratio
of x
Type 2
0.630
0.9
0.421
1.337
0.7
0.369
Type 3
0.763
0.5
0.268
0.3
0.148
Type 2
0.516
0.9
0.718
0.7
0.639
1.021 Type 3
0.615
0.5
0.457
0.3
0.238
where:
D
Si
D-load of the pipe (three-edge-bearing test

load expressed in pounds per linear foot per
foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01-inch
crack. For Type 1 installations, D-load as
calculated above shall be modified by multiplying by an installation factor of 1.10;
internal diameter or horizontal span of the
pipe in inches;
Bf =
bedding factor, See Article 17.4.5.2;
Bfe =
earth load bedding factor;
BfLL =
live load bedding factor;
WT =
WE + W L;
WT =
total load on the pipe as determined according to Article 17.4.4;
WE =
earth load on the pipe as determined according to Article 17.4.4;
WF =
fluid load in the pipe as determined according to Article 17.4.4.2.2;
WL =
live load on the pipe as determined according

to Article 17.4.4.
17-10
Table 17.4C Bedding Factors for Circular Pipe

Pipe Diameter, in. Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
12
4.4
3.2
2.5
24
4.2
3.0
2.4
36
4.0
2.9
2.3
72
3.8
2.8
2.2
144
3.6
2.8
2.2
Note:
1.
For pipe diameters other than listed, embankment
condition bedding factors, Bfc can be obtained by
interpolation.
2.
Bedding factors are based on soils being placed with
the minimum compaction specified in Table 17.4A for
each Standard Installation.
Table 17.4D Bedding Factors BfLL for HS20 Live Loadings
Fill Height, Ft
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
12
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
24
1.7
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
36
1.4
1.7
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
Pipe Diameter, in.

48
60
72
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.8
1.5
1.4
2.0
1.8
1.5
2.2
2.0
1.8
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
84
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
96
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
108
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.2
2.2
120
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
144
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
Note: For pipe diameters other than listed, B fLL values can be obtained by interpolation.
17.4.5.1.1
Ultimate D-load
The required D-load at which the pipe develops its

ultimate strength in a three-edge-bearing test is the design D-load (at 0.01-inch crack) multiplied by a strength
factor that is specified in AASHTO materials specifications M 170 or M 242 (ASTM C 76 or C 655) for Circular
pipe, M 206 (ASTM C 506) for Arch Pipe and M 207
(ASTM C 507) for Elliptical Pipe.
17.4.5.2.2
Earth Load Bedding Factor for

Arch and Elliptical Pipe
The bedding factor for installations of arch and elliptical pipe, Figures 17.4D and 17.4E, is:
Bfe =
CA
C N xq
(17-3)
Values for CA and CN are listed in Table 17.4B.
17.4.5.2
Bedding Factor
The bedding factor, Bf, is the ratio of the supporting

strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe determined in the three-edge-bearing test. The supporting
strength of buried pipe depends on the type of Standard
Installation. See figures 17.4B and 17.4C for circular pipe
and figures 17.4D and 17.4E for other arch and elliptical
+ shapes. Table 17.4A applies to circular, arch and elliptical shapes.
17.4.5.2.1
Earth Load Bedding Factor for

Circular Pipe
Earth load bedding factors, Bfe, for circular pipe are

presented in Table 17.4C.
CA = a constant corresponding to the shape of the

pipe;
CN = a parameter which is a function of the distribution of the vertical load and vertical reaction;
x
= a parameter which is a function of the area of

the vertical projection of the pipe over which
lateral pressure is effective;
= the ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total

vertical fill load. Design values for CA, C N, and
x are found in Table 17.4B. The value of q is
determined by the following equations:
17-11
17.4.6.2
Arch and Horizontal Elliptical Pipe:
q = .23
P
Bc
1 + .35p
Fe
H
(17-4)
Vertical Elliptical Pipe:
q = .48
P
Bc
1 + .73p
Fe
H
(17-5)
where:
p
= projection ratio, ratio of the vertical distance

between the outside top of the pipe and the
ground or bedding surface to the outside
vertical height of the pipe;
17.4.5.2.3
Live Load Bedding Factor
The bedding factors for live load, WL, for both Circular
pipe and Arch and Elliptical pipe are given in Table
17.4D. If B fe is less than B fLL use B fe instead of BfLL for the
live load bedding factor.
17.4.5.2.4
Intermediate Trench Widths
General

specifications, except as provided otherwise in this section.
The total load on the pipe shall be determined according to Article 17.4.4 and Table 3.22.1A.
The pressure distribution on the pipe from applied
loads and bedding reaction shall be determined from a
soil-structure analysis or shall be a rational approximation. Acceptable pressure distribution diagrams are the
Heger Pressure Distribution (see Figure 17.4A) for use
with the Standard Installations; the Olander/Modified
Olander Radial Pressure Distribution (see Figure 17.4
F(a) or the Paris/Manual Uniform Pressure Distribution
(see Figure 17.4 F(b). For bedding angles and lateral
pressures used with the latter distributions see Figure 17H
through Figure 17J.
For use with the Heger Pressure Distribution, three
Types of Standard Embankment installations, soil types,
and compaction requirements are depicted in Figures
17.4B through 17.4E and Table 17.4A.
Other methods for determining total load and pressure
distribution may be used, if based on successful design
practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design condition.
For intermediate trench widths, the bedding factor

may be estimated by interpolation between the narrow
trench and transition width bedding factors.
17.4.6
Direct Design Method for Precast

Reinforced Concrete Circular Pipe
17.4.6.1
Application
This Specification is intended for use in direct design

of precast reinforced concrete pipe and is based on design
of pipe wall for effects of loads and pressure distribution
for installed conditions. Standard dimensions are shown
in AASHTO Material Specification M170. Design wall
thicknesses other than the standard wall dimension may
be used provided the design complies with all applicable
requirements of Section 17.
17-12
Figure 17.4F
17.4.6.6
Reinforcement
17.4.6.6.1
Reinforcement for Flexural

Strength
1
AS = gf d N U g g(f d )2 N U (2f d h ) 2M U
fy
(17-6)
where
g = 0.85b f c
b = 12 in.
17.4.6.6.2
For inside face of pipe:
Asi =
( )
b
(Si + h )2 / f y
12
(17-7)
where b = 12 in.
Figure 17.4G General Relationship of Vertical
Earth Load and Lateral Pressure
17.4.6.3
Orientation Angle
When quadrant mats, stirrups and/or elliptical cages

are used, the pipe installation requires a specific
orientaion. Designs shall be based on the possibility of
a rotation misorientation during installation by an Orientation Angle of 10 degrees in either direction.
(17-8)
where b = 12 in.
For elliptical reinforcement in circular pipe and for
pipe 33-inch diameter and smaller with a single cage of
reinforcement in the middle third of the pipe wall, reinforcement shall not be less than A s, where:
( )
b
As = 2 (Si + h )2 / f y
12
Process and Material Factors
Process and material factors, Frp for radial tension and

Fvp for shear strength for load factor design of plant made
reinforced concrete pipe are conservatively taken as 1.0.
Higher values may be used if substantiated by appropriate test data approved by the Engineer.
17.4.6.5
( )
b
Aso = 0.60 (Si + h )2 / f y
12
Strength-Reduction Factors
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of

plant made reinforced concrete pipe may be taken as 1.0
for flexure ( ) and 0.9 for shear ( v) and radial tension
( r). For type 1 installations, the strength-reduction factor
shall be 0.9 for flexure and 0.82 for shear and radial
tension.
17.4.6.4
For outside face of pipe:
(17-9)
where b = 12 in.
where:
h
wall thickness in inches;
Si
internal diameter or horizontal span of

pipe in inches.
In no case shall the minimum reinforcement be less

than 0.07 square inches per linear foot.
17-13
2'
2'
2'
2'
2/
3
Figure 17.4H
17-14
2/
3
Figure 17.4I
17-15
Figure 17.4J
17.4.6.6.3
Maximum Flexural
Reinforcement Without Stirrups
17.4.6.6.3.1
Inside
Limited by Radial
Tension

b
As max = 16rs Frp f c r Frt / f y
12
f
( )
(17-10)
As max =
maximum flexural reinforcement area with

out stirrups in.
Frt
17-16
ft
where b = 12 in.
1 + 0.00833 (72 Si)

For 12 in Si 72 in.
Frp
Frt
1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by

test data is approved by the Engineer;
(144 Si )2 + 0.80
26,000
For 72 in. < Si = 144 in.

Frt
0.8 for Si > 144 in.
rs
radius of the inside reinforcement in inches.
17.4.6.6.3.2
Limited by Concrete
Compression
5.5 104 g d
f
As max =
0.75N U / f y
87,000 + f y
( )
(17-11)
where:
tb
h
(f 4,000)
g = bf c 0.85 0.05 c
1,000
g = 0.85 bf c and gmin = 0.65 bf c
17.4.6.6.4
where:
Crack Width Control (Service

Load Design)
h
Ms + Ns d - 2
Bl
C bh 2 f
Fcr =
l
c
ij
30,000f dA s
(17-12)
+
Cover for crack control analysis is assumed to be 1 in.
+ over the tension reinforcement, even if it is greater or less
+ than 1 in. The crack control factor F cr in equation 17-12
indicates the probability that a crack of a specified
maximum width will occur.
When Fcr = 1.0, the reinforcement area, As, will produce
an average crack maximum width of 0.01 inch. For Fcr
values less than 1.0, the probability of a 0.01 inch crack
is reduced. For Fcr values greater than 1.0, the probability
of a crack greater than 0.01 inch is increased.
where:
Fcr = crack control factor
M s = bending moment, service load;
Ns = thrust (positive when compressive), service load.
If the service load thrust, Ns, is tensile rather than
compressive (this may occur in pipes subject to intermittent hydrostatic pressure), use the quantity (1.1Ms
0.6Nsd) (with tensile Ns taken negative) in place of the
quantity ([Ms + Ns(d h/2)]/ji) in Equation (17-12).
j
s l = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.

n = 1, when tension reinforcement is a single layer.
n = 2, when tension reinforcement is made of
multiple layers.
C1 = Crack Control Coefficient
Type of Reinforcement:
C1
1. Smooth wire or plain bars
1.0
2. Welded smooth wire fabric, 8in. (200mm)

maximum spacing of longitudinals
1.5
3. Welded deformed wire fabric,

deformed wire, deformed bars or
any reinforcement with stirrups
anchored thereto.
1.9
Notes: Higher values for C1 may be used if substantiated by
test data and approved by the Engineer.
17.4.6.6.5
FF
Vb = b v dFvp f c (1.1 + 63 ) dF N
c
jd
e
Vb
= shear strength of section where

Mnu/Vud = 3.0;
Fvp
= 1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by

test data is approved by the Engineer;
As
=
bd
Ms
h
+ d , in.
Ns
2
(17-13)
where
1
1
Shear Strength
The area of reinforcement, A s, determined in Article

17.4.6.6.1 or 17.4.6.6.4 must be checked for shear strength
adequacy, so that the basic shear strength, V b, is greater
than the factored shear force, V uc, at the critical section
located where Mnu/Vud = 3.0.
0.74 + 0.1e/d;
jmax = 0.9;
= clear cover over reinforcement in inches

= wall thickness of pipe in inches;
Bl = 3 t bs l /2n
max = 0.02;
f c max = 7,000 psi;
if e/d <1.15 crack control will not govern.
17-17
Fd
= 0.8 +
17.4.6.6.6.2
1. 6
d
A vs =
max F d = 1.3 for pipe with two cages, or a single

elliptical cage
max F d = 1.4 for pipe through 36-inch diameter with
a single circular cage
Fc
(+)
(-)
= 1
d
2r
tension on the inside of the pipe

tension on the outside of the pipe
= 1+
1.1s v
[Vu Fc Vc ]
f vs vd
(17-15)
where:
Avs
= required area of stirrups for shear

reinforcement;
Vu
= factored shear force at section;

4Vb
M nu
=
+1
Vu d
Vc
Vc max = 2 vbd f c
For compressive thrust (+ N u):

FN
Shear Stirrups
Sv max = 0.75 vd
NU
2,000bh
fv max = fy or anchorage strength, whichever is less
where b = 12 in.
A conservative approximation of the total required +
stirrup area is:
+
Av = Avs + Avr
+
For tensile thrust (-Nu):

FN
= 1+
NU
500bh
17.4.6.6.6.3
where b = 12 in.
Mnu
17.4.6.6.6.3.1
= Mu - Nu
If Vb is less than V uc, radial stirrups must be provided.

See Article 17.4.6.6.6.
17.4.6.6.6
Radial Stirrups
17.4.6.6.6.1
A vr =
Radial Tension
Stirrups
1.1s v (M u 0.45N ur d )
f v rsr d
(17-14)
sv
fv
17-18
= required area of stirrup reinforcement for

radial tension;
= circumferential spacing of stirrups
(sv max = 0.75vd);
= maximum allowable strength of stirrup
material (fmax = fy, or anchorage strength
whichever is less).
Radial Tension
Stirrup Anchorage
When stirrups are used to resist radial tension, they

shall be anchored around each circumferential of the
inside cage to develop the design strength of the stirrup,
and they shall also be anchored around the outside cage,
or embedded sufficiently in the compression side to
develop the design strength of the stirrup.
17.4.6.6.6.3.2
where:
Avr
Stirrup Reinforcement
Anchorage
Shear Stirrup
Anchorage
When stirrups are not required for radial tension but

required for shear, their longitudinal spacing shall be
such that they are anchored around each or every other
tension circumferential. Such spacings shall not exceed
6 inches (150 mm).
17.4.6.6.6.3.3
Stirrup
Embeddment
Stirrups intended to resist forces in the invert and

crown regions shall be anchored sufficiently in the opposite side of the pipe wall to develop the design strength
of the stirrup.
17.4.6.6.6.3.4
Other
Provisions
Section 8.27, Development of Shear Reinforcement,

does not apply to pipe designed according to provisions
of Section 17.4.5.
17.4.7
Development of Quadrant Mat

Reinforcement
17.4.7.1
When the quadrant mat reinforcement
+ is used, the area of the continuous main cages shall be no
less than 25% of the area required at the point of maximum
moment.
17.4.7.2
In lieu of 17.4.7.1, a more detailed
analysis may be made.
The point of embeddment of the outermost

longitudinals of the mat shall be at least a distance
determined by the orientation angle past the point where
the continuing reinforcement is no less than the double
area required for flexure.
17.4.7.2.2 For quadrant mat reinforcement consisting of deformed bars, deformed wire, or welded wire
fabric (a) circumferentials shall extend past the point
where they are no longer required by the orientation angle
plus the greater of 12 wire diameters or of the wall
thickness of the pipe. (b) The circumferentials shall
extend on either side of the point of maximum flexural
stress not less than the orientation angle plus the development length Ld required by equation 17-17 and (c) they
shall extend at least a distance determined by the orientation angle past the point where the continuing reinforcement is no less than double the area required by
flexure.
Ld =
A wa f c
Ld = 0.015d b
For quadrant mat reinforcement consisting of welded smooth wire fabric, the outermost
longitudinals on each end of the circumferentials shall be
embedded: (a) past the point where the quadrant reinforcement is no longer required by the orientation angle
plus the greater of 12 circumferential wire diameters or
of the wall thickness of the pipe, and (b) past the point of
maximum flexural stress by the orientation angle plus the
development length, Ld.
L d = 0.27
A wr f y
s f c
(17-16)
+ but not less than :
17.5
17.5.1
The mat shall contain no less than 2 longitudinals at

a distance one inch greater than that determined by the
orientation angle from either side of the point requiring
the maximum flexural reinforcement.
+
fy
+
+
f c
REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH,

CAST-IN-PLACE
Application
This specification is intended for use in the design of

cast-in-place reinforced concrete arches with the arch
barrel monolithic with each footing. A separate reinforced concrete invert may be required where the structure is subject to scour.
17.5.2
L d = sl + 1
+
(17-17) +
but not less than:
17.4.7.2.1
0.03db f y A wr
Materials
17.5.2.1
Concrete
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2.
17.5.2.2
Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Article

8.3.
17-19
17.6.2
17.5.3
Materials
Design
17.6.2.1
17.5.3.1
Design shall conform to these specifications except as

provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads and
+ loading conditions, see Article 3.2 and Section 6. For
reinforced concrete design requirements see Section 8.
17.5.3.2
Minimum Cover
The minimum fill over reinforced concrete arches shall

+ be 2 feet or Span /8.

evaluation of f c may be based on test beams.
17.6.2.2
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
Strength-Reduction Factors
Strength reduction factors for load factor design of

cast-in-place arches may be taken as 0.90 for flexure and
0.85 for shear.
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement shall

conform to Article 8.22. The top slab shall be considered
a bridge slab for concrete cover considerations.
17.6.4
17.5.3.4
Design
Splices of Reinforcement
17.6.4.1
Reinforcement shall be in conformity with Article

+ 8.32. If lap splicing is used, laps shall be staggered with
a minimum of one foot measured along the circumference
of the arch. Ties shall be provided connecting the intrados
and extrados reinforcement. Ties shall be at 12-inch
maximum spacing, in both longitudinal and circumferential directions, except as modified by shear.
17.5.3.5
Footing Design
Design shall include consideration of differential

horizontal and vertical movements and footing rotations.
Footing design shall conform to Article 4.4.
17.6
17.6.1
Reinforcement

8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield strength of
65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the spacing of
longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of 8 inches.
17.6.3
17.5.3.3
Concrete
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX,

CAST-IN-PLACE
Application
The specification is intended for use in the design of

cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts.
Designs shall conform to applicable sections of these

specifications except as provided otherwise in this section. For design loads and loading conditions see Section
3. For distribution of concentrated loads through earth for
culverts with 2 feet or less of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case +
B, and for requirements for bottom distribution reinforcement in top slabs of such culverts see Article 3.24.10. For
distribution of wheel loads to culverts with more than 2 +
feet of cover see Article 6.5. For reinforced concrete +
design requirements see Section 8.
17.6.4.2
Deleted
17.6.4.3
Distribution of Concentrated
Load Effects to Bottom Slab
Concentrated wheel loads may be distributed over the +

full width of the bottom slab transversely and over 7' +
longitudinally.
+
17.6.4.4
Loads in Skewed Culverts
Wheel loads on skewed culverts shall be distributed

using the same provisions as given for culverts with main
reinforcement parallel to traffic.
17-20
17.6.4.5
Span Length
For span length see Article 8.8, except when monolithic haunches included at 45 degrees are considered in
the design, negative moment reinforcement in walls and
slabs may be proportioned based on the bending moment
+ where the depth of the haunch equals 1.5 times the
+ thickness of the member.
17.6.4.6
Strength Reduction Factors
Strength reduction factors for load factor design may

be taken as 0.9 for combined flexure and thrust and as 0.85
shear.
calculation purposes, the thickness of clear concrete

cover used to compute d c shall not be taken greater than
2 inches.
17.6.4.8
Minimum reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.17.1 at all cross sections subject to
flexural tension, including the inside face of walls. Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be provided near
the inside surfaces of walls and slabs in accordance with
Article 8.20.
17.7
17.6.4.7
Crack Control
The service load stress should be computed considering the effects of both bending moment and thrust using:
Ms + Ns d
2
fss =
(As jid )
(17-18)
where:
fss
= stress in reinforcement under service load

conditions, psi
e
= Ms/Ns+d-h/2
e/d min. = 1.15
i
= 1/(1-(jd/e))
j
= 0.74 + 0.1 (e/d) <= 0.9
The maximum allowable service load stress in the
reinforcing steel for crack control shall be:
fs =
155
3 d c A
0.6fy ksi
(17-19)
= 1 + c
0.7d
= approximate ratio of distance from the neutral
axis to the location of the crack width at the concrete
surface divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the
centroid of tensile reinforcing.
17.7.1
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX,

PRECAST
Application
This specification is intended for use in design of

precast reinforced concrete box sections. Boxes may be
manufactured using conventional structural concrete
and forms (formed) or with dry concrete and vibrating
form pipe making methods (machine-made). Standard
dimensions are shown in AASHTO Materials Specification M 259, and M 273.
17.7.2
Materials
17.7.2.1
Concrete

evaluation of f c may be based on cores.
17.7.2.2
Reinforcement

17.7.3
The minimum design concrete cover for reinforcement

in boxes reinforced with wire fabric shall be 1 inch.
+
dc = distance measured from the extreme tension

fiber to the center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For
17-21
17.7.4
Design
17.7.4.1
+
+
+
+
+
+

specifications except as provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads and loading conditions see Section
3. For distribution of wheel loads to culvert slabs with 2
feet or less of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B, and for
requirements for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of
such culverts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of
wheel loads to culvert slabs with more than 2 feet of cover,
see Article 6.4.
For reinforced concrete design requirements see Section 8. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted in
Article 17.7.4.5.
17.7.4.2
Deleted
17.7.4.3
Load Effects in Sides and
Bottoms
The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of

concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determination of bending moments, shears and thrusts in the sides
and bottom.
17.7.4.4

reinforcement parallel to traffic.
17.7.4.5
Span Length
When monolithic haunches inclined at 45 degrees are

taken into account, negative reinforcement in walls and
+ where the depth of the haunch equals 1.5 times the
+ thickness of the member.
17.7.4.6
Strength Reduction Factors
Strength reduction factors for load factor design of

machine-made boxes may be taken as 1.0 for moment and
0.9 for shear.
17-22
17.7.4.7
Crack Control
Ms + Ns d
2
fss =
(As jid )
(17-20)
where:
fss
= stress in reinforcement under service

load conditions, psi
= Ms/Ns+d-h/2
e/d min. = 1.15

i
= 1/(1-(jd/e))
= 0.74 + 0.1 (e/d) <= 0.9
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing

steel for crack control shall be:
fs =
17.7.4.8
98
3
dcA
ksi
(17-21)
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of

the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.002. Such minimum
reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sections
subject to flexural tension, at the inside face of walls, and
in each direction at the top of slabs of box sections with
less than 2 feet of fill. The provisions of Article 8.20 do
not apply to precast concrete box sections, except if units
of unusual length (over 16 ft.) are fabricated, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature should be as provided in Article 8.20.
17.7.4.9
Shear Transfer in Transverse +

Joints Between Culvert Sections +
For boxes with less than 2 feet of cover, the top slab +
joint shall either conform to the edge beam requirements +
of Article 3.24.8, or be capable of transferring a minimum +
shear load of 3,000 pounds per linear foot of top slab joint. +
+ If individual shear connectors are used, they shall be

+ spaced at no more than 2.5 feet on center with a minimum
+ of of 2 connectors per joint.
17.8
17.8.1
PRECAST REINFORCED
CONCRETE THREE-SIDED
STRUCTURES
Application
This specification is intended for use in design of

precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures supported on a concrete footing foundation. Units may be
manufactured using conventional structural concrete
and forms (formed) or machine made using low slump
concrete and vibrating forms.
17.8.2
Materials
17.8.2.1
Concrete

evaluation of f c may also be based on cores.
17.8.2.2
Reinforcement

Circumferential welded wire fabric spacing shall not
exceed a 4-inch maximum and a 2-inch minimum. Prestressing if used, shall be in accordance with Section 9.
17.8.3
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement in

precast three-sided structures reinforced with welded
+ wire fabric shall be 1 inch.
17.8.4
Geometric Properties
The shape of the precast three-sided structures may

vary in span, rise, wall thickness, haunch dimensions and
curvature. Specific geometric properties shall be specified by the manufacturer. Wall thicknesses, however,
shall be a minimum of 8 inches for spans under 24 feet and
10 inches for 24-foot spans and larger.
17.8.5
Design
17.8.5.1
Designs shall conform to applicable Sections of these

specifications except as provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads and loading conditions see Section
3. For distribution of wheel loads to culvert surfaces
under 2 feet and less of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B.
For requirements for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of
such culverts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of
wheel loads to culvert surfaces with more than 2 feet of
cover, see Article 6.5.
For reinforced concrete design requirements see Section 8 and for prestress concrete design requirements see
Section 9. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted
in Article 17.8.5.5. Design analysis shall be based on a
pinned (hinged) connection at the footing and take into
account footing movement, see Article 17.8.5.10.
17.8.5.2
Load Effects in Side
The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of

concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determination of bending moments, shears and thrusts in the
sides.
17.8.5.3

reinforcement parallel to traffic. For culvert elements
with skews greater than 15, the effect of the skew shall
be considered in analysis.
17.8.5.4
Shear Transfer in Transverse

Joints Between Culvert Section
Each precast three-sided structure is analyzed independently with no shear or stress transfer assumed between sections. As no shear transfer is assumed between
sections, distribution width for a wheel load must be
limited to the unit width. For structures with 2 feet and
less of cover, the top slab shall conform to the edge beam
requirements of Article 3.24.8 unless it is designed by a
finite element method in which case the moment applied
to the one foot edge section shall be 60% greater than that
17-23
+
+
+
+
+
+ calculated. Flat top structures with shallow cover may

experience differential deflection of adjacent units which
can cause pavement cracking if a shear key is not utilized.
17.8.5.5
Span Length
When monolothic haunches inclined at 45 degrees are

taken into account, negative reinforcement in walls and
where the depth of the haunch equals 1.5 times the
thickness of the member.
17.8.5.8
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of

the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.002. Such minimum
reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sections
subject to flexural tension, at the inside face of walls, and
in each direction at the top of slabs of three-sided sections
with 2 feet and less of fill. The provisions of Article 8.20
do not apply to precast three-sided structures.
17.8.5.9
17.8.5.6
Deflection Control
Strength Reduction Factor
These structures shall be designed by load factor

design and the maximum strength reduction factors shall
be 0.95 for combined flexure and thrust and 0.9 for shear.
See Section 8 and Section 9 for factors used for cast-inplace and prestressed components, respectively.
17.8.5.7
Crack Control
Live load deflection of the top section in three-sided

structures shall not exceed 1/800 0f the span, except for
sections in urban areas used in part by pedestrians, the
ratio shall not exceed 1/1000.
17.8.5.10 Footing Design

Design shall include consideration of differential
horizontal and vertical movements and footing rotations.
Footing design shall conform to Article 4.4.
17.8.5.11 Structure Backfill

h
Ms + Ns d
2
fss =
(As jid )
(17-22)
where:
fss
= stress in reinforcement under service load

conditions, psi
= Ms/Ns+d-h/2
Different backfill may be required depending on design assumptions. However, a minimum backfill compaction requirement of 90% relative compaction should be
achieved to prevent roadway settlement adjacent to the
structure. A higher backfill compaction density may be
required on structures utilizing a soil-structure interaction system.
17.8.5.12 Scour Protection

Consideration should be given to scour susceptibility.
Footing protection should be designed accordingly.
e/d min. = 1.15

i
= 1/(1-(jd/e))
= 0.74 + 0.1 (e/d) <= 0.9
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing

steel for crack control shall be:
fs =
17-24
98ksi
3
dcA
(17-23)
SECTION 18 - SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE INTERACTION

SYSTEMS
18.1
18.1.1
GENERAL
Scope
The specifications of this section are intended for the

structural design of plastic pipes. It must be recognized
that a buried plastic pipe is a composite structure made up
of the plastic ring and the soil envelope, and that both
materials play a vital part in the structural design of
plastic pipe.
18.1.4
Design
18.1.4.1
The thrust in the wall shall be checked

by two criteria. Each considers the mutual function of the
plastic wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The
criteria are:
(a)
(b)
Wall area
Buckling stress
18.1.4.2
18.1.2
The thrust in the wall is:
Notations
= area of pipe wall in square inches/foot (Article

18.3.1)
B = water buoyancy factor (Article 18.3.2)
c
= distance from inside surface to neutral axis
(Articles 18.3.2 and 18.4.2)
De = effective diameter = ID + 2c
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles
18.2.2 and 18.3.2)
FF = flexibility factor (Article 18.3.3)
fcr = critical buckling stress (Article 18.3.2)
fu = specified minimum tensile strength (Articles
18.3.1 and 18.3.2)
I
= average moment of inertia, per unit length, of
cross section of the pipe wall (Articles 18.3.2
and 18.3.3)
ID = inside diameter (Articles 18.3.2 and 18.4.2)
Ms = soil modulus (Article 18.3.2)
OD = outside diameter (Article 18.4.2)
P = design load (Article 18.1.4)
T
= thrust (Article 18.1.4)
TL = thrust, load factor (Article 18.3.1)
= capacity modification factor (Article 18.3.1)
T = P
18.1.3
Loads
Design load, P, shall be the pressure acting on the

structure. For earth pressures see Article 6.2. For live
load see Articles 3.4 to 3.7, 3.11, 3.12 and 6.3. For
loading combinations see Article 3.22.
D
2
(18-1)
where:
P = design load, in pounds per square foot;
D = diameter in feet;
T = thrust, in pounds per foot.
18.1.4.3
Handling and installation strength shall
be sufficient to withstand impact forces when shipping
and placing the pipe.
18.1.5
Materials
The materials shall conform to the AASHTO and ASTM

specifications referenced herein.
18.1.6
Soil Design
18.1.6.1
Soil Parameters
The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on

soil structure interaction and soil stiffness.
The following must be considered:
(a)
Soils:
(1) The type and anticipated behavior of the
foundation soil must be considered; i.e.,
stability for bedding and settlement under
load.
SECTION 18 PLASTIC CULVERTS
18-1
(2) The type, compacted density and strength

properties of the envelope immediately
adjacent to the pipe must be established.
Good side fill is obtained from a granular
material with little or no plasticity and free of
organic material, i.e., Caltrans structure
backfill compacted to a relative compaction of
not less than 95%.
(3) The density of the embankment material
above the pipe must be determined. A
minimum of 90% shall be specified.
(b) Dimensions of envelope
The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
the culvert envelope are as follows:
(1) Trench installations 2 feet minimum
each side of culvert. This recommended limit
should be modified as necessary to account
for variables such as poor in-situ soils.
(2) Embankment installations the minimum
width of the soil envelope shall be sufficient
to ensure lateral restraint for the buried
structure. The combined width of the soil
envelope and embankment beyond shall be
adequate to support all the loads on the pipe.
As a guide, the width of the soil envelope on
each side of the pipe should be 2.0 ft minimum.
(3) The minimum upper limit of the soil
envelope is 2 feet above the culvert.
18.1.7
Extra thickness may be required for resistance to abrasion.

For highly abrasive conditions, a special design may be
required.
18.1.8
End Treatment
Protection of end slopes may require special consideration

where backwater conditions may occur, or where erosion
and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends constitute a
18-2
18.1.10 Deleted
18.2
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
18.3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Load Factor Design is a method of design based on

ultimate strength principles.
18.3.1
Wall Area
A = T L / f u
where:
A = required area of pipe wall in square inches per
foot;
TL = thrust, load factor in pounds per foot;
fu = specified minimum tensile strength in pounds
per square inch;
18.3.2
Buckling
If fcr is less than fu, A must be recalculated using fcr in lieu

of fu. The formula for buckling is:
f cr = 9.24( R / A) BM s EI / 0.149R 3
Minimum Spacing
When multiple lines of pipes greater than 48 inches in

diameter are used, they shall be spaced so that the sides
of the pipe shall be no closer than one-half diameter or 3
feet, whichever is less, to permit adequate compaction of
backfill material. For diameters up to and including 48
inches, the minimum clear spacing shall not be less than
2 feet.
18.1.9
major run-off-the road hazard if not properly designed.

Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate grating
that conforms to the embankment slope, extension of
culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or provision of
guardrails, is among the alternatives to be considered.
End walls on skewed alignment require a special design.
where:
B = water buoyancy factor or
= 1-0.33hw /h;
hw = height of water surface above top of pipe;
h = height of ground surface above top of pipe;
E = Long term (50 year) modulus of elasticity of the
plastic in pounds per square inch;
Ms = soil modulus in pounds per square inch;
= 1,700 for side fills meeting Article 18.1.6;
fcr = critical buckling stress in pounds per square
inch;
R = effective radius in inches;
= c + ID/2;
A = actual area of pipe wall in square inches/foot.
18.3.3
Handling and Installation Strength
18.4.1.4
PE, FF = 9.5 x 10-2

PVC, FF = 9.5 x 10-2
Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor, FF,

determined by the formula:
FF =D2e/ EI
where:
FF = flexibility factor in inches per pound;
De = effective diameter in inches;
E = initial modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
in pounds per square inch;
I = average moment of inertia per unit length of
cross section of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th
power per inch.
18.4
18.4.1
PLASTIC PIPE
General
18.4.1.1
Plastic pipe may be smooth wall, corrugated or externally ribbed and may be manufactured of
polyethylene (PE) or poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC). The
material specifications are:
Polyethylene (PE)
Corrugated
Ribbed
ASTM 894 Polyethylene (PE)

Large Diameter Profile Wall
Sewer and Drain Pipe
Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC)
Profile Wall
(Ribbed)
Note: PE and PVC are thermoplastics and, therefore,

subject to reduction in stiffness as temperature is
increased.
18.4.1.5
AASHTO M 304 Poly (Vinyl

Chloride) (PVC) Ribbed Drain
Pipe and Fittings and Based on
Controlled Inside Diameter
18.4.1.2
Deleted
18.4.1.3
Load Factor Design Capacity

modification Factor, :
Minimum Cover
The minimum cover for design loads shall be 2 feet.
18.4.1.6
Maximum Strain
The allowable deflection of installed plastic pipe may

be limited by the extreme fiber tensile strain of the pipe
wall. Calculation of the tension strain in a pipe significantly deflected after installment can be checked against
the allowable long-term strain for the material in Article
18.4.3. Compression thrust is deducted from deflection
bending stress to obtain net tension action. The allowable
long-term strains shown in Article 18.4.3 should not be
reached in pipes designed and constructed in accordance
with this specification.
18.4.1.7
AASHTO M 294 Corrugated
Polyethylene Pipe, 12 to 36 in.
Diameter
Flexibility Factor:
Local Buckling
The manufacturers of corrugated and ribbed pipe

should demonstrate the adequacy of their pipes against
local buckling when designed and constructed in accordance with this specification.
18.4.2
Section Properties
The values given in the following tables are limiting

values and do not describe actual PE or PVC pipe products.
Section properties for specific PE or PVC pipe products
are available from individual pipe manufacturers and can
be compared against the following values for compliance.
PE, = 0.9
PVC, = 0.9
18-3
18.4.2.1
PE Corrugated Pipes (AASHTO

M 294)
Nominal
Size
(in.)
Min.
I.D.
(in.)
Max.
O.D.
(in.)
Min.
A
(in.2/ft.)
Min.
C
(in.)
Min.
I
(in.4/in.)
12
15
18
24
30
36
11.8
14.8
17.7
23.6
29.5
35.5
14.7
18.0
21.5
28.7
36.4
42.5
1.50
1.91
2.34
3.14
3.92
4.50
0.35
0.45
0.50
0.65
0.75
0.90
0.024
0.053
0.062
0.116
0.163
0.222
18.4.2.2
PE Ribbed Pipes (ASTM F 894)

Min. I
(in.4/in.)
Nominal Min. Max. Min. Min.

Cell
Cell
Size
I.D. O.D.
A
C
Class
Class
(in.)
(in.) (in.) (in.2/ft) (in.) 334433C 335434C
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
42
48
17.8
20.8
23.8
26.75
29.75
32.75
35.75
41.75
41.75
18.4.2.3
21.0
24.2
27.2
30.3
33.5
37.2
40.3
47.1
53.1
2.96
4.15
4.66
5.91
5.91
6.99
8.08
7.81
8.82
0.344
0.409
0.429
0.520
0.520
0.594
0.640
0.714
0.786
0.052
0.070
0.081
0.125
0.125
0.161
0.202
0.277
0.338
0.038
0.051
0.059
0.091
0.091
0.132
0.165
0.227
0.227
Profile Wall (Ribbed) PVC Pipes

(AASHTO M 304)
Min. I
(in.4/in.)
Nominal
Size
(in.)
12
15
18
21
24
30
36
42
48
18-4
Min. Max. Min. Min.

Cell
Cell
I.D. O.D.
A
C
Class
Class
(in.) (in.) (in.2/ft) (in.) 12454C 12364C
11.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
23.4
29.4
35.3
41.3
47.3
13.6
16.5
20.0
23.0
26.0
32.8
39.5
46.0
52.0
1.20
1.30
1.60
1.80
1.95
2.30
2.60
2.90
3.16
0.15
0.17
0.18
0.21
0.23
0.27
0.31
0.34
0.37
0.004
0.006
0.009
0.012
0.016
0.024
0.035
0.047
0.061
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.011
0.015
0.020
0.031
0.043
0.056
18.4.3

Requirements
The polyethylene (PE) and poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC)

materials described herein have stress/strain relationships
that are nonlinear and time dependent. Minimum 50-year
tensile strengths are derived from hydrostatic design
bases and indicate a minimum 50-year life expectancy
under continuous application of that tensile stress.
Minimum 50-year moduli do not indicate a softening of
the pipe material but is an expression of the time dependent
relation between stress and strain. For each short-term
increment of deflection, whenever it occurs, the response
will reflect the initial modulus. Both short-term and longterm properties are shown. Except for buckling for which
long-term properties are required, the judgement of the
Engineer shall determine which is appropriate for the
application. Initial and long-term relate to conditions of
loading, not age of the installation. Response to live loads
will reflect the initial modulus, regardless of the age of the
installation.
18.4.3.1
Polyethylene
18.4.3.1.1
Deleted
18.4.3.1.2
Corrugated PE pipe
requirements AASHTO M 294:

Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
3,000
110,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
900
22,000
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 335420C

Allowable long-term strain = 5%
18.4.3.1.3
Ribbed PE pipe requirements

ASTM F 894:

Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
3,000
80,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
1,125
20,000
Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
6,000
440,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
2,600
158,400

Allowable long-term strain = 3.5%

OR:
Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
3,000
110,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
1,440
22,000

18.4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC)

18.4.3.2.1
Deleted
18.4.3.2.2
Profile Wall (Ribbed) PVC pipe

requirements AASHTO M 304

Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
7,000
400,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Mod.
Strength
of Elast.
(psi)
(psi)
3,700
140,000

OR:
18-5

Bridge Design Specification (CALTRANS)

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Bridge Design Specification (CALTRANS)

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

CONTENTS - DIVISION I - DESIGN

DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL ..........................................................

BRIDGE LOCATION ................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-1

CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND .................................................................................

ROADWAY DRAINAGE .............................................................. April 2000 ................... 1-2

RAILROAD OVERPASSES ......................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-2

SUPERELEVATION .................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3

FLOOR SURFACES ..................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3

UTILITIES .................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 1-3

Section 2 - General Features of Design

GENERAL ..................................................................................... April 2000 ................... 2-1

STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES - GENERAL .............. April 2000

HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES .............................. April 2000 ................... 2-2

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES .................... April 2000

HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS ............................. April 2000 ................... 2-2

NOTATIONS ................................................................................. February 2004 ............ 3-1

GENERAL ..................................................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-2

DEAD LOAD ................................................................................ February 2004 ............ 3-3

LIVE LOAD .................................................................................. February 2004 ............ 3-3

OVERLOAD PROVISIONS ......................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-3

TRAFFIC LANES ......................................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-3

HIGHWAY LOADS ...................................................................... February 2004

LONGITUDINAL FORCES ......................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-9

CENTRIFUGAL FORCES ........................................................... February 2004 ............ 3-9

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY ......................................... February 2004 .......... 3-10

ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS ................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-10

SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING ...................... February 2004

THERMAL FORCES .................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13

UPLIFT ......................................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-13

FORCE FROM STREAM CURRENT, .....................................................................................

BUOYANCY .................................................................................. February 2004 .......... 3-14

EARTH PRESSURE ..................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-14

EARTHQUAKES ........................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-15

Part B - Combinations of Loads

COMBINATIONS OF LOADS .................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-15

Part C - Distribution of Loads

DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, ......................................................................

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams ........................... February 2004 ..........3-19

DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT ....................................................

MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS ................................. February 2004 ..........3-29

TIRE CONTACT AREA ................................................................ February 2004 ..........3-29

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Section 3 Commentary - Loads

Centrifugal Forces ................................................................... February 2004 .......... 3-30

GENERAL ..................................................................................... November 2003 ........... 4-1

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND .....................................................................................

Part B - Service Load Design Method Allowable Stress Design

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Settlement ........................................................................... November 2003 .........4-23

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Steel Piles ........................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-35

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Materials ............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-40

Part C - Strength Design Method Load Factor Design

SCOPE........................................................................................... November 2003 .........4-54

DEFINITIONS ............................................................................. November 2003 .........4-54

LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND ................................................................................

BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS SEPTEMBER 2004

Uplift ................................................................................... November 2003 ......... 4-57

Section 5 - Retaining Walls