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Chapter Objectives
1. Assess the causes of hydraulic transients in treatment systems.
3. Explain the reasons for system damage caused by transients.
4. Identify options for controlling or minimizing hydraulic transients.
Analyzing, designing, and troubleshooting steady-state hydraulic conditions in
treatment systems are described in previous chapters. The possible error from inaccurate calculations or predictions may be a deviation of the actual flow rate from the
design or expected flow rate. Although not being able to achieve the design flow rate
at steady state in a system is not acceptable from an operational viewpoint, the presence of hydraulic transients in a system can result in catastrophic failure. Avoiding
sudden failure of the system is an important topic for treatment system engineers.
Transients can arise from the following (Tullis 1989):
It is imperative that engineers have some insight into the transients that can
occur in fluid systems and have an understanding of how transients may be controlled. Engineers need knowledge of the causes for hydraulic transients and of
how to analyze for the presence and magnitude of certain transient events. The
effect of transients on the system must also be understood, as the consequences of
significant transients can be rupture and failure of system components. Viable
control options may be needed.
Transients may be in the form of flow transients with relatively low-pressure
spikes, resulting from unsteady flow, or of potentially damaging pressure waves.
229
230
Unsteady Flow
Unsteady flow in a system may arise from starting pumps, opening valves, etc. Consider a system of two storage tanks with different water levels connected by a pipe,
as shown in Fig. 11-1, where the flow is suddenly initiated. The flow rate in the pipe
is a function of time (time after the flow is initiated) and will increase from zero to
its maximum, steady-state value. First an equation describing the non-steady-state
behavior of the water in the pipe will be developed (see also Wylie and Streeter
1982; Tullis 1989).
To resolve the behavior of the system, we must perform a momentum balance.
The forces on the fluid in the pipe are depicted in Fig. 11-2.
The momentum balance derived in Chapter 4 was
v
v
v
v
V (V )
u
(V )
(V )
Vx
Vy
Vz
f
t
x
y
z
(4-27)
v
u
where is the fluid density, V is the fluid velocity, and f is the force per unit volv
v
v
ume. Because ( V )/x 0, ( V )/y 0, and ( V )/z 0, the momentum balance
equation becomes
u
dV
f
dt
(11-1)
dV
F
dt
v
(11-2)
v
u
Since f F /v, we have
h1
Q
h2
231
Q
F2
F1
Ffric
y
x
Figure 11-2. Forces on a fluid in a connecting pipe.
(11-3)
where m is mass.
We can resolve the forces in the x-direction. The force on left side of the fluid
in the pipe from the static fluid head h1 in the supply tank is
F1 P1 A g h1 A
(11-4)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The force on right side of the fluid
in the pipe from static fluid head h2 in the discharge tank is
F2 P2 A g h2 A
(11-5)
The force on the fluid from friction, Ffric, is the pressure drop across the pipe
multiplied by the pipe cross-sectional area:
L V2
Ffric P A 4 f A
D 2
(11-6)
where L and D are the length and diameter of the pipe respectively. Since V
Q/A, Eq. 11-6 can be modified to
L Q2
Ffric 4 f
D 2 A
(11-7)
232
Substituting the equations that quantify each force on the fluid, Eqs. 11-4, 11-5,
and 11-7, into Eq. 11-3 that was obtained from a momentum balance gives
( L A)
dV
L Q2
( g h1 A) ( g h2 A) 4 f
dt
D 2 A
(11-8)
(11-9)
Separating variables:
dQ
4 f Q2
gA
( h1 h2 )
L
D 2A
dt
(11-10)
Integrating:
dQ
dt
(11-11)
2 fL
tanh1
Q
2
gDA ( h1 h2 )
8 fLgDA ( h1 h2 )
2
t
C
2 ADL
(11-12)
Rearranging:
2 fg( h1 h2 )
2 fL
tanh1
Q
t C
gDA2 ( h1 h2 )
DL
(11-13)
Solving for Q:
Q
tanh 2 fg( h1 h2 )
t C
DL
2 fL
2
gDA ( h1 h2 )
(11-14)
233
At t 0, Q 0, so C must be equal to 0.
Q
tanh 2 fg( h1 h2 )
DL
(11-15)
2 fL
2
gDA ( h1 h2 )
This equation may be solved for specific conditions in the system (h1, h2, f, pipe
diameter, and pipe length) to describe Q as a function of t. The friction factor is
assumed to remain constant.
Example
How long does it take for the system depicted in Fig. 11-1 to reach 99% of steadystate flow rate, when h1 70 m, h2 3 m, f 0.0015, the pipe diameter is 0.3 m,
and the pipe length is 700 m?
Solution
Using Eq. 11-15, we find that the flow rate is constant after approximately 60 s.
The steady state value is 0.685 m3/s (above 60 s).
By trial and error, evaluating Q as a function of time, it is found that it takes
27.2 s to reach 99% of the steady-state Q, which is 0.678 m3/s. Substituting values
into Eq. 11-15:
Q
27.2s
0.3 m 700 m
2 0.0015 700 m
0.678
m3
s
9.81
m
0.3 m (0.3 m)2 (70 m 3 m)
2
4
s
So it takes about 27 s to reach steady state in this system. By the same analysis,
a 2,000-m-long pipe with an order of magnitude lower friction factor takes approximately 133 s to reach steady statea significant increase in time. Any change in
the system that will upset steady state, such as changing control valve settings or
turning a pump on, should be allowed this amount of time as a rough approximation for the flow to reach steady state again.
234
Figure 11-3. Transient response with increasing pipe length. The parameters used are f 0.0015, h 200 ft (61 m), and pipe diameter 12 in.
(30 cm).
Trends with increasing pipe length, head difference, pipe diameter, and friction factor are shown in Figs. 11-3 through 11-6.
Pressure Waves
Consider a horizontal pipe with frictionless flow from a tank to a valve as shown in
Fig. 11-7. If the valve is instantaneously adjusted to the partially closed position,
Figure 11-4. Transient response with increasing static height (head) difference. The parameters used are f 0.0015, L 1,000 ft (300 m), and pipe
diameter 12 in. (30 cm).
Figure 11-5. Transient response with increasing pipe diameter. The parameters used are f 0.0015, L 1,000 ft (300 m), and h 100 ft (30 m).
Figure 11-6. Transient response with increasing friction factor. The parameters used are pipe diameter 12 in. (30 cm), L 1,000 ft (300 m), and
h 100 ft (30 m).
235
236
hstat
V0
Figure 11-7. System composed of a horizontal tank, pipe, and control valve.
So, on instantaneous valve closure, the pressure wave is as shown in Fig. 11-8. A
control volume is drawn around the pressure wave in the pipe. See Fig. 11-9.
The word equation for momentum balance (derived in Chapter 4) is
sum of forces on
(rate of change of momentum through fluid boundaries
momentum in system) system boundaries
(4-29)
The first term for the rate of change of momentum in the control volume is
V
[A( a V0 ) t ]
(11-16)
where V0 is the initial velocity and V is the change in velocity in the control volume. The term in the first set of brackets is the mass of fluid affected, and the term
in the second set of brackets is the velocity change over the time interval, t. Equation 11-16 can be simplified to
A(a V0) V
(11-17)
The net momentum flux (into and out of the control volume) is
A(V0 V) 2 A V02
pressure wave
a
hstat
V0
Figure 11-8. System composed of a horizontal tank, pipe, and control valve
when the valve is closed. Source: Adapted from Tullis (1989).
(11-18)
237
pressure wave
ghA
AV02
V0
V0+V
A(V0+V)2
Figure 11-9. Control volume around a pressure wave showing the forces
on the control volume. Source: Adapted from Wylie and Streeter (1982) and
Tullis (1989).
(11-19)
A[2V0 V V 2]
(11-20)
which simplifies to
(11-21)
(11-22)
Substituting Eq. 11-17 for the rate of change of momentum, Eq. 11-21 for the
net momentum flux, and Eq. 11-22 for the net force into the momentum balance
gives
g hA 2AV0 V A(a V0) V
(11-23)
aV
g
V0
1 a
(11-24)
aV
g
(11-25)
238
Because the pressure waves can be superimposed, the increased head (pressure)
from multiple pressure waves can be quantified with
h
aV
(11-26)
Note that this derivation follows that by Tullis (1989), where more details may
be found.
Example
A pipe is carrying 10 C water at 4.5 m/s. The flow is immediately throttled to 2 m/s.
If the pressure wave speed is 1,000 m/s, what is the pressure increase in pascals?
Solution
The change in pressure head is
h
aV
g
1, 000
m
m
2 4.5
s
s
m
9.8 2
s
255 m
kg
m s2
kg
m3
9.8
m
255 m
s2
2.5 106 Pa
239
The total mass entering the pipe between t 0 and t L/a (the time for the
pressure wave to travel the length L of the pipe) is
AV0 t
(11-27)
L
a
(11-28)
Because the pipe expands, there is an increase in the mass of liquid stored in
the pipe. The increase is quantified with
L A
(11-29)
There is also an increase in the mass of liquid stored in the pipe owing to fluid
compression:
LA
(11-30)
L
LA LA
a
(11-31)
g h
A
A
(11-32)
(11-33)
(11-34)
From solid mechanics, the change in pipe radius with pressure change is
change in r 2 P
radius
xwall E
(11-35)
240
where r is the pipe radius, xwall is the thickness of the pipe wall, and E is Youngs
modulus of elasticity. So Eq. 11-34 becomes
d 2 P
A ( d)
4 xwall E
(11-36)
(11-37)
a
K d
1
xwall E
(11-38)
It has been found that the pipe anchors affect how, and to what extent, the
pipe responds to pressure waves. So the pressure wave speed is affected as well.
This is accounted for by adding an anchor coefficient C in Eq. 11-38 (Tullis 1989)
as follows:
a
K
K d
1 C
xwall E
(11-39)
Anchor coefficients are listed in Table 11-1 and piping material properties are
listed in Table 11-2.
Therefore pressure wave speed, as well as the ultimate maximum head and
pressure to which piping components are subjected, is a function of the bulk liquid
Table 11-1. Anchor coefficients for calculating the pressure wave speed in a pipe.
Source: Tullis (1989).
Anchor configuration
Anchors with expansion joints
Anchor on upstream end of pipe
Anchors preventing any movement along the axis of the pipe
a
Anchor coefficient, C
1
10.5 a
12
241
E [GPa] (psi)
Poissons ratio,
197
(28.5 106)
203
(29.5 106)
190
(27.6 106)
93.0145
[(13.521.0) 106]
108
(15.6 106)
172
(25.0 106)
214
(31.0 106)
103110
[(1516) 106]
0.902.9
[(1.34.2) 105]
2.44.1
[(3.56.0) 105]
2.3-3.2
[(3.44.7) 105]
2134
[(35) 106]
0.265
0.287
0.305
0.2110.299
0.355
0.315
0.2700.380
0.34
0.45
0.30
Source: Data are from Avallone and Baumeister (1996), except Poisson ratios for PVC and
concrete, which are from Tullis (1989).
modulus, the liquid density, Youngs modulus of elasticity of the pipe material, the
diameter and wall thickness of the pipe, and the anchor coefficients.
Example
Calculate the wave speed of 45 F water flowing at 10 ft/s in 6-in.-diameter cast
iron pipe that is anchored along the axis of the pipe. The wall thickness of the
pipe is 0.280 in. Assume the bulk modulus of water is 3.2 105 psi.
Solution
The water density at 45 F is 62.421 lbm/ft3. The average modulus of elasticity of
cast iron pipe in the range listed in Table 11-2 is 17.2 106 psi, which is as good
242
an estimate as available. Because the pipe is anchored along the axis, the anchor
coefficient is calculated with
C 1 2
Again, taking Poissons ratio to be the average of the range of values listed in
Table 11-2, or 0.255, we have
C 1 0.2552 0.935
Calculating the pressure wave speed with Eq. 11-39 gives
lbf
in.2
lbm
62.421 3
ft
3.2 105
a
K
K d
1 C
xwall E
144 in.2
ft lbm
32.2
2
lbf s2
1 ft
6
(0.280 in.) 17.2 10 psi
h
P g h 62.42
1 lbf s2
lbm
1 ft 2
2
32
.
17
ft/s
1
,
293
ft
32.2 ft lbm 144 in.2
ft 3
So slamming a valve shut with a fluid velocity of this magnitude (10 ft/s) produces a 561 psi pressure spike. If the system components cannot take this pressure,
catastrophic rupture may take place.
243
Now consider this scenario taking place in a concrete pipe. The pressure wave
speed would be
a
62.421 lbm/ft 3 1 ft 2
ft lbm
32.2
lbf s2
6
(0.280 in.) 4 10 psi
h
which is equivalent to a pressure spike of 410 psid (or 2.8 kPa). If the identical
conditions (valve slamming shut with water flowing at 10 ft/s) occur in a rubber
pipe, assuming E 0.01 106 psi (Wylie and Streeter 1982) and 0.5, we
would get
a
h
ft lbm
3.2 105 lbf/in.2 144 in.2
32.2
3
2
lbf s2
62.421 lbm/ft
1 ft
6
(0.280 in.) 0.01 10 psi
This would give a pressure spike of 29 psid (or 200 kPa), which is significantly
lower than the pressure spikes for more rigid materials.
244
by Eq. 11-25. The time for a given velocity change in a system can be lengthened, thereby softening the pressure wave. This can be done by providing for
longer valve closure times so that an instantaneous change in velocity does not
occur. Pumps can also be controlled so that the difference in system velocity arising from a pump starting up or stopping happens over a period of time, not all
at once.
The pressure arising from pressure wave transients can be controlled through
the use of pressure relief valves; these will prevent rupture of the components
in the system (if the relief valve is properly applied). The presence of air in the
system, which is much more compressible than liquids, will help mitigate the
effects of a pressure wave. Either air can be injected into the liquid or an air
chamber with or without a bladder separating the liquid from the air may be
employed. The pressure in the system is reduced by the air, as energy can be dissipated in compression of the air, reducing the pressure wave speed. Also, as
illustrated in the example with the rubber pipe, a more flexible component in the
system can reduce the pressure wave velocity, and thereby the pressure spike for
a given instantaneous velocity change. So either flexible rubber hoses can be
installed in the system or piping material with lower Youngs modulus of elasticity can be used.
Non-steady-state surges can be mitigated with surge tanks or stand pipes. A
large stand pipe to control surge is shown in Fig. 11-10.
Figure 11-10. A stand pipe used to control surge in a piping system from a
reservoir.
Symbol List
a
A
C
D
E
f
F
g
h
K
L
m
P
Q
t
V
v
Problems
1. A valve in a treatment system is opened from partially throttled to full, increasing the water velocity from 1.5 to 5 m/s. The water is at 15 C. What is
the magnitude of the pressure spike in pascals if a 1,200 m/s?
2. Water is standing still in an 8-in.-diameter 400-ft-long pipe until a valve is
opened. The flow rate in the pipe starts from zero and approaches steady state
with a constant h 50 ft across the pipe. If there is no friction, what is the
flow rate in gallons per minute in the pipe after 20 s?
3. What is the pressure spike in pascals resulting from an instantaneous valve
closing with a water flow of 3 m/s in a 15-cm-diameter pipe? The water is at
8 C. The pipe is CPVC and is anchored at the upstream end. The wall thickness of the pipe is 0.711 cm. Assume that 0.45 and that the bulk modulus of water is 2.2 109 Pa. How does the pressure spike compare to those in
the examples in this chapter.
4. A 4-in.-diameter pipe is to be used to transfer 60 F water at 12 ft/s. It is anticipated that the flow will be intermittent with a control valve providing instant
closure at times. The pipe wall will be 0.237 in. thick, but the material must
be chosen to keep the pressure spike below 250 psi to avoid rupture of components in the system. The pipe will be anchored along its axis. Will the use
of steel pipe keep the pressure spike below the allowable pressure? What pipe
materials are acceptable?
245
246
References
Avallone, E. A., and Baumeister, T., III, eds. (1996). Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Griffin, Robert, personal communication, December 9, 2007.
Tullis, J. P. (1989). Hydraulics of Pipelines, Wiley, New York.
Wylie, E. B., and Streeter, V. L. (1982). Fluid Transients, FEB Press, Ann Arbor, MI.