Radio Afición (Vol. 1)

Amateur Radio (Vol.
1)
Facets of a Hobby for Life
Contents
1
Introduction
1.1
Amateur radio license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Activities and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Modes of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.1.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
DXing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.1
Types of DXing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.2
DX Clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.3
QSL cards
11
1.2.4
SINPO report
1.2.5
DX Communication
1.2.6
DXing equipment
1.2
1.3
1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Field Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3.1
International Field Day Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3.2
IARU Region 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3.3
IARU Region 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.4
IARU Region 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.5
Emergency preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.6
Contest Activity and Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.7
Promotion of amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.3.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Radiosport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4.1
Amateur radio contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4.2
Amateur radio direction nding
15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
ii
CONTENTS
1.5
High Speed Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.4.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.4.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Amateur radio emergency communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.5.1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.5.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Amateur Radio in More Detail
19
2.1
Amateur radio operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.1.1
Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.1.2
Silent Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.1.3
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Amateur radio license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.2
Activities and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.3
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.2.4
26
2.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
Amateur radio station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.1
Types of stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.3.2
Computer-control software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.3
Station identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.4
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.6
General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
QSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.4.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Amateur radio operating award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.5.1
Special event stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.5.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.5.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
1.4.3
Technics Involved
35
3.1
Call sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.1.1
35
Ships and boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
iii
3.1.2
Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.1.3
Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.1.4
Amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.1.5
Broadcast call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.1.6
Military call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.1.7
Transmitters requiring no call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Transceiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.1
Radio technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.2
RF Transceiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.3
Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.4
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.7
External articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.1
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.3
Reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.4
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.5
Basic antenna models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.3.6
Antenna design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.3.7
Eect of ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.3.8
Mutual impedance and interaction between antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.3.9
Antenna gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.3.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Radio propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.4.1
Free space propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.4.2
Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.4.3
Measuring HF propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.4.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.4.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
RST code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
iv
CONTENTS
3.5.1
Readability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.2
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.3
Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.4
Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
Specialist Groups
73
4.1
Amateur radio homebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.2
Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.3
QRP homebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.4
Homebrewing with vacuum tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
Vintage amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.1
Appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.2
AM activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.2.3
Classic gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.2.4
Clubs, events, and publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.2.5
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
Amateur television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.3.1
North American context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.3.2
European context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.3.3
Transmission characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.3.4
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
QRP operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.4.1
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.4.2
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.4.3
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.4
Contests and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.2
4.3
4.4
CONTENTS
4.5
Contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
4.5.1
Contesting basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.5.2
Types of contests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
4.5.3
History of contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4.5.4
Contesting activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.5.5
Station locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.5.6
Typical contest exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.5.7
Logs and log checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4.5.8
Results and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4.5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Means of Communication
92
5.1
List of amateur radio modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.1.1
92
5.1.2
Activities known as modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
5.1.3
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
Common Means of Communication
94
6.1
Morse code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.1.1
Development and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.1.2
User prociency
96
6.1.3
International Morse Code
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
6.1.4
Representation, timing and speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
6.1.5
Link budget issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1.6
Learning methods
6.1.7
Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns and non-English variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1.8
Decoding Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2
6.3
PSK31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.2
Use and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.3
Resistance to interference
6.2.4
Technical information
6.2.5
Spectrum eciency compared to other modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.6
Common frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.2.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
D-STAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
vi
CONTENTS
6.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3.2
Technical details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.3.3
D-RATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.4
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.5
Non-Icom D-STAR Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.6
Compatible programs and projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.7
Home-brew D-STAR radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.8
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.3.11 Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7
Fancy Means of Communication

7.1
7.2
7.3
115
Meteor burst communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7.1.1
How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.3
Military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.1.4
Scientic use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.1.5
Amateur radio use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.1.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
OSCAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.1
Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.2
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2.3
Launches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2.4
Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
EME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.2
EME communications technical details
7.3.3
Echo delay and time spread
7.3.4
Current EME communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.5
Modulation types and frequencies optimal for EME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.6
Other factors inuencing EME communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Organizations and Magazines
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
124
CONTENTS
8.1
vii
American Radio Relay League . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

8.1.1
Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.1.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.3
Regulatory advocacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.1.4
Services
8.1.5
Controversy
8.1.6
Elser-Mathes Cup
8.1.7
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

8.1.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.2
Federal Communications Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

8.2.1
Mission and strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.2.2
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.2.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.4
Broadcast licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2.5
Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2.6
Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2.7
Public consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.2.8
Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.2.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

8.2.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3
8.4
QST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.2
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
WorldRadio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.1
Sale to CQ Communications, Inc.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
144
9.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Amateur radio license
data communications modes and have access to frequency

allocations throughout the RF spectrum to enable communication across a city, region, country, continent, the
world, or even into space.
Ham radio redirects here. For other uses, see Ham radio (disambiguation).
Amateur radio (also called ham radio) is the use of Amateur radio is ocially represented and coordinated
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU),
which is organized in three regions and has as its members the national amateur radio societies which exist in
most countries. According to an estimate made in 2011
by the American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved with amateur radio.[1] About 830,000 amateur radio stations are
located in IARU Region 2 (the Americas) followed by
IARU Region 3 (South and East Asia and the Pacic
Ocean) with about 750,000 stations. A signicantly
smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1 (Europe, Middle East, CIS, Africa).
1.1.1 History
An example of an amateur radio station with four transceivers,
ampliers, and a computer for logging and for digital modes.
On the wall are examples of various awards, certicates, and a
reception report card (QSL card) from a foreign amateur station.
Main article: History of amateur radio

The origins of amateur radio can be traced to the late
designated radio frequency spectra for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages,
wireless experimentation, self-training, and emergency
communication. The term amateur is used to specify
persons interested in radio technique solely with a personal aim and without direct monetary or other similar
reward, and to dierentiate it from commercial broadcasting, public safety (such as police and re), or professional two-way radio services (such as maritime, aviation,
taxis, etc.).
The amateur radio service (amateur service and amateur satellite service) is established by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) through the International Telecommunication Regulations. National governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue individual stations licenses
with an identifying call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested for their understanding of key concepts in
electronics and the host governments radio regulations.
Radio amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and
An amateur radio station in the United Kingdom. Multiple

transceivers are employed for dierent bands and modes. Computers are used for control, datamodes, SDR and logging.
19th century, but amateur radio as practiced today began

in the early 20th century. The First Annual Ocial Wireless Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America,
produced in 1909, contains the rst listing of amateur radio stations.[2] This rst radio callbook lists wireless tele1
2
graph stations in Canada and the United States, including 89 amateur radio stations. As with radio in general,
the birth of amateur radio was strongly associated with
various amateur experimenters and hobbyists. Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have signicantly contributed to science, engineering, industry, and
social services. Research by amateur radio operators has
founded new industries,[3] built economies,[4] empowered
nations,[5] and saved lives in times of emergency.[6][7]
Ham radio can also be used in the classroom to teach English, map skills, geography, math, science and computer
skills.[8]
Ham radio
Main article: Etymology of ham radio
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
who speak dierent languages. It is also popular with
homebrewers and in particular with QRP or very-lowpower enthusiasts, as CW-only transmitters are simpler
to construct, and the human ear-brain signal processing system can pull weak CW signals out of the noise
where voice signals would be totally inaudible. A similar legacy mode popular with home constructors is
amplitude modulation (AM), pursued by many vintage
amateur radio enthusiasts and acionados of vacuum tube
technology.
Demonstrating a prociency in Morse code was for many
years a requirement to obtain an amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes
in international regulations in 2003, countries are no
longer required to demand prociency.[10] The United
States Federal Communications Commission, for example, phased out this requirement for all license classes on
February 23, 2007.[11][12]
The term ham radio was rst a pejorative that mocked

Modern personal computers have encouraged the use of
amateur radio operators with a 19th-century term for bedigital modes such as radioteletype (RTTY) which preing bad at something, like ham-sted or ham actor. It
viously required cumbersome mechanical equipment.[13]
had already been used for bad wired telegraph operators.
Hams led the development of packet radio in the
Subsequently, the community adopted it as a welcome 1970s, which has employed protocols such as AX.25 and
moniker, much like the "Know-Nothing Party", or other TCP/IP. Specialized digital modes such as PSK31 allow
groups and movements throughout history. Other, more real-time, low-power communications on the shortwave
entertaining explanations have grown up throughout the bands. Echolink using Voice over IP technology has enyears, but they are apocryphal.
abled amateurs to communicate through local Internetconnected repeaters and radio nodes,[14] while IRLP has
allowed the linking of repeaters to provide greater cov1.1.2 Activities and practices
erage area. Automatic link establishment (ALE) has enabled continuous amateur radio networks to operate on
The many facets of amateur radio attract practitioners the high frequency bands with global coverage. Other
with a wide range of interests. Many amateurs begin with modes, such as FSK441 using software such as WSJT,
a fascination of radio communication and then combine are used for weak signal modes including meteor scatter
other personal interests to make pursuit of the hobby re- and moonbounce communications.
warding. Some of the focal areas amateurs pursue inFast scan amateur television has gained popularity as hobclude radio contesting, radio propagation study, public
byists adapt inexpensive consumer video electronics like
service communication, technical experimentation, and
camcorders and video cards in PCs. Because of the wide
computer networking.
bandwidth and stable signals required, amateur television
Amateur radio operators use various modes of transmis- is typically found in the 70 cm (420 MHz450 MHz) fresion to communicate. The two most common modes for quency range, though there is also limited use on 33 cm
voice transmissions are frequency modulation (FM) and (902 MHz928 MHz), 23 cm (1240 MHz1300 MHz)
single sideband (SSB). FM oers high quality audio sig- and higher. These requirements also eectively limit the
nals, while SSB is better at long distance communication signal range to between 20 and 60 miles (30 km100 km).
when bandwidth is restricted.[9]
Linked repeater systems, however, can allow transmisRadiotelegraphy using Morse code, also known as CW sions of VHF and higher frequencies across hundreds
from "continuous wave", is the wireless extension of land of miles.[15] Repeaters are usually located on heights of
line (wired) telegraphy developed by Samuel Morse and land or tall structures and allow operators to communidates to the earliest days of radio. Although computer- cate over hundreds of miles using hand-held or mobile
based (digital) modes and methods have largely replaced transceivers. Repeaters can also be linked together by usCW for commercial and military applications, many am- ing other amateur radio bands, landline, or the Internet.
ateur radio operators still enjoy using the CW mode
Amateur radio satellites can be accessed, some using a
particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental
hand-held transceiver (HT), even, at times, using the facwork, such as earth-moon-earth communication, because
tory rubber duck antenna.[16] Hams also use the moon,
of its inherent signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse,
the aurora borealis, and the ionized trails of meteors
using internationally agreed message encodings such as
as reectors of radio waves.[17] Hams can also conthe Q code, enables communication between amateurs
1.1. AMATEUR RADIO LICENSE
NASA astronaut Col. Doug Wheelock, KF5BOC, Expedition 24

ight engineer, operates the NA1SS ham radio station in the
Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station. Equipment is a Kenwood TM-D700E transceiver.
tact the International Space Station (ISS) because many

astronauts and cosmonauts are licensed as amateur radio
operators.[18][19]
Amateur radio operators use their amateur radio station
to make contacts with individual hams as well as participating in round table discussion groups or rag chew sessions on the air. Some join in regularly scheduled on- A handheld VHF/UHF transceiver
air meetings with other amateur radio operators, called
"nets" (as in networks), which are moderated by a station referred to as Net Control.[20] Nets can allow opering of key concepts, usually by passing an exam; howators to learn procedures for emergencies, be an informal
ever some authorities also recognize certain educational
round table, or cover specic interests shared by a group.
or professional qualications (such as a degree in elecAmateur radio operators, using battery- or generator- trical engineering) in lieu.[21] In response, hams receive
powered equipment, often provide essential communica- operating privileges in larger segments of the radio fretions services when regular channels are unavailable due quency spectrum using a wide variety of communicato natural disaster or other disruptive events.
tion techniques with higher power levels permitted compared to unlicensed personal radio services such as CB radio, Family Radio Service or PMR446 that require type1.1.3 Licensing
approved equipment restricted in frequency, range, and
power.
Amateur licensing is a routine civil administrative matter in many countries. Amateurs therein must pass an
examination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operating competence and awareness of legal and regulatory requirements in order to avoid interference with other amateurs and other radio services. A series of exams are often
available, each progressively more challenging and granting more privileges: greater frequency availability, higher
power output, permitted experimentation, and in some
countries, distinctive call signs. Some countries, such as
the United Kingdom and Australia, have begun requiring
a practical training course in addition to the written exams in order to obtain a beginners license, which they
call a Foundation License.
Amateur radio licensing in the United States exemplies the way in which some countries award dierent levels of amateur radio licenses based on technical knowlAll countries that license citizens to use amateur radio edge: three sequential levels of licensing exams (Technirequire operators to display knowledge and understand- cian Class, General Class and Amateur Extra Class) are
The top of a tower supporting a Yagi-Uda antenna and several
wire antennas
currently oered, which allow operators who pass them bers of amateur radio licensees, such as Japan, the United
access to larger portions of the Amateur Radio spectrum States, Canada, and most of the countries in Europe, there
and more desirable (shorter) call signs.
are frequent license examinations opportunities in major
In some countries, an amateur radio license is nec- cities.
essary in order to purchase or possess amateur radio
equipment.[22] An amateur radio license is only valid in
the country in which it is issued or in another country
that has a reciprocal licensing agreement with the issuing
country.
Both the requirements for and privileges granted to a licensee vary from country to country, but generally follow
the international regulations and standards established
by the International Telecommunication Union[23] and
World Radio Conferences.
Granting a separate license to a club or organization generally requires that an individual with a current and valid
amateur radio license who is in good standing with the
telecommunications authority assumes responsibility for
any operations conducted under the club license or club
call sign. A few countries may issue special licenses to
novices or beginners that do not assign the individual a
call sign but instead require the newly licensed individual
to operate from stations licensed to a club or organization
for a period of time before a higher class of license can
be acquired.
In most countries, an individual will be assigned a call

sign with their license. In some countries, a separate station license is required for any station used by an ama- Reciprocal licensing
teur radio operator. Amateur radio licenses may also be
granted to organizations or clubs. Some countries only al- Further information: Amateur radio international operalow ham radio operators to operate club stations. Others, tion
such as Syria and Cuba restrict all operation by foreign- A reciprocal licensing agreement between two countries
ers to club stations only. Radio transmission permits are
closely controlled by nations governments because clandestine uses of radio can be made, and, because radio
waves propagate beyond national boundaries, radio is an
international matter.
Licensing requirements
Prospective amateur radio operators are examined on
understanding of the key concepts of electronics, radio
equipment, antennas, radio propagation, RF safety, and
the radio regulations of the government granting the license. These examinations are sets of questions typically
posed in either a short answer or multiple-choice format.
Examinations can be administered by bureaucrats, nonpaid certied examiners, or previously licensed amateur
radio operators.
The ease with which an individual can acquire an amateur radio license varies from country to country. In
some countries, examinations may be oered only once
or twice a year in the national capital and can be inordinately bureaucratic (for example in India) or challenging
because some amateurs must undergo dicult security
approval (as in Iran). A handful of countries, currently
only Yemen and North Korea, simply do not issue amateur radio licenses to their citizens, although in both cases
a limited number of foreign visitors have been permitted
to obtain amateur licenses in the past decade. Some developing countries, especially those in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America, require the payment of annual license fees
that can be prohibitively expensive for most of their citizens. A few small countries may not have a national licensing process and may instead require prospective amateur radio operators to take the licensing examinations
of a foreign country. In countries with the largest num-
Reciprocal Agreements by Country

CEPT Member Nations
IARP Member Nations
Members of CEPT and IARP
USA and Canada Treaty, CEPT and IARP
allows bearers of an amateur radio license in one country

under certain conditions to legally operate an amateur radio station in the other country without having to obtain
an amateur radio license from the country being visited,
or the bearer of a valid license in one country can receive a separate license and a call sign in another country,
both of which have a mutually-agreed reciprocal licensing
approvals. Reciprocal licensing requirements vary from
country to country. Some countries have bilateral or multilateral reciprocal operating agreements allowing hams
to operate within their borders with a single set of requirements. Some countries lack reciprocal licensing systems.
When traveling abroad, visiting amateur operators must
follow the rules of the country in which they wish to operate. Some countries have reciprocal international operating agreements allowing hams from other countries to
operate within their borders with just their home country
license. Other host countries require that the visiting ham

apply for a formal permit, or even a new host countryissued license, in advance.
The reciprocal recognition of licenses frequently not only
depends on the involved licensing authorities, but also on
the nationality of the bearer. As an example, in the US,
foreign licenses are only recognized if the bearer does not
have US citizenship and holds no US license (which may
dier in terms of operating privileges and restrictions).
Conversely, a US citizen may operate under reciprocal
agreements in Canada, but not a non-US citizen holding
a US license.
Newcomers
Many people start their involvement in amateur radio by
nding a local club. Clubs often provide information
about licensing, local operating practices, and technical
advice. Newcomers also often study independently by
purchasing books or other materials, sometimes with the
help of a mentor, teacher, or friend. Established amateurs
who help newcomers are often referred to as Elmers,
as coined by Rodney Newkirk, W9BRD,[24] within the
ham community.[25][26] In addition, many countries have
national amateur radio societies which encourage newcomers and work with government communications regulation authorities for the benet of all radio amateurs.
The oldest of these societies is the Wireless Institute of
Australia, formed in 1910; other notable societies are
the Radio Society of Great Britain, the American Radio
Relay League, Radio Amateurs of Canada, Bangladesh
NGOs Network for Radio and Communication, the New
Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters and South
African Radio League. (See Category:Amateur radio organizations)
Call signs
Further information: Amateur radio call signs
An amateur radio operator uses a call sign on the air to
legally identify the operator or station.[27] In some countries, the call sign assigned to the station must always be
used, whereas in other countries, the call sign of either the
operator or the station may be used.[28] In certain jurisdictions, an operator may also select a vanity call sign
although these must also conform to the issuing governments allocation and structure used for Amateur Radio
call signs.[29] Some jurisdictions, such as the U.S., require
that a fee be paid to obtain such a vanity call sign; in others, such as the UK, a fee is not required and the vanity
call sign may be selected when the license is applied for.
5
originates and may also indicate the license class.
(This call sign is licensed in South Africa. CEPT
Class is no longer encoded in South African callsigns. Where specic classes of amateur radio license exist, the call signs may be assigned by class,
but the specics vary by issuing country.)
2. 1 Gives the subdivision of the country or territory
indicated in the rst part (this one refers to the Western Cape).
3. NAT The nal part is unique to the holder of the
license, identifying that station specically.
Many countries do not follow the ITU convention for
the numeral. In the United Kingdom the original calls
G0xxx, G2xxx, G3xxx, G4xxx, were Full (A) License
Holders along with the last M0xxx full call signs issued by the City & Guilds examination authority in December 2003. Additional full licenses were originally
granted in respect of (B) Licensees with G1xxx, G6xxx,
G7xxx, G8xxx and 1991 onward with M1xxx calls. The
newer three level Intermediate licensees are 2E1xxx and
2E0xx and basic Foundation license holders are granted a
M6xxx call sign.[30] In the United States, for non-Vanity
licenses, the numeral indicates the geographical district
the holder resided in when the license was issued. Prior
to 1978, US hams were required to obtain a new call sign
if they moved out of their geographic district.
Also, for smaller entities, a numeral may be part of
the country identication. For example, VP2xxx is in
the British West Indies (subdivided into VP2Exx Anguilla, VP2Mxx Montserrat, and VP2Vxx British Virgin Islands), VP5xxx is in the Turks and Caicos Islands,
VP6xxx is on Pitcairn Island, VP8xxx is in the Falklands,
and VP9xxx is in Bermuda.
Online callbooks or callsign databases can be browsed
or searched to nd out who holds a specic callsign.[31]
Non-exhaustive lists of famous people who hold or have
held amateur radio callsigns have also been compiled and
published.[32]
Many jurisdictions issue specialty vehicle registration
plates to licensed amateur radio operators often in order
to facilitate their movement during an emergency.[33][34]
The fees for application and renewal are usually less than
the standard rate for specialty plates.[33][35]
Privileges
In most administrations, unlike other RF spectrum users,

radio amateurs may build or modify transmitting equipment for their own use within the amateur spectrum withCall sign structure as prescribed by the ITU, consists of out the need to obtain government certication of the
three parts which break down as follows, using the call equipment.[36][37] Licensed amateurs can also use any fresign ZS1NAT as an example:
quency in their bands (rather than being allocated xed
frequencies or channels) and can operate medium to high1. ZS Shows the country from which the call sign powered equipment on a wide range of frequencies[38] so
long as they meet certain technical parameters including to experiment with home-constructed or modied equipoccupied bandwidth, power, and maintenance of spurious ment. The use of such equipment must still satisfy naemission.
tional and international standards on spurious emissions.
Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations
throughout the RF spectrum, usually allowing choice of
an eective frequency for communications across a local, regional, or worldwide path. The shortwave bands,
or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and the
VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional
communication, while the microwave bands have enough
space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions
and high-speed computer networks.
The amount of output power an amateur radio licensee

may legally use varies from country to country. Although allowable power levels are moderate by commercial standards, they are sucient to enable global communication. Power limits vary from country to country
and between license classes within a country. For example, the peak envelope power limits for the highest
available license classes in a few selected countries are:
2.25 kW in Canada,[39] 1.5 kW in the United States, 1.0
kW in Belgium, Switzerland and New Zealand, 750 W in
Germany, 500 W in Italy, 400 W in Australia, India and
the United Kingdom, and 150 W in Oman. Lower license
classes usually have lower power limits; for example, the
lowest license class in the UK ( Foundation licence ) has
a limit of 10 W. Amateur radio operators are encouraged
both by regulations and tradition of respectful use of the
spectrum to use as little power as possible to accomplish
the communication.[40] This is to minimise interference
or EMC to any other device.
Output power limits may also depend on the mode of
transmission. In Australia, for example, 400 W may be
used for SSB transmissions, but FM and other modes are
limited to 120 W.
The point at which power output is measured may also affect transmissions. The United Kingdom measures at the
point the antenna is connected to the signal feed cable,
which means the radio system may transmit more than
400 W to overcome signal loss in the cable; conversely,
Germany measures power at the output of the nal amplication stage, which results in a loss in radiated power
with longer cable feeds.
Certain countries permit amateur radio licence holders to
hold a Notice of Variation that allows higher power to be
used than normally allowed for certain specic purposes.
E.g. in the UK some amateur radio licence holders are
allowed to transmit using (33dBw) 2.0 kW for experiments entailing using the moon as a passive radio reector
(known as Earth-Moon-Earth communication) (EME).
Band plans and frequency allocations

Main article: Amateur radio frequency allocations
The international symbol for amateur radio, included in the logos of many IARU member societies. The diamond holds a circuit
diagram featuring components common to every radio: an antenna, inductor and ground.
In most countries, an amateur radio license grants permission to the license holder to own, modify, and operate
equipment that is not certied by a governmental regulatory agency. This encourages amateur radio operators
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies worldwide, with participation by each nations communications
regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these bandplan
frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as
radio services in other countries do not suer interference. In some countries, specic emission types are restricted to certain parts of the radio spectrum, and in
most other countries, International Amateur Radio Union Image

(IARU) member societies adopt voluntary plans to ensure
the most eective use of spectrum.
Amateur Television, also known as Fast Scan television (ATV)
In a few cases, a national telecommunication agency may
also allow hams to use frequencies outside of the internationally allocated amateur radio bands. In Trinidad and
Tobago, hams are allowed to use a repeater which is located on 148.800 MHz. This repeater is used and maintained by the National Emergency Management Agency
(NEMA), but may be used by radio amateurs in times of
emergency or during normal times to test their capability and conduct emergency drills. This repeater can also
be used by non-ham NEMA sta and REACT members.
In Australia and New Zealand ham operators are authorized to use one of the UHF TV channels. In the U.S.,
amateur radio operators providing essential communication needs in connection with the immediate safety of human life and immediate protection of property when normal communication systems are not available may use any
frequency including those of other radio services such as
police and re and in cases of disaster in Alaska may use
the statewide emergency frequency of 5167.5 kHz with
restrictions upon emissions.[41]
Similarly, amateurs in the United States may apply to
be registered with the Military Auxiliary Radio System
(MARS). Once approved and trained, these amateurs also
operate on US government military frequencies to provide contingency communications and morale message
trac support to the military services.
1.1.4
Modes of communication
Amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and data

communications modes over radio. Generally new modes
can be tested in the amateur radio service, although national regulations may require disclosure of a new mode
to permit radio licensing authorities to monitor the transmissions. Encryption, for example, is not generally permitted in the Amateur Radio service except for the special purpose of satellite vehicle control uplinks. The following is a partial list of the modes of communication
used, where the mode includes both modulation types and
operating protocols.
Voice
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Slow-Scan Television (SSTV)

Facsimile
Text and data
Most amateur digital modes are transmitted by inserting audio into the microphone input of a radio and using
an analog scheme, such as amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), or single-sideband modulation (SSB).
Continuous Wave (CW)
ALE Automatic Link Establishment
AMateur Teleprinting Over Radio (AMTOR)
D-STAR
Echolink
Hellschreiber, also referred to as either Feld-Hell,
or Hell
Discrete multi-tone modulation modes such as Multi
Tone 63 (MT63)
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) modes
such as
FSK441, JT6M, JT65, and
Olivia MFSK
Packet radio (AX25)
Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS)
PACTOR
Phase-Shift Keying
31 baud binary phase shift keying: PSK31
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
31 baud quadrature phase shift keying:

QPSK31
Independent Sideband (ISB)
Single Sideband (SSB)

QPSK63
Amplitude Modulation Equivalent (AME)

Frequency modulation (FM)
Spread spectrum
Phase modulation (PM)
Radioteletype (RTTY)
Modes by activity
The following modes use no one specic modulation
scheme but rather are classied by the activity of the communication.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME)
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)
Low Transmitter Power (QRP)
Satellite (OSCAR- Orbiting Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio)
1.1.5
See also
DX Century Club
List of amateur radio magazines
List of amateur radio organizations
Piracy in amateur and two-way radio
Maritime mobile amateur radio
Worked All Continents
Worked All States
Anderson Powerpole connector
1.1.6
References
[1] Sumner, David (August 2011). How Many Hams?". QST

(American Radio Relay League): p. 9.
[2] Gernsback, H (May 1909). First Annual Ocial Wireless Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America
(PDF). New York: Modern Electrics Publication. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
[3] "''THE INFLUENCE OF AMATEUR RADIO ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMERCIAL MARKET
FOR QUARTZ PIEZOELECTRIC RESONATORS IN
THE UNITED STATES.'' (1996) By Patrick R. J.
Brown, Hewlett Packard Company, Spokane Division.
Bliley.net. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[4] Inventor of IC 'chip', Nobel Prize Winner Jack S. Kilby
Credits Amateur Radio for His Start in Electronics. Nobelprize.org. 2005-06-20. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[5] Role of Amateur Radio in Development Communication of
Bangladesh. Information & Communication Technology
for Development. By Bazlur Rahman
[6] Jim Taylor. Canadian Amateur Radio Bulletin, ''Amateur Radio Saved Lives in South Asia'' (2004-12-29)".
Hfradio.net. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[7] What is Ham Radio?". ARRL.org. Archived from the
original on 4 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
[8] Weaver, Bruce D. (January 2003). On the Air Learning.

Teaching Pre K-8 33 (4): 5051. ISSN 0891-4508.
[9] Ham Radio Frequently Asked Questions. ARRL.org.
Archived from the original on 6 May 2010. Retrieved
2010-05-23.
[10] FCC Report and Order 06-178A1 (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. 2006-12-19. p. 7. Retrieved
2007-05-16.
[11] Federal Communications Commission (2007-01-24). 47
CFR Part 97 (PDF). Federal Register (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Oce) 72 (15): 30813082. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
[12] FCC to Drop Morse Testing for All Amateur License
Classes. ARRL.org via UnwiredAdventures.com. 200612-15. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
[13] KH6BB USS Missouri Radio Room Photos. KH6BB
USS Missouri Battleship Radio Room, kh6bb.org. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[14] Valdes, Robert (2001-05-09).
HowStuWorks:
Use of VoIP in Amateur Radio.
Communication.howstuworks.com. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[15] Taggart, Ralph E (April 1993). An Introduction to
Amateur Television (PDF). QST via ARRL.org: 1923.
Archived from the original on June 5, 2007.
[16] Holmstead, Stephen (30 December 1994). Amateur
Satellite FAQ. The Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation. Retrieved 14 March 2010.
[17] Taylor, Joe (December 2001). "WSJT: New Software for
VHF Meteor-Scatter Communication (PDF). QST via
ARRL.org. pp. 3641. Archived from the original on
January 28, 2010.
[18] ARISS: Amateur Radio on the International Space Station. ARRL.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[19] Jurrens, Gerald. Astronaut (and Former Astronaut)
Hams. gjurrens at Tellurian.com. Archived from the
original on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[20] Haag, Jerry. Principles of Amateur Radio Net Control.
SCC-AREA-RACES.org. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[21] brweb (2000-05-01). "''International Telecommunication
Union'', Minimum Qualications For Radio Amateurs.
Itu.int. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[22] Amateur radio licensing in Thailand sect. Equipment
license. The Radio Amateur Society of Thailand 7 August 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
[23] Amateur and Amateur-satellite service. International
Telecommunication Union. Archived from the original on
22 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[24] 285 TechConnect Radio Club. Na0tc.org. Retrieved
2012-11-22.
[25] ARRL Mentor Program. ARRL.org. Archived from the
original on 2007-10-14.
9
Wireless Institute of Australia
(2005). The Foundation Licence Manual: Your Entry into
Amateur Radio. Wireless Institute of Australia, November, 2005. ISBN 0-97583420-7
[26] Wilson, Mark J; Reed, Dana G (2006). The ARRL

Handbook for Radio Communications 2007 (84th ed.).
Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League. ISBN
0-87259-976-0.
[27] Amateur Radio (Intermediate) License (A) or (B) Terms,
Provisions and Limitations Booklet BR68/I.
[28] Amateur Radio (Intermediate) License (A) or (B)
Terms, Provisions and Limitations Booklet BR68/I. Ofcom.org.uk. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
Canada
Cleveland-Ilie, John, and
Smith, Georey Read (1995).
The
Canadian
Amateur
Study Guide for the Basic
Qualication. Fifth Edition,
Second Printing.
Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada:
Radio
Amateurs of Canada. ISBN
1-895400-08-2
[29] Common Filing Task: Obtaining Vanity Call Sign.

FCC.gov. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
[30] UK Amateur Radio Call Signs (callsigns)". Electronics
and Radio Today. 2010. Archived from the original on
30 April 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
[31] License Search. Universal Licensing System. US Federal Communications Commission. Archived from the
original on 22 August 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
[32] Famous Radio Amateurs 'Hams & Call Signs. Bedworth Lions Club. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
[33] ARRL Web: Amateur Radio License Plate Fees.
Archived from the original on 2007-08-04.
[34] Ham Radio Callsign License Plates (Canada)". Archived
from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 200812-04.
[35] ICBC HAM radio plates. Archived from the original
on 19 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
[36] OFTA, Equipment for Amateur Station: Radio amateurs
are free to choose any radio equipment designed for the
amateur service. Radio amateurs may also design and
build their own equipment provided that the requirements
and limitations specied in the Amateur Station Licence
and Schedules thereto are complied with.
[37] FCC.gov, About Amateur Stations. 'They design, construct, modify, and repair their stations. The FCC equipment authorization program does not generally apply to
amateur station transmitters.'". Wireless.fcc.gov. 200202-19. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[38] Australian Radio Amateur FAQ. AMPR.org. June 24,
2006. Archived from the original on July 18, 2008.
[39] Industry Canada (September 2007). RBR-4 Standards
for the Operation of Radio Stations in the Amateur Radio
Service, s. 10.2. Government of Canada. Retrieved 21
January 2013.
[40] FCC Part 97 : Sec. 97.313 Transmitter power standards. W5YI.org. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
[41] FCC Part 97 : Sec. 97.401 and 97.403 Emergency Communications. Retrieved 2012-06-21.
General References
Australia
India
Amateur radio licensing in India. Retrieved Aug. 13, 2007.
United Kingdom
Betts, Alan (2001). Foundation Licence Now!. London,
United Kingdom: Radio Society of Great Britain, December, 2001. ISBN 1-87230980-1
United States
Straw, R. Dean, Reed, Dana
G., Carman, R. Jan, and Wolfgang, Larry D. (ed.) (2003).
Now You're Talking!. Fifth
Edition. Newington, Connecticut, U.S.: American Radio Relay League, May, 2003.
ISBN 0-87259-881-0
American Radio Relay League
(2003). The ARRL FCC Rule
Book: Complete Guide to the
FCC Regulations. 13th Edition. Newington, Connecticut,
U.S.: American Radio Relay
League, August, 2003. ISBN
0-87259-900-0
Silver, H. Ward (2004). Ham
Radio For Dummies. John
Wiley and Sons, Ltd., April,
2004. ISBN 0-7645-5987-7
10
1.1.7
Further reading
1920s and 1930s, and reception reports were often used

by early broadcasters to gauge the eectiveness of their
Bergquist, Carl J (May 2001). Ham Radio Opera- transmissions. Although international shortwave broadtors Guide (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Prompt Publi- casts are on the decline, DXing remains popular among
cations. ISBN 0-7906-1238-0.
dedicated shortwave listeners. The pursuit of two-way
contact between distant amateur radio operators is also a
Dennison, Mike; Fielding, John, eds. (2009). Ra- signicant activity within the amateur radio hobby. [2][3]
dio Communication Handbook (10th ed.). Bedford,
England: Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN
978-1-905086-54-2.
1.2.1 Types of DXing
Haring, Kristen (2007). Ham Radios Technical Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262- AM radio DX
08355-8.
Main article: MW DX
Poole, Ian D (October 2001). HF Amateur Radio.
Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, England: Radio Society
Early radio listeners, often using home made crystal sets
of Great Britain. ISBN 1-872309-75-5.
and long wire antennas, found radio stations few and far
Rohde, Ulrich L; Whitaker, Jerry C (2001). Com- between. With the broadcast bands uncrowded, signals of
munications Receivers: DSP, Software Radios, and the most powerful stations could be heard over hundreds
Design (3rd ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill. of miles, but weaker signals required more precise tuning
or better receiving gear.
ISBN 0-07-136121-9.
By the 1950s, and continuing through the mid-1970s,
The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
many of the most powerful North American "clear chan2010 (87th ed.). Newington, CT: American Radio
nel" stations such as KDKA, WLW, CKLW, CHUM,
Relay League. November 2009. ISBN 0-87259WABC, WJR, WLS, WKBW, KFI, KAAY, KSL and a
144-1.
host of border blasters from Mexico pumped out Top 40
music played by popular disc jockeys. As most smaller,
local AM radio stations had to sign o at night, the big 50
1.1.8 External links
kW stations had loyal listeners hundreds of miles away.
Amateur Radio at DMOZ
The popularity of DXing the medium-wave band has di-
1.2 DXing
Not to be confused with DJing, another audio
and radio hobby.
This article is about the hobby of receiving &
identifying radio or television signals. For the
article about the Philippine FM station in General Santos City, see DXER.
minished as the popular music formats quickly migrated

to the clearer, though less propagating, FM radio beginning in the 1970s. Meanwhile, the MW band in the
United States was getting more and more crowded with
new stations and existing stations receiving FCC authorization to operate at night. In Canada, just the opposite
occurred as AM stations began moving to FM beginning
in the 1980s and continuing through today.
Outside of the Americas and Australia, most AM radio

broadcasting was in the form of synchronous networks of
government-operated stations, operating with hundreds,
even thousands of kilowatts of power. Still, the lower
DXing is the hobby of receiving and identifying distant powered stations and[4]occasional trans-oceanic signal were
radio or television signals, or making two way radio con- popular DX targets.
tact with distant stations in amateur radio, citizens band
radio or other two way radio communications. Many DXShortwave DX
ers also attempt to obtain written verications of reception or contact, sometimes referred to as "QSLs" or veries. The name of the hobby comes from DX, telegraphic Main article: Shortwave listening
shorthand for distance or distant.[1]
The practice of DXing arose during the early days of Especially during wartime and times of conict, recepradio broadcasting. Listeners would mail reception re- tion of international broadcasters, whose signals propaports to radio broadcasting stations in hopes of getting gate around the world on the shortwave bands has been
a written acknowledgement or a QSL card that served to popular with both casual listeners and DXing hobbyists.
ocially verify they had heard a distant station. Collect- With the rise in popularity of streaming audio over the
ing these cards became popular with radio listeners in the internet, many international broadcasters (including the
1.2. DXING
BBC and Voice of America) have cut back on their shortwave broadcasts. Missionary Religious broadcasters still
make extensive use of shortwave radio to reach less developed countries around the world.
11
Indian Ocean is counted as a DX country, even though it
is a region of France. The rules for determining what is
a DX country can be quite complex and to avoid potential confusion, radio amateurs often use the term entity
instead of country. In addition to entities, some awards
are based on island groups in the worlds oceans. On the
VHF/UHF bands, many radio amateurs pursue awards
based on Maidenhead grid locators.
In addition to international broadcasters, the shortwave

bands also are home to military communications, RTTY,
amateur radio, pirate radio, and the mysterious broadcasts of numbers stations. Many of these signals are transmitted in single side band mode, which requires the use In order to give other amateurs a chance to conrm conof specialized receivers more suitable to DXing than to tacts at new or exotic locations, amateurs have mounted
casual listening.[5]
DXpeditions to countries or regions that have no permanent base of amateur radio operators. [6] There are also
frequent contests where radio amateurs operate their staVHF DXing
tions on certain dates for a xed period of time to try to
communicate with as many DX stations as possible.
Main article: TV-FM DX
Though sporadic in nature, signals on the FM broadcast
and VHF television bands - especially those stations at the
lower end of these bands - can skip for hundreds, even
thousands of miles. American FM stations have been
occasionally received in Western Europe, though no reports exist of European FM signals propagating to North
America.
Police, re, and military communications on the VHF
bands are also DX'ed to some extent on multi-band radio
scanners, though they are mainly listened to strictly on
a local basis. One diculty is in identifying the exact
origins of communications of this nature, as opposed
to commercial broadcasters which must identify themselves at the top of each hour, and can often be identied
through mentions of sponsors, slogans, etc. throughout
their programming.
Amateur radio DX
Main article: Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators who specialize in making two
way radio contact with other amateurs in distant countries
are also referred to as DXers. On the HF (also known
as shortwave) amateur bands, DX stations are those in
foreign countries. On the VHF/UHF amateur bands, DX
stations can be within the same country or continent, since
making a long-distance VHF contact, without the help of
a satellite, can be very dicult. DXers collect QSL cards
as proof of contact and can earn special certicates and
awards from amateur radio organizations.[6]
In addition, many clubs oer awards for communicating with a certain number of DX stations. For example, the ARRL oers the DX Century Club award, or
DXCC. The basic certicate is awarded for working and
conrming at least 100 entities on the ARRL DXCC List.
[7]
For award purposes, other areas than just political
countries can be classied as DX countries. For example, the French protectorate of Reunion Island in the
1.2.2 DX Clubs
Many radio enthusiasts are members of DX clubs. There
are many DX clubs in many countries around the world.
They are useful places to nd information about up-todate news relating to international radio. Many people
also enjoy social events, which can form a large part of
the enjoyment that people can get out of the radio hobby.
1.2.3 QSL cards

Main article: QSL card
One of the interesting sides of DXing as a hobby is
collecting QSL cards (acknowledgement cards from the
broadcaster) conrming the listeners reception report
(sometimes called SINPO report, see next section).
Usually a QSL card will have a picture on one side and
the reception data on the other. Most of the broadcasters
will use pictures and messages indicating their countrys
culture or technological life.
1.2.4 SINPO report

SINPO stands for the following qualities, graded on a
scale of 1 to 5, where '1' means the quality was very bad
and '5' very good.
S - Signal strength
I - Interference with other stations or broadcasters
N - Noise ratio in the received signal
P - Propagation (ups and downs of the reception)
O - Overall merit
Although this is a subjective measure, with practise the
grading becomes more consistent, and a particular broadcast may be assessed by several listeners from the same
area, in which case the broadcaster could assess correspondence between reports.
After listening to a broadcast, the listener writes a report
with SINPO values, typically including his geographi-
12
The angle of refraction places a minimum on the distance
at which the refracted beam will rst return to Earth. This
distance increases with frequency. As a result, any station employing DX will be surrounded by an annular dead
zone where they can't hear other stations or be heard by
them.
This is the phenomenon that allows short wave radio reception to occur beyond the limits of line of sight. It is
utilized by amateur radio enthusiasts (hams), shortwave
broadcast stations (such as BBC and Voice of America)
and others, and is what allows one to hear AM (MW)
stations from areas far from their location. It is one
of the backups to failure of long distance communication by satellites, when their operation is aected by
electromagnetic storms from the sun.
For example, in clear ionosphere conditions, one can hear
Radio France Inter on 711 kHz, far into the UK and as
far as Reading, Berkshire
1.2.6 DXing equipment
QSL card from Voice of America
cal location (called QTH in amateur radio teminology)

in longitude and latitude, a brief description of the programme listened to, their opinion about it, suggestions if
any, and so on.
The listener can send the report to the broadcaster either by post or email, and request verication (QSL) from
them.
Variants of this report are: a) the SIO report which omits
the Noise and Propagation, b) grading on a scale of 1 to
3 (instead of 1 to 5) and c) the SINFO report where the
F stands for fading.
1.2.5
DX Communication
DX communication is communication over great distances using the ionosphere to refract the transmitted
radio beam. The beam returns to the Earths surface, and
may then be reected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce. Ionospheric refraction is generally only feasible for frequencies below about 50 MHz, and is highly
dependent upon atmospheric conditions, the time of day,
and the eleven-year sunspot cycle. It is also aected by
solar storms and some other solar events, which can alter
the Earths ionosphere by ejecting a shower of charged
particles.
Radio equipment used in DXing ranges from inexpensive

portable receivers to deluxe equipment costing thousands
of dollars. Using just a simple AM radio, one can easily hear signals from the most powerful stations propagating hundreds of miles at night. Even an inexpensive
shortwave radio can receive signals emanating from several countries during any time of day.
Serious hobbyists use more elaborate receivers designed
specically for pulling in distant signals, and often build
their own antennas specically designed for a specic frequency band. There is much discussion and debate in the
hobby about the relative merits of lesser priced shortwave
receivers vs. their multi-thousand dollar big brother
radios. In general, a good desktop or PC Radio will
be able to hear just about what a very expensive highperformance receiver can receive. The dierence between the two types comes into play during dicult band
or reception conditions. The expensive receiver will have
more ltering options and usually better adjacent channel
interference blocking, sometimes resulting in the dierence of being able to receive or not receive a signal under
poor conditions. Reception of international broadcasting
seldom shows a noticeable dierence between the two radios. Car radios are also used for DXing the broadcast
bands.
Another recent trend is for the hobbyist to employ multiple radios and antennas connected to a personal computer. Through advanced radio control software, the radios can be automatically ganged together, so that tuning
one radio can tune all the others in the group. This DXing technique is sometimes referred to as diversity reception and facilitates easy A to B comparison of dierent
antennas and receivers for a given signal. For more details on PC Radios or computer controlled shortwave
receivers see the discussion in Shortwave listening.
1.3. FIELD DAY
13
Having a minimum of two Dipole antenna at right angles

to each other, for example, one running North-South and
one running East-West can produce dramatically dierent
reception patterns. These simple antennas can be made
for a few dollars worth of wire and a couple of insulators.
1.2.7
See also
802.11 non-standard equipment
1.2.8
References
[1] http://www.dxing.info/introduction.dx Introduction To

DXing, DXing.info
Solar-powered Amateur Radio Station in tents. Note the portable

VHF/UHF Satellite and HF antennas in the background
[2] Jerome S. Berg (30 October 2008). Listening on the Short

Waves, 1945 to Today. McFarland. pp. 330. ISBN 9780-7864-3996-6. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
[3] Susan J. Douglas (25 February 2004). Listening in: radio and the American imagination. U of Minnesota Press.
pp. 73. ISBN 978-0-8166-4423-0. Retrieved 12 April
2012.
[4] http://www.dxing.com/amband.htm AM Band DXing,
DXing.com
[5] http://www.dxing.info/introduction.dx Introduction To
DXing. DXing.info
[6] Danny Gregory; Paul Sahre (1 April 2003). Hello world: a
life in ham radio. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 217
. ISBN 978-1-56898-281-6. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Rugged HF transceiver for voice communications
Since the rst ARRL Field Day in 1933, radio amateurs

[7] http://www.arrl.org/awards/dxcc/dxcclist.txt DXCC List throughout North America have practiced the rapid deployment of radio communications equipment in envi- ARRL
ronments ranging from operations under tents in remote
areas to operations inside Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs). Operations using emergency and alterna1.2.9 External links
tive power sources are highly encouraged, since electricity and other public infrastructures are often among the
ARRL - American Radio Relay league.
rst to fail during a natural disaster or severe weather.
DXing at DMOZ
To determine the eectiveness of the exercise and of each
participants operations, there is an integrated contesting
DX Info for radioamateurs
component, and many clubs also engage in concurrent
leisure activities (camping out, cookouts, etc.). Operations typically last a continuous twenty-four hours, requir1.3 Field Day
ing scheduled relief operators to keep stations on the air.
Additional contest points are awarded for experimenting
For other uses, see Field day (disambiguation).
with unusual modes, making contacts via satellite, and inField Day is an annual amateur radio exercise, widely volving youth in the activity.
sponsored by IARU regions and member organizations,
encouraging emergency communications preparedness
among amateur radio operators. In the United States, 1.3.1 International Field Day Events
it is typically the largest single emergency preparedness
exercise in the country, with over 30,000 operators par- 1.3.2 IARU Region 1
ticipating each year. Field Day is always the fourth full
weekend of June, beginning at 1800 UTC Saturday and The IARU Region 1 sponsors an Amateur Radio Field
Day for Europe.
running through 2059 UTC Sunday.
14
United Kingdom
Taiwan
The Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB) holds its There is apparently a Biannual Field Day held in Taiwan,
Field Days with the Region 1 schedule, but has its own by the Chinese Taipei Amateur Radio League.
awards independent of the rest of the IARU Region:
CW: First full weekend of June from Saturday 1500
UTC to Sunday 1500 UTC (June 2-3, 2012).
New Zealand
The New Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters

(NZART) holds an HF National Field Day contest each
SSB: First full weekend of September from Saturday February, and a VHF Field Day each December.
1300 UTC to Sunday 1300 UTC (September 1-2,
2012).
Korea
Germany
The Deutscher Amateur-Radio-Club e. V. (DARC),
Referat DX u. HF Funksport, holds its Field Days with
the Region 1 schedule:
The Korean Amateur Radio League holds a eld day for

2 to 5 days at a regional branch area during the summer
time every year.
1.3.5 Emergency preparedness

CW: First full weekend of June from Saturday 1500
UTC to Sunday 1500 UTC (June 2-3, 2012).
Field Day stresses emergency preparedness. Frequently,

entire radio clubs get involved and assemble a portable
SSB: First full weekend of September from Saturday radio station in a eld or park. Some might use quickly
1300 UTC to Sunday 1300 UTC (September 1-2, deployable portable antennas while other might erect
more elaborate radio masts and towers supporting several
2012).
antennas. Generators or solar power provide electricity to
amateur radio transceivers, which may be located in tents,
cars, recreational vehicles, or other portable shelters.
Greece
The Radio Amateur Association of Greece organizes the
national eld day with the Region 1 SSB eld day (rst 1.3.6 Contest Activity and Rules
weekend of September). It issues its own awards for the
highest scoring Greek stations who participate and submit The contest aspect of a Field Day operating event is to
contact as many stations as possible in the given time pecontest logs.
riod (twenty-four hours, during a weekend, if setup commences before the contest starts, or 27 hours if setup commences at contest start time) using the portable station.
1.3.3 IARU Region 2
Each station will exchange information with other participating stations. For the North American Field Day, the
United States and Canada
exchange consists of the station call sign, the name of the
ARRL-recognized section from which the station is operThe American Radio Relay League/Radio Amateurs of ating, and a class designator which indicates the number
Canada Field Day is held annually the fourth full weekend of transmitters concurrently used at the station and inforin June (June 27-28 in 2015), beginning at 1800 UTC mation about the type of electrical power source being
Saturday and running through 2059 UTC Sunday.
used.
Sponsored by the ARRL and RAC (but organized pri- The contest portion of Field Day has two purposes. The
marily by the ARRL), Field Day is open to all Amateur primary purpose is to demonstrate the groups ability to
Radio operators covered by these two IARU member or- plan operations that can be eective for an entire twentyganizations.
four-hour period, including operator endurance and adequate numbers of operators for a shift operation. The
secondary portion is to demonstrate the technical pro1.3.4 IARU Region 3
ciency of the station that has been hastily constructed for
the purpose; in theory a better station will be capable of
There is currently no organized Field Day for all of Re- emergency operations in more dire conditions. Such a
gion 3, although there is a proposal to create one similar station will also be capable of making more contacts durto that of Region 1: Recommendation WG 2-10 (page 7). ing the contest portion of Field Day.
1.4. RADIOSPORT
15
The rules governing this activity are published by the

sponsor of the particular Field Day exercise.
1.3.7
Promotion of amateur radio
Field Day is frequently used to attract signicant

publicity for amateur radio, and some clubs simultaneously demonstrate technologies including single sideband
voice, Morse code, digital modes (such as RTTY, PSK31,
and Winlink, among others), and communication via
amateur radio satellite.
1.3.8
External links
ARRL Field Day

Field Day: A Mirror of Amateur Radio History (A
history of Field Day in the United States)
The World Radiosport Team Championship 2002 was held in
Field Day Station Locator (Google Maps-based ser- Helsinki, Finland.

vice that shows publicly accessible Field Day operations for June 2627, 2010)
other stations as possible, following certain dened pa Radio Amateurs of Canada
rameters of the competition, to maximize a score. At
Find a radio club near you to participate in Field Day least two specic contests have used the term radiosport
in their event names; the IARU HF World Championship,
RSGB SSB Field Day 2008
a worldwide contest sponsored by the International Amateur Radio Union, was known as the IARU Radiosport
DARC Field Day
Championship from its inception in 1977 until the name
of the contest changed in 1986. The term radiosport
IARU Region 1 HF Field Day
also appears in the name of the World Radiosport Team
Nationwide Simulated Emergency Communications Championship, the radio contest considered by many to
Test
be the closest that contesting has to a world championships.
1.4 Radiosport
For the broadcast radio station in New Zealand, see Radio
Sport.
Radiosport (or radio sport) is formal competition between amateur radio operators in any of three amateur radio activities. The Friendship Radiosport Games is an international multi-sport event that includes all three types
of radiosport. Since 1977, the International Amateur Radio Union has sponsored the IARU HF World Championship (originally named the IARU Radiosport Championship). The World Radiosport Team Championship is
another international competition.
1.4.1
1.4.2 Amateur radio direction nding
Amateur radio contesting
Main article: Contesting

The most common use of the term radiosport is as a synonym for amateur radio contesting (ham radio contest- The Victorian ARDF Group, a regional ARDF organization in
ing). Contesting is an activity where amateur radio sta- Australia, uses the two-word form of the term radio sport in its
tions attempt to make as many two-way contacts with logo.
16
Radiosport also can refer to the sport of amateur radio direction nding (ARDF). Although they represent a broad
range of amateur radio interests in their nations today,
several member societies of the International Amateur
Radio Union were originally formed for the promotion
and organization of the sport of ARDF and continue to
use the term radiosport in their society name. These include the Federation of Radiosport of the Republic of
Armenia, the Belarussian Federation of Radioamateurs
and Radiosportsmen, the Chinese Radio Sports Association, the Kazakhstan Federation of Radiosport and Radio
Amateur, the Mongolian Radio Sport Federation, and the
now defunct Radio Sport Federation of the USSR.
1.4.3
High Speed Telegraphy
Solar-powered Amateur Radio Station in tents. Note the portable

VHF/UHF satellite and HF antennas in the background
Main article: High Speed Telegraphy

High Speed Telegraphy competitions challenge individuals to correctly receive and copy Morse code
transmissions sent at very high speeds. International competitions typically involve several events, some of which
are based on simulations of amateur radio activity. One
event in the Radioamateur Practicing Tests (RPT) uses a
computer program that sends amateur radio call signs at
high speed for a specied period of time, and generates a
score for the competitor based on errors in copying. Another event is the pileup competition, where competitors must copy as many individual call signs as possible Rugged HF transceiver for voice communications
while many are being sent simultaneously over a dened
period of time.
Unlike commercial systems, Amateur radio is usually independent of terrestrial facilities that can fail. It is dis1.4.4 References
persed throughout a community without choke points
such as cellular telephone sites that can be overloaded.
American Radio Relay League (1978-2005).
Bibliography of IARU contest results and related Amateur radio operators are experienced in improvising
antennas and power sources and most equipment today
articles in QST. Retrieved Dec. 5, 2005.
can be powered by an automobile battery. Annual "Field
Days" are held in many countries to practice these emergency improvisational skills. Amateur radio operators
can use hundreds of frequencies and can quickly estab Federation of Radiosport of the Republic of Arme- lish networks tying disparate agencies together to enhance
interoperability.
nia
Victorian ARDF Group
1.5 Amateur radio emergency communications

For the New Zealand organization, see Amateur Radio
Emergency Communications.
In times of crisis and natural disasters, amateur radio
is often used as a means of emergency communication
when wireline, cell phones and other conventional means
of communications fail.
Recent examples include the September 11 attacks on

the World Trade Center in Manhattan in 2001, the
2003 North America blackout and Hurricane Katrina in
September 2005, where amateur radio was used to coordinate disaster relief activities when other systems failed.
On September 2, 2004, ham radio was used to inform weather forecasters with information on Hurricane
Frances live from the Bahamas. On December 26, 2004,
an earthquake and resulting tsunami across the Indian
Ocean wiped out all communications with the Andaman
Islands, except for a DX-pedition that provided a means
to coordinate relief eorts. Recently, Amateur Radio operators in the Peoples Republic of China pro-
1.5. AMATEUR RADIO EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS
17
vided emergency communications after the 2008 Sichuan Radio Transmitters Society (IRTS). AREN membership
earthquake and U.S. hams did similar work following is, however, open to all amateur radio operators whether
Hurricane Ike. They were there on the Boston Marathon members of IRTS or not.
bombing when the cellphone systems were instantly overloaded.
The largest disaster response by U.S. amateur radio op- The Netherlands
erators was during Hurricane Katrina which rst made
landfall as a Category 1 hurricane went through Miami,
Florida on August 25, 2005, eventually strengthening to
Category 5. More than a thousand ham operators from
all over the U.S. converged on the Gulf Coast in an eort
to provide emergency communications assistance. Subsequent Congressional hearings highlighted the Amateur
Radio response as one of the few examples of what went
right in the disaster relief eort.[1]
The Dutch Amateur Radio Emergency Service (DARES)

was founded in 2003 as a result of the World Radio Conference 2003, where was decided that licenced Dutch radio amateurs were allowed to oer their services to third
parties in an emergency situation. DARES is recognized
by the State Department of The Netherlands and supported by the two largest national radio amateur organisations: VERON and VRZA.
DARES consists of a group of radio amateurs and shortwave listeners who oer their knowledge and radio equip1.5.1 Organization
ment during a disaster or major incident. The organisation is built upon the 25 safety regions dened by Dutch
While all hams have some emergency communications
authorities.
capability, those who are particularly interested in the
public service aspects of the hobby usually aliate with DARES has been represented at the Global Amateur Raan organized group for disaster specic training, quick dio Emergency Communications Conference (GAREC)
mobilization and to practice emergency skills. These ma- since 2005.
jor organizations include:
International
The Global Amateur Radio Emergency Communications
Conference (GAREC) is held in a new location yearly
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), hosting discussion and coordination of large-scale and crossborder amateur radio emergency response.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the New Zealand Association of Radio
Transmitters provides the AREC - Amateur Radio Emergency Communications (formerly Amateur Radio Emergency Corps) in the role. They won the New Zealand
National Search and Rescue award in 2001 for their long
commitment to Search and Rescue in NZ.
Australia
Trinidad and Tobago
In Australia, WICEN operates in each state & territory as
an autonomous body under the relevant disaster plan.
Canada
In Trinidad and Tobago, The Trinidad and Tobago Amateur Radio Society (T.T.A.R.S), the ocially recognized
body for amateur radio in Trinidad and Tobago, manages
the emergency communications arm of the group often
referred to as EmComms. EmComms have, in the past,
not only been active in Trinidad and Tobago, but throughout the Caribbean. The Oce of Disaster Preparedness
Management (ODPM) is actively involved in amateur radio and maintains an active amateur radio station and ve
repeaters.
In Canada, Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES)

is sponsored by the Radio Amateurs of Canada. Often
other less formal networks of volunteer radio operators
are also used and organized by the local emergency response agencies in conjunction with local ham radio operators. As in the United States, Radio Amateurs of Canada
has memoranda of understanding with numerous agencies expected to receive services[2], including the CanaUnited Kingdom
dian Red Cross and Salvation Army.
In the United Kingdom Radio Amateurs Emergency

Network (RAYNET) provides the organizational backbone of their amateur radio emergency communications
In the Republic of Ireland (26 counties), the Amateur groups along with the Radio Society of Great Britain
Radio Emergency Network (AREN), co-ordinates emer- (RSGB). It was formed in 1953 in the aftermath of the
gency communications activities on behalf of the Irish North Sea ood of 1953.
Republic of Ireland
18
United States of America
In the United States, there are two major methods of organizing amateur radio emergency communications: the
Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES), an organization of amateur operators sponsored by the American
Radio Relay League (ARRL); and the Radio Amateur
Civil Emergency Service (RACES), a standby replacement radio service regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. Operations under the RACES rules
requires preregistration with a local civil defense organization, to allow continued operation under Part 97.407[2]
of the FCC regulations in the event the Amateur Radio
Service is ever shut down by presidential order. Thus
ARES and RACES involvement within the same area
are usually intertwined, with many governments requiring membership and service in that locales ARES organization to allow operations within the Amateur Radio
Service as well. Many government Emergency Operations Centers, Red Cross Chapters and National Weather
Service facilities have permanent Amateur Radio stations
installed for such operations.
dependent from the local government authority. It was
founded on 1982.
Russia
The volunteer organization called RAS formed in 1988,
and at the end of 2012, the Union of Russian Radio amateurs established a committee dedicated to emergency
communications and even entered into an agreement with
MChS, Emergency Situations Ministry.
1.5.2 See also

Emergency communication system
1.5.3 References
[1] ARRL COO Testies on Capitol Hill to Amateur Radios
Value in Disasters. ARRLWeb. American Radio Relay
League, Inc. 3 Oct 2005. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
Radio clubs independent of the ARRL and ARES also [2] 97.407 Radio amateur civil emergency service
participate in emergency communications activities in
[3] ARRL: Understanding our Memoranda of Understanding
some areas, and some non-radio organizations have their
own amateur arm. The Department of Defense spon- [4] ARRL: Continuing Education Course Catalog
sors the Military Auxiliary Radio System (MARS) program which utilizes Amateur Radio operators for emergency communication using military radio frequencies. 1.5.4 External links
The National Weather Service Skywarn weather-spotter
ARRL Backgrounder: Amateur Radio Emergency
program has a strong amateur radio contingent. And amCommunication
ateurs dedicated to the Salvation Army are organized under their Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Net Navy-Marine Corp MARS with links to Air Force
work program.
and Army programs
Emergency communications and disaster assistance is
usually done in conjunction with volunteer disaster re IARU-R1 Emcom
lief organizations such as the American Red Cross, the
Salvation Army, local government emergency management agencies, as well as volunteer re departments and
ambulance corps.
The ARRL has memoranda of understanding with numerous agencies expected to receive services,[3] including the American Red Cross and Salvation Army and is
a partner in the Citizen Corps program of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The ARRL
also is a member of the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (NVOAD) and conducts emergency communications certication courses for interested
Amateur Radio operators.[4]
Spain
In Spain, REMER (Red Radio de Emergencia, Emergency Radio Network) is a national HF/VHF network
formed by volunteer ham radio operators, and it is coordinated by the local Civil defense groups, which are
Chapter 2
Amateur Radio in More Detail

2.1 Amateur radio operator
The majority of amateur radio operators worldwide reside in Japan, the United States, Thailand, South Korea,
and the nations of Europe. The top ve countries by perMain article: Amateur radio
centage
of the population are Japan, Slovenia, Taiwan,
An amateur radio operator is someone who uses equipSouth Korea and Thailand. Only the governments of
Yemen and North Korea currently prohibit their citizens
from becoming amateur radio operators. In some countries, acquiring an amateur radio license is dicult because of the bureaucratic processes or fees that place access to a license out of reach for most citizens. Most nations permit foreign nationals to earn an amateur radio license, but very few amateur radio operators are licensed
in multiple countries.
Gender
In the vast majority of countries, the population of amateur radio operators is predominantly male. In China
12% of amateur radio operators are women,[6] whilst in
An amateur radio operator
the United States is it approximately 15%.[7] The Young
Ladies Radio League is an international organization of
ment at an amateur radio station to engage in two-way female amateur radio operators.
personal communications with other amateur operators
on radio frequencies assigned to the amateur radio ser- A male amateur radio operator can be referred to as an
vice. Amateur radio operators have been granted an OM, an abbreviation used in Morse code telegraphy for
amateur radio license by a governmental regulatory au- old man, regardless of the operators age. A female amthority after passing an examination on applicable regu- ateur radio operator can be referred to as a YL, from the
lations, electronics, and radio theory and operation. As a abbreviation used for young lady, regardless of the opcomponent of their license, amateur radio operators are erators age. XYL was once used by amateur radio operassigned a call sign that they use to identify themselves ators to refer to an unlicensed woman, usually the wife of
during communication. There are about three million a male amateur radio operator; today, the term has come
to mean any female spouse of an amateur radio operator,
amateur radio operators worldwide.[1]
licensed or not. Sometimes the wife of a ham operator
Amateur radio operators are also known as radio ama- is called a YF (wife). Although these codes are derived
teurs or hams. The term ham as a nickname for am- from English language abbreviations, their use is comateur radio operators originated in a pejorative usage by mon among amateur radio operators worldwide. Incidenoperators in commercial and professional radio commu- tally, the most common language heard in the HF amateur
nities. The word was subsequently adopted by amateur bands (the bands below 30 MHz that support worldwide
radio operators.
communications) is English.
2.1.1
Demographics
Age
Few governments maintain detailed demographic statis- In most countries there is no minimum age requirement
tics of their amateur radio operator populations, aside to earn an amateur radio license and become an amateur
from recording the total number of licensed operators. radio operator. Although the number of amateur radio
19
20
CHAPTER 2. AMATEUR RADIO IN MORE DETAIL
operators in many countries increases from year to year,

the average age of amateur radio operators is quite high.
In some countries, the average age is over 80 years old,
with most amateur radio operators earning their license
in their 40s or 50s.
Some national radio societies have responded to this by
developing programs specically to encourage youth participation in amateur radio, such as the American Radio Relay League's Amateur Radio Education and Technology Program.[8] The World Wide Young Contesters
organization promotes youth involvement, particularly
amongst Europeans, in competitive radio contesting. A
strong tie also exists between the amateur radio community and the Scouting movement to introduce radio technology to youth. WOSM's annual Jamboree On The Air
is Scoutings largest activity, with a half million Scouts
and Guides speaking with each other using amateur radio
each October.[9]
2.1.2
Silent Key
[4] Bundesnetzagentur, cited by Licencestatistic for DL.

DARC.de. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008.
Retrieved 18 June 2008.
[5] IT & Telestyrelsen Frekvensregister IT & Telestyrelsen Frekvensregister. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
[6] Chinese Radio Sports Association (2004). The Current Status of Amateur Radio in the Mainland of China.
Proceedings of the International Amateur Radio Unions
Region 3 Twelfth Regional Conference. Document No.
04/XII/057.
[7] Harker, Kenneth E (15 March 2005). A Study of Amateur Radio Gender Demographics. ARRL.org. Archived
from the original on 23 February 2007. Retrieved 13 July
2007.
[8] The ARRL Amateur Radio Education & Technology
Program. ARRL.org. Archived from the original on 25
June 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
[9] All about JOTA. Scout.org. September 2006. Archived
from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 30 April
2008.
Silent key refers to an amateur radio operator who is [10] ARRL Silent Key submission guidelines. Retrieved 10
deceased.[10] The term can be abbreviated 'SK', espeAugust 2007
cially in morse code.[11] The key in the term refers to a
telegraph key, the instrument that all early amateur radio [11] List of morse code abbreviations. Retrieved 10 August
2007
operators, as well as many contemporary amateur radio
operators, have used to send Morse code. The term SK,
used in telegraphy to indicate an end of transmission, is
therefore also used to refer to any amateur radio operator 2.2 Amateur radio license
who is deceased, regardless of whether or not they were
known to have used a telegraph key or Morse code in their
Ham radio redirects here. For other uses, see Ham ratwo-way personal communications.
dio (disambiguation).
Amateur radio (also called ham radio) is the use of
2.1.3
Gallery
An operator running High Speed Telegraphy

An operator working HF
Amateur Radio station equipped for reception of
VLF signals.
Shack of F6BLK in September 2008
2.1.4
References
[1] Silver, H Ward (23 April 2004). Ham Radio for Dummies.
Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7645-59877. OCLC 55092631.
[2] Status Summary of Radio Amateurs & Amateur Stations of the World. International Amateur Radio Union
(IARU.org). Archived from the original on 28 June 2007.
Retrieved 13 July 2007.
[3] Hamdata Callsign Server. Hamdata.com. Archived
from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 22 May
2011.
An example of an amateur radio station with four transceivers,

ampliers, and a computer for logging and for digital modes.
On the wall are examples of various awards, certicates, and a
reception report card (QSL card) from a foreign amateur station.
designated radio frequency spectra for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages,
wireless experimentation, self-training, and emergency
communication. The term amateur is used to specify

persons interested in radio technique solely with a personal aim and without direct monetary or other similar
reward, and to dierentiate it from commercial broadcasting, public safety (such as police and re), or professional two-way radio services (such as maritime, aviation,
taxis, etc.).
21
less Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America,
produced in 1909, contains the rst listing of amateur radio stations.[2] This rst radio callbook lists wireless telegraph stations in Canada and the United States, including 89 amateur radio stations. As with radio in general,
the birth of amateur radio was strongly associated with
various amateur experimenters and hobbyists. Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have signicantly contributed to science, engineering, industry, and
social services. Research by amateur radio operators has
founded new industries,[3] built economies,[4] empowered
nations,[5] and saved lives in times of emergency.[6][7]
Ham radio can also be used in the classroom to teach English, map skills, geography, math, science and computer
skills.[8]
The amateur radio service (amateur service and amateur satellite service) is established by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) through the International Telecommunication Regulations. National governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue individual stations licenses
with an identifying call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested for their understanding of key concepts in
electronics and the host governments radio regulations.
Radio amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and
data communications modes and have access to frequency
Ham radio
allocations throughout the RF spectrum to enable communication across a city, region, country, continent, the
Main article: Etymology of ham radio
world, or even into space.
Amateur radio is ocially represented and coordinated
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU),
which is organized in three regions and has as its members the national amateur radio societies which exist in
most countries. According to an estimate made in 2011
by the American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved with amateur radio.[1] About 830,000 amateur radio stations are
located in IARU Region 2 (the Americas) followed by
IARU Region 3 (South and East Asia and the Pacic
Ocean) with about 750,000 stations. A signicantly
smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1 (Europe, Middle East, CIS, Africa).
The term ham radio was rst a pejorative that mocked

amateur radio operators with a 19th-century term for being bad at something, like ham-sted or ham actor. It
had already been used for bad wired telegraph operators.
Subsequently, the community adopted it as a welcome
moniker, much like the "Know-Nothing Party", or other
groups and movements throughout history. Other, more
entertaining explanations have grown up throughout the
years, but they are apocryphal.
2.2.2 Activities and practices
The many facets of amateur radio attract practitioners

with a wide range of interests. Many amateurs begin with
a fascination of radio communication and then combine
Main article: History of amateur radio
other personal interests to make pursuit of the hobby reThe origins of amateur radio can be traced to the late warding. Some of the focal areas amateurs pursue include radio contesting, radio propagation study, public
service communication, technical experimentation, and
computer networking.
2.2.1
History
Amateur radio operators use various modes of transmission to communicate. The two most common modes for
voice transmissions are frequency modulation (FM) and
single sideband (SSB). FM oers high quality audio signals, while SSB is better at long distance communication
when bandwidth is restricted.[9]
Radiotelegraphy using Morse code, also known as CW
from "continuous wave", is the wireless extension of land
line (wired) telegraphy developed by Samuel Morse and
An amateur radio station in the United Kingdom. Multiple dates to the earliest days of radio. Although computertransceivers are employed for dierent bands and modes. Com- based (digital) modes and methods have largely replaced
CW for commercial and military applications, many amputers are used for control, datamodes, SDR and logging.
ateur radio operators still enjoy using the CW mode
19th century, but amateur radio as practiced today began particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental
in the early 20th century. The First Annual Ocial Wire- work, such as earth-moon-earth communication, because
22
of its inherent signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse,
using internationally agreed message encodings such as
the Q code, enables communication between amateurs
who speak dierent languages. It is also popular with
homebrewers and in particular with QRP or very-lowpower enthusiasts, as CW-only transmitters are simpler
to construct, and the human ear-brain signal processing system can pull weak CW signals out of the noise
where voice signals would be totally inaudible. A similar legacy mode popular with home constructors is
amplitude modulation (AM), pursued by many vintage
amateur radio enthusiasts and acionados of vacuum tube
technology.
Demonstrating a prociency in Morse code was for many
years a requirement to obtain an amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes
in international regulations in 2003, countries are no
longer required to demand prociency.[10] The United
States Federal Communications Commission, for example, phased out this requirement for all license classes on
February 23, 2007.[11][12]
NASA astronaut Col. Doug Wheelock, KF5BOC, Expedition 24

ight engineer, operates the NA1SS ham radio station in the
Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station. Equipment is a Kenwood TM-D700E transceiver.
tory rubber duck antenna.[16] Hams also use the moon,

the aurora borealis, and the ionized trails of meteors
as reectors of radio waves.[17] Hams can also contact the International Space Station (ISS) because many
Modern personal computers have encouraged the use of astronauts and cosmonauts are licensed as amateur radio
digital modes such as radioteletype (RTTY) which pre- operators.[18][19]
viously required cumbersome mechanical equipment.[13]
Hams led the development of packet radio in the Amateur radio operators use their amateur radio station
1970s, which has employed protocols such as AX.25 and to make contacts with individual hams as well as particiTCP/IP. Specialized digital modes such as PSK31 allow pating in round table discussion groups or rag chew sesreal-time, low-power communications on the shortwave sions on the air. Some join in regularly scheduled onbands. Echolink using Voice over IP technology has en- air meetings with other amateur radio operators, called
are moderated by a staabled amateurs to communicate through local Internet- "nets" (as in networks), which [20]
tion
referred
to
as
Net
Control.
Nets can allow oper[14]
connected repeaters and radio nodes, while IRLP has
ators
to
learn
procedures
for
emergencies,
be an informal
allowed the linking of repeaters to provide greater covround
table,
or
cover
specic
interests
shared
by a group.
erage area. Automatic link establishment (ALE) has enabled continuous amateur radio networks to operate on Amateur radio operators, using battery- or generatorthe high frequency bands with global coverage. Other powered equipment, often provide essential communicamodes, such as FSK441 using software such as WSJT, tions services when regular channels are unavailable due
are used for weak signal modes including meteor scatter to natural disaster or other disruptive events.
and moonbounce communications.
Fast scan amateur television has gained popularity as hobbyists adapt inexpensive consumer video electronics like
camcorders and video cards in PCs. Because of the wide
bandwidth and stable signals required, amateur television
is typically found in the 70 cm (420 MHz450 MHz) frequency range, though there is also limited use on 33 cm
(902 MHz928 MHz), 23 cm (1240 MHz1300 MHz)
and higher. These requirements also eectively limit the
signal range to between 20 and 60 miles (30 km100 km).
Linked repeater systems, however, can allow transmissions of VHF and higher frequencies across hundreds
of miles.[15] Repeaters are usually located on heights of
land or tall structures and allow operators to communicate over hundreds of miles using hand-held or mobile
transceivers. Repeaters can also be linked together by using other amateur radio bands, landline, or the Internet.
2.2.3 Licensing
All countries that license citizens to use amateur radio
require operators to display knowledge and understanding of key concepts, usually by passing an exam; however some authorities also recognize certain educational
or professional qualications (such as a degree in electrical engineering) in lieu.[21] In response, hams receive
operating privileges in larger segments of the radio frequency spectrum using a wide variety of communication techniques with higher power levels permitted compared to unlicensed personal radio services such as CB radio, Family Radio Service or PMR446 that require typeapproved equipment restricted in frequency, range, and
power.
Amateur licensing is a routine civil administrative matAmateur radio satellites can be accessed, some using a
ter in many countries. Amateurs therein must pass an
hand-held transceiver (HT), even, at times, using the facexamination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operat-
23
els of amateur radio licenses based on technical knowledge: three sequential levels of licensing exams (Technician Class, General Class and Amateur Extra Class) are
currently oered, which allow operators who pass them
access to larger portions of the Amateur Radio spectrum
and more desirable (shorter) call signs.
In some countries, an amateur radio license is necessary in order to purchase or possess amateur radio
equipment.[22] An amateur radio license is only valid in
the country in which it is issued or in another country
that has a reciprocal licensing agreement with the issuing
country.
Both the requirements for and privileges granted to a licensee vary from country to country, but generally follow
The top of a tower supporting a Yagi-Uda antenna and several the international regulations and standards established
wire antennas
by the International Telecommunication Union[23] and
World Radio Conferences.
In most countries, an individual will be assigned a call
sign with their license. In some countries, a separate station license is required for any station used by an amateur radio operator. Amateur radio licenses may also be
granted to organizations or clubs. Some countries only allow ham radio operators to operate club stations. Others,
such as Syria and Cuba restrict all operation by foreigners to club stations only. Radio transmission permits are
closely controlled by nations governments because clandestine uses of radio can be made, and, because radio
waves propagate beyond national boundaries, radio is an
international matter.
Licensing requirements
A handheld VHF/UHF transceiver
ing competence and awareness of legal and regulatory requirements in order to avoid interference with other amateurs and other radio services. A series of exams are often
available, each progressively more challenging and granting more privileges: greater frequency availability, higher
power output, permitted experimentation, and in some
countries, distinctive call signs. Some countries, such as
the United Kingdom and Australia, have begun requiring
a practical training course in addition to the written exams in order to obtain a beginners license, which they
call a Foundation License.
Amateur radio licensing in the United States exemplies the way in which some countries award dierent lev-
Prospective amateur radio operators are examined on

understanding of the key concepts of electronics, radio
equipment, antennas, radio propagation, RF safety, and
the radio regulations of the government granting the license. These examinations are sets of questions typically
posed in either a short answer or multiple-choice format.
Examinations can be administered by bureaucrats, nonpaid certied examiners, or previously licensed amateur
radio operators.
The ease with which an individual can acquire an amateur radio license varies from country to country. In
some countries, examinations may be oered only once
or twice a year in the national capital and can be inordinately bureaucratic (for example in India) or challenging
because some amateurs must undergo dicult security
approval (as in Iran). A handful of countries, currently
only Yemen and North Korea, simply do not issue amateur radio licenses to their citizens, although in both cases
a limited number of foreign visitors have been permitted
to obtain amateur licenses in the past decade. Some developing countries, especially those in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America, require the payment of annual license fees
that can be prohibitively expensive for most of their citizens. A few small countries may not have a national li-
24
censing process and may instead require prospective amateur radio operators to take the licensing examinations
of a foreign country. In countries with the largest numbers of amateur radio licensees, such as Japan, the United
States, Canada, and most of the countries in Europe, there
are frequent license examinations opportunities in major
cities.

ating agreements allowing hams from other countries to
operate within their borders with just their home country
license. Other host countries require that the visiting ham
apply for a formal permit, or even a new host countryissued license, in advance.
The reciprocal recognition of licenses frequently not only
depends on the involved licensing authorities, but also on
the nationality of the bearer. As an example, in the US,
foreign licenses are only recognized if the bearer does not
have US citizenship and holds no US license (which may
dier in terms of operating privileges and restrictions).
Conversely, a US citizen may operate under reciprocal
agreements in Canada, but not a non-US citizen holding
a US license.
Granting a separate license to a club or organization generally requires that an individual with a current and valid
amateur radio license who is in good standing with the
telecommunications authority assumes responsibility for
any operations conducted under the club license or club
call sign. A few countries may issue special licenses to
novices or beginners that do not assign the individual a
call sign but instead require the newly licensed individual
to operate from stations licensed to a club or organization
for a period of time before a higher class of license can Newcomers
be acquired.
Many people start their involvement in amateur radio by
nding a local club. Clubs often provide information
about licensing, local operating practices, and technical
Reciprocal licensing
advice. Newcomers also often study independently by
Further information: Amateur radio international opera- purchasing books or other materials, sometimes with the
tion
help of a mentor, teacher, or friend. Established amateurs
A reciprocal licensing agreement between two countries who help newcomers are often referred to as Elmers,
as coined by Rodney Newkirk, W9BRD,[24] within the
ham community.[25][26] In addition, many countries have
national amateur radio societies which encourage newcomers and work with government communications regulation authorities for the benet of all radio amateurs.
The oldest of these societies is the Wireless Institute of
Australia, formed in 1910; other notable societies are
the Radio Society of Great Britain, the American Radio
Relay League, Radio Amateurs of Canada, Bangladesh
NGOs Network for Radio and Communication, the New
Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters and South
Reciprocal Agreements by Country
African Radio League. (See Category:Amateur radio organizations)
CEPT Member Nations
IARP Member Nations
Members of CEPT and IARP
USA and Canada Treaty, CEPT and IARP
Call signs
Further information: Amateur radio call signs
allows bearers of an amateur radio license in one country

under certain conditions to legally operate an amateur radio station in the other country without having to obtain
an amateur radio license from the country being visited,
or the bearer of a valid license in one country can receive a separate license and a call sign in another country,
both of which have a mutually-agreed reciprocal licensing
approvals. Reciprocal licensing requirements vary from
country to country. Some countries have bilateral or multilateral reciprocal operating agreements allowing hams
to operate within their borders with a single set of requirements. Some countries lack reciprocal licensing systems.
An amateur radio operator uses a call sign on the air to

legally identify the operator or station.[27] In some countries, the call sign assigned to the station must always be
used, whereas in other countries, the call sign of either the
operator or the station may be used.[28] In certain jurisdictions, an operator may also select a vanity call sign
although these must also conform to the issuing governments allocation and structure used for Amateur Radio
call signs.[29] Some jurisdictions, such as the U.S., require
that a fee be paid to obtain such a vanity call sign; in others, such as the UK, a fee is not required and the vanity
When traveling abroad, visiting amateur operators must call sign may be selected when the license is applied for.
follow the rules of the country in which they wish to op- Call sign structure as prescribed by the ITU, consists of
erate. Some countries have reciprocal international oper- three parts which break down as follows, using the call
25
equipment.[36][37] Licensed amateurs can also use any frequency in their bands (rather than being allocated xed
high1. ZS Shows the country from which the call sign frequencies or channels) and can operate medium to[38]
so
powered
equipment
on
a
wide
range
of
frequencies
originates and may also indicate the license class.
long
as
they
meet
certain
technical
parameters
including
(This call sign is licensed in South Africa. CEPT
Class is no longer encoded in South African call- occupied bandwidth, power, and maintenance of spurious
signs. Where specic classes of amateur radio li- emission.
cense exist, the call signs may be assigned by class, Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations
but the specics vary by issuing country.)
throughout the RF spectrum, usually allowing choice of
an eective frequency for communications across a lo2. 1 Gives the subdivision of the country or territory cal, regional, or worldwide path. The shortwave bands,
indicated in the rst part (this one refers to the West- or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and the
ern Cape).
VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional
communication, while the microwave bands have enough
3. NAT The nal part is unique to the holder of the space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions
license, identifying that station specically.
and high-speed computer networks.
sign ZS1NAT as an example:
Many countries do not follow the ITU convention for

the numeral. In the United Kingdom the original calls
G0xxx, G2xxx, G3xxx, G4xxx, were Full (A) License
Holders along with the last M0xxx full call signs issued by the City & Guilds examination authority in December 2003. Additional full licenses were originally
granted in respect of (B) Licensees with G1xxx, G6xxx,
G7xxx, G8xxx and 1991 onward with M1xxx calls. The
newer three level Intermediate licensees are 2E1xxx and
2E0xx and basic Foundation license holders are granted a
M6xxx call sign.[30] In the United States, for non-Vanity
licenses, the numeral indicates the geographical district
the holder resided in when the license was issued. Prior
to 1978, US hams were required to obtain a new call sign
if they moved out of their geographic district.
Also, for smaller entities, a numeral may be part of
the country identication. For example, VP2xxx is in
the British West Indies (subdivided into VP2Exx Anguilla, VP2Mxx Montserrat, and VP2Vxx British Virgin Islands), VP5xxx is in the Turks and Caicos Islands,
VP6xxx is on Pitcairn Island, VP8xxx is in the Falklands,
and VP9xxx is in Bermuda.
Online callbooks or callsign databases can be browsed
or searched to nd out who holds a specic callsign.[31]
Non-exhaustive lists of famous people who hold or have
held amateur radio callsigns have also been compiled and
published.[32]
Many jurisdictions issue specialty vehicle registration
plates to licensed amateur radio operators often in order
to facilitate their movement during an emergency.[33][34]
The fees for application and renewal are usually less than
the standard rate for specialty plates.[33][35]
Privileges
In most administrations, unlike other RF spectrum users,
radio amateurs may build or modify transmitting equipment for their own use within the amateur spectrum without the need to obtain government certication of the
The international symbol for amateur radio, included in the logos of many IARU member societies. The diamond holds a circuit
diagram featuring components common to every radio: an antenna, inductor and ground.
26
In most countries, an amateur radio license grants permission to the license holder to own, modify, and operate
equipment that is not certied by a governmental regulatory agency. This encourages amateur radio operators
to experiment with home-constructed or modied equipment. The use of such equipment must still satisfy national and international standards on spurious emissions.

frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as
radio services in other countries do not suer interference. In some countries, specic emission types are restricted to certain parts of the radio spectrum, and in
most other countries, International Amateur Radio Union
(IARU) member societies adopt voluntary plans to ensure
the most eective use of spectrum.
The amount of output power an amateur radio licensee

may legally use varies from country to country. Although allowable power levels are moderate by commercial standards, they are sucient to enable global communication. Power limits vary from country to country
and between license classes within a country. For example, the peak envelope power limits for the highest
available license classes in a few selected countries are:
2.25 kW in Canada,[39] 1.5 kW in the United States, 1.0
kW in Belgium, Switzerland and New Zealand, 750 W in
Germany, 500 W in Italy, 400 W in Australia, India and
the United Kingdom, and 150 W in Oman. Lower license
classes usually have lower power limits; for example, the
lowest license class in the UK ( Foundation licence ) has
a limit of 10 W. Amateur radio operators are encouraged
both by regulations and tradition of respectful use of the
spectrum to use as little power as possible to accomplish
the communication.[40] This is to minimise interference
or EMC to any other device.
In a few cases, a national telecommunication agency may

also allow hams to use frequencies outside of the internationally allocated amateur radio bands. In Trinidad and
Tobago, hams are allowed to use a repeater which is located on 148.800 MHz. This repeater is used and maintained by the National Emergency Management Agency
(NEMA), but may be used by radio amateurs in times of
emergency or during normal times to test their capability and conduct emergency drills. This repeater can also
be used by non-ham NEMA sta and REACT members.
In Australia and New Zealand ham operators are authorized to use one of the UHF TV channels. In the U.S.,
amateur radio operators providing essential communication needs in connection with the immediate safety of human life and immediate protection of property when normal communication systems are not available may use any
frequency including those of other radio services such as
police and re and in cases of disaster in Alaska may use
the statewide emergency frequency of 5167.5 kHz with
[41]
Output power limits may also depend on the mode of restrictions upon emissions.
transmission. In Australia, for example, 400 W may be Similarly, amateurs in the United States may apply to
used for SSB transmissions, but FM and other modes are be registered with the Military Auxiliary Radio System
limited to 120 W.
(MARS). Once approved and trained, these amateurs also
The point at which power output is measured may also af- operate on US government military frequencies to profect transmissions. The United Kingdom measures at the vide contingency communications and morale message
point the antenna is connected to the signal feed cable, trac support to the military services.
which means the radio system may transmit more than
400 W to overcome signal loss in the cable; conversely,
2.2.4 Modes of communication
Germany measures power at the output of the nal amplication stage, which results in a loss in radiated power
with longer cable feeds.
Certain countries permit amateur radio licence holders to can be tested in the amateur radio service, although nahold a Notice of Variation that allows higher power to be tional regulations may require disclosure of a new mode
used than normally allowed for certain specic purposes. to permit radio licensing authorities to monitor the transE.g. in the UK some amateur radio licence holders are missions. Encryption, for example, is not generally perallowed to transmit using (33dBw) 2.0 kW for experi- mitted in the Amateur Radio service except for the spements entailing using the moon as a passive radio reector cial purpose of satellite vehicle control uplinks. The fol(known as Earth-Moon-Earth communication) (EME).
lowing is a partial list of the modes of communication
used, where the mode includes both modulation types and
Band plans and frequency allocations
Main article: Amateur radio frequency allocations
Voice
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies worldwide, with participation by each nations communications
regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these bandplan


Image
27
Modes by activity
The following modes use no one specic modulation
scheme but rather are classied by the activity of the communication.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME)
Amateur Television, also known as Fast Scan television (ATV)

Slow-Scan Television (SSTV)
Facsimile
Text and data
Continuous Wave (CW)
ALE Automatic Link Establishment
AMateur Teleprinting Over Radio (AMTOR)
D-STAR
Echolink
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)

Satellite (OSCAR- Orbiting Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio)
2.2.5 See also

DX Century Club
List of amateur radio magazines
List of amateur radio organizations
Piracy in amateur and two-way radio
Maritime mobile amateur radio
Worked All States
Anderson Powerpole connector
Hellschreiber, also referred to as either Feld-Hell,

2.2.6
or Hell
References

Tone 63 (MT63)
[1] Sumner, David (August 2011). How Many Hams?". QST

(American Radio Relay League): p. 9.
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) modes

such as
[2] Gernsback, H (May 1909). First Annual Ocial Wireless Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America
(PDF). New York: Modern Electrics Publication. Retrieved 2009-06-19.

Olivia MFSK
Packet radio (AX25)
PACTOR
Phase-Shift Keying
QPSK31
QPSK63
Spread spectrum
[3] "''THE INFLUENCE OF AMATEUR RADIO ON THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMERCIAL MARKET
FOR QUARTZ PIEZOELECTRIC RESONATORS IN
THE UNITED STATES.'' (1996) By Patrick R. J.
Brown, Hewlett Packard Company, Spokane Division.
Bliley.net. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[4] Inventor of IC 'chip', Nobel Prize Winner Jack S. Kilby
Credits Amateur Radio for His Start in Electronics. Nobelprize.org. 2005-06-20. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[5] Role of Amateur Radio in Development Communication of
Bangladesh. Information & Communication Technology
for Development. By Bazlur Rahman
[6] Jim Taylor. Canadian Amateur Radio Bulletin, ''Amateur Radio Saved Lives in South Asia'' (2004-12-29)".
Hfradio.net. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[7] What is Ham Radio?". ARRL.org. Archived from the
original on 4 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
28
[8] Weaver, Bruce D. (January 2003). On the Air Learning.

Teaching Pre K-8 33 (4): 5051. ISSN 0891-4508.
[9] Ham Radio Frequently Asked Questions. ARRL.org.
Archived from the original on 6 May 2010. Retrieved
2010-05-23.
[10] FCC Report and Order 06-178A1 (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. 2006-12-19. p. 7. Retrieved
2007-05-16.
[11] Federal Communications Commission (2007-01-24). 47
CFR Part 97 (PDF). Federal Register (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Oce) 72 (15): 30813082. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
[12] FCC to Drop Morse Testing for All Amateur License
Classes. ARRL.org via UnwiredAdventures.com. 200612-15. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
[13] KH6BB USS Missouri Radio Room Photos. KH6BB
USS Missouri Battleship Radio Room, kh6bb.org. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[14] Valdes, Robert (2001-05-09).
HowStuWorks:
Use of VoIP in Amateur Radio.
Communication.howstuworks.com. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[15] Taggart, Ralph E (April 1993). An Introduction to
Amateur Television (PDF). QST via ARRL.org: 1923.
Archived from the original on June 5, 2007.
[16] Holmstead, Stephen (30 December 1994). Amateur
Satellite FAQ. The Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation. Retrieved 14 March 2010.
[17] Taylor, Joe (December 2001). "WSJT: New Software for
VHF Meteor-Scatter Communication (PDF). QST via
ARRL.org. pp. 3641. Archived from the original on
January 28, 2010.
[18] ARISS: Amateur Radio on the International Space Station. ARRL.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[19] Jurrens, Gerald. Astronaut (and Former Astronaut)
Hams. gjurrens at Tellurian.com. Archived from the
original on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[20] Haag, Jerry. Principles of Amateur Radio Net Control.
SCC-AREA-RACES.org. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[21] brweb (2000-05-01). "''International Telecommunication
Union'', Minimum Qualications For Radio Amateurs.
Itu.int. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[22] Amateur radio licensing in Thailand sect. Equipment
license. The Radio Amateur Society of Thailand 7 August 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
[23] Amateur and Amateur-satellite service. International
Telecommunication Union. Archived from the original on
22 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[26] Wilson, Mark J; Reed, Dana G (2006). The ARRL

Handbook for Radio Communications 2007 (84th ed.).
Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League. ISBN
0-87259-976-0.
[27] Amateur Radio (Intermediate) License (A) or (B) Terms,
Provisions and Limitations Booklet BR68/I.
[28] Amateur Radio (Intermediate) License (A) or (B)
Terms, Provisions and Limitations Booklet BR68/I. Ofcom.org.uk. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
[29] Common Filing Task: Obtaining Vanity Call Sign.
FCC.gov. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
[30] UK Amateur Radio Call Signs (callsigns)". Electronics
and Radio Today. 2010. Archived from the original on
30 April 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
[31] License Search. Universal Licensing System. US Federal Communications Commission. Archived from the
original on 22 August 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
[32] Famous Radio Amateurs 'Hams & Call Signs. Bedworth Lions Club. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
[33] ARRL Web: Amateur Radio License Plate Fees.
Archived from the original on 2007-08-04.
[34] Ham Radio Callsign License Plates (Canada)". Archived
from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 200812-04.
[35] ICBC HAM radio plates. Archived from the original
on 19 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
[36] OFTA, Equipment for Amateur Station: Radio amateurs
are free to choose any radio equipment designed for the
amateur service. Radio amateurs may also design and
build their own equipment provided that the requirements
and limitations specied in the Amateur Station Licence
and Schedules thereto are complied with.
[37] FCC.gov, About Amateur Stations. 'They design, construct, modify, and repair their stations. The FCC equipment authorization program does not generally apply to
amateur station transmitters.'". Wireless.fcc.gov. 200202-19. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
[38] Australian Radio Amateur FAQ. AMPR.org. June 24,
2006. Archived from the original on July 18, 2008.
[39] Industry Canada (September 2007). RBR-4 Standards
for the Operation of Radio Stations in the Amateur Radio
Service, s. 10.2. Government of Canada. Retrieved 21
January 2013.
[40] FCC Part 97 : Sec. 97.313 Transmitter power standards. W5YI.org. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
[41] FCC Part 97 : Sec. 97.401 and 97.403 Emergency Communications. Retrieved 2012-06-21.
[24] 285 TechConnect Radio Club. Na0tc.org. Retrieved

2012-11-22.
General References
[25] ARRL Mentor Program. ARRL.org. Archived from the

original on 2007-10-14.
Australia
2.3. AMATEUR RADIO STATION

(2005). The Foundation Licence Manual: Your Entry into
Canada
The
Canadian
Amateur
Second Printing.
Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada:
Radio
1-895400-08-2
India
29
2.2.7 Further reading

Bergquist, Carl J (May 2001). Ham Radio Operators Guide (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Prompt Publications. ISBN 0-7906-1238-0.
Dennison, Mike; Fielding, John, eds. (2009). Radio Communication Handbook (10th ed.). Bedford,
England: Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN
978-1-905086-54-2.
Haring, Kristen (2007). Ham Radios Technical Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-26208355-8.
Poole, Ian D (October 2001). HF Amateur Radio.
Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, England: Radio Society
of Great Britain. ISBN 1-872309-75-5.
Rohde, Ulrich L; Whitaker, Jerry C (2001). Communications Receivers: DSP, Software Radios, and
Design (3rd ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-136121-9.
The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
2010 (87th ed.). Newington, CT: American Radio
Relay League. November 2009. ISBN 0-87259144-1.
United Kingdom
Betts, Alan (2001). Foundation Licence Now!. London,

Amateur Radio at DMOZ
2.3 Amateur radio station
United States
ISBN 0-87259-881-0
0-87259-900-0
2004. ISBN 0-7645-5987-7
Fixed station of a German amateur radio operator
An amateur radio station is a radio station designed to

provide radiocommunications in the amateur radio service for an amateur radio operator. Radio amateurs build
and operate several types of amateur radio stations, including xed ground stations, mobile stations, space stations, and temporary eld stations. A slang term often used for an amateur stations location is the shack,
30

and other station accessories.
Fixed stations are generally powered from the AC mains
electrical supply available in the building. Some equipment in xed stations may run o low voltage DC instead
of AC, and require a separate power supply. Some xed
stations are equipped with auxiliary sources of power,
such as electrical generators or batteries for use in emergencies.
Mobile stations
Fixed amateur radio station in the United States
named after the small enclosures added to the upperworks of naval ships to hold early radio equipment and
batteries.[1][2]
2.3.1
Types of stations
Fixed stations
An amateur mobile radio station.
An amateur xed station in the United Kingdom.
An amateur radio station established in a permanent

structure with equipment that is not intended for portable
operation is referred to as a xed station. This is the most
common form of amateur radio station, and can be found
in homes, schools, and some public buildings. A typical xed station is equipped with a transceiver and one
or more antennas. For voice communications, the station
will be equipped with a microphone; for communications
using the Morse code, a telegraph key is common; and for
communications over digital modes such as RTTY and
PSK31, a station will be equipped with a specialized interface to connect the transceiver to a computer sound
card. While not a requirement for radiocommunications,
most xed amateur radio stations are equipped with one
or more computers, which serve tasks ranging from logging of contacts with other stations to various levels of
station hardware control. Fixed stations might also be
equipped with ampliers, antenna rotators, SWR meters,
An amateur radio station installed in a vehicle is referred

to as a mobile station. A typical mobile station is equipped
with a transceiver, one or more antennas, and a microphone. The transceiver may be specially designed for
installation in vehicles. It may be much smaller than
transceivers designed for xed station use, to facilitate installation under a seat or in a trunk, and it may feature a
detachable control head that can be mounted in a separate
location from the rest of the radio. Antennas designed for
mobile stations must accommodate the unique physical
constraints of the vehicle and travel lanes which it occupies, allowing for clearance under overpasses and bridges,
and safe passage by vehicles in adjacent lanes. Most antennas used in mobile stations are omnidirectional. Few
mobile stations are equipped to communicate with Morse
code or digital modes. Most mobile stations are designed
to be operated by the vehicle operator while driving.
Most transceivers installed in vehicles are designed to run
on 12-16 VDC, and are generally powered by the starting battery in the vehicle. Because of the power demands
placed on the vehicle battery, most mobile stations either
do not include external ampliers or include ampliers
with power outputs that are more modest than those commonly found in xed stations.
A specialized form of mobile station used for competition in a VHF amateur radio contest in North America is called a rover station. A rover station is often designed to be operated by a passenger in the vehicle rather
than the driver, and may include multiple transceivers,
2.3. AMATEUR RADIO STATION
31
transverters, directional antennas, and a laptop computer power. Because this form of power might be of limto log contacts made.
ited supply, portable stations often operate at lower
While it may not be a regulatory requirement, many mo- transmitter power output to conserve energy.
bile stations will append a /M to end of their call sign
(pronounced as slash mobile on phone) while operating
to identify themselves to other stations as a mobile station.
Rover station operating in a VHF contest will append a /R
to the end of their call sign (pronounced slash rover).
Maritime mobile stations are mobile stations installed in
a watercraft, usually an ocean-going vessel. When in international waters, these stations are operated under the
regulatory authority of the ag under which the vessel is
registered. In addition to the regulatory requirements of
amateur radio, operation of maritime mobile stations also
requires the permission of the captain of the vessel. Maritime mobile stations append a /MM to end of their call
sign (pronounced as slash maritime mobile).
Aeronautical mobile stations are mobile stations installed
in an aircraft. In addition to the regulatory requirements
of amateur radio, operation of aeronautical mobile stations also requires the permission of the pilot of the aircraft. Aeronautical mobile stations append a /AM to end
of their call sign (pronounced as slash aeronautical mobile).
Some portable stations append a /P to end of their call

sign (pronounced as slash portable) to indicate their status as a portable operation. In some countries, this is a
regulatory requirement, whereas in others it is done at the
option of the operator.
Space stations
An amateur radio station that is located in a satellite, the
Space Shuttle, or on the International Space Station is referred to as a space station. Some countries, including
the United States, have additional or dierent regulations
regarding the operation of space stations than other amateur radio stations. Most space stations are located on
satellites that orbit the earth. These stations are frequently
either transponders or repeaters that operate under automatic control and can be used by ground stations (any station that is not a space station) to relay their signal to other
ground stations.
Handheld stations
An amateur radio operator at a portable amateur radio station.
Portable stations An amateur radio station set up in

a temporary location is referred to as a portable station. A portable stations might be established to provide
emergency communications in a disaster area, to provide
public service communications during a large organized
event such as a charity bicycle ride, to provide communications during an expedition, or for the recreational enjoyment of operating outdoors. Portable stations include
the same basic equipment as xed and mobile stations, although transportation of the transceiver, antennas, power
supplies or batteries and necessary accessories often inuences the particular selection. Equipment that does not
weigh very much, or that can be broken down for shipment or transportation in luggage is especially popular
with amateur radio operators travelling on DX-peditions.
A handheld VHF/UHF transceiver, 2007.
Handheld radios contain all the necessary equipment for

radiocommunications with another station. A typical radio used as a handheld station integrates a transceiver
Most portable stations rely upon generator or battery with an antenna and a battery in one handheld package.
32
Most handheld transceivers used in amateur radio are designed for operation on the VHF or UHF amateur radio
bands and most often are capable of only FM voice communications transmissions. To conserve battery power,
they have limited transmitter power, often below 1W, to
cover a local range of typically a few km or miles.
Repeater stations
2.3.3 Station identication

Main article: Amateur radio license
During transmissions, an amateur radio station must identify itself with a call sign issued by the authorized regulatory authority of the country in which the station is located.
Most regulatory agencies worldwide issue amateur radio
call signs to the operator licensee, and not to the station.
An amateur radio station may be operated under the call
sign of the owner of the station or the call sign of the operator of the station. In some countries, special call signs
might be made available for clubs, and are frequently used
at a club station established for use of the clubs members.
An amateur radio repeater is a specialty amateur radio

station that extends the range of communications for
other stations. A repeater uses a receiver tuned to one
radio frequency and a transmitter tuned to another radio
frequency. Other stations using a repeater station transmit on one frequency but listen for signals on the other
frequency. If a repeater station is in a favorable location, 2.3.4 Gallery
such as on a tall tower, the top of a tall building, or on a
Amateur station with separate transmitter, receiver
mountaintop, stations that otherwise would not be able to
and power supply
communicate with each other can each use the repeater
and establish two-way communications.
Amateur station featuring some older transceivers
Repeater stations generally operate under automatic con A compact amateur station in Central London,
trol. The control equipment is responsible for transmitEngland
ting the repeater stations call sign at regular intervals.
This identication is often done in Morse code. Some
A temporary amateur station set up on a kitchen taUS repeater stations append a /R to end of their call sign
ble
or not (used to be required in the 80s and early 90s but no
Amateur station M0TCX featuring modern and old
longer). Some may still have a vanity WR#xxx repeater
transceivers
license where #=0 thru 9 and xxx is any 3 letter combo
but these callsigns are going away when they expire.
Amateur station W6OM featuring all vintage radio
equipment
2.3.2
Computer-control software
2.3.5 References
[1] http://www.radioshackcorporation.com/about/index.
Some modern amateur transceivers have embedded comhtml RadioShack Corporate Information. The name
RadioShack is a nautical term that dates back to the
puters with rmware which is executed to provide the
invention of the radio at the turn of the 20th century.
functions and features of the transceiver. This software
At the time, wireless radio equipment aboard ships was
must be provided by the original manufacturer of the
generally housed above the bridge in a wooden structure
equipment. Another type of software is that required to
called the radio shack. The founders of RadioShack
control a receiver (or transceiver) without a front panel
thought the name appropriate for a new retail business that
provided. Examples of this are the Kenwood TS-B2000
supplied electronic equipment to ham radio operators
and the Ten-Tec Pegasus; both transceivers are sold with
and ships radio ocers.
PC software to provide the human interface for operation.
Most transceivers with front control panels (and many re- [2] http://dictionary.infoplease.com/radio-shack Random
House Unabridged Dictionary by Random House, Inc.,
ceivers popular among shortwave listeners) have a comon Infoplease.
puter interface such as a serial port, USB or Ethernet
port. These ports are useful for satellite-tracking fre[3] May 2009 QST Short Takes software review of CallSign
quency control (Doppler tuning), station logging, digiSoftwares TS-2000 HamStationUltra program Archived
tal operation, internet and special-needs accessibility. In
from the original 2012-04-19.
many cases, the software adds improved or extra functions and features beyond that provided by the original
design. For this reason, some operators purchase radio- 2.3.6 General references
control software for non-computerized operation even if
Australia
their radio has a front control panel.[3]
2.4. QSL
33
(2005). The Foundation License Manual: Your Entry into
Canada
The
Canadian
Amateur
Second Printing.
Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada:
Radio
1-895400-08-2
India
United Kingdom
Betts, Allen (2001). Foundation Licence - Now!. London,
United States
2.4 QSL
QSL may refer to:
Q Code, used to query and conrm receipt of a message, generally used by a radio, television or shortwave broadcasting station
QSL card, cards conrming two way radio communications or reception of radio signals, used by radio
amateurs and shortwave radio stations
Qatar Stars League, highest professional league in
Qatari football
Quantum spin liquid, a state of matter
Quebec Sign Language, sign language used in
Canada
Queensland State League (association football),
statewide semi-professional association football
league
Queensland State League (Australian rules football),
Brisbane-based semi-professional Australian rules
football league
2.4.1 See also

SQL
2.5 Amateur
award
radio
operating

ISBN 0-87259-881-0
0-87259-900-0
2004. ISBN 0-7645-5987-7
The most coveted Amateur Radio operating awards
An amateur radio operating award is earned by an

amateur radio operator for establishing two-way communication (or working) with other amateur radio stations.
Awards are sponsored by national amateur radio societies,
radio enthusiast magazines, or amateur radio clubs, and
34
aim to promote activity on the amateur radio bands. Each

award has its own set of rules and fees. Some awards require the amateur radio operator to have contacted other
stations in a certain number of countries, Maidenhead
grid locators, or counties. Because amateur radio operators are fobidden by regulation to accept nancial compensation for their on-air activity, award recipients generally only receive a certicate, wooden plaque, or a small
trophy as recognition of their award.
Most amateur radio operating awards require that the applicant submit proof, such as QSL cards, of the contacts
which satisfy the requirements of the award.
There are thousands of operating awards available. The
most popular awards are the Worked All States award and
the Worked All Continents award, and the more challenging Worked All Zones, DX Century Club (DXCC), Islands on the Air (IOTA) and VHF/UHF Century Club
(VUCC) awards. DXCC is the most popular awards program, initially requiring amateurs to contact 100 of the
340 (as of 2015) separately designated countries and territories (entities) in the world. Other popular awards
include contacting remote islands, US counties, and lighthouses. Many awards are available for contacting amateurs in a particular country, region or city.
2.5.1
Special event stations
Many amateurs also enjoy setting up and contacting special event stations. Set up to commemorate special occurrences, they often issue distinctive QSLs or certicates. Some use unusual prexes, such as the call signs
with 96 that amateurs in the US State of Georgia could
use during the 1996 Atlanta Olympics,[1] or the OO prex
used by Belgian amateurs in 2005 to commemorate their
nations 175th anniversary.[2] (Not surprisingly, there are
also awards for working sucient numbers of prexes.)
Some events are held annually such as Guides on the Air
and Jamboree on the Air. Many amateurs decorate their
radio shacks (the room where they keep their radios)
with these certicates.
2.5.2
References
[1] ARRLWeb: W1AW Bulletin ARLX010 (1996)".

American Radio Relay League. Archived from the original on September 11, 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[2] Nicolay, Paul. Special Calls. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
2.5.3
See also
DX Century Club
VHF/UHF Century Club
Worked All States

Worked All Zones
cashota UK
Cashota-NI
Chapter 3
Technics Involved
3.1 Call sign
In broadcasting and radio communications, a call sign
(also known as a call name or call lettersand historically as a call signalor abbreviated as a call) is a
unique designation for a transmitting station. In North
America[1] they are used as names for broadcasting stations. A call sign can be formally assigned by a government agency, informally adopted by individuals or organizations, or even cryptographically encoded to disguise
a stations identity.
The use of call signs as unique identiers dates to the
landline railroad telegraph system. Because there was
only one telegraph line linking all railroad stations, there
needed to be a way to address each one when sending
a telegram. In order to save time, two-letter identiers
were adopted for this purpose. This pattern continued
in radiotelegraph operation; radio companies initially assigned two-letter identiers to coastal stations and stations
aboard ships at sea. These were not globally unique, so
a one-letter company identier (for instance, 'M' and two
letters as a Marconi Station) was later added. By 1912,
the need to quickly identify stations operated by multiple
companies in multiple nations required an international
standard; an ITU prex would be used to identify a country, and the rest of the call sign an individual station in
that country.[2]
3.1.1
Ships and boats
One of the earliest applications of radiotelegraph operation, long predating broadcast radio, were marine radio
stations installed aboard ships at sea. In the absence of
international standards, early transmitters constructed after Guglielmo Marconi's rst trans-Atlantic message in
1901 were issued arbitrary two-letter calls by radio companies, alone or later preceded by a one-letter company
identier. These mimicked an earlier railroad telegraph
convention where short, two-letter identiers served as
Morse code abbreviations to denote the various individual stations on the line (for instance, AX could represent
Halifax). 'N' and two letters would identify US Navy; 'M'
and two letters would be a Marconi Station. On April
14, 1912, the RMS Titanic station MGY, busily deliver-
Russian Nuclear Icebreaker Arktika with call sign UKTY
ing telegram trac from ships passengers to the coastal

station at Cape Race, Newfoundland (call sign MCE),
would receive warnings of ice elds from Marconi stations aboard the M.V. Mesaba (call sign MMU) and the
S.S. Californian (call sign MWL).[3] Its distress call CQD
CQD CQD CQD CQD CQD DE MGY MGY MGY MGY
MGY MGY position 41.44N 50.24W would be answered
by a station aboard the Carpathia (call sign MPA).[4] Later
that same year, an international conference standardised
radio call signs so that the rst two letters would uniquely
identify a transmitters country of origin.
Merchant and naval vessels are assigned call signs by their
national licensing authorities. In the case of states such
as Liberia or Panama, which are ags of convenience for
ship registration, call signs for larger vessels consist of the
national prex plus three letters (for example, 3LXY, and
sometimes followed by a number, i.e. 3Lxy2). United
States merchant vessels are given call signs beginning
with the letters W or K while US naval ships are
assigned callsigns beginning with N. Originally both
ships and broadcast stations were given call signs in this
series consisting of three or four letters, but as demand for
both marine radio and broadcast call signs grew, gradually American-agged vessels were given longer call signs
with mixed letters and numbers.
As broadcast stations became commonplace in the 1920s,
some original three and four-letter call signs were reassigned as the corresponding ships were removed from
U.S. registry. The WSB call sign had been held by two
35
36
ships (the SS Francis H. Leggett, shipwrecked o Oregon's
coast on September 18, 1914, and later the Firwood, a
ship destroyed by re near Peru on December 18, 1919[5] )
before being assigned to the Atlanta Journal for use by its
presumably unsinkable Atlanta, Georgia broadcast radio
station in 1922. Similarly WEZU, the international radio
call sign of the ship SS Lash Atlantico, was assigned in
1997 to a broadcast station.[6] Additional call signs would
be reassigned to coastal stations or moved from marine radio to terrestrial broadcast radio when ships were sold for
registration to foreign nations, as the new owners would
obtain new, local call signs for any existing shipboard radio stations.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNICS INVOLVED

sign is spoken using the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) phonetic alphabet. Aircraft registration
numbers internationally follow the pattern of a country
prex, followed by a unique identier made up of letters and numbers. For example, an aircraft registered as
N978CP conducting a general aviation ight would use
the call sign November-niner-seven-eight-Charlie-Papa.
However, in the United States a pilot of an aircraft would
normally omit saying November, and instead use the name
of the aircraft manufacturer or the specic model. At
times, general aviation pilots might omit additional preceding numbers and use only the last three numbers and
letters. This is especially true at uncontrolled elds (those
without control towers) when reporting trac pattern positions, or at towered airports after establishing two-way
communication with the tower controller. For example,
Skyhawk eight-Charlie-Papa, left base (see below).
Leisure craft with VHF radios may not be assigned call

signs, in which case the name of the vessel is used instead.
Ships in the US wishing to have a radio licence anyway are
under F.C.C. class SA: Ship recreational or voluntarily
equipped. Those calls follow the land mobile format of In most countries, the aircraft call sign or tail numthe initial letter K or W followed by 1 or 2 letters followed ber"/"tail letters (also known as registration marks) are
by 3 or 4 numbers (such as KX0983 or WXX0029).
linked to the international radio call sign allocation table
U.S. Coast Guard small boats have a number that is shown and follow a convention that aircraft radio stations (and,
on both bows (i.e. port and starboard) in which the rst by extension, the aircraft itself) receive call signs consisttwo digits indicate the nominal length of the boat in feet. ing of ve letters. For example, all British civil aircraft
For example, Coast Guard 47021 refers to the 21st in the have a ve-letter call sign beginning with the letter G.
series of 47 foot motor lifeboats. The call sign might be Canadian aircraft have a call sign beginning with CF or
abbreviated to the nal two or three numbers during op- CG, such as CFABC. Wing In Ground-eect vehicles
(hovercraft) in Canada are eligible to receive CHxxx call
erations, for example: Coast Guard zero two one.
signs, and ultralight aircraft receive C-Ixxx call signs. In
days gone by, even American aircraft used ve letter call
signs, such as KHABC, but they were replaced prior to
3.1.2 Aviation
World War II by the current American system of civilian
aircraft call signs (see below).
The dash ("-") in the registration is only included on the
fuselage of the airplane for readability. In air trac management systems (ATC radar screen, ow management
systems, etc.) and on ight plan forms, the dash is not
used (e.g. PHVHA, FABCD, CFABC).
After an aircraft has made contact with an air trac control facility, the call sign may be abbreviated. Sometimes
the aircraft make or model is used in front of the full or
abbreviated call sign, for instance, the American aircraft
mentioned above might then use Cessna Eight-CharliePapa. Alternatively, the initial letter of the call sign can
be concatenated with the nal two or three characters,
for instance a British aircraft registered GBFRM may
A general aviation aircraft in the United States with its FAA civil- identify as GolfRomeoMike while the American airian registration number (N98710), which also doubles as its call
craft might use NovemberEight-Charlie-Papa. The use
sign, displayed on the fuselage. However, since this is a Civil Air
of
abbreviated call signs has its dangers, in the case when
Patrol aircraft, it will generally be identied by CAPxxxx, based
aircraft
with similar call signs are in the same vicinity.
on the state from which it hails.
Therefore abbreviated signs are used only so long as it is
[7]
Call signs in aviation are derived from several dierent unambiguous.
policies, depending upon the type of ight operation and The United States does not follow the ve-letter call sign
whether or not the caller is in an aircraft or at a ground convention, and in that country the registration number
facility. In most countries, unscheduled general aviation begins with the letter N followed by up to ve digits
ights identify themselves using the call sign correspond- and/or letters in one of these schemes: one to ve numing to the aircrafts registration number (also called N- bers (N12345), one to four numbers and one sux letter
number in the U.S., or tail number). In this case, the call
3.1. CALL SIGN
37
(N1234Z), or one to three numbers and two sux let- operators that they are on an air ambulance mission at the
ters (N123AZ). The numeric part of the registration never beginning of their ight and do not change from one constarts with zero.
troller to another. The Life Flight air ambulance service,
Commercial operators, including scheduled airline, air for example, might simply identify as Life-Flight Three.
will
cargo and air taxi operators, will usually use an ICAO An aircraft that has declared an in-ight emergency
[10]
sometimes
prex
the
word
Mayday
to
its
call
sign.
or FAA-registered call sign for their company. By ICAO
Annex 10 Chapter 5.2.1.7.2.1 - Full call signs type C, a
call sign consists out of the telephony designator of the
aircraft operating agency, followed by the ight identication. The ight identication is very often the same as
the ight number, but could be dierent due to call sign
confusion, if two or more ights close to each other have
similar ight numbers (i.e. KLM649 and KLM645 or
BAW466 and BAW646). For example, British Airways
ight 75 would use the call sign Speedbird SevenFive,
since Speedbird is the telephony designator for British
Airways and 75 would be the ight identication. (The
telephony designator is not the same as the call sign, although the two are sometimes conated). Pan Am had
the telephony designator of Clipper. (see list)
For these call signs, proper usage varies by country.
In some countries, such as the United States, numbers
are spoken normally (for the example above, Speedbird
Seventy-ve) instead of being spelled out digit by digit,
leading to the possibility of confusion. In most other
countries, including the United Kingdom, they are spelled
out.[8] Air taxi operators in the United States sometimes
do not have a registered call sign, in which case the prex T is used, followed by the aircraft registration number (e.g. Tango- November-Niner-Seven-Eight-CharliePapa).
Some variations of call signs exist to express safety concerns to all operators and controllers monitoring the
transmissions. Aircraft call signs will use the sux
"heavy" for heavy aircraft, to indicate an aircraft that is
going to cause signicant wake turbulence, e.g. United
Two-Five Heavy; All aircraft capable of operating with
a gross take-o weight of more than 300,000 lbs. must
use this sux whether or not they are operating at this
weight during a particular phase of ight. These are typically Boeing 747, some models of the 757, 777, or 767,
Airbus A340, A330 and A300, McDonnell Douglas DC10 or MD-11, or Lockheed L-1011 aircraft. The sufx super is used for the Airbus A380.[9] For air ambulance services or other ights involving the safety of
life (such as aircraft carrying a person who has suered
a heart attack), lifeguard is added to the call sign. For
ights in which life is not in direct danger (such as transporting organs for transplant), the call sign prex PanPan-Medical is used before the normal call sign, e.g.
Pan-Pan-Medical Three-Three-Alpha, Pan-Pan-Medical
Northwest Four-Five-Eight, or Pan-Pan-Medical Singapore Niner-Two-Three. Pan Pan (pronounced pahnpahn) is the voice radio signal for urgent, while Mayday is the voice radio signal for distress. The word may
be omitted for air ambulance services with assigned call
signs, especially when they have notied air trac control
Formerly one of the rarest call signs, Concorde, was

once used to identify British Airways Concorde aircraft.
The intent of this call sign was to raise the air trac control operators awareness of the unique performance of
the aircraft and the special attention it required. The call
sign was appended to British Airways' normal radio call
sign, e.g. Speedbird-Concorde One.[11] In normal service, Air France did not use it at all; its Concorde ights
simply used the standard Airfrans call sign.
Glider pilots often can use any of three dierent call
signs. Since most (not all) gliders now show standard
CAA general aviation registrations e.g. G-xxxx they can
call using the same call sign and abbreviation rules as
other light aircraft. This has long been in the case in
the United States. Before these registrations came in (between 2004 and 2008) they used to use and normally still
do use either a three letter code issued to all gliders by the
British Gliding Association known as the aircrafts Trigraph e.g. XYZ normally calling ATC as Glider X-ray,
Yankee, Zulu or if they paid extra could get from the
BGA a numeric or mixed numeric and letter code known
as a competition number for marking their aircraft and as
a call sign. For Example R4 Romeo Four, or 26 Two
Six or F1 Foxtrot One. Optionally gliders will normally tag on the Glider in front of their call sign when
calling ATC units so that the controller knows for example that the glider will be unable to maintain a particular height as Gliders are normally either descending in a
straight glide or circling to climb. Some gliders are still
not required to carry a CAA General Aviation type registration as they are older designs or prototypes and can
therefore only continue to just use their Trigraph or Competition number as a call sign. These are known as Annex
II aircraft as they are listed in EASA Annex II.
Military ights often use more than one call sign during
a ight. Administrative call signs are used with air trac
control facilities similar to those of commercial operators. e.g. Navy Alpha-Golf-Two-One, Reach-Three-OneSeven-Niner Two.
Tactical call signs are used during tactical portions of a
ight, and they often indicate the mission of the ight
and/or an aircrafts position in a formation.
For example, Canadian Air Force 442 Rescue Squadron,
based at Comox, British Columbia uses the call sign
Snake 90x depending on the tail number of the helicopter: 901, 902, etc. When tasked on a search and
rescue (SAR) mission, however, the aircraft call sign becomes Rescue 90x.
Ground facilities identify themselves by the name and
function of the facility: e.g. Seattle Tower for the tower
38
air trac control operators position, SoCal Approach for

a TRACON, or Boston Center for an Area Control Center.
All other ICAO countries around the world, for example
the European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA), use Control or Radar instead of Center in their airspace. (Langen Radar, Brussels Control, Paris Control, ...). London
Centre (center) is the emergency frequency call sign for
London Terminal Control TC.
(Command/Service Module (CSM) and Lunar Module

(LM)) on each ight, which required the use of separate call signs for each vehicle when they ew independently of each other. For this reason, NASA permitted
the three-man crews to name both craft for each of their
missions, and these names were used as the call signs. A
temporary exception to this was on the rst Moon landing, Apollo 11: since the rst Moon landing site was in
the Sea of Tranquillity, the call sign Tranquillity Base was
The ICAO 24bit transponder code is intended for nonused while the LM was on the lunar surface. Before and
human usage in the Mode-S and ADS-B protocols.
after independent ight of the LM, the mission number
was used as the call sign. The Apollo call signs were:
FAA aircraft identication regulations
For project Skylab, the practice returned to using the mission name as the spacecraft call sign, since the Skylab staThe Federal Aviation Administration regulates call sign
tion was always unmanned while the shuttle vehicle (an
standards within United States airspace. These convenApollo CSM) carried a crew to it or back to Earth.
tions are generally used world wide.[12]
The six Space Shuttle orbiters were given individual
names (they also had letter-and-number callsigns) by
3.1.3 Spacecraft
NASA, which were used as the call signs: Enterprise
(OV-101, which was not tted for spaceight), Columbia
Radio call signs used for communication in manned (OV-102), Challenger (OV-099), Discovery (OV-103),
spaceight is not formalized or regulated to the same de- Atlantis (OV-104), and Endeavour (OV-105). Of these,
gree as for aircraft. The three nations currently launching Columbia, Challenger, and Endeavour had previously
manned space missions use dierent methods to identify served as call-signs of Apollo spacecraft.
the ground and space radio stations; the United States uses
either the names given to the space vehicles, or else the
project name and mission number. Russia traditionally Russia (including former Soviet Union)
assigns code names as call signs to individual cosmonauts,
more in the manner of aviator call signs, rather than to the Main article: Soviet spacecraft call signs
spacecraft.
The rst man in space, Yuri Gagarin, was given the call
sign Kedr (cedar in Russian) aboard Vostok 1, and the
United States
rst woman, Valentina Tereshkova, was Chaika (Seagull) on Vostok 6. Flight control used the call sign Zarya,
In Americas rst manned space program Project Mermeaning dawn.
cury, the astronauts named their individual spacecraft.
These names each consisted of a signicant word fol- When the Voskhod multi-pilot spacecraft ew, the call
lowed by the number 7 (representing the seven original sign was assigned to the command pilot, and this was
astronauts), and were used as the call signs by the capsule suxed with the number 2 or 3 to designate subordinate crew members by rank. On Voskhod 1, comcommunicators (CAPCOMs).
mand pilot Vladimir Komarov was Ruby 1, ight engineer
In Project Gemini, the astronauts were not ocially perKonstantin Feoktistov was Ruby 2, and medical doctor
mitted to name their two-man spacecraft, which was idenBoris Yegorov was Ruby 3. On Voskhod 2, command pitied by Gemini followed by the mission number (3
lot Pavel Belyayev was Diamond 1, and Alexey Leonov,
through 12). A notable exception was that Gus Grissom
the rst man to walk in space, was Diamond 2.
named his Gemini 3 spacecraft Molly Brown after the
Titanic survivor, as a joke based on his experience with
his Liberty Bell 7 capsule sinking. This name was used International Space Station
as a call sign by CAPCOM L. Gordon Cooper, without
NASAs approval.
The call sign of the International Space Station was AlStarting with the second ight Gemini 4, NASA used the pha, now Station.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center to house the ight control center, and its call sign was Houston, chosen for its
3.1.4
location. This practice continues to this day.
Amateur radio
The practice of using the mission number continued Further information: ITU prex - amateur and experithrough the rst two ights of the Project Apollo manned mental stations
lunar landing program, Apollo 7 and Apollo 8. But all re- Amateur radio call signs are in the international series
maining Apollo missions included two manned spacecraft and normally consist of a one or two character prex, a
3.1. CALL SIGN
39
When identifying a station by voice, the call sign may be
given by simply stating the letters and numbers, or using
a phonetic alphabet. Some countries mandate the use of
the phonetic alphabet for identication.
3.1.5 Broadcast call signs
Some U.S. states issue call sign license plates for motor vehicles
owned by amateur radio operators.
While broadcast radio stations will often brand themselves with plain-text names, identities such as "cool FM",
"rock 105 or the ABC network are not globally unique.
Another station in another city or country may (and often
will) have a similar brand; the name of a broadcast station
for legal purposes is therefore normally its ITU call sign.
North America
digit (which may be used to denote a geographical area,

class of license, or identify a licensee as a visitor or temporary resident), and a 1, 2, or 3 letter sux. In Australia call signs are structured with a two letter prex,
a digit (which identies geographical area), and a 2, 3
or 4 letter sux. This sux may be followed by a further sux, or personal identier, such as /P (portable),
/M (mobile), /AM (aeronautical mobile) or /MM (maritime mobile). The number following the prex is normally a single number (0 to 9). Some prexes, such as
Djiboutis (J2), consist of a letter followed by a number.
Hence, in the hypothetical Djibouti call sign, J29DBA,
the prex is J2, the number is 9, and the sux is DBA.
Others may start with a number followed by a letter, for
example, Jamaican call signs begin with 6Y. When operating with reciprocal agreements under the jurisdiction
of a foreign government, an identifying station pre-pends
the call sign with the country prex and number of the
country/territory from which the operation is occurring.
For example, W4/G3ABC would denote a licensed amateur from the United Kingdom who is operating in the
fourth district of the United States. There are exceptions;
in the case of U.S./Canadian reciprocal operations, the
country/territory identier is, instead, appended to the
call sign; e.g., W1AW/VE4, or VE3XYZ/W1.
Occasionally, special call signs are issued in the amateur
radio service either for special purposes, VIPs, or for
temporary use to commemorate special events. Examples include VO1S (VO1 as a Dominion of Newfoundland call sign prex, S to commemorate Marconi's rst
trans-Atlantic message, a single-character Morse code S
sent from Cornwall, England to Signal Hill, St. Johns in
1901) and GB90MGY (GB as a Great Britain call sign
prex, 90 and MGY to commemorate the 90th anniversary of historic 1912 radio distress calls from MGY, the
Marconi station aboard the famed White Star luxury liner
RMS Titanic).[14]
Main article: Call signs in North America

See also: List of radio stations in North America by
media market
Broadcast stations in North America generally use call
signs in the international series. There are some common conventions followed in each country. In the United
States, the rst letter generally is K for stations west of
the Mississippi River and W for those east of the Mississippi; all new call signs have been 4-character for some
decades, though there are historical 3-character call letters still in use today, such as KSL in Salt Lake City and
WGN in Chicago.
There are a number of exceptions to the east/west rule,
such as KDKA in Pittsburgh and WFAA in DallasFort Worth, but these are historical artifacts from a rule
change in the 1920s, and most of the exceptions are
located in the states immediately to either side of the
river, in the state of Louisiana in the metropolitan areas of Baton Rouge and Greater New Orleans, and markets north of the rivers source such as FargoMoorhead
and DuluthSuperior. The westernmost station in the
continental United States beginning with W is WOAI
in San Antonio. WVUV-LP in Pago Pago, American
Samoa, was the westernmost station with a W call sign
until 2008. KYW in Philadelphia (which originated in
Chicago in 1921, moved to Philadelphia in 1934, and existed in Cleveland in the late 1950s/early 1960s) is now
the easternmost station with a K call sign.
Another exception to this is that all time-broadcasting
stations have a three or four letter call sign beginning
with WWV. The three current government-operated time
stations, WWV (and longwave sister station WWVB),
and WWVH, are located in Fort Collins, Colorado and
Kekaha, Hawaii, respectively, both of which would normally use call signs beginning with K.
The late King Hussein of Jordan was issued a special amateur license number, JY1, which would have been the The US government-operated international broadcaster
shortest possible call sign issued by the Hashemite King- the Voice of America no longer has call signs assigned
to it; however Radio Canada International's transmitter in
dom of Jordan.
40

for ABC Classic FM, xABCRN for Radio National, and
xABCRR for ABC Local Radio - the x being the state
number. Also, SBS FM radio stations use a ve-letter call
sign, xSBSFM. (Sydney and Melbournes AM stations use
2EA and 3EA, meaning Ethnic Australia.)
There are a number of exceptions:
A 1940 QSL card for WWV, indicating its early location in the
U.S. state of Maryland.
Sackville, NB is still assigned CKCX. Privately operated

shortwave stations, like WWCR and CFRX, also have call
signs.
In Canada, the publicly owned Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation uses CBC Radio; privately owned commercial broadcast stations use primarily CF and CH through
CK prexes; and four stations licensed to St. Johns by
the Dominion of Newfoundland government retain their
original VO calls.
In Mexico, AM radio stations use XE call signs (such as
XEW-AM), while the majority of FM radio and television stations use XH. Broadcast call signs are normally
four or ve alpha characters in length, plus the -FM or
-TV sux where applicable.
Australia
Further information: List of Australian radio station
callsigns and List of Australian television callsigns
Callsigns are allocated by the Australian Communications
and Media Authority and are unique for each broadcast
station. The use of callsigns on-air in both radio and television in Australia is optional, so many stations used other
on-air identications. Australian broadcast stations ocially have the prex VL- and originally all callsigns used
that format, but since Australia has no nearby neighbors,
this prex is no longer used except in an international context.
All radio call signs begin with a single-digit number indicating the state or territory, followed by two or three letters. In most cases, two letters are used for AM stations
and three for FM, but there are some exceptions, such as
5UV in Adelaide, which broadcasts on an FM frequency,
and 3RPH in Melbourne, which broadcasts on an AM
frequency. While some AM stations retained their old
call signs when moving to FM, most add an extra letter to
the call sign. For instance, when 7HO Hobart became an
FM station, it adopted the callsign 7HHO. Certain ABC
radio stations, particularly outside of metropolitan areas,
may use ve-letter call signs for FM stations: xABCFM
For some time, two radio stations used the callsign 4CCC - a commercial station in Charleville
and a community station in Warwick, both in
Queensland.[15] The Warwick stations call sign was
later changed to 4SDB.[16] In addition, a temporary
community broadcaster, 4CCC Coral Coast Country Community Radio Inc, uses the name 4CCC,
though it does not have a callsign.[17]
Rebel FM, The Breeze, and Flow FM, which have
many transmitters in Regional and Remote Central and Eastern Australia, use the callsigns 4RBL,
4BRZ and 8SAT respectively, regardless of which
state their transmitters are located in.[15][16]
Radio Station 1RPH Canberra, Australian Capital Territory has relay transmitters in New South
Wales[15][16]
The following Victorian stations also have relay
transmitters in New south Wales: 3HOT and
3RUM.[15][16]
The following New South Wales stations also have
relay transmitters in Victoria: 2AAY, 2BDR and
2MOR.[15][16]
The following New South Wales stations also
have relay transmitters in Queensland: 2MW and
2TEN.[15][16]
8KIN Alice Springs, Northern Territory has a relay
transmitter in Pasminco Century Mine, Queensland,
and several in South Australia.[15][16]
3MBR Murrayville, Victoria has a relay transmitter
in Lameroo, South Australia.[15][16]
The Nhulumbuy, Northern Territory transmitter for
triple J has the callsign 6JJJ.[15][16]
Open narrowcast radio stations have no ocial call
sign, though some stations use one (e.g. 3XY Radio
Hellas in Melbourne).
Television station call signs begin with two letters usually
denoting the station itself, followed by a third letter denoting the state. For example, NBN's call sign stands for
Newcastle Broadcasting, New South Wales. There are
some exceptions:
Many ABC television stations outside of state capitals add a fourth letter (and in rare cases a fth) between AB and the state. This is used to denote the
3.1. CALL SIGN

area, e.g. the Newcastle station is known as ABHN,
standing for Australian Broadcasting Corporation,
Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Some state capital stations follow the same rule as commercial stations, also using AB as the rst two letters; for example, ABV is Melbournes ABC television station.
41
* Originally, radio callsigns in the ACT had the format
2xx(x), like those in New South Wales. However, newer
stations in the territory have been allocated callsigns with
the format 1xxx. See List of radio station callsigns in the
Australian Capital Territory for more information.
** Formerly 9. Radio stations in Lord Howe Island and

Many ABC television stations now have the call sign Norfolk Island now use the same call sign format as New
ABC, regardless of which state or territory they are South Wales. Radio and television stations in Cocos
(Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island now use the same
in.
call sign format as Western Australia.
SBS television stations all use SBS in their call signs,
regardless of the state.
New Zealand
Commercial station Imparja Television uses IMP,
even though they are based in Alice Springs in the The use of broadcast call signs in New Zealand historiNorthern Territory.
cally consisted of a digit, and two letters for AM or three
for FM. The usage was:
CTC's stations in southern New south Wales also use
CTC as their call sign.
Number
CBN and WIN also use CBN and WIN as their re 1 - Northern half of the North Island
spective call signs for stations in the Australian Cap 2 - Southern half of the North Island, and
ital Territory.
Marlborough and Nelson regions of the South
GLV/BCV, AMV and VTV use GLV, BCV, AMV
Island
and VTV as call signsin for their respective stations
3 - South Island, north of the Waitaki River,
in border areas of southern New South Wales (e.g.
excluding Marlborough & Nelson
Balranald, Deniliquin, Albury North).
4 - South Island, south of the Waitaki River
NBN, NEN and NRN stations that serve Mur First letter
willumbah, New South Wales, use the call signs
NBN, NEN and NRN respectively, even though
X - private commercial station
their transmitters are located in Springbrook,
Y - Radio NZ, non-commercial (National ProQueensland.
gramme, Concert Programme) and Access
NBN, NEN and NRN stations in south-east QueensRadio Wellington (2YB)
land also use these call signs (e.g. the Gold Coast).
Z - Radio NZ, commercial (now mostly The
Radio Network)
Central Digital Television stations have the call sign
CDT despite only a small fraction of its license area
covering parts of Tasmania.
Initial government television call signs had the format of
a two letter region code, followed by two letters of TV
Southern Cross Central stations in regional and rewith a single digit referring to the VHF channel assignmote central and eastern Australia use QQQ even
ment.
for stations outside Queensland.
Various indigenous community television stations

in regional and remote Australia have the call sign
ACT (for Aboriginal Community Television) even
though they're not in Tasmania.
Open narrowcast television stations have no ocial
call sign.
Two letters
AK - Auckland
WN - Wellington
CH - Christchurch
DN - Dunedin
Two letters - TV
Amateur radio in Australia has its own set of call signs,
managed by the Wireless Institute of Australia, starting
Single digit - VHF band I channel
with the prex VK, the state identier, and then 2,3,
or 4 letters. Foundation licence holders have the letter For example 1ZB was a Radio NZ commercial staF after the state identier e.g.: VK3FGCP indicates a tion in Auckland; 4XF was Foveaux Radio in Invercargill
Foundation Licence holder in the State of Victoria.[18]
(now More FM); 4YC was the Concert Programme in
Letters and numbers used by Australian stations:
Dunedin.
42
FM stations appeared to have no standard format for the
letters, just picking three that 't' the station. To make
matters more confusing, some stations such as 4ZA-FM
(now Classic Hits Southland 98.8FM) and 4XO Gold
(now More FM Dunedin) retained their AM call signs.
Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin as major centres for the four regions had specic Radio NZ call
signs used:
xYA - National Programme
xYC - Concert Programme
xZB - Community Network commercial
xZM - Music commercial (except Dunedin)
During the early 1990s the use of call signs became less
common, to the point that most broadcasters do not use
them at all. Some are retained in some form for branding
- for example, 4XO Dunedin (until it was rebranded More
FM Dunedin in 2004), Newstalk ZB (using the old 1ZB,
2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB and various other Radio NZ commercial
frequencies) and ZM (originally ZMFM, replacing the old
1ZM, 2ZM and 3ZM, now nationwide). Stations licensed
since 1990 have not had call signs allocated.
With consolidation in the commercial radio market, the
only stations now using a call sign in New Zealand are
the long-established 1XX in the Bay of Plenty, and the
recently arrived (2005) LPFM Primetime 1ZZ in the Bay
of Islands, whose call sign is self-assigned.

LRG - LRT In Neuquen, La Pampa, Rio Negro
LRH - LRR In Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Misiones
LRI - LRM - LRP - LRS In Santa Fe, Buenos Aires,
Entre Ros
LRJ - LRN - LRT in Cordoba, Mendoza, San Luis,
La Rioja, San Juan
LRK - LRQ in Salta, Jujuy, San Juan, Catamarca,
Santiago del Estero
LRL - In Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos aires an his
Metropolitan Area (but not exclusively, a station in
Santa Fe has been assigned with this call sign)
For instance, LRL 421 is Canal 21 in Buenos Aires.
There are other Callsigns almost unused, I.E. AYP 75
FM 99.5 MHz. in Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires,
and LOL Observatorio Naval (National Observatory, a
time signal station which operates in Shortwave.
Brazil
In Brazil, some radio stations still broadcast their call
signs a few times a day, but this practice is becoming very
rare. For TV and radio stations the letters ZY are used,
plus one letter (ZYA and ZYB for television stations, ZYI,
ZYJ, ZYL and ZYK for AM stations, ZYG for shortwave
stations, ZYC, ZYD, ZYM and ZYU for FM stations) and
three numbers. For example, ZYB-883 (analog ch. 18)
is TV Tribuna in Santos.
Argentina
In Argentina, some radio and TV stations still broadcast
their call signs a few times a day, but this practice is becoming very rare. Call signs consist of two (or, more recently, three) letters followed by multiple numbers. The
second letter, as used in television call signs from the
1960s, traditionally indicated the region; LS call signs
were given to stations in Buenos Aires, LT in the northeastern region, LU in the southern region, LV in the central region and LW in the northwestern region. (LR was
used for some radio stations, especially in Buenos Aires;
the earliest radio stations in the Argentine capital had call
signs of LR plus one digit.) Most TV stations had call
signs with higher two-digit numbers. The ve main stations in the Buenos Aires area had call signs from LS 82
to LS 86, while stations in Rosario, Santa Fe had call signs
LT 83 and LT 85.
Europe and Asia

In Europe and much of Asia, call signs are normally not
used for broadcast stations. Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan are exceptions to this general rule. Other countries have other formats for assigning call signs to domestic services. In Europe it is quite
frequent that instead of regular call signs abbreviations
of the stations names are used (e.g. ARD, RTL in Germany, ORF in Austria, BBC, ITV or SKY in the United
Kingdom, TF1 in France, TV3 in Spain, etc.). In most of
Europe, TV and radio stations have unique names, such
as ProSieben in Germany, France 2 in France, Nova Television in Bulgaria, Antena 3 in Spain, etc.
In Britain, there is no call sign in the American sense. Instead, a trade mark system is used. A broadcaster can
Since 2000 or earlier, call signs beginning with LR and a call their station what they like, so long as its not obscene, racist, sexist, homophobic/transphobic, libellous,
third letter, as well as have been assigned,
infringes someone elses trade mark or leads to contempt
of court. The rules set by Ofcom are very clear:
LRA exclusively assigned to Radio Nacional, regardless of its location, or mode of transmission.
Call-signs will not be permitted if they are
LRF - LRU In Tierra del Fuego, Chubut, Santa Cruz
likely to cause oence, or if they are likely to
3.1. CALL SIGN

mislead listeners as to the nature of the service.
They are agreed on the understanding that the
applicant will have cleared all necessary right
and trade-marking issues.[19]
43
AA - YZ
AAA - PZZ
RAA - YZZ
AAAA - YZZZ
Also, a station name can be no more than six words.
AQA - AQZ (Special License/Foreigner OpThere are no prohibitions on calling a station The Fuerator)
ture Sound of Hell, for instance, so long as it does not
infringe these rules. As for any brand name, there can be
copyright issues.
Special License Callsigns suxes :
Japan The Japanese station prex for radio and televi
A-Z
sion stations is JO followed by its own unique two letters;
ZA - ZZ Province Organization included
the last letter in the latter part of the callsign identies
Scout; Redcross; SAR
the ownership of the station, for example the letter X indicates that it is a commercial TV station such as JOEX ZAA - ZZZ Regency (Local)Organization inTV for TV Asahi and JOCX-TV for Fuji TV while the
cluded Club Station; Scout; Redcross; SAR
letter R indicates that it is a commercial AM radio sta ZAAA - ZZZZ
tion such as JOKR for TBS Radio. FM radio and TV
stations have the -FM (FM radio), -TV (analogue television), -DTV (digital television), -TAM (audio multiplex),
-TCM (analogue TV teletext multiplex), -TDM (analogue 3.1.6 Military call signs
TV data multiplex) and -FCM (FM radio data multiplex)
suxes after their callsigns, similar to the North Ameri- In wartime, monitoring an adversarys communications
can practice, except for AM radio stations.
can be a valuable form of intelligence. Consistent call
signs can aid in this monitoring, so in wartime, military units often employ tactical call signs and sometimes
Philippines Traditionally, broadcast stations are aschange them at regular intervals. In peacetime, some milsigned one of three predominant prexes depending on
itary stations will use xed call signs in the international
the location of their license:
series.
DZ & DW for Luzon, except DZ for Palawan
DY for the Visayas, including Palawan and Masbate U.S. Army
DX for Mindanao
The United States Army uses xed station call signs

which begin with W, such as WAR, used by U.S. Army
DW is now also used for stations in Luzon. Out of cir- Headquarters.
cumstance, DZ is mostly AM band, while DW is FM Tactical call signs are often assigned to a company sized
band. Other call sign prexes assigned to the Philippines unit or higher. For example the collective Checkmate
are DU, and DV.
might be assigned to an entire company and thus Checkmate 1 Actual would be the rst platoon leader, Checkmate 2 Actual to the second platoon leader, etc. CheckIndonesia Call signs prexes used in Indonesia:
mate Actual is the Company Commander and Checkmate is the captains radio-telephone operator (or other
JZ for CB Radio
designee, such as the XO). This system can be extended
PM for Radio Stations except public broadcaster to squad or reteam level by adding another number, for
example the squad leader of the second squad of the third
RRI
platoon in Checkmate company would have the call sign
Checkmate 32, pronounced three-two. Addition YB-YH for Amateur radio
ally, only the squad leader proper will answer to the call
YB & YE for Extra Class
sign Checkmate 32 Actual, whereas the squad leaders
radio-telephone operator (or other designee) will answer
YC & YF for Advanced Class
to the call sign Checkmate 32 (without the Actual) as
YD & YG for General Class
a matter of routine. Also, companies often have the let YH for Novice Class
ter they are designated by ('A', 'B', 'C' or 'D') be the rst
letter of their call sign. This means a 'C' Company could
Call signs suxes used in Indonesia:
potentially have 'Checkmate' as its call sign.
44
U.S. Air Force
Fixed call signs for the United States Air Force stations
begin with A, such as AIR, used by USAF Headquarters.
The USAF also uses semi-xed identiers consisting of
a name followed by a two or three digit number. The
name is assigned to a unit on a semi-permanent basis;
they change only when the U.S. Department of Defense
goes to DEFCON 3. For example, JAMBO 51 would
be assigned to a particular B-52 aircrew of the 5th Bomb
Wing, while NODAK 1 would be an F-16 ghter with the
North Dakota Air National Guard.
The most recognizable call sign of this type is Air Force
One, used when any Air Force aircraft is transporting the
U.S. President. Similarly, when the President is own in
a U.S. Marine Corps helicopter, the call sign is Marine
One. When then-president George W. Bush, a former
Air National Guard ghter pilot, was own to the aircraft
carrier USS Abraham Lincoln in a Navy S-3B Viking, it
was the rst use of the Navy One call sign.

against simple trac analysis and eavesdropping.
Not all radio users t into the standard battalion model,
but in order to continue the obfuscation they will be assigned a call sign that appears to be part of such a system.
Presumably, the well-known B20 falls into this category.
Finally, the controller of each net has the call sign 0
(zero). There may also be a second controller - either a
backup station or a commander who has delegated communication tasks to a signaller but may occasionally wish
to speak in person - using the call sign 0A (zero alpha).
Appointment titles
Earlier systems used a series of appointment titles to identify users and individuals, "Sunray", for instance, referring to the appropriate leader. Titles such as "Sunray"
and (Sunray) Minor are still used. There are several apIndividual military pilots or other ight ocers usually pointment titles, such as Ironside which are no longer
adopt a personal aviator call sign.
used by the British Army. Several other armed forces
still use appointment titles, including the Australian and
Canadian army.
U.S. Navy/U.S. Marine Corps/U.S. Coast Guard
[20]
The United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and

United States Coast Guard use a mixture of tactical call
signs and international call signs beginning with the letter N. For example, the carrier USS John F. Kennedy has
the call sign NJFK for unclassied and navigation communications with other vessels, but uses tactical call signs
that vary with its mission. In tactical situations, the Marine Corps utilizes call signs naming conventions similar
to the Armys.
British Army
Tactical voice communications (combat net radio) use
a system of call signs of the form letter-digit-digit. Within
a standard infantry battalion these characters represent
companies, platoons and sections respectively, so that 3
Section, 1 Platoon of B Company might be F13. In addition, a sux following the initial call sign can denote a
specic individual or grouping within the designated call
sign, so F13C would be the Charlie re team. Unused
suxes can be used for other call signs that do not fall into
the standard call sign matrix, for example the unused 33A
call sign is used to refer to the Company Sergeant Major.
Note that the letter part of the call sign is not the companys own letter (B vs F in the above example) - indeed, the letter designations are randomly assigned using BATCO sheets, and appear on CEIs (communication electronic instructions), and change along with the
BATCO codes every 24 hours. This, together with frequency changes and voice procedure aimed at making every unit sound the same, introduces a degree of protection
Due to the predictable nature of some of these, such as

SHELLDRAKE, all but SUNRAY and MINOR were
removed from use in the British Army.[21]
3.1.7 Transmitters requiring no call signs

No call signs are issued to transmitters of long-range navigation systems (Decca, Alpha, Omega), or transmitters
on frequencies below 10 kHz, because frequencies below
10 kHz are not subject to international regulations. In
addition, in some countries lawful unlicensed low-power
personal and broadcast radio signals (Citizens Band, Part
15 or ISM bands) are permitted; an international call sign
is not issued to such stations due to their unlicensed nature. Also, wireless network routers or mobile devices
and computers using Wi-Fi are unlicensed and do not
have call signs. On some personal radio services, such
as Citizens Band it is considered a matter of etiquette to
create ones own call sign, which is called a handle (or trail
name). Some wireless networking protocols also allow an
SSID to be set as an identier, but with no guarantee that
this label will remain unique.
International regulations no longer require a call sign
for broadcast stations; however, they are still required
for broadcasters in many countries, including the United
States. Mobile phone services do not use call signs on-air
for obvious reasons ; however, the U.S. still assigns a call
sign to each mobile-phone spectrum license.
3.2. TRANSCEIVER
3.1.8
See also
3.1.9
References
45
[1] CALL SIGNS/LETTERS - The Museum of Broadcast

Communications. Museum.tv. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
[2] Radio Call Letters. U.S. Department of Commerece,
Bureau of Navigation. 1913-05-09. Retrieved 2012-1222.
United States Federal Aviation Administration,

Aeronautical Information Manual, Ocial Guide to
Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures, 2004.
Chapter 4, Section 2
[3] http://titanic.marconigraph.com/faqs2.html
United States Call Sign Policies
[4] The Titanic radio page, hf.ro
United States FCC call sign search
[5] Broadcast Station Calls With a Past, WILLIAM FENWICK, Radio Broadcast, July 1928, pg 150 reports the
name of this ship as the Firewood, call sign WSB.
FCC amateur radio operator search
[6] Ship
Names
By
Alphabetical
Woce.nodc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
Internet Radio uniform call sign program
Name.
Amateur Call Prexes
[7] United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, CAP 413: Radiotelephony Manual, Edition 16, paragraph 1.8.2 and table 9. CAA, 2006.
Military Call Sign Database
[8] United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, CAP 413:

Radiotelephony Manual, Edition 16, paragraph 1.4.2(a).
CAA, 2006.
Another Military Callsign List
[9] Airbus A380 vortex-revised guidance material. ICAO.

16 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
Radio-Locator a search engine of all of the radio stations in the world with websites, searchable by location, frequency, and call sign
[10] . ThomsonFly 757 bird strike & ames captured on

video. YouTube. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
[11] Concorde - 27 Supersonic Years. British Airways. 2003.
[12] Section 4. Radio and Interphone Communications. 2-420. AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION. Federal Aviation Administration. pp. ORDER JO 7110.65S. Retrieved 200910-06.
[13] Navy One retired. Code One Magazine (Lockheed Martin). Retrieved 2009-10-06.
[14] GB90MGY, Titanic Wireless Commemorative Group,
Godalming, Surrey
[15] Radio and Television Broadcasting Stations, Austrlalian
Communications and Media Authority, Internet Edition
April 2008.
[16] Radio and Television Broadcasting Stations Internet Edition, Austrlalian Communications and Media Authority,
January 2013.
[17] Current Temporary Community Broadcasting Licences.
Australian Communications and Media
Authority. January 7, 2013. Retrieved 2013-01-29.
[18] The Wireless Institute of Australia. Wia.org.au. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
[19] http://licensing.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/radio/rsls/RSL_
notes.pdf The rules for applying for a broadcast license.
[20] Australian Army Appointment Titles. Retrieved 27
November 2012.
[21] British Army Appointment Titles.
November 2012.
Retrieved 27
Military Call Sign List
Fictional Story About Military Call Signs
Broadcasting undertaking callsigns possibly available for assignment - Industry Canada
3.2 Transceiver
For the device used in avalanche rescue, see Avalanche
transceiver.
A transceiver is a device comprising both a transmitter
and a receiver which are combined and share common
circuitry or a single housing. When no circuitry is common between transmit and receive functions, the device
is a transmitter-receiver. The term originated in the
early 1920s. Technically, transceivers must combine a
signicant amount of the transmitter and receiver handling circuitry. Similar devices include transponders,
transverters, and repeaters.
3.2.1 Radio technology

Main article: Two-way radio
In radio terminology, a transceiver means a unit which
contains both a receiver and a transmitter. From the
beginning days of radio the receiver and transmitter
were separate units and remained so until around 1920.
Amateur radio or ham radio operators can build their
own equipment and it is now easier to design and build a
46

demodulates a signal being received.
3.2.4 Ethernet
A modern HF transceiver with spectrum analyzer and DSP capabilities

100BASE-TX to 100BASE-FX transceiver.
simple unit containing both of the functions: transmitting

and receiving. Almost all modern amateur radio equipment is now a transceiver but there is an active market
for pure radio receivers, mainly for shortwave listening
(SWL) operators. An example of a transceiver would be
a walkie-talkie, or a CB radio.
3.2.2
RF Transceiver
Transceivers are called Medium Attachment Units

(MAUs) in IEEE 802.3 documents and were widely used
in 10BASE2 and 10BASE5 Ethernet networks. Fiberoptic gigabit and 10 Gigabit Ethernet utilize transceivers
known as GBIC, SFP, SFP+, XFP, XAUI and CFP.
3.2.5 See also
4P4C, de facto standard connector for telephone

The RF Transceiver uses RF modules for high speed
handsets
data transmission. The micro electronic circuits in the
Duplex, 2-Way Communications Capability
digital-RF architecture work at speeds up to 100 GHz.
The objective in the design was to bring digital domain
For the dierence between optical transponders and
closer to the antenna, both at the receive and transmit
optical transceivers, see Transponder (optical comends using software dened radio (SDR). The softwaremunication)
programmable digital processors used in the circuits permit conversion between digital baseband signals and analog RF.
3.2.6 References
3.2.3
Telephony
This article incorporates public domain material

from the General Services Administration document
Federal Standard 1037C (in support of MIL-STD188).
On a wired telephone, the handset contains the transmitter and receiver for the audio and in the 20th century
was usually wired to the base unit by tinsel wire. The
whole unit is colloquially referred to as a receiver. On a 3.2.7 External articles
mobile telephone or other radiotelephone, the entire unit
Patents
is a transceiver, for both audio and radio.
A cordless telephone uses an audio and radio transceiver

U.S. Patent 0,716,136, John Stone Stone, Appafor the handset, and a radio transceiver for the base staratus for simultaneously transmitting and receiving
tion. If a speakerphone is included in a wired telephone
space telegraph signals
base or in a cordless base station, the base also becomes
an audio transceiver in addition to the handset.
General
A modem is similar to a transceiver, in that it sends and
7 MHz SSB TRANSCEIVER 7 MHz SSB
receives a signal, but a modem uses modulation and deTRANSCEIVER
modulation. It modulates a signal being transmitted and
3.3. ANTENNA
Homebrew HF transceivers
transceivers
47
Homebrew HF
3.3 Antenna
For other uses, see Antenna.
mitting and receiving. He published his work in Annalen

der Physik und Chemie (vol. 36, 1889).
3.3.1 Terminology
The words antenna (plural: antennas[2] in US English, although both antennas and antennae are used in International English[3] ) and aerial are used interchangeably.
Occasionally a rigid metallic structure is called an antenna while the wire form is called an aerial. However, note the important international technical journal,
the IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation.[4]
In the United Kingdom and other areas where British English is used, the term aerial is sometimes used although
'antenna' has been universal in professional use for many
years.
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa.[1] It
is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.
In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric
current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current (AC)) to the antennas terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an
antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagThe origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its termiparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo
nals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplied.
Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing
Antennas are essential components of all equipment his wireless system outdoors on his fathers estate near
that uses radio. They are used in systems such as Bologna and soon began to experiment with long wire
radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way ra- aerials. Marconi discovered that by arranging these
dio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and aerials vertically and placing them in the earth (groundsatellite communications, as well as other devices such as ing them) that the range of his wireless system was signifgarage door openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth- icantly increased.[5] Soon he was able to transmit signals
enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby mon- over a hill, a distance of approximately 2.4 kilometres
itors, and RFID tags on merchandise.
(1.5 mi).[6] In Italian a tent pole is known as l'antenna
Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metal- centrale, and the pole with the wire was simply called
lic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often l'antenna. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and
through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. receiving elements were known simply as aerials or terAn oscillating current of electrons forced through the an- minals.
tenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic
eld around the antenna elements, while the charge of the
electrons also creates an oscillating electric eld along the
elements. These time-varying elds radiate away from
the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic eld wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic elds of an incoming radio
wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements,
causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating
currents in the antenna.
Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive
radio waves in all horizontal directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a
particular direction (directional or high gain antennas).
In the latter case, an antenna may also include additional
elements or surfaces with no electrical connection to
the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements,
parabolic reectors or horns, which serve to direct the
radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation
pattern.
The rst antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist
Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the
existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reectors for both trans-
Because of his prominence, Marconis use of the word

antenna (Italian for pole) spread among wireless researchers, and later to the general public.[7][8][9]
In common usage, the word antenna may refer broadly to
an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure
(if any), etc. in addition to the actual functional components. Especially at microwave frequencies, a receiving
antenna may include not only the actual electrical antenna
but an integrated preamplier or mixer.
An antenna, in converting radio waves to electrical signals
or vice versa, is a form of transducer.[10]
3.3.2 Overview
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic eld. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
which carry signals through the air (or through space) at
the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals
(information) in systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, Wi-Fi (WLAN) data
networks, trunk lines and point-to-point communications
links (telephone, data networks), satellite links, many
48
remote controlled devices such as garage door openers,
and wireless remote sensors, among many others. Radio
waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including radar, GPS, and radio astronomy. In
each and every case, the transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these are sometimes
hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside
a laptop computer equipped with Wi-Fi).
According to their applications and technology available,
antennas generally fall in one of two categories:
1. Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or radiate more or less in all directions. These are employed when the relative position of the other station is unknown or arbitrary.
They are also used at lower frequencies where a directional antenna would be too large, or simply to
cut costs in applications where a directional antenna
isn't required.

monopole antennas rely on a conductive ground, a socalled grounding structure may be employed to provide
a better ground contact to the earth or which itself acts as
a ground plane to perform that function regardless of (or
in absence of) an actual contact with the earth.
Antennas more complex than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to increase the directivity and
consequently the gain of the antenna. This can be accomplished in many dierent ways leading to a plethora
of antenna designs. The vast majority of designs are fed
with a balanced line (unlike a monopole antenna) and are
based on the dipole antenna with additional components
(or elements) which increase its directionality. Antenna
gain in this instance describes the concentration of radiated power into a particular solid angle of space, as opposed to the spherically uniform radiation of the ideal radiator. The increased power in the desired direction is at
the expense of that in the undesired directions. Power is
conserved, and there is no net power increase over that
delivered from the power source (the transmitter.)
2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simpreferentially radiate or receive in a particular direc- ple antennas which are connected together through an
tion or directional pattern.
electrical network. This often involves a number of parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending
In common usage omnidirectional usually refers to all on the relative phase introduced by the network, the same
horizontal directions, typically with reduced performance combination of dipole antennas can operate as a broadin the direction of the sky or the ground (a truly isotropic side array (directional normal to a line connecting the
radiator is not even possible). A directional antenna elements) or as an end-re array (directional along the
usually is intended to maximize its coupling to the elec- line connecting the elements). Antenna arrays may emtromagnetic eld in the direction of the other station, or ploy any basic (omnidirectional or weakly directional) ansometimes to cover a particular sector such as a 120 hor- tenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These
izontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell elements are often identical.
site.
However a log-periodic dipole array consists of a number
One example of omnidirectional antennas is the very of dipole elements of dierent lengths in order to obtain
common vertical antenna or whip antenna consisting of a a somewhat directional antenna having an extremely wide
metal rod (often, but not always, a quarter of a wavelength bandwidth: these are frequently used for television receplong). A dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such tion in fringe areas. The dipole antennas composing it are
conductors extending in opposite directions, with a total all considered active elements since they are all electrilength that is often, but not always, a half of a wavelength cally connected together (and to the transmission line).
long. Dipoles are typically oriented horizontally in which On the other hand, a supercially similar dipole array,
case they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably the Yagi-Uda Antenna (or simply Yagi), has only one
well radiated toward or received from all directions with dipole element with an electrical connection; the other
the exception of the direction along the conductor itself; so-called parasitic elements interact with the electromagthis region is called the antenna blind cone or null.
netic eld in order to realize a fairly directional antenna
Both the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in con- but one which is limited to a rather narrow bandwidth.
struction and relatively inexpensive. The dipole antenna, The Yagi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole elwhich is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced ements but which act dierently due to their somewhat
component, with equal but opposite voltages and currents dierent lengths. There may be a number of so-called
applied at its two terminals through a balanced transmis- directors in front of the active element in the direction
sion line (or to a coaxial transmission line through a so- of propagation, and usually a single (but possibly more)
called balun). The vertical antenna, on the other hand, is reector on the opposite side of the active element.
a monopole antenna. It is typically connected to the inner
conductor of a coaxial transmission line (or a matching
network); the shield of the transmission line is connected
to ground. In this way, the ground (or any large conductive surface) plays the role of the second conductor
of a dipole, thereby forming a complete circuit. Since
Greater directionality can be obtained using beamforming techniques such as a parabolic reector or a horn.
Since high directivity in an antenna depends on it being
large compared to the wavelength, narrow beams of this
type are more easily achieved at UHF and microwave fre-
3.3. ANTENNA
quencies.
At low frequencies (such as AM broadcast), arrays of vertical towers are used to achieve directionality [12] and they
will occupy large areas of land. For reception, a long
Beverage antenna can have signicant directivity. For
non directional portable use, a short vertical antenna or
small loop antenna works well, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna
may be employed to cancel the reactive component of
impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel
capacitors for this purpose.
An antenna lead-in is the transmission line (or feed line)
which connects the antenna to a transmitter or receiver.
The antenna feed may refer to all components connecting the antenna to the transmitter or receiver, such as an
impedance matching network in addition to the transmission line. In a so-called aperture antenna, such as a horn
or parabolic dish, the feed may also refer to a basic antenna inside the entire system (normally at the focus of
the parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn) which could
be considered the one active element in that antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from
a waveguide in lieu of a (conductive) transmission line.
49
3.3.3 Reciprocity
It is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna described in the
next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance,
bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization, are
the same whether the antenna is transmitting or
receiving.[13][14] For example, the "receiving pattern"
(sensitivity as a function of direction) of an antenna when
used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of
the antenna when it is driven and functions as a radiator. This is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of
electromagnetics.[14] Therefore in discussions of antenna
properties no distinction is usually made between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be
viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is
more convenient.
A necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity
property is that the materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. Reciprocal (or
bilateral) means that the material has the same response
to an electric current or magnetic eld in one direction,
as it has to the eld or current in the opposite direction.
Most materials used in antennas meet these conditions,
but some microwave antennas use high-tech components
such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal
materials such as ferrite.[13][14] These can be used to give
the antenna a dierent behavior on receiving than it has
on transmitting,[13] which can be useful in applications
like radar.
An antenna counterpoise or ground plane is a structure

of conductive material which improves or substitutes for
the ground. It may be connected to or insulated from the
natural ground. In a monopole antenna, this aids in the
function of the natural ground, particularly where variations (or limitations) of the characteristics of the natural
ground interfere with its proper function. Such a structure
is normally connected to the return connection of an un- 3.3.4 Characteristics
balanced transmission line such as the shield of a coaxial
cable.
See also: Antenna measurement Antenna parameters
An electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture antennas is a component which due to its shape and posiAntennas are characterized by a number of performance
tion functions to selectively delay or advance portions of
measures which a user would be concerned with in selectthe electromagnetic wavefront passing through it. The reing or designing an antenna for a particular application.
fractor alters the spatial characteristics of the wave on one
Chief among these relate to the directional characteristics
side relative to the other side. It can, for instance, bring
(as depicted in the antennas radiation pattern) and the
the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways,
resulting gain. Even in omnidirectional (or weakly direcgenerally in order to maximize the directivity of the antional) antennas, the gain can often be increased by contenna system. This is the radio equivalent of an optical
centrating more of its power in the horizontal directions,
lens.
sacricing power radiated toward the sky and ground.
An antenna coupling network is a passive network (gen- The antennas power gain (or simply gain) also takes
erally a combination of inductive and capacitive circuit into account the antennas eciency, and is often the prielements) used for impedance matching in between the mary gure of merit.
antenna and the transmitter or receiver. This may be used
Resonant antennas are expected to be used around a parto improve the standing wave ratio in order to minimize
ticular resonant frequency; an antenna must therefore be
losses in the transmission line and to present the transmitbuilt or ordered to match the frequency range of the
ter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance that it
intended application. A particular antenna design will
expects to see for optimum operation.
present a particular feedpoint impedance. While this may
aect the choice of an antenna, an antennas impedance
can also be adapted to the desired impedance level of a
system using a matching network while maintaining the
other characteristics (except for a possible loss of e-
50
ciency).
Although these parameters can be measured in principle,
such measurements are dicult and require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting antenna
using an SWR meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design or on
claims of a vendor.

transmitter or receiver (and its transmission line). For instance, a dipole using a fairly thin conductor[15] will have
a purely resistive feedpoint impedance of about 63 ohms
at its design frequency. Feeding that antenna with a current of 1 ampere will require 63 volts of RF, and the
antenna will radiate 63 watts (ignoring losses) of radio
frequency power. If that antenna is driven with 1 ampere at a frequency 20% higher, it will still radiate as efciently but in order to do that about 200 volts would be
required due to the change in the antennas impedance
which is now largely reactive (voltage out of phase with
the current). A typical transmitter would not nd that
impedance acceptable and would deliver much less than
63 watts to it; the transmission line would be operating
at a high (poor) standing wave ratio. But using an appropriate matching network, that large reactive impedance
could be converted to a resistive impedance satisfying the
transmitter and accepting the available power of the transmitter.
An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which can be reoriented by tilting the
axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths). Highly
directional antennas need to be signicantly larger than
the wavelength. Resonant antennas usually use a linear
conductor (or element), or pair of such elements, each
of which is about a quarter of the wavelength in length
(an odd multiple of quarter wavelengths will also be resonant). Antennas that are required to be small compared
to the wavelength sacrice eciency and cannot be very
directional. Fortunately at higher frequencies (UHF, mi- This principle is used to construct vertical antennas subcrowaves) trading o performance to obtain a smaller stantially shorter than the 1/4 wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By adding an inductance in series with
physical size is usually not required.
the vertical antenna (a so-called loading coil) the capacitive reactance of this antenna can be cancelled leaving a
pure resistance which can then be matched to the transResonant antennas
mission line. Sometimes the resulting resonant frequency
of such a system (antenna plus matching network) is deWhile there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast scribed using the construct of electrical length and the
majority of antennas are based on the half-wave dipole use of a shorter antenna at a lower frequency than its reswhich has a particular resonant frequency. At its reso- onant frequency is termed "electrical lengthening". For
nant frequency, the wavelength (gured by dividing the example, at 30 MHz (wavelength = 10 meters) a true resspeed of light by the resonant frequency) is slightly over onant monopole would be almost 2.5 meters (1/4 wavetwice the length of the half-wave dipole (thus the name). length) long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall
The quarter-wave vertical antenna consists of one arm would require the addition of a loading coil. Then it
of a half-wave dipole, with the other arm replaced by a may be said that the coil has lengthened the antenna to
connection to ground or an equivalent ground plane (or achieve an electrical length of 2.5 meters, that is, 1/4
counterpoise). A Yagi-Uda array consists of a number wavelength at 30 MHz where the combined system now
of resonant dipole elements, only one of which is di- resonates. However, the resulting resistive impedance
rectly connected to the transmission line. The quarter- achieved will be quite a bit lower than the impedance of
wave elements of a dipole or vertical monopole imitate a resonant monopole, likely requiring further impedance
a series-resonant electrical element due to the standing matching. In addition to a lower radiation resistance, the
wave present along the conductor. At the resonant fre- reactance becomes higher as the antenna size is reduced,
quency, the standing wave has a current peak and volt- and the resonant circuit formed by the antenna and the
age node (minimum) at the feed-point, thus presenting tuning coil has a Q factor that rises and eventually causes
a lower impedance than at other frequencies. Whats the bandwidth of the antenna to be inadequate for the sigmore, the large current and small voltage are in phase nal being transmitted. This is the major factor that sets
at that point, resulting in a purely resistive impedance, the size of antennas at 1 MHz and lower frequencies.
whereas away from the design frequency the feed-point
impedance both rises and becomes reactive. Contrary
to an ideal (lossless) series-resonant circuit, a nite resis- Current and voltage distribution The antenna contance remains (corresponding to the relatively small volt- ductors have the lowest feed-point impedance at the resoage at the feed-point) due to the antennas radiation resis- nant frequency where they are just under 1/4 wavelength
tance (as well as any actual electrical losses).
long; two such conductors in line fed dierentially thus
A common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit (or receive) fails at frequencies
far from the resonant frequency. The reason a dipole antenna needs to be used at the resonant frequency has to do
with the impedance match between the antenna and the
realizes the familiar half-wave dipole. When fed with

an RF current at the resonant frequency, the quarter wave
element contains a standing wave with the voltage and
current largely (but not exactly) in phase quadrature, as
would be obtained using a quarter wave stub of transmis-
3.3. ANTENNA
sion line. The current reaches a minimum at the end of
the element (where it has nowhere to go!) and is maximum at the feed-point. The voltage, on the other hand, is
the greatest at the end of the conductor and reaches a minimum (but not zero) at the feedpoint. Making the conductor shorter or longer than 1/4 wavelength means that the
voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond
the feed-point, so that the feed-point has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as we have noted.
Since that voltage pattern is almost in phase quadrature
with the current, the impedance seen at the feed-point is
not only much higher but mainly reactive.
51
impedance matching.
Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of
a resonant antenna can always be altered by adjusting
a suitable matching network. To do this eciently one
would require remotely adjusting a matching network at
the site of the antenna, since simply adjusting a matching
network at the transmitter (or receiver) would leave the
transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio.
Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose
impedance does not vary so greatly over a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at
the terminals of a resonant antenna when the frequency is
shifted, say, by 5%, depends very much on the diameter
of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as a halfwave dipole (or quarter wave monopole) will have a reactance signicantly greater than the resistive impedance it
has at resonance, leading to a poor match and generally
unacceptable performance. Making the element using a
tube of a diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however,
results in a reactance at this altered frequency which is
not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which
will only modestly damage the antennas net performance.
Thus rather thick tubes are typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays.
It can be seen that if such an element is resonant at f0 to

produce such a standing wave pattern, then feeding that
element with 3f0 (whose wavelength is 1/3 that of f0 )
will lead to a standing wave pattern in which the voltage is likewise a minimum at the feed-point (and the current at a maximum there). Thus, an antenna element is
also resonant when its length is 3/4 of a wavelength (3/2
wavelength for a complete dipole). This is true for all
odd multiples of 1/4 wavelength, where the feed-point
impedance is purely resistive, though larger than the resistive impedance of the 1/4 wave element. Although
such an antenna is resonant and works perfectly well at
the higher frequency, the antenna radiation pattern is also
Rather than just using a thick tube, there are similar techaltered compared to the half-wave dipole.
niques used to the same eect such as replacing thin wire
The use of a monopole or dipole at odd multiples of the elements with cages to simulate a thicker element. This
fundamental resonant frequency, however, does not exwidens the bandwidth of the resonance. On the other
tend to even multiples (thus a 1/2 wavelength monopole hand, amateur radio antennas need to operate over sevor 1 wavelength dipole). Now the voltage standing wave eral bands which are widely separated from each other.
is at its peak at the feed-point, while that of the current This can often be accomplished simply by connecting res(which must be zero at the end of the conductor) is at onant elements for the dierent bands in parallel. Most
a minimum (but not exactly zero). The antenna is anti- of the transmitters power will ow into the resonant eleresonant at this frequency. Although the reactance at the ment while the others present a high (reactive) impedance
feedpoint can be cancelled using such an element length, and draw little current from the same voltage. A popthe feed-point impedance is very high, and is highly de- ular solution uses so-called traps consisting of parallel
pendent on the diameter of the conductor (which makes resonant circuits which are strategically placed in breaks
only a small dierence at the actual resonant frequency). along each antenna element. When used at one particular
Such an antenna does not match the much lower char- frequency band the trap presents a very high impedance
acteristic impedance of available transmission lines, and (parallel resonance) eectively truncating the element at
is generally not used. However some equipment where that length, making it a proper resonant antenna. At a
transmission lines are not involved which desire a high lower frequency the trap allows the full length of the eldriving point impedance may take advantage of this anti- ement to be employed, albeit with a shifted resonant freresonance.
quency due to the inclusion of the traps net reactance at
that lower frequency.
Bandwidth Main article: Antenna bandwidth
Although a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feedpoint impedance at a particular frequency, many (if not
most) applications require using an antenna over a range
of frequencies. An antennas bandwidth species the
range of frequencies over which its performance does not
suer due to a poor impedance match. Also in the case
of a Yagi-Uda array, the use of the antenna very far away
from its design frequency reduces the antennas directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth regardless of
The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according to its Q, just as
one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant circuit. However it is often assumed that there is an
advantage in an antenna having a high Q. After all, Q is
short for quality factor and a low Q typically signies
excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance) in a resonant
L-C circuit. However this understanding does not apply
to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is the
radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it (the
52
purpose of an antenna, after all!). The Q is a measure

of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a xed
radiation resistance (an elements radiation resistance is
almost independent of its diameter) a greater reactance
o-resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a
very thin conductor. The Q of such a narrowband antenna
can be as high as 15. On the other hand a thick element
presents less reactance at an o-resonant frequency, and
consequently a Q as low as 5. These two antennas will
perform equivalently at the resonant frequency, but the
second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 3 times as
wide as the hi-Q antenna consisting of a thin conductor.
Eective area or aperture
Gain
Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its
eective area when used for receiving. Consider an antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical eciency
is 100%. It can be shown that its eective area averaged
over all directions must be equal to 2 /4, the wavelength
squared divided by 4. Gain is dened such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100%
electrical eciency is equal to 1. Therefore the eective
area A in terms of the gain G in a given direction is
given by:
Main article: Antenna gain

Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of
directivity of the antennas radiation pattern. A high-gain
antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction. Specically, the antenna gain, or power gain of an
antenna is dened as the ratio of the intensity (power per
unit surface) radiated by the antenna in the direction of its
maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the
intensity radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical
isotropic antenna.
The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon - power
is not added by the antenna, but simply redistributed to
provide more radiated power in a certain direction than
would be transmitted by an isotropic antenna. An antenna
designer must take into account the application for the
antenna when determining the gain. High-gain antennas
have the advantage of longer range and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular direction.
Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation
of the antenna is relatively inconsequential. For example,
a dish antenna on a spacecraft is a high-gain device that
must be pointed at the planet to be eective, whereas a
typical Wi-Fi antenna in a laptop computer is low-gain,
and as long as the base station is within range, the antenna
can be in any orientation in space. It makes sense to improve horizontal range at the expense of reception above
or below the antenna.[16]
Main article: Antenna eective area

The eective area or eective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals, expressed in terms of an equivalent area. For instance, if a
radio wave passing a given location has a ux of 1 pW /
m2 (1012 watts per square meter) and an antenna has an
eective area of 12 m2 , then the antenna would deliver
12 pW of RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts rms at
75 ohms). Since the receiving antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the eective
area is a function of the direction to the source.
Aef f =
2
G
4
For an antenna with an eciency of less than 100%,

both the eective area and gain are reduced by that same
amount. Therefore the above relationship between gain
and eective area still holds. These are thus two dierent
ways of expressing the same quantity. A is especially
convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a specied gain, as illustrated by
the above example.
Radiation pattern
Main article: Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative
eld strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna
at dierent angles. It is typically represented by a threedimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and
In practice, the half-wave dipole is taken as a reference vertical cross sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic
instead of the isotropic radiator. The gain is then given in antenna, which radiates equally in all directions, would
dBd (decibels over dipole):
look like a sphere. Many nondirectional antennas, such
as monopoles and dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping o at higher
and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional pattern
NOTE: 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi. It is viand when plotted looks like a torus or donut.
tal in expressing gain values that the
The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxreference point be included. Failima or "lobes" at various angles, separated by "nulls", anure to do so can lead to confusion
gles where the radiation falls to zero. This is because the
and error.
3.3. ANTENNA
53
radio waves emitted by dierent parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio
waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation
at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase.
In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves
in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the "main lobe".
The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and
are called "sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is
called the "principal axis" or "boresight axis".
match.
(E/H, V/I, etc.). At each interface, depending on the

impedance match, some fraction of the waves energy will
reect back to the source,[17] forming a standing wave
in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is called
the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A
SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable
in low power applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still be usable
with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance dierences at each interface (impedance matching) will reduce
SWR and maximize power transfer through each part of
the antenna system.
However loss resistance will generally aect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive (real) component.
That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance R and the loss resistance R . If an rms current
I is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power
of I2 R will be radiated and a power of I2 R will be lost
as heat. Therefore the eciency of an antenna is equal to
R / (R + R ). Of course only the total resistance R +
R can be directly measured.
Eciency
Main article: Antenna eciency
Eciency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power

actually radiated (in all directions) to the power absorbed
by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into
heat. This is usually through loss resistance in the anField regions
tennas conductors, but can also be due to dielectric or
magnetic core losses in antennas (or antenna systems) usMain article: Near and far eld
ing such components. Such loss eectively robs power
from the transmitter, requiring a stronger transmitter in
The space surrounding an antenna can be divided into order to transmit a signal of a given strength.
three concentric regions: the reactive near-eld, the radiating near-eld (Fresnell region) and the far-eld (Fraun- For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an anhofer) regions. These regions are useful to identify the tenna having an eciency of 80%, then the antenna will
eld structure in each, although there are no precise radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat.
In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to
boundaries.
use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the anIn the far-eld region, we are far enough from the antenna. Note that antenna eciency is a separate issue
tenna to neglect its size and shape. We can assume that from impedance matching, which may also reduce the
the electromagnetic wave is purely a radiating plane wave amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If
(electric and magnetic elds are in phase and perpendic- an SWR meter reads 150 W of incident power and 50
ular to each other and to the direction of propagation). W of reected power, that means that 100 W have actuThis simplies the mathematical analysis of the radiated ally been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission
eld.
line losses). How much of that power has actually been
radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical
measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but
Impedance
would require (for instance) careful measurement of eld
As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the dier- strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conent parts of the antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna, ductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the
free space) it may encounter dierences in impedance eciency of an antenna using such materials predicted.
Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the

electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use.
The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed
line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed
line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer.
More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load
(see below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching
transformer, matching networks composed of inductors
and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma
According to reciprocity, the eciency of an antenna

used as a receiving antenna is identical to the eciency
as dened above. The power that an antenna will deliver
to a receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced
by the same amount. In some receiving applications, the
very inecient antennas may have little impact on performance. At low frequencies, for example, atmospheric
or man-made noise can mask antenna ineciency. For
example, CCIR Rep. 258-3 indicates man-made noise in
a residential setting at 40 MHz is about 28 dB above the
thermal noise oor. Consequently, an antenna with a 20
dB loss (due to ineciency) would have little impact on
system noise performance. The loss within the antenna
54
will aect the intended signal and the noise/interference ceived following reection by the ionosphere (a skywave),
identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio a consistent polarization cannot be expected. For line-of(SNR).
sight communications or ground wave propagation, horiThis is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies zontally or vertically polarized transmissions generally rewhich are not rather large (a good fraction of a wavelength main in about the same polarization state at the receiving
in size) are inevitably inecient (due to the small radia- location. Matching the receiving antennas polarization
tion resistance R of small antennas). Most AM broad- to that of the transmitter can make a very substantial difcast radios (except for car radios) take advantage of this ference in received signal strength.
principle by including a small loop antenna for reception
which has an extremely poor eciency. Using such an inecient antenna at this low frequency (5301650 kHz)
thus has little eect on the receivers net performance,
but simply requires greater amplication by the receivers
electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive
and very tall towers used at AM broadcast stations for
transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna eciency entails a substantial cost.
The denition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the eect of the antennas eciency. Therefore if
one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using
a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare
the gain of various antennas rather than considering the
eciency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving
antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies,
where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receivers noise temperature. However in the
case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals
with the intention of rejecting interference from dierent
directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna
eciency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than
quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned
with the directive gain which does not include the eect of
antenna (in)eciency. The directive gain of an antenna
can be computed from the published gain divided by the
antennas eciency.
Polarization is predictable from an antennas geometry,

although in some cases it is not at all obvious (such as
for the quad antenna). An antennas linear polarization
is generally along the direction (as viewed from the receiving location) of the antennas currents when such a
direction can be dened. For instance, a vertical whip antenna or Wi-Fi antenna vertically oriented will transmit
and receive in the vertical polarization. Antennas with
horizontal elements, such as most rooftop TV antennas
in the United States, are horizontally polarized (broadcast TV in the U.S. usually uses horizontal polarization).
Even when the antenna system has a vertical orientation,
such as an array of horizontal dipole antennas, the polarization is in the horizontal direction corresponding to the
current ow. The polarization of a commercial antenna
is an essential specication.
Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over

time projected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to
the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most
general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that the
polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two
special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses
into a line) as we have discussed above, and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal).
In linear polarization the electric eld of the radio wave
oscillates back and forth along one direction; this can be
aected by the mounting of the antenna but usually the
desired direction is either horizontal or vertical polarization. In circular polarization, the electric eld (and magnetic eld) of the radio wave rotates at the radio frequency
Polarization
circularly around the axis of propagation. Circular or elliptically polarized radio waves are designated as rightSee also: Polarization (waves) Antennas
handed or left-handed using the thumb in the direction
of the propagation rule. Note that for circular polarizaThe polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation tion, optical researchers use the opposite right hand rule
of the electric eld (E-plane) of the radio wave with re- from the one used by radio engineers.
spect to the Earths surface and is determined by the phys- It is best for the receiving antenna to match the polarizaical structure of the antenna and by its orientation; note tion of the transmitted wave for optimum reception. Inthat this designation is totally distinct from the antennas termediate matchings will lose some signal strength, but
directionality. Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will not as much as a complete mismatch. A circularly polarhave one polarization when mounted vertically, and a ized antenna can be used to equally well match vertical or
dierent polarization when mounted horizontally. As a horizontal linear polarizations. Transmission from a cirtransverse wave, the magnetic eld of a radio wave is at cularly polarized antenna received by a linearly polarized
right angles to that of the electric eld, but by convention, antenna (or vice versa) entails a 3dB reduction in signaltalk of an antennas polarization is understood to refer to-noise ratio as the received power has thereby been cut
to the direction of the electric eld.
in half.
Reections generally aect polarization. For radio
waves, one important reector is the ionosphere which
can change the waves polarization. Thus for signals re-
3.3. ANTENNA
Impedance matching
Main article: Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the
impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into
the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the
impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of
a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance
might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance
of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but
rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for
ecient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry.
The intended impedance is normally resistive but a
transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional
adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in
order to tweak the match. When a transmission line
is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or
receiver) one generally would like an antenna system
whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic
impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize
the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in
transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying
a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the
desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a
half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the
frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the
physical length of the antenna can be trimmed to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition
of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used
to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance,
respectively.
In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not
simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance,
but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is
quite dierent from the intended frequency of operation.
For instance, a whip antenna can be made signicantly
shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for practical reasons,
and then resonated using a so-called loading coil. This
physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has
an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the
desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coil; unfortunately
that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired
to match commercial coax.
So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the remaining resistive
impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In principle this can always be done with
a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer
55
is not adjustable. A general matching network with at
least two adjustments can be made to correct both components of impedance. Matching networks using discrete
inductors and capacitors will have losses associated with
those components, and will have power restrictions when
used for transmitting. Avoiding these diculties, commercial antennas are generally designed with xed matching elements or feeding strategies to get an approximate
match to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole (rather than vertical antennas)
should include a balun in between the transmission line
and antenna element, which may be integrated into any
such matching network.
Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs
when using a small loop antenna (usually, but not always,
for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where it appears almost as a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the frequency of operation not
only cancels the reactance but greatly magnies the very
small radiation resistance of such a loop. This is implemented in most AM broadcast receivers, with a small ferrite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied
along with the receiver tuning in order to maintain resonance over the AM broadcast band
3.3.5 Basic antenna models

There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few
basic models. More can be found in Category:Radio frequency antenna types.
The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna
that radiates equally in all directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and
no mass. This antenna cannot physically exist, but
is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are
rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic
radiator).[18]
The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in
opposite directions arranged either horizontally or
vertically, with one end of each wire connected to
the radio and the other end hanging free in space.
Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also
used as a reference model for other antennas; gain
with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd. Generally,
the dipole is considered to be omnidirectional in the
plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, but it
has deep nulls in the directions of the axis.[19] Variations of the dipole include the folded dipole, the half
wave antenna, the ground plane antenna, the whip,
and the J-pole.
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of
the dipole with parasitic elements added which are
56

functionality similar to adding a reector and lenses 3.3.6
(directors) to focus a lament light bulb.[20]
The random wire antenna is simply a very long

(at least one quarter wavelength) wire with one
end connected to the radio and the other in free
space, arranged in any way most convenient for
the space available. Folding will reduce eectiveness and make theoretical analysis extremely dicult. (The added length helps more than the folding
typically hurts.) Typically, a random wire antenna
will also require an antenna tuner, as it might have
a random impedance that varies non-linearly with
frequency.[21]
The horn antenna is used where high gain is needed,
the wavelength is short (microwave) and space is not
an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide band,
depending on their shape. A horn can be built for
any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are
typically impractical. Horns are also frequently used
as reference antennas.[22]
The parabolic antenna consists of an active element
at the focus of a parabolic reector to reect the
waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for
high gain, microwave applications, such as satellite
dishes.[23]
The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a groundplane. Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna
(TSA), as the Vivaldi-antenna.
Almost any arrangement of conductors with radio frequency currents driven by a voltage applied across two
points will radiate as an antenna. However to be practical
an antenna will be designed to meet certain specications
among the characteristics listed above. One extremely
important characteristic is the driving point impedance,
as this impedance is usually very large (and highly reactive) for an arbitrarily designed antenna, or even for
a well designed antenna used at a frequency well outside of its design range. For non-directional antennas,
forcing the impedance to a usable value (often that of
the transmission line to be used to connect to it) and an
impedance with a relatively small amount of reactance, is
the main design task. For instance, the design of dipole
antennas (which many other antennas are based on) dictates a total length just under half the wavelength (thus
each arm being one quarter wavelength). This provides
a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (at the design frequency) of a bit under 72 (depending on the diameter
of the conductors). Likewise, a dipole antenna which is
an odd multiple of half wavelengths long will supply a
reasonable (but dierent) feedpoint impedance which is
purely resistive. Such an antenna used at the frequency
where its driving point impedance is purely resistive is
called a resonant antenna, even though the resonance
involved usually is characterized by a rather low Q. In
fact a small Q factor is generally sought, since a larger Q
implies a smaller bandwidth over which the antenna will
provide a good impedance match to the transmission line
or matching network. In the case of a dipole antenna,
increasing the diameter of the two conductors, increases
the usable bandwidth of the antenna.
Having thus eliminated reactance from the feedpoint

impedance, what remains is a pure resistance, which is
the sum of two parts. The main part (usually) is the
Dipole antenna (Rabbit ears) for television recep- radiation resistance due to the conversion of electrical ention
ergy into a transmitted wave. Of course this is what the
antenna was meant to do. But there can be an additional
Folded dipole antenna
contribution to the feedpoint impedance due to the ohmic
resistance of the conductors, which is a source of ineA Yagi-Uda beam antenna
ciency. This ineciency can be reduced by using larger
conductors, for instance, but that will have other eects
Rooftop TV antenna. It is actually three Yagi an- as well.
tennas. The longest elements are for the low band,
The third important design criterion for many antennas
while the medium and short elements are for the
is the antennas directionality (expressed by its radiation
high and UHF band.
pattern and gain). This is often not a design goal however. An antenna much smaller than a wavelength in all its
A random wire antenna
dimensions cannot have much directionality, so at lower
frequencies a directional antenna generally becomes imPyramidal microwave horn antenna
practically large. Antennas for use in portable or mobile
equipment cannot be conveniently pointed in the direcLarge parabolic antenna for communicating with tion of the other station, so directionality is undesired
spacecraft
in these applications. The vertical whip antenna, for
instance, is completely omnidirectional in the horizontal
A patch antenna and a cutaway view
plane, and widely used in such applications.
Examples of antenna models
Antenna design criteria
3.3. ANTENNA
However for xed stations communicating with other
xed stations, directionality allows for a signicant antenna gain (factor by which power is concentrated in one
direction), improving the received signal level by that factor. Thus a beam antenna with a 13dB gain compared
to an omnidirectional antenna, will allow use of a transmitter of only 1/20th of the power. A rural location
might require a Yagi rooftop antenna with such a gain
for TV reception, whereas increasing the TV stations
power by a factor of 20 would be out of the question.
At higher and higher frequencies, the feasibility of higher
gain (more directional) antennas increases, with high gain
microwave antennas typically employing parabolic reectors or horns.
The gain of such a directional antenna will also have a
certain operating bandwidth, in addition to the bandwidth
associated with the feedpoint impedance. Thus the Yagi
TV antenna will only maintain its high gain over a few
TV channels. For use over an entire frequency band, a
wideband design such as the log periodic antenna may be
chosen. Although supercially similar in appearance to a
high gain Yagi, the log-periodic dipole array often used
for TV can cover the entire UHF TV band, for instance.
In return for being wideband, however, the antenna gain
is much less than that of a comparable Yagi. Practical
antenna designs always involve such trade-os in order
to best meet the performance requirements imposed by a
particular application.
57
dence and polarization. The dielectric constant and conductivity (or simply the complex dielectric constant) is
dependent on the soil type and is a function of frequency.
For very low frequencies to high frequencies (<30 MHz),
the ground behaves as a lossy dielectric, [27] Thus the
ground is characterized both by a conductivity [28] and
permittivity (dielectric constant) which can be measured
for a given soil (but is inuenced by uctuating moisture
levels) or can be estimated from certain maps. At lower
frequencies the ground acts mainly as a good conductor,
which AM middle wave broadcast (.5 - 1.6 MHz) antennas depend on.
At frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz, a large portion
of the energy from a horizontally polarized antenna reects o the ground, with almost total reection at the
grazing angles important for ground wave propagation.
That reected wave, with its phase reversed, can either
cancel or reinforce the direct wave, depending on the antenna height in wavelengths and elevation angle (for a sky
wave).
On the other hand, vertically polarized radiation is not
well reected by the ground except at grazing incidence
or over very highly conducting surfaces such as sea water. [29] However the grazing angle reection important
for ground wave propagation, using vertical polarization,
is in phase with the direct wave, providing a boost of up
to 6 db, as is detailed below.
At VHF and above (>30MHz) the ground becomes a

poorer reector. However it remains a good reector
3.3.7 Eect of ground
especially for horizontal polarization and grazing angles
of incidence. That is important as these higher frequenMain article: Multipath propagation
cies usually depend on horizontal line-of-sight propagation (except for satellite communications), the ground
Ground reections is one of the common types of then behaving almost as a mirror.
multipath.[24][25][26]
The net quality of a ground reection depends on the toThe radiation pattern and even the driving point
impedance of an antenna can be inuenced by the dielectric constant and especially conductivity of nearby
objects. For a terrestrial antenna, the ground is usually
one such object of importance. The antennas height
above the ground, as well as the electrical properties
(permittivity and conductivity) of the ground, can then be
important. Also, in the particular case of a monopole antenna, the ground (or an articial ground plane) serves as
the return connection for the antenna current thus having
an additional eect, particularly on the impedance seen
by the feed line.
pography of the surface. When the irregularities of the

surface are much smaller than the wavelength, we are in
the regime of specular reection, and the receiver sees
both the real antenna and an image of the antenna under
the ground due to reection. But if the ground has irregularities not small compared to the wavelength, reections
will not be coherent but shifted by random phases. With
shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies), this is generally
the case.
Whenever both the receiving or transmitting antenna are
placed at signicant heights above the ground (relative to
the wavelength), waves specularly reected by the ground
will travel a longer distance than direct waves, inducing a
phase shift which can sometimes be signicant. When a
sky wave is launched by such an antenna, that phase shift
is always signicant unless the antenna is very close to the
ground (compared to the wavelength).
When an electromagnetic wave strikes a plane surface

such as the ground, part of the wave is transmitted into the
ground and part of it is reected, according to the Fresnel
coecients. If the ground is a very good conductor then
almost all of the wave is reected (180 out of phase),
whereas a ground modeled as a (lossy) dielectric can ab- The phase of reection of electromagnetic waves depends
sorb a large amount of the waves power. The power re- on the polarization of the incident wave. Given the larger
maining in the reected wave, and the phase shift upon refractive index of the ground (typically n=2) compared
reection, strongly depend on the waves angle of inci-
58
to air (n=1), the phase of horizontally polarized radiation

is reversed upon reection (a phase shift of radians or
180). On the other hand, the vertical component of the
waves electric eld is reected at grazing angles of incidence approximately in phase. These phase shifts apply
as well to a ground modelled as a good electrical conductor.
This means that a receiving antenna sees an image of
the antenna but with reversed currents. That current is in
the same absolute direction as the actual antenna if the
antenna is vertically oriented (and thus vertically polarized) but opposite the actual antenna if the antenna current is horizontal.
The actual antenna which is transmitting the original wave
then also may receive a strong signal from its own image from the ground. This will induce an additional current in the antenna element, changing the current at the
feedpoint for a given feedpoint voltage. Thus the antennas impedance, given by the ratio of feedpoint voltage to current, is altered due to the antennas proximity
to the ground. This can be quite a signicant eect when
the antenna is within a wavelength or two of the ground.
But as the antenna height is increased, the reduced power
of the reected wave (due to the inverse square law) allows the antenna to approach its asymptotic feedpoint
impedance given by theory. At lower heights, the eect
on the antennas impedance is very sensitive to the exact distance from the ground, as this aects the phase of
the reected wave relative to the currents in the antenna.
Changing the antennas height by a quarter wavelength,
then changes the phase of the reection by 180, with a
completely dierent eect on the antennas impedance.
The ground reection has an important eect on the net
far eld radiation pattern in the vertical plane, that is,
as a function of elevation angle, which is thus dierent
between a vertically and horizontally polarized antenna.
Consider an antenna at a height h above the ground, transmitting a wave considered at the elevation angle . For
a vertically polarized transmission the magnitude of the
electric eld of the electromagnetic wave produced by the
direct ray plus the reected ray is:
is the electrical eld that would be received by

the direct wave if there were no ground.
E0
is the elevation angle of the wave being considered.
is the wavelength.
is the height of the antenna (half the distance between the antenna and its image).
For horizontal propagation between transmitting and receiving antennas situated near the ground reasonably far
from each other, the distances traveled by tne direct and
reected rays are nearly the same. There is almost no relative phase shift. If the emission is polarized vertically,
the two elds (direct and reected) add and there is maximum of received signal. If the signal is polarized horizontally, the two signals subtract and the received signal
is largely cancelled. The vertical plane radiation patterns
are shown in the image at right. With vertical polarization
there is always a maximum for =0, horizontal propagation (left pattern). For horizontal polarization, there is
cancellation at that angle. Note that the above formulae
and these plots assume the ground as a perfect conductor.
These plots of the radiation pattern correspond to a distance between the antenna and its image of 2.5. As the
antenna height is increased, the number of lobes increases
as well.
The dierence in the above factors for the case of =0 is
the reason that most broadcasting (transmissions intended
for the public) uses vertical polarization. For receivers
near the ground, horizontally polarized transmissions suffer cancellation. For best reception the receiving antennas
for these signals are likewise vertically polarized. In some
applications where the receiving antenna must work in
any position, as in mobile phones, the base station antennas use mixed polarization, such as linear polarization at
an angle (with both vertical and horizontal components)
or circular polarization.
On the other hand, classical (analog) television transmissions are usually horizontally polarized, because in urban
areas buildings can reect the electromagnetic waves and
create ghost images due to multipath propagation. Using horizontal polarization, ghosting is reduced because
the amount of reection of electromagnetic waves in the
p polarization (horizontal polarization o the side of a
(
)

|EV | = 2 |E0 | cos 2h
sin
building) is generally less than s (vertical, in this case) po

larization. Vertically polarized analog television has nevThus the power received can be as high as 4 times that due ertheless been used in some rural areas. In digital terresto the direct wave alone (such as when =0), following the trial television such reections are less problematic, due
square of the cosine. The sign inversion for the reection to robustness of binary transmissions and error correction.
of horizontally polarized emission instead results in:
(
)

|EH | = 2 |E0 | sin 2h
sin
where:
3.3.8 Mutual impedance and interaction

between antennas
Current circulating in one antenna generally induces a
voltage across the feedpoint of nearby antennas or an-
3.3. ANTENNA
59
tenna elements. The mathematics presented below are

useful in analyzing the electrical behaviour of antenna
arrays, where the properties of the individual array elements (such as half wave dipoles) are already known.
If those elements were widely separated and driven in a
certain amplitude and phase, then each would act independently as that element is known to. However because
of the mutual interaction between their electric and magnetic elds due to proximity, the currents in each element
are not simply a function of the applied voltage (according to its driving point impedance), but depend on the
currents in the other nearby elements. Note that this now
is a near eld phenomenon which could not be properly
accounted for using the Friis transmission equation for
instance.
As is the case for mutual inductances,
Zij = Zji .
This is a consequence of Lorentz reciprocity. For an

antenna element i not connected to anything (open circuited) one can write ii = 0 . But for an element i which
is short circuited, a current is generated across that short
but no voltage is allowed, so the corresponding vi = 0 .
This is the case, for instance, with the so-called parasitic
elements of a Yagi-Uda antenna where the solid rod can
be viewed as a dipole antenna shorted across its feedpoint.
Parasitic elements are unpowered elements that absorb
and reradiate RF energy according to the induced current
The elements feedpoint currents and voltages can be calculated using such a system of equations.
related to each other using the concept of mutual
With a particular geometry, it is possible for the mutual
impedance Zji between every pair of antennas just as the
impedance between nearby antennas to be zero. This is
mutual impedance jM describes the voltage induced in
the case, for instance, between the crossed dipoles used
one inductor by a current through a nearby coil coupled to
in the turnstile antenna.
it through a mutual inductance M. The mutual impedance
[30]
Z21 between two antennas is dened
as:
3.3.9 Antenna gallery

Zji =
Antennas and antenna arrays
vj
ii
where ii is the current owing in antenna i and vj is the

voltage induced at the open-circuited feedpoint of antenna j due to i1 when all other currents ik are zero. The
mutual impendances can be viewed as the elements of a
symmetric square impedance matrix Z. Note that the diagonal elements, Zii = viii , are simply the driving point
impedances of each element.
Using this denition, the voltages present at the feedpoints of a set of coupled antennas can be expressed as the
multiplication of the impedance matrix times the vector
of currents. Written out as discrete equations, that means:
A multi-band rotary directional antenna for amateur

radio use.
A terrestrial microwave radio antenna array.
Wire dipole antenna using open-wire ladder line
feedline for amateur radio use.
Low cost LF time signal receiver, antenna (left) and
receiver
Rotatable log-periodic array for VHF and UHF.
Shortwave antennas in Delano, California.
v1
v2
..
.
=
=
i1 Z11
i1 Z21
..
.
+
+
i2 Z12
i2 Z22
..
.
+
+
+
+
in Z1n
in Z2n
..
.
vn
i1 Zn1
+ i2 Zn2
in Znn
where:
vi
ii
Zii
is the driving point impedance of antenna i
Zij
is the mutual impedance between antennas i and
is the voltage at the terminals of antenna i
is the current owing between the terminals of antenna i
j.
AM loop antenna
Antennas and supporting structures
A building rooftop supporting numerous dish
and sectored mobile telecommunications antennas
(Doncaster, Victoria, Australia).
A water tower in Palmerston, Northern Territory
with radio broadcasting and communications antennas.
A three-sector telephone site in Mexico City.
Telephone site concealed as a palm tree.
60
Diagrams as part of a system

Antennas may be connected through a multiplexing
arrangement in some applications like this trunked
two-way radio example.
Antenna network for an emergency medical services
base station.
3.3.10
See also
[3] For
example
http://www.telegraph.
co.uk/science/science-news/7810454/
British-scientists-launch-major-radio-telescope.html;
http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf09377.
html; http://www.ska.ac.za/media/meerkat_cad.php
[4] IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation.
[5] Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphic Communication: Nobel
Lecture, 11 December 1909." Nobel Lectures. Physics
19011921. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company,
1967: 196222. p. 206.
Amateur radio
[6] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909.
Antenna measurement
[7] Slyusar, Vadym (2023 September 2011). To history

of radio engineerings term antenna"". VIII International Conference on Antenna Theory and Techniques
(ICATT11). Kyiv, Ukraine. pp. 8385.
AWX antenna
Category:Radio frequency antenna types
Category:Radio frequency propagation
Cellular repeater
DXing
Electromagnetism
Fractal antenna
Mast radiator
Mobile broadband modem
Numerical Electromagnetics Code
Radio masts and towers
Radio telescope
RF connector
Satellite television
Smart antenna
Television antenna
TETRA
Whip antenna
3.3.11
Notes
[1] Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern Dictionary of Electronics.

Newnes. p. 29. ISBN 0750698667.
[2] In the context of electrical engineering and physics, the
plural of antenna is antennas, and it has been this way
since about 1950 (or earlier), when a cornerstone textbook in this eld, Antennas, was published by the physicist and electrical engineer John D. Kraus of The Ohio
State University. Besides in the title, Dr. Kraus noted this
in a footnote on the rst page of his book. Insects may
have "antennae", but this form is not used in the context
of electronics or physics.
[8] Slyusar, Vadym (2124 February 2012). An Italian period on the history of radio engineerings term antenna"".
11th International Conference Modern Problems of Radio
Engineering, Telecommunications and Computer Science
(TCSET2012). Lviv-Slavske, Ukraine. p. 174.
[9] Slyusar, Vadym (June 2011). Last mile:
Electronics: Science, Technology, Business (in Russian) ?
(6). pp. 5264 http://www.slyusar.kiev.ua/Slusar_3.pdf.
Missing or empty |title= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)
[10] Schantz, Hans Gregory (2003), Introduction to ultrawideband antennas, Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE
UWBST Conference.
[11] Media Advisory: Apply Now to Attend the ALMA Observatory Inauguration. ESO Announcement. Retrieved
4 December 2012.
[12] Carl Smith (1969). Standard Broadcast Antenna Systems,
p. 2-1212. Cleveland, Ohio: Smith Electronics, Inc.
[13] Lonngren, Karl Erik; Savov, Sava V.; Jost, Randy J.
(2007). Fundamentals of Electomagnetics With Matlab,
2nd Ed. SciTech Publishing. p. 451. ISBN 1891121588.
[14] Stutzman, Warren L.; Thiele, Gary A. (2012). Antenna
Theory and Design, 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 560
564. ISBN 0470576642.
[15] This example assumes a length to diameter ratio of 1000.
[16] Guide to Wi-Fi Wireless Network Antenna Selection..
NetworkBits.net. Archived from the original on 5 March
2008. Retrieved April 8, 2008.
[17] Impedance is caused by the same physics as refractive
index in optics, although impedance eects are typically one-dimensional, where eects of refractive index
is three-dimensional.
[18] Krauss, John D. (1950). Antennas. New York: McGraw
Hill. pp. 15,5354.
[19] Krauss 1950, pp. 127-148
[20] Krauss 1950, pp. 318-321
[21] Krauss 1950, p. 407
3.3. ANTENNA
61
Understanding electromagnetic elds and antenna
radiation takes (almost) no math, Ron Schmitt, EDN
Magazine, March 2 2000 (PDF)
[22] Krauss 1950, pp. 371-381

[23] Krauss 1950, pp. 336-348
[24] Fixed Broadband Wireless System Design, p.
Google Books
130, at
[25] Monopole Antennas, p. 340, at Google Books

[26] Wireless and Mobile Communication, p. 37, at Google
Books
[27] H. Ward Silver, ed. (2011). ARRL Antenna Book, p. 3-2.
Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay League.
ISBN 978-0-87259-694-8
Antennas: Generalities, Principle of operation, As

electronic component, Hertz Marconi and Other types
Antennas etc etc
Theory and simulations
AN-SOF, "Antenna Simulation Software". Program system for the modeling of antennas and scatterers.
[28] http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/
m3-map-effective-ground-conductivity-united-states-wall-sized-map-am-broadcast-stations
http://www.dipoleanimator.com
[29] H. Ward Silver, ed. (2011). ARRL Antenna Book, p.
3-23. Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay
League. ISBN 978-0-87259-694-8
EM Talk, "Microstrip Patch Antenna", (Theory and

simulation of microstrip patch antenna)
[30] Kai Fong Lee (1984). Principles of Antenna Theory. John

Wiley and Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-471-90167-9.
"Online Calculations and Conversions " Formulas

for simulating and optimizing Antenna specs and
placement
3.3.12
References
General references
Antenna Theory (3rd edition), by C. Balanis, Wiley,
2005, ISBN 0-471-66782-X;
Antenna Theory and Design (2nd edition), by W.
Stutzman and G. Thiele, Wiley, 1997, ISBN 0-47102590-9;
"Microwave Antenna Design Calculator" Provides

quick estimation of antenna size required for a given
gain and frequency. 3 dB and 10 dB beamwidths are
also derived; the calculator additionally gives the fareld range required for a given antenna.
Sophocles J. Orfanidis, "Electromagnetic Waves
and Antennas", Rutgers University (20 PDF Chaps.
Basic theory, denitions and reference)
Antennas (4th edition), by J. Kraus and R. Marhefka, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-07-232103-2;
Hans Lohninger, Learning by Simulations:

Physics: Coupled Radiators". vias.org, 2005. (ed.
Interactive simulation of two coupled antennas)
Antennenbuch, by Karl Rothammel, publ.

Francksche Verlagshandlung Stuttgart, 1991,
ISBN 3-440-05853-0; other editions (in German)
NEC Lab - NEC Lab is a tool that uses Numerical

Electromagnetics Code and Articial Intelligence to
design and simulate antennas.
Antennas for portable Devices, Zhi Ning Chen

(edited), John Wiley & Sons in March 2007
Justin Smith "Aerials". A.T.V (Aerials and Television), 2009. (ed. Article on the (basic) theory and
use of FM, DAB & TV aerials)
Broadband Planar Antennas: Design and Applications, Zhi Ning Chen and M. Y. W. Chia, John Wiley & Sons in February 2006
The ARRL Antenna Book (15th edition), ARRL,
1988, ISBN 0-87259-206-5
Antennas Research Group, "Virtual (Reality) Antennas". Democritus University of Thrace, 2005.
Antenna Theory antenna-theory.com
Support > Knowledgebase > RF Basics > Antennas / Cables > dBi vs. dBd detail". MaxStream,
Inc., 2005.
(ed.
How to measure antenna
gain) (New location: http://www.digi.com/support/
kbase/kbaseresultdetl?id=2146 Note: to skip the
registration form click the link below it)
Antennas Antenna types
Yagis and Log Periodics, Astrosurf article.
Patch Antenna: From Simulation to Realization EM

Talk
Raines, J. K., Virtual Outer Conductor for Linear

Antennas, Microwave Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1, January, 2009, pp. 7686
Practical antenna references
Why Antennas Radiate, Stuart G. Downs, WY6EE

(PDF)
Tests of FM/VHF receiving antennas.
62
Eect of ground references
Electronic Radio and Engineering. F.E. Terman.
McGraw-Hill
Lectures on physics. Feynman, Leighton and Sands.
Addison-Wesley
Classical Electricity and Magnetism. W. Panofsky
and M. Phillips. Addison-Wesley
Patents and USPTO
CLASS 343, Communication: Radio Wave Antenna

below 20 kHz, the wave propagates as a single waveguide mode with a horizontal magnetic eld and vertical
electric eld.[4] The interaction of radio waves with the
ionized regions of the atmosphere makes radio propagation more complex to predict and analyze than in free
space. Ionospheric radio propagation has a strong connection to space weather. A sudden ionospheric disturbance or shortwave fadeout is observed when the x-rays
associated with a solar are ionize the ionospheric Dregion. Enhanced ionization in that region increases the
absorption of radio signals passing through it. During the
strongest solar x-ray ares, complete absorption of virtually all ionospherically propagated radio signals in the
sunlit hemisphere can occur. These solar ares can disrupt HF radio propagation and aect GPS accuracy.
Since radio propagation is not fully predictable, such services as emergency locator transmitters, in-ight commu3.3.13 Further reading
nication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and some television
Antennas for Base Stations in Wireless Communica- broadcasting have been moved to communications sateltions, edited by Zhi Ning Chen and Kwai-Man Luk, lites. A satellite link, though expensive, can oer highly
predictable and stable line of sight coverage of a given
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, USA in May 2009
area.
The dictionary denition of antenna at Wiktionary
3.4.1 Free space propagation
3.4 Radio propagation
In free space, all electromagnetic waves (radio, light, Xrays, etc.) obey the inverse-square law which states that
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves the power density of an electromagnetic wave is proporwhen they are transmitted, or propagated from one point tional to the inverse of the square of the distance from a
on the Earth to another, or into various parts of the point source[5] or:
atmosphere.[1] As a form of electromagnetic radiation,
like light waves, radio waves are aected by the phenomena of reection, refraction, diraction, absorption, P 1 .
r2
polarization, and scattering.[2]
Radio propagation is aected by the daily changes of
water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the upper
atmosphere, due to the Sun. Understanding the eects
of varying conditions on radio propagation has many
practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to designing reliable
mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to operation of radar systems.
Doubling the distance from a transmitter means that the

power density of the radiated wave at that new location is
reduced to one-quarter of its previous value.
The power density per surface unit is proportional to the
product of the electric and magnetic eld strengths. Thus,
doubling the propagation path distance from the transmitter reduces each of their received eld strengths over a
free-space path by one-half.
Radio propagation is also aected by several other factors

determined by its path from point to point. This path can
be a direct line of sight path or an over-the-horizon path 3.4.2 Modes
aided by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region
between approximately 60 and 600 km.[3] Factors inu- Surface modes (groundwave)
encing ionospheric radio signal propagation can include
sporadic-E, spread-F, solar ares, geomagnetic storms, Main article: Surface wave
ionospheric layer tilts, and solar proton events.
Radio waves at dierent frequencies propagate in dier- Lower frequencies (between 30 and 3,000 kHz) have
ent ways. At extra low frequencies (ELF) and very low the property of following the curvature of the earth via
frequencies the wavelength is much larger than the sep- groundwave propagation in the majority of occurrences.
aration between the earths surface and the D layer of In this mode the radio wave propagates by interacting
the ionosphere, so electromagnetic waves may propagate with the semi-conductive surface of the earth. The wave
in this region as a waveguide. Indeed, for frequencies clings to the surface and thus follows the curvature of
3.4. RADIO PROPAGATION

the earth. Vertical polarization is used to alleviate short
circuiting the electric eld through the conductivity of the
ground. Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated rapidly as they follow
the earths surface. Attenuation is proportional to the frequency making this mode mainly useful for LF and VLF
frequencies (see also Earth-ionosphere waveguide).
Today LF and VLF are mostly used for time signals, and
for military communications, especially one-way transmissions to ships and submarines, although radio amateurs have an allocation at 137 kHz in some parts of the
world. Radio broadcasting using surface wave propagation uses the higher portion of the LF range in Europe,
Africa and the Middle East.
63
icant roles. The D-layer, when present during sunlight
periods, causes signicant amount of signal loss, as does
the E-layer whose maximum usable frequency can rise to
4 MHz and above and thus block higher frequency signals
from reaching the F2-layer. The layers, or more appropriately regions, are directly aected by the sun on a daily
diurnal cycle, a seasonal cycle and the 11-year sunspot
cycle and determine the utility of these modes. During
solar maxima, or sunspot highs and peaks, the whole HF
range up to 30 MHz can be used usually around the clock
and F2 propagation up to 50 MHz is observed frequently
depending upon daily solar ux 10.7cm radiation values.
During solar minima, or minimum sunspot counts down
to zero, propagation of frequencies above 15 MHz is generally unavailable.
Early commercial and professional radio services relied

exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and groundwave propagation. To prevent interference with these
services, amateur and experimental transmitters were restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be useless
since their ground-wave range was limited. Upon discovery of the other propagation modes possible at medium
wave and short wave frequencies, the advantages of HF
for commercial and military purposes became apparent.
Amateur experimentation was then conned only to authorized frequency segments in that range.[6]
Although the claim is commonly made that two-way HF

propagation along a given path is reciprocal, that is, if
the signal from location A reaches location B at a good
strength, the signal from location B will be similar at station A because the same path is traversed in both directions. However, the ionosphere is far too complex and
constantly changing to support the reciprocity theorem.
The path is never exactly the same in both directions.[7]
In brief, conditions at the two terminii of a path generally
cause dissimilar polarization shifts, dissimilar splits into
ordinary rays and extraordinary or Pedersen rays which
are erratic and impossibly identical or similar due to variations in ionization density, shifting zenith angles, eects
Direct modes (line-of-sight)
of the earths magnetic DIPOLE contours, antenna radiLine-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves ation patterns, ground conditions and other variables.
between antennas that are visible to each other. This Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest
is probably the most common of the radio propagation to amateur radio operators and commercial marine and
modes at VHF and higher frequencies. Because radio aircraft communications, and also to shortwave broadsignals can travel through many non-metallic objects, ra- casters. Real-time propagation can be assessed by listendio can be picked up through walls. This is still line-of- ing for transmissions from specic beacon transmitters.
sight propagation. Examples would include propagation
between a satellite and a ground antenna or reception of
Meteor scattering Meteor scattering relies on reecttelevision signals from a local TV transmitter.
ing radio waves o the intensely ionized columns of air
Ground plane reection eects are an important factor
generated by meteors. While this mode is very short duin VHF line of sight propagation. The interference beration, often only from a fraction of second to couple of
tween the direct beam line-of-sight and the ground reseconds per event, digital Meteor burst communications
ected beam often leads to an eective inverse-fourthallows remote stations to communicate to a station that
4
power (1/distance ) law for ground-plane limited radimay be hundreds of miles up to over 1,000 miles (1,600
ation. [Need reference to inverse-fourth-power law +
km) away, without the expense required for a satellite
ground plane. Drawings may clarify]
link. This mode is most generally useful on VHF frequencies between 30 and 250 MHz.
Ionospheric modes (skywave)
Main article: Skywave
Skywave propagation, also referred to as skip, is any of
the modes that rely on refraction of radio waves in the
ionosphere, which is made up of one or more ionized layers in the upper atmosphere. F2-layer is the most important ionospheric layer for long-distance, multiple-hop HF
propagation, though F1, E, and D-layers also play signif-
Auroral backscatter Intense columns of Auroral ionization at 100 km altitudes within the auroral oval
backscatter radio waves, perhaps most notably on HF
and VHF. Backscatter is angle-sensitiveincident ray
vs. magnetic eld line of the column must be very
close to right-angle. Random motions of electrons spiraling around the eld lines create a Doppler-spread that
broadens the spectra of the emission to more or less
noise-likedepending on how high radio frequency is
64
used. The radio-auroras are observed mostly at high latitudes and rarely extend down to middle latitudes. The
occurrence of radio-auroras depends on solar activity
(ares, coronal holes, CMEs) and annually the events are
more numerous during solar cycle maxima. Radio aurora includes the so-called afternoon radio aurora which
produces stronger but more distorted signals and after
the Harang-minima, the late-night radio aurora (substorming phase) returns with variable signal strength and
lesser doppler spread. The propagation range for this predominantly back-scatter mode extends up to about 2000
km in east-west plane, but strongest signals are observed
most frequently from the north at nearby sites on same
latitudes.
Rarely, a strong radio-aurora is followed by Auroral-E,
which resembles both propagation types in some ways.
Sporadic-E propagation Main article: Sporadic E

propagation
Sporadic E (Es) propagation can be observed on HF and
VHF bands.[8] It must not be confused with ordinary HF
E-layer propagation. Sporadic-E at mid-latitudes occurs
mostly during summer season, from May to August in the
northern hemisphere and from November to February in
the southern hemisphere. There is no single cause for
this mysterious propagation mode. The reection takes
place in a thin sheet of ionisation around 90 km height.
The ionisation patches drift westwards at speeds of few
hundred km per hour. There is a weak periodicity noted
during the season and typically Es is observed on 1 to 3
successive days and remains absent for a few days to reoccur again. Es do not occur during small hours; the events
usually begin at dawn, and there is a peak in the afternoon and a second peak in the evening.[9] Es propagation
is usually gone by local midnight.
Observation of radio propagation beacons operating
around 28.2 MHz, 50 MHz and 70 MHz, indicates that
maximum observed frequency (MOF) for Es is found to
be lurking around 30 MHz on most days during the summer season, but sometimes MOF may shoot up to 100
MHz or even more in ten minutes to decline slowly during the next few hours. The peak-phase includes oscillation of MOF with periodicity of approximately 5...10
minutes. The propagation range for Es single-hop is typically 1000 to 2000 km, but with multi-hop, double range
is observed. The signals are very strong but also with slow
deep fading.

lence) in the density of the atmosphere at a height of
around 6 miles (10 km) can scatter some of the normally
line-of-sight beam of radio frequency energy back toward the ground, allowing over-the-horizon communication between stations as far as 500 miles (800 km) apart.
The military developed the White Alice Communications
System covering all of Alaska, using this tropospheric
scattering principle.
Tropospheric ducting Main article:
ducting
Tropospheric
Sudden changes in the atmospheres vertical moisture

content and temperature proles can on random occasions make microwave and UHF & VHF signals propagate hundreds of kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300 mi)and for ducting mode even farther
beyond the normal radio-horizon. The inversion layer
is mostly observed over high pressure regions, but there
are several tropospheric weather conditions which create
these randomly occurring propagation modes. Inversion
layers altitude for non-ducting is typically found between
100 meters (300 ft) to about 1 kilometer (3,000 ft) and
for ducting about 500 meters to 3 kilometers (1,600 to
10,000 ft), and the duration of the events are typically
from several hours up to several days. Higher frequencies
experience the most dramatic increase of signal strengths,
while on low-VHF and HF the eect is negligible. Propagation path attenuation may be below free-space loss.
Some of the lesser inversion types related to warm ground
and cooler air moisture content occur regularly at certain
times of the year and time of day. A typical example
could be the late summer, early morning tropospheric enhancements that bring in signals from distances up to few
hundred kilometers for a couple of hours, until undone
by the Suns warming eect.
Tropospheric delay This is a source of error in radio
ranging techniques, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS).[10] See also the page of GPS meteorology.
Rain scattering Rain scattering is purely a microwave

propagation mode and is best observed around 10 GHz,
but extends down to a few gigahertzthe limit being the
size of the scattering particle size vs. wavelength. This
mode scatters signals mostly forwards and backwards
when using horizontal polarization and side-scattering
with vertical polarization. Forward-scattering typically
yields propagation ranges of 800 km. Scattering from
snowakes and ice pellets also occurs, but scattering from
Tropospheric modes
ice without watery surface is less eective. The most
common application for this phenomenon is microwave
Tropospheric scattering Main article: Tropospheric rain radar, but rain scatter propagation can be a nuiscattering
sance causing unwanted signals to intermittently propagate where they are not anticipated or desired. Similar
At VHF and higher frequencies, small variations (turbu- reections may also occur from insects though at lower
3.4. RADIO PROPAGATION

altitudes and shorter range. Rain also causes attenuation
of point-to-point and satellite microwave links. Attenuation values up to 30 dB have been observed on 30 GHz
during heavy tropical rain.
Airplane scattering Airplane scattering (or most often reection) is observed on VHF through microwaves
and, besides back-scattering, yields momentary propagation up to 500 km even in mountainous terrain.
The most common back-scatter applications are airtrac radar, bistatic forward-scatter guided-missile and
airplane-detecting trip-wire radar, and the US space
radar.
65
more important. At microwave or higher frequencies,
absorption by molecular resonances in the atmosphere
(mostly from water, H2 O and oxygen, O2 ) is a major
factor in radio propagation. For example, in the 5860
GHz band, there is a major absorption peak which makes
this band useless for long-distance use. This phenomenon
was rst discovered during radar research in World War
II. Above about 400 GHz, the Earths atmosphere blocks
most of the spectrum while still passing some - up to UV
light, which is blocked by ozone - but visible light and
some of the near-infrared is transmitted. Heavy rain and
falling snow also aect microwave absorption.
3.4.3 Measuring HF propagation

Lightning scattering Lightning scattering has sometimes been observed on VHF and UHF over distances of
about 500 km. The hot lightning channel scatters radiowaves for a fraction of a second. The RF noise burst from
the lightning makes the initial part of the open channel unusable and the ionization disappears quickly because of
recombination at low altitude and high atmospheric pressure. Although the hot lightning channel is briey observable with microwave radar, no practical use for this mode
has been found in communications.
Other eects
HF propagation conditions can be simulated using radio

propagation models, such as the Voice of America Coverage Analysis Program, and realtime measurements can
be done using chirp transmitters. For radio amateurs
the WSPR mode provides maps with real time propagation conditions between a network of transmitters and
receivers.[11] Even without special beacons the realtime
propagation conditions can be measured: a worldwide
network of receivers decodes morse code signals on amateur radio frequencies in realtime and provides sophisticated search functions and propagation maps for every
station received.[12]
Diraction Knife-Edge diraction is the propagation

3.4.4 See also
mode where radio waves are bent around sharp edges. For
example, this mode is used to send radio signals over a
Main article: List of radio propagation terms
mountain range when a line-of-sight path is not available.
However, the angle cannot be too sharp or the signal will
not diract. The diraction mode requires increased sig Diversity scheme
nal strength, so higher power or better antennas will be
needed than for an equivalent line-of-sight path.
Earth bulge
Diraction depends on the relationship between the
Earth-ionosphere waveguide
wavelength and the size of the obstacle. In other words,
the size of the obstacle in wavelengths. Lower frequen Electromagnetic radiation
cies diract around large smooth obstacles such as hills
Fading
more easily. For example, in many cases where VHF (or
higher frequency) communication is not possible due to
Fresnel zone
shadowing by a hill, it is still possible to communicate us Free space
ing the upper part of the HF band where the surface wave
is of little use.
Inversion (meteorology)
Diraction phenomena by small obstacles are also impor KennellyHeaviside layer
tant at high frequencies. Signals for urban cellular telephony tend to be dominated by ground-plane eects as
Near and far eld
they travel over the rooftops of the urban environment.
They then diract over roof edges into the street, where
Radio atmospherics
multipath propagation, absorption and diraction phe Radio frequency
nomena dominate.
Radio horizon
Absorption Low-frequency radio waves travel easily
through brick and stone and VLF even penetrates seawater. As the frequency rises, absorption eects become
Radio propagation model

Rayleigh fading
66
Ray tracing (physics)

Schumann resonance
Skip (radio)
Skip zone
Skywave
Tropospheric propagation
TV and FM DX
Upfade
VOACAP - Free professional HF propagation prediction software
3.4.5
References
[1] H. P. Westman et al., (ed), Reference Data for Radio Engineers, Fifth Edition, 1968, Howard W. Sams and Co.,
no ISBN, Library of Congress Card No. 43-14665 page
26-1
[2] Demetrius T Paris and F. Kenneth Hurd, Basic Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw Hill, New York 1969 ISBN
0-07-048470-8, Chapter 8

Lucien Boithais:
Radio Wave Propagation.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 1987.
ISBN 0-07-006433-4
Karl Rawer:Wave Propagatiom im the Ionosphere.Kluwer Acad.Publ.,Dordrecht 1993. ISBN
0-7923-0775-5
H. Ward Silver and Mark J. Wilson, (eds), Propagation of Radio Signals (Ch. 19, by Emil Pocock),
in The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
(88th edition, 2010), ARRL, Newington CT USA
ISBN 0-87259-095-X
Yuri Blanarovich, VE3BMV, K3BU: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation by Conduction CQ Magazine June 1980, p. 44, http://k3bu.us/propagation.
htm

Solar widget Propagation widget based on NOAA
data. Also available as WordPress plugin.
[3] Radiowave propagation, edited by M.Hall and L.Barclay,

page 2, published by Peter Peregrinus Ltd., (1989), ISBN
0-86341-156-8
ARRL Propagation Page The American Radio Relay League page on radio propagation.
[4] Radiowave propagation, edited by M.Hall and L.Barclay,

published by Peter Peregrinus Ltd., page 3, (1989), ISBN
0-86341-156-8
HF Radio and Ionospheric Prediction Service - Australia
[5] Westman Reference data page 26-19

[6] Clinton B. DeSoto (1936). 200 meters & Down - The
Story of Amateur Radio. W. Hartford, CT: The American
Radio Relay League. pp. 132146. ISBN 0-87259-0011.
[7] G.W. Hull, Nonreciprocal characteristics of a 1500km
HF Ionospheric Path, Proceedings of the IEEE, 55, March
1967, pp. 426-427; Origin of non-reciprocity on highfrequency ionospheric paths, Nature, pp. 483-484, and
cited references.
[8] Davies, Kenneth (1990). Ionospheric Radio. IEE Electromagnetic Waves Series #31. London, UK: Peter Peregrinus Ltd/The Institution of Electrical Engineers. pp. 184
186. ISBN 0-86341-186-X.
[9] George Jacobs and Theodore J. Cohen, Shortwave Propagation Handbook. Hicksville, New York: CQ Publishing
(1982), pp. 130-135. ISBN 978-0-943016-00-9
[10] Frank Kleijer (2004), Troposphere Modeling and Filtering for Precise GPS Leveling. Ph. D. thesis, Department
of Mathematical Geodesy and Positioning, Delft University of Technology
[11] WSPR Propagation Conditions Map: http://wsprnet.org/
drupal/wsprnet/map
[12] Network of CW Signal Decoders for Realtime Analysis:
http://www.reversebeacon.net/
NASA Space Weather Action Center

HF Propagation Tutorial by the late NM7M
Space Weather and Radio Propagation Resource
Center Live data and images of space weather and
radio propagation.
Solar Terrestrial Dispatch
Online Propagation Tools, HF Solar Data, and HF
Propagation Tutorials
DXing.info - Propagation links
HF Radio Propagation Software for Firefox - Propre Firefox plug-in for monitoring propagation,
website utility to display HF propagation status, and
article on understanding HF radio propagation forecasting
The Basics of Radio Wave Propagation A resource
by Edwin C. Jones (AE4TM), MD, PhD, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee.
Dynamic Radio Propagation Data Constantly updated radio propagation data pulled from various
sources.
3.5. RST CODE
67
Solar Cycle 24 prediction and MF/HF/6M refers to how easy or dicult it is to distinguish each of
radiowave
propagation
forecast
webpage the characters in the text of the message being sent; in a
(www.solarcycle24.org)
voice transmission, readability refers to how easy or dicult it is for each spoken word to be understood correctly.
160 Meter (Medium Frequency) Radiowave Prop- Readability is measured on a scale of 1 to 5.[2]
agation Theory Notes webpage (www.wcflunatall.
com/nz4o5.htm)
1. Unreadable
Unusual HF Propagation Phenomena. 13 Apr 2009
2. Barely readable, occasional words distinguishable
Includes useful recordings each type. Retrieved 9
Oct 2009.
3. Readable with considerable diculty
Overview of radio propagation modes
4. Readable with practically no diculty
Propagation: Es & Thunderstorms by Thomas F.
5. Perfectly readable
Giella, NZ4O, ex KN4LF.
The following external references provide practical ex- 3.5.2 Strength
amples of radio propagation concepts as demonstrated
using software built on the VOACAP model.
The S stands for Strength. Strength is an assessment of
how powerful the received signal is at the receiving loca Online MOF/LOF HF Propagation Prediction Tool tion. Although an accurate signal strength meter can determine a quantitative value for signal strength, in practice
High Frequency radio propagation de-mystied.
this portion of the RST code is a qualitative assessment,
often made based on the S meter of the radio receiver at
Is High Frequency radio propagation reciprocal?
the location of signal reception. Strength is measured
How does noise aect radio signals?
on a scale of 1 to 9.[2]
The following external link is designed for use by cell
phones and mobile devices that can display content using
Wireless Markup Language and the Wireless Application
Protocol:
1. Faint signal, barely perceptible

2. Very weak
3. Weak
WAP/WML Space Weather and Radio Propagation

Resources Space weather and radio propagation resources.
4. Fair
5. Fairly good
6. Good
3.5 RST code

For other uses of the three letter acronym, see
RST.
The RST system is used by amateur radio operators,
shortwave listeners, and other radio hobbyists to exchange information about the quality of a radio signal
being received. The code is a three digit number, with
one digit each for conveying an assessment of the signals
readability, strength, and tone.[1] The code was developed
in the early 20th century and was in widespread use by
1912.
3.5.1
Readability
The R stands for Readability. Readability is a qualitative assessment of how easy or dicult it is to correctly
copy the information being sent during the transmission.
In a Morse code telegraphy transmission, readability
7. Moderately strong
8. Strong
9. Very strong signals
For a quantitative assessment, quality HF receivers are
calibrated so that S9 on the S-meter corresponds to a signal of 50 V at the antenna terminal.[3] On VHF and UHF
receivers used for weak signal communications, S9 often
corresponds to 5 V at the antenna terminal.
3.5.3 Tone
The T stands for Tone. Tone is only used in Morse code
and digital transmissions and is therefore omitted during
voice operations. With modern transmitter technology,
imperfections in the quality of the transmitter modulation that can be detected by humans are rare. Tone is
measured on a scale of 1 to 9.[2]
68
1. Sixty cycle a.c or less, very rough and broad
3.5.6 References
2. Very rough a.c., very harsh and broad
[1] Quick Reference Operating Aids (The RST System)".
3. Rough a.c. tone, rectied but not ltered
[2] The beginners handbook of amateur radio by Clay Laster,

Page 379, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000, ISBN 0-07136187-1, ISBN 978-0-07-136187-3
4. Rough note, some trace of ltering

5. Filtered rectied a.c. but strongly ripple-modulated
6. Filtered tone, denite trace of ripple modulation
7. Near pure tone, trace of ripple modulation
8. Near perfect tone, slight trace of modulation
9. Perfect tone, no trace of ripple or modulation of any
kind
3.5.4
Variations
An example RST report for a voice transmission is 59,

usually pronounced ve nine or ve by nine, a report
that indicates a perfectly readable and very strong signal.
Exceptionally strong signals are designated by the quantitative number of decibels, in excess of S9, displayed
on the receivers S meter. Example: Your signal is 30
dB over S9.
Suxes were historically added to indicate other signal
properties, and might be sent as 599K":
X: stable frequency (crystal control)
C: chirp (frequency shift when keying)
K: key clicks
Because the N character in Morse code requires less time
to send than the 9, during amateur radio contests where
the competing amateur radio stations are all using Morse
code, the nines in the RST are typically abbreviated to N
to read 5NN.[4] In general, this practice is referred to as
abbreviated or cut numbers.[5]
3.5.5
See also
Plain Language Radio Checks

SINPO
QSL card
Five by ve
Circuit Merit - a measurement process designed to
assess the quality of voice, as input for calculating
the Mean Opinion Score in wired and wireless telephone circuits.
[3] S9 Signal reference.

[4] http://www.radioing.com/hamstart/rst.html Ham Radio
RST Signal Reporting System for CW Operation, by
Charlie Bautsch, W5AM
[5] http://ac6v.com/morseaids.htm#AB MORSE CODE,
INTERNATIONAL EXTENSIONS AND ABBREVIATED NUMBERS

Ham Radio RST Signal Reporting System for CW
Operation, by Charlie Bautsch, W5AM
RSQ - An Improved Signal Reporting System for
PSK
3.5. RST CODE
69
Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter submillimeter Array.[11]
Whip antenna on car, common example of an omnidirectional

antenna
Electronic symbol for an antenna
Half-wave dipole antenna
70
Diagram of the electric elds (blue) and magnetic elds (red)

radiated by a dipole antenna (black rods) during transmission.
Cell phone base station antennas
270
side lobes
main lobe
180
back lobe
90
Rooftop television Yagi-Uda antennas like these six are widely

used at VHF and UHF frequencies.
antenna faces to 0
Polar plots of the horizontal cross sections of a (virtual) YagiUda-antenna. Outline connects points with 3db eld power compared to an ISO emitter.
3.5. RST CODE
71
The wave reected by earth can be considered as emitted by the

image antenna.
A "Turnstile" type transmitting antenna (two dipole antennas

aligned at right angles) for a VHF low band television broadcasting station.
The currents in an antenna appear as an image in opposite phase
when reected at grazing angles. This causes a phase reversal for
waves emitted by a horizontally polarized antenna (left) but not
a vertically polarized antenna (center).
Rabbit ears set-top antenna
Radiation patterns of antennas and their images reected by the

ground. At left the polarization is vertical and there is always a
maximum for =0 . If the polarization is horizontal as at right,
there is always a zero for =0 .
72
Mutual impedance between parallel 2 dipoles not staggered.

Curves Re and Im are the resistive and reactive parts of the
impedance.
Kenwood TS-480HX S-meter
Chapter 4
Specialist Groups
4.1 Amateur radio homebrew
Homebrew is an amateur radio slang term for homebuilt, noncommercial radio equipment.[1] Design and
construction of equipment from rst principles is valued
by amateur radio hobbyists for educational value, and to
allow experimentation and development of techniques or
levels of performance not readily available as commercial
products. Some items can be home-brewed at similar or
lower cost than purchased equivalents.
4.1.1
History
Homebrewing was often encouraged by amateur radio

publications. In 1950, CQ Amateur Radio Magazine announced a $1000 Cash Prize Home Brew Contest and
called independently-built equipment the type of gear
which has helped to make amateur radio our greatest
reservoir of technical prociency. The magazine tried to
steer hams back into building by sponsoring such competitions and by publishing more construction plans, saying
that homebrewing imparted a powerful technical mastery
to hams. In 1958, a CQ editorial opined that if ham radio lost status as a technical activity, it might also lose the
privilege of operating on the public airwaves, saying, As
our ranks of home constructors thin we also fall to a lower
technical level as a group.[2]
In the 1950s and 60s, some hams turned to constructing
their stations from kits sold by Heathkit, Eico, EF Johnson, Allied Radios Knight-Kit, World Radio Laboratories and other suppliers.[3]
Today, only a minority of hams own and operate completely homebrew or kit-built amateur stations. However,
there are many new ham radio kit suppliers, and the art
of homebrewing is alive and thriving.
4.1.2 Practices
Early homebrew amateur radio transmitter
In the early years of amateur radio, long before factorybuilt gear was easily available, hams built their own transmitting and receiving equipment, known as homebrewing. In the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, hams handcrafted
reasonable-quality vacuum tube-based transmitters and
receivers which were often housed in their basements,
and it was common for a well-built homebrew rig to
cover all the high frequency bands (1.8 to 30 MHz). After WWII ended, surplus material (transmitters/receivers,
etc.), was readily available, providing previously unavailable material at costs low enough for amateur experimental use.
Workbench of homebrew enthusiast K6ESE
Homebrewing diers from kit-building in that homebrew connotes the process of constructing equipment
using parts and designs gathered from varied and often
improvised sources. Even the most skilled homebrewer
73
74
CHAPTER 4. SPECIALIST GROUPS
may not have time or resources to build the equivalent

of modern commercially made amateur radio gear from
scratch, as the commercial units contain custom integrated circuits, custom cabinets, and are the end result
of multiple prototypes and exhaustive testing. However,
constructing ones own equipment using relatively simple designs and easily obtainable or junk box electronic
components is still possible. Homebrew enthusiasts say
that building ones own radio equipment is fun and gives
them the satisfaction that comes from mastering electronic knowledge.[4][5]
4.1.3
QRP homebrew
Glowbug transmitter hand built by AI2Q
radiotelegraphy mode. A number of radio amateurs also

build their own tube receivers and AM voice transmitters.
QRP Transceiver hand built by K6ESE
As late as the 1960s, glowbugs were part of many beginner ham stations, and the ARRL Radio Amateur Handbook for those years exhibited a number of such simple, tube-based designs. Today, glowbugs are enjoying a
resurgence of interest among QRP enthusiasts and others
with a penchant for constructing their own equipment. A
growing number of hams are getting back to their roots
by assembling glowbugs on steel chassis, tin cakepans,
and wooden boards. Glowbug enthusiasts can often be
heard communicating on the shortwave bands via CW using Morse code. A popular frequency to hear glowbug
contacts is 3.57950 MHz.[8] Simple oscillators for this
frequency can be built with common NTSC color burst
oscillator crystals, which operate at 3.579545 MHz.
QRPers are ham radio enthusiasts known to use a power

output of ve watts, sometimes operating with as little
as 100 milliwatts or even less. Extremely low power
1 watt and belowis often referred to by hobbyists as
QRPp. Commercial transceivers designed to operate at
or near QRP power levels have been available for many
years, but some QRPers prefer to design and build their
own equipment, either from kits or from scratch. Many
build miniature transmitters and transceivers into Altoids 4.1.5 See also
boxes and operate using battery power.[6] Popular QRP
Amateur radio
kit models include the Elecraft K2, KX1, and now KX3
[7]
and those produced by NorCal, Small Wonder Labs,
Boat anchor (computer science)
and others. QRP activity can often be heard on 7.030
MHz.
QRP
Vintage amateur radio
4.1.4
Homebrewing with vacuum tubes
Glowbug is a term used by US amateurs to describe 4.1.6 External links

a simple home-made tube-type radio set, reminiscent
RadioShack Catalogs
of the shortwave radio-building craze of the 1920s and
30s. Glow refers to the glow of the vacuum tubes
RadioShack Sale Flyers
and bug to the gears relatively diminutive size. Generally, any small, home-built tube-type transmitter or re RadioShack Seasonal Catalogs
ceiver may be referred to as a glowbug. The majority of
Allied Radio and Allied Electronics Catalog Archive
glowbug transmitters are designed to be used in the CW
4.2. VINTAGE AMATEUR RADIO
75
Allied Radio and Allied Electronics Supplemental

Catalog Archive
Allied Radio and Allied Electronics Catalogs
(HTML format)
Amateur Radio Homebrew, The Open Directory
Project
Homebrew Ham pages by AF4K - Over 280 Ham
Radio Homebrewing Articles
Yahoo rfampliers group - A very popular place for
those who like to design and build RF Power Ampliers for use in ham radio
soldersmoke - A podcast for radio amateurs and "Radio shack" of amateur radio operator K9OA featuring vintage
homebrewers - A popular weekly podcast which dis- gear.
cusses homebrew electronics and radio construction.
The Novice Special - A simple two-tube transmitter restoring and operating vintage military and commercial
radio equipment, much of it more than 40 years old.
by Gary Johanson, WD4NKA
Some undertake to construct their own gear, known in
ham slang as homebrewing, using vintage parts and de4.1.7 Notes
signs. A number of amateur radio clubs and organizations sponsor contests, events, and swap meets that cater
[1] Radio Terms and Abbreviations
to this specialized aspect of the hobby.
[2] Kristen Haring. Ham radios technical culture. ISBN 9780-262-08355-3.
[3] Anthony A. Luscre (K8ZT) (December 27, 2002). "QRP
Community: Construction -- Kits, Homebrew and Other
QRP Projects. The National Association for Amateur
Radio (ARRL). Archived from the original on 2003-0114.
[4] Harris, Frank W. CRYSTAL SETS TO SIDEBAND,
HOME-BUILDING AMATEUR RADIO EQUIPMENT - CHAPTER 2. CRYSTAL SETS TO SIDEBAND.
Retrieved 2007-11-25.
[5] AMATEUR RADIO -- Page 2: 8. Home Brewing.
101scence.com.
4.2.1 Appeal
Many amateurs prefer the relatively precise digital frequency displays and stability of modern, state-of-the-art,
microprocessor based amateur radios. Vintage radio enthusiasts contend that modern amateur equipment lacks
the aesthetic appeal and soul of amateur electronic gear
from the vacuum tube era.[2] Additionally, many nd satisfaction in taking commercially-made amateur equipment from the 1930s-1970s (aectionately called boat
anchors by US amateurs[3][4] because of their large size
and weight) and carefully restoring it.[1]
[6] Rock-Mite Series - QRPedia

[7] Elecraft (r) Hands-On Ham Radio
[8] Glow Bugs
4.2 Vintage amateur radio

Vintage amateur radio is a subset of amateur radio activity, considered a form of nostalgia or hobby much like
antique car collecting, where enthusiasts collect, restore,
preserve, build, and operate amateur radio equipment
from bygone years, most notably those using vacuum tube Hallicrafters SX-28 tuning dial
technology.[1]
Popular modes of operation include voice communication using amplitude modulation (AM), and Morse code
using continuous wave (CW) radiotelegraphy. Among
enthusiasts, there is considerable interest in owning,
Enthusiasts feel that the spacious electrical and mechanical designs of boat anchor radios are more easily worked
on than the miniaturized layouts of modern Japanese
gear. Fixing a modern transceiver often involves nothing
76
more than a VLSI chip replacement. Vintage amateur introduce themselves, and join the conversation.[8]
radio devotees enjoy the more primitive experience that
boat anchor radios oer, calling it real radio. Enthusiasts claim that boat anchors sound better than modern 4.2.3 Classic gear
equipment, saying that the tube audio from vintage gear is
warmer and more aesthetically pleasing.[3] Some hobbyists see vintage radio operation as a valuable asset to
help preserve the history and heritage of radio for future
generations, and may assist in the restoration and operation of vintage radio equipment for historical exhibits,
museums and museum ships.
4.2.2
AM activity
EF Johnson Viking Ranger transmitter, circa 1958
AM'er Joe Walsh WB6ACU on the air
Amplitude modulation (AM) was once the main voice

mode in amateur radio before being superseded by
Single-sideband modulation (SSB). But AM has recently
become a nostalgic specialty interest on the shortwave
ham bands. Vintage radio operation has drawn a wide
range of amateur radio enthusiasts from rock star Joe
Walsh, WB6ACU, to former Federal Communications
Commission attorney Riley Hollingsworth, K4ZDH.[5] A
majority of AM'ers stations consist of vintage transmitters and receivers housed in separate cabinets. Some
operators have even obtained old AM broadcast transmitters from radio stations that have upgraded their
equipment. Others build their equipment from scratch
(called homebrewing) using both modern and vintage-era
components.[6]
In the United States, shortwave HF frequencies (in MHz)
on which amateur radio AM activity can be found include
1.885, 1.930, 1.985, 3.870-3.885, 7.290-7.295, 7.160,
14.286, 14.330, 21.425, and 29.000-29.200, and sometimes feature special event stations using unique call
signs. In the United Kingdom, AM activity can be found
almost every day on frequencies between 3.615 and 3.625
MHz. The French AM activity can be found almost every
day the morning between 6h30 and 8h00 the frequency
3.550 MHz.[7] Conversations (QSOs in ham slang) are
typically congured as roundtables consisting of several
participants. Interested newcomers are usually encouraged to switch their modern transceivers to AM mode,
Atlas 215X solid state transceiver circa 1977
Vintage operating activity is not limited to the AM mode.

Many devotees use their classic amateur gear from
vintage-era American manufacturers like Eico, EF Johnson, National, Heathkit, Hammarlund, Drake, Collins,
WRL, Swan, Signal/One, Lafayette and Hallicrafters, to
make radiotelegraphy (CW), SSB, FM and RTTY twoway contacts. Although 1930s through 1970s gear is
considered vintage, collectors may dier on the cuto
dates.
Some even sub-specialize in military radio collecting and
undertake to restore and operate surplus communications
equipment, much of it dating back to World War II, from
the ubiquitous US Signal Corps SCR-300 and SCR-536
walkie talkies to exotic gear like the British Paraset, a
small espionage transceiver supplied to Resistance forces
in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
There is considerable interest in vintage military and
commercial radio equipment among EU amateur radio
operators, especially gear from British manufacturers
such as Marconi, Racal, Eddystone, Pye, and a variety
of Russian, German, Canadian, British RAF and British
Army equipment, such as the well known Wireless Set
No. 19.
4.2. VINTAGE AMATEUR RADIO
77
and putting them on the air between 7040 7050 kHz
and 7114 7125 kHz. Amateur radio Glowbug enthusiasts can often be heard communicating on the shortwave
bands via CW using Morse code. Popular frequencies
to hear glowbug contacts are around 3560 kHz and also
3579.5 kHz, chosen because crystals for this frequency
can be salvaged from discarded color TV sets, along with
other transmitter components.[9][10]
Eddystone EC10 shortwave receiver circa 1967
4.2.4 Clubs, events, and publications
Glowbugs
Vintage gear at station W6OM
Many vintage radio clubs sponsor special events and contests, such as the AM QSO Party sponsored by the Antique Wireless Association, the Heavy Metal Rally sponsored by Electric Radio Magazine, and the Classic Radio Exchange.[11] Such operating events are not traditional ham radio contests inasmuch as they are a night
of friendly QSOs using home-built, restored commercial
ham, broadcast or military equipment.
Glowbug transmitter hand built by AI2Q
The Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society and The AM Radio

Networks[12] Expedition to Thomas Point Shoal LightGlowbugs are a related aspect of vintage radio and house in Chesapeake Bay, MD commemorated the hisharken back to the early days of amateur radio, when tory of lighthouses with a vintage special event station usthe majority of hams hand-crafted their own equipment. ing the call sign K3L.[13]
Smaller in size than boat anchors, glowbug is a term
used by US amateurs to describe a simple home-made Britains Vintage and Military Amateur Radio Society (afliated with the Radio Society of Great Britain) coortube-type radio set, reminiscent of the shortwave radiobuilding craze of the 1920s and 30s. Glow refers to the dinates regular on-air nets where enthusiasts gather
as well as massive technical les for the benet of
glow of the vacuum tubes and bug to the gears rela[14]
tively diminutive size. The Doerle regenerative receiver members. The Surplus Radio Society, a Dutch society
and Hartley transmitter circuits are considered classic of collectors of old ex-military radio equipment and other
glowbug designs. Generally, any small, home-built tube- nostalgic receivers and transmitters holds weekly radio
type transmitter or receiver may be referred to as a glow- activity nets every Sunday on 3.575 MHz CW / 3.705
several ea markets and exchange
bug. The majority of glowbug transmitters are designed MHz AM and sponsors
[15]
fairs
each
year.
to be used in the CW radiotelegraphy mode.
[16]
As late as the 1960s, glowbugs were part of many begin- The Canada-based The Wireless Set No. 19 Group,
ner ham stations, and the ARRL Radio Amateur Hand- with members virtually world-wide, caters to those who
book for those years exhibited a number of such simple, collect, restore and/or operate vintage military commutube-based designs. Today, glowbug operators are enjoy- nications equipment, with emphasis on the World War II
ing a resurgence of interest among QRP enthusiasts and Wireless Set No. 19 radio. Many members are Amateur
others with a penchant for constructing their own equip- Radio operators who use the equipment for on-air conment. Many hams are assembling glowbug rigs on im- tacts with others.
provised chassis such as tin cakepans and wooden boards, The ARRL publishes Vintage Radio, a collection of ar-
78
ticles from QST magazine describing vintage equipment 4.2.6 See also
and restoration, and CQ Amateur Radio magazine re Amateur radio
leases a yearly Classic Radio Calendar featuring fullcolor vintage radio images.
AM broadcasting
Antique radio
4.2.5
Safety
Tube sound
Collins 75A-4 and KWS-1
Gonset Communicator
4.2.7 References
[1] Haring, Kristen (2007). Ham radios technical culture.
MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-08355-3. Retrieved June
19, 2010.
[2] Why Boatanchors? by John Brewer WB5OAU. Virhistory.com. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[3] Boatanchors FAQ
[4] Origins Of Hamspeak. Ac6v.com. Retrieved 2011-0312.
Collins S-Line, featuring separate transmitter, receiver and power
supply
[5] Hollingsworth Era of Amateur Enforcement Enters

Fourth Year ""I am proud of the Amateur Service. Riley Hollingsworth, K4ZDH, at home in his well-equipped
basement ham shack. Hollingsworths gear includes several vintage operating positions. Source: The ARRL
Letter Vol. 20, No. 49 December 14, 2001
[6] Radio World Online. Radioworld.com. 2001-06-20.
[7] AM activity frequency 3.550 MHz
[8] ARRL QST article: Classic Rigs And Amplitude Modulation
[9] "''TV Set Salvage'' by ThomasArey. Make-digital.com.
2007-01-31. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
6146B transmitting tubes
Those accustomed to making repairs on solid state equipment are cautioned that vacuum tube gear contain potentially lethal voltages. The practice of discharging powersupply capacitors and keeping one hand in your pocket
when working on powered-up gear are essential safety
measures. Some older equipment directly connects the
metal chassis to one side of the incoming AC line, a practice which results in the entire unit becoming electried if
the wall plug is inserted backwards. Many older radios,
such as vintage receivers, are not safety-fused. Restorers generally replace the AC line cord with a more modern 3 wire plug and install an in-line or chassis mount
fuseholder. The use of a common station ground connection to all equipment is encouraged.[3] Those who collect,
restore or otherwise use vintage radio equipment should
also be aware of possible radioactive substances.[17][18]
[10] Glowbugs resources. Webhome.idirect.com. Retrieved

2011-03-12.
[11] Classic Exchange. Qsl.asti.com. 2010-01-03. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[12] AM Radio Network. Amfone.net. Retrieved 2011-0312.
[13] K3L information. Amfone.net. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[14] Vintage Military Radio Society
[15] Surplus Radio Society. Xs4all.nl. Retrieved 2011-0312.
[16] Bob Cooke VE3BDB. The ORIGINAL Wireless Set No.
19 Group. Qsl.net. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[17] Bob Cooke, VE3BDB. Danger! Hazardous Material on
Your Vintage Rig. Qsl.net. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[18] George Hamner, KW7GAM. Radio-activity. Retrieved
2011-03-22.
4.3. AMATEUR TELEVISION
4.2.8
79
External links
AM Forever
AM Fone Page
ARRL amplitude modulation page
Antique Wireless Association
Glowbug resources
Electric Radio Magazine
Vintage And Military Amateur Radio Society (UK)
Ham radio equipment Reference Guide
What signal circuit performance checks are made when using a

typical test card.
Nostalgic Kits Central Pictures, schematics, service

bulletins, modications, specications and more of
a large number of vintage electronics sold as kits
70 centimeters, which is between broadcast channels 13
and 14. While outside of broadcast television channels,
Old Time Radio Shacks photos from OSL Cards
this frequency falls into CATV frequencies, on channels
from the Past www.oldqslcards.com
57 to 61 (420-450 MHz).[5] As such, ATV transmissions
can be viewed by setting a television to cable input and
attaching a terrestrial antenna. For more sensitive recep4.3 Amateur television
tion, some users may use a purposely-built ATV downconverter, which is a kind of set-top-box. Other bands
Fast-scan redirects here. For the ultrasound assessment are also used for ATV, most of them in the UHF reused in trauma, see Focused assessment with sonography gion on frequencies higher than UHF broadcast TV. 33
for trauma.
centimeters and 23 centimeters are two other commonly
used bands for ATV, but reception of these higher bands
Amateur television (ATV) is the transmission of requires the use of a down-converter.
Broadcast quality video and audio over the wide range of
frequencies of radio waves allocated for Radio amateur
(Ham) use.[1] ATV is used for non-commercial experimentation, pleasure and public service events. Ham TV
stations were on the air in many cities before commercial
television stations came on the air.[2] Various transmission standards are used, these include the broadcast transmission standards of NTSC in North America and Japan,
and PAL or SECAM elsewhere, utilising the full refresh
rates of those standards. ATV includes the study of building of such transmitters and receivers, and the study of
radio propagation of signals travelling between transmitting and receiving stations.[3]
ATV is an extension of amateur radio. It is also called
HAM TV or Fast Scan TV (FSTV) (as opposed to slowscan television (SSTV), which can be transmitted on
shortwave ham bands due to its narrowband structure, but
is not decodable by a commercially available television
receiver).[4]
Most ATV signals are transmitted in either Amplitude

modulation (AM) or vestigial sideband (VSB) NTSC
(North American analog TV broadcast modulation standard). DSB AM and VSB AM signals are inherently compatible with each other, and most televisions can receive
either. DSB-AM signals consists of the carrier and both
upper and lower sidebands. VSB-AM is where DSB-AM
is ltered and the lower sideband is highly attenuated at
frequencies more than 1.25 MHz from the carrier signal. A VSB lter can be added to a DSB=AM transmitter to make it a VSB signal. The lters, depending on
power usage, will cost anywhere from $100 to $1000. For
practical reasons, most individual ATV users transmit in
DSB-AM, and VSB is transmitted by repeater stations.
On the 33 cm and higher bands, Frequency modulation
(FM) ATV may be used, and on the SHF and EHF ham
bands, FM is more commonly used than VSB or AM. FM
ATV is incompatible with AM/VSB ATV, and a separate
demodulator is necessary to receive signals.
4.3.1
70 cm band
North American context
In North America, amateur radio bands that are suitable

for a television signal (wide enough to t such a signal) are
higher in frequency than VHF broadcast TV. The lowest
frequency ham band suitable for television transmission is
The 70 centimeters ham band is the most used band for

ATV. Signals transmitted on this band usually propagate
longer distances than on high frequency bands, for a given
transmitter power and antenna gain.
80
The 70 cm band channels (with carrier frequency for CATV channel scheme; however, most current consumer
video and audio) are:
equipment does not tune to channels above 125.
57: 420-426 MHz (421.25 video, 425.75 audio)1,2
58: 425-431 MHz (426.25 video, 430.75 audio)1,3
58: 426-432 MHz (427.25 video, 431.75 audio)
The 33 cm AM/VSB channels (with carrier frequency for

143: 906-912 MHz (907.25 video, 911.75 audio)1
59: 432.75-438.75 MHz (434.00 video, 438.50 audio)3

59: 432-438 MHz (433.25 video, 437.75 audio)
60: 438-444 MHz (439.25 video, 443.75 audio)
61: 444-450 MHz (445.25 video, 449.75 audio)4
Usage notes:
1. - In Canada and areas of the US north of a designated Line A [6] boundary, amateurs are not allowed to transmit on these channels.
2. - Usually used as an ATV repeater output. Expensive VSB lters must be used on this channel to keep
the signal inside the ham band.
3. - Channels 58 and 59 are often oset in frequency
to limit interference to the weak-signal and amateur
radio satellite sub-bands (431-433 & 435-438 MHz
respectively). Many modern CATV receivers can
still lock-on to frequencies oset as much as 1 MHz.
4. - Rarely used today due to heavy FM repeater use in
this range.
N/A: 909-915 MHz (910.25 video, 914.75 audio)

N/A: 910-916 MHz (911.25 video, 915.75 audio)
144: 912-918 MHz (913.25 video, 917.75 audio)
145: 918-924 MHz (919.25 video, 923.75 audio)
N/A: 922-928 MHz (923.25 video, 927.75 audio)2,3
Usage notes:
1. - Available, but no known usage.
2. - In portions of Colorado and Wyoming, amateurs
are not allowed to transmit ATV on this channel.[7]
3. - May interfere with growing FM use on the 927-928
MHz sub-band.
4. - For technical reasons, a maximum of two channels may be simultaneously used within a given geographic area, and the video carrier frequencies must
be at least 12 MHz apart for the signals not to interfere with each other.
The 33 cm FM channels are:
915 MHz
5. - For technical reasons, a maximum of two channels may be simultaneously used within a given geo23 cm band
graphic area, and the video carrier frequencies must
be at least 12 MHz apart for the signals not to interThe 23 centimeters ham band is the third highest frefere with each other.
quency band available for ATV. Due to the wider nature
of this band over the lower ones, and the expense of VSBAll of these fall within the range between T.V. broadcast lters, VSB is rarely used. Most ATV is either in AM or
channels 13 and 14, which are:
FM. Old TVRO receivers may be used to watch FM ATV
when an antenna is connected to the LNB input. The IF
of these receivers overlaps this ham band.
13: 210-216 MHz (211.25 video, 215.75 audio)
14: 470-476 MHz (471.25 video, 475.75 audio)
33 cm band
The 23 cm AM/VSB channels (with carrier frequency for

1240-1246 MHz (1241.25 video, 1245.75 audio)1
1252-1258 MHz (1253.25 video, 1257.75 audio)

The 33 centimeters ham band is next highest frequency
band available for ATV in North America. This ham
1264-1270 MHz (1265.25 video, 1269.75 audio)
band is unique to ITU Region 2, and it is rarely available for amateur use in ITU Regions 1 or 3. This band is
1276-1282 MHz (1277.25 video, 1281.75 audio)
also shared with many users, including ISM devices and
1288-1294 MHz (1289.25 video, 1293.75 audio)
Part 15 users, so interference issues are more likely than
on other bands. This is also the lowest frequency band on
which FM ATV occurs. This band does fall within the Usage notes:
4.3. AMATEUR TELEVISION
81
1. - Expensive VSB lters must be used on this channel In several countries cross-band repeaters are used, with
to keep the signal inside the ham band.
AM inputs on 430 MHz and FM outputs on 1255 MHz,
others have FM-ATV inputs on 13 cm and outputs on 3
2. - All of the video carrier frequencies are 12 MHz cm.
apart to allow for each channel to be used simultaneously in a given geographic area without causing In the United Kingdom, much activity occurs using inband repeaters. These generally have an input of 1248,
interference to each other.
1249 or 1255 MHz and typically output at 1308, 1312
or 1316 MHz, although other frequencies are also used.
The 23 cm FM channels are:
Simplex operation occurs on these or other frequencies
chosen to avoid interference with other users of the band,
1255 MHz (Used in some areas.)
e.g. 1285 MHz. Recent experiments have been done
with digital modes following widely-adopted DVB-S and
1265 MHz (10 MHz)
DVB-T standards. These new DATV transmissions need
less spectrum bandwidth than FM-ATV and oer superior picture quality. However, the unavoidable processOther amateur radio bands
ing delays caused by the temporal compression mean that
In addition to the above, there are other ham bands which DATV signals have a second or more of time lag, which
can make real-time video conversations feel much less
are less commonly used for ATV:
natural than the 'instantaneous analogue system.
On the 13 centimeter band:
2417.5 MHz is used for ATV links.
4.3.3 Transmission characteristics
2441.5 MHz is the most used FM ATV frequency. Uses a 6.0 MHz audio sub-carrier and
4 MHz deviation.
The 9 centimeter (3 GHz) and 5 centimeter (5 GHz)
bands have links in some areas.
On the 3 centimeter band, 10.4 GHz is a wideband
FM channel and may be used as an ATV repeater
input.
Other information
The distance record for ATV is between Hawaii and California on 434 MHz.http://www.hamtv.com/atvdxrecord.
Typical fast scan Test card showing Hanover Bars (colour
html
banding) eect in Pal S (simple) signal mode of transmission.
Experiments with digital modes have lagged somewhat

behind those in Europe, but have taken on some new
urgency given the transition of broadcast television.
WR8ATV currently has an output using DVB-S, which
is believed to be the rst, and currently only, D-ATV repeater in the US.[8]
Typically frequency modulated TV is used on frequencies above 1240 MHz (1.24 GHz), where there is enough
bandwidth for such wideband transmissions. This is often used as a repeaters input frequency, with output being
standard VSB on the four channels listed above.
In a nutshell
4.3.2
European context
below 1.24 GHz: Vestigial Sideband
In Europe, which generally has a narrower UHF allocation than the USA, the majority of amateur television operation is currently frequency modulated on 1.2 GHz and
above. The frequencies in use depend on national permissions. In most of mainland Europe, the most common
frequency is 1255 MHz. Other bands commonly used for
ATV are the 13cm (~2.3 - 2.45 GHz) and 3-cm(~10 GHz)
bands, although ATV is used on most of the microwave
bands.
above 1.24 GHz: FM, PSK etc...

The quality of transmission is expressed as a p-level";
p standing for picture. P-levels range from zero to
ve, increasing as the picture becomes more viewable.
P-0 signies a state in which sync bars are visible, but the
picture is too snowy to be seen; this occurs at a minimum
signal strength of 3db. Each level represents an increase
82
of 6db over the previous; P-5 is 30db above P-0 and represents a perfectly clear picture.[9]
NTSC
SECAM
SSTV
Range
As transmission frequency increases, atmospheric path 4.3.6 References

losses become greater, particularly at frequencies above
10 GHz. Additionally, long-distance propagation by F- [1] United Kingdom Frequency allocation table. Publicalayer ionospheric skip over the horizon does not typically
tion date 2008 (Issue No. 15). Ofcom. Retrieved 26
November 2010.
occur at higher frequencies, and terrain and man-made
structures can aect propagation of signals, blocking or [2] Kowalewski, Anthony, An Amateurs Television Transredirecting signals. Factors such as E-layer skip propagamitter, Radio News, April 1938. Early Television Mution, tropospheric enhancement, and knife-edge diracseum and Foundation Website. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
tion can extend the useful range of signals.[10]
4.3.4
Content
[3] HF - Propagation Predictions from the United Kingdom.

Publication date November 2010. Radio Society of Great
Britain. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010.
Retrieved 26 November 2010.
[4] ATV-What is ATV and what does it cost?". Publication
date September 2009. Radcom. Retrieved 26 November
2010.
[5] Neuhaus, John (2005-10-19). Cable TV Channel Frequencies. John Neuhaus. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
[6] Line A is dened in the US Federal Code of Regulations
Part 47, and runs from Aberdeen, Washington to Searsport, Maine , roughly parallel to the US/Canadian border
in several segments.
[7] 47 C.F.R. 97.303(n)3 as of 14 Feb 2011
[8] Amateur Television in Central Ohio. ATCO. Archived
from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-0506.
Test transmission signal for chrominance and luminance signals

check using Pal D (delay line) encoding - colour hanover Bars
eect no longer visible.
Content produced by ATV has included:
[9] ATV P level illustration

[10] Propagation of RF Signals. The ARRL Handbook For
Radio Communications (82nd ed.). American Radio Relay League. 2005. pp. 20.3, 20.6. ISBN 0-87259-928-0.
From 1968 to about 2004 amateur TV pro4.3.7 External links

vided behind-the-scenes co-ordination for the annual New Years Day Tournament of Roses Parade
List of stations (German)
in Pasadena, CA.
Digital ATV in Germany In German
HAM TV - as it is also called - provides video
British Amateur Television Club
co-ordination of many public service events and,
BATC Streamer
along with traditional amateur radio, provides much
needed eyes in natural disasters.
U.S. stations often retransmitted NASA TV while 4.4 QRP operation
they were not in use, especially when there were
Space Shuttle missions.
In amateur radio, QRP operation refers to transmitting
at reduced power while attempting to maximize ones effective range. The term QRP derives from the standard
4.3.5 See also
Q code used in radio communications, where QRP and
QRP?" are used to request, Reduce power, and ask
ATSC Standards
Should I reduce power?" respectively. The opposite of
DVB-T
QRP is QRO, or high-power operation.
4.4. QRP OPERATION
83
QRP low-power transmitter and receiver that ts inside an Altoids

tin.
4.4.1
Philosophy
Most amateurs use approximately 100 watts on HF and

50 watts on VHF/UHF , but in some parts of the world,
like the US, they can use up to 1500 watts. QRP enthusiasts contend that this is not always necessary, and doing so wastes power, increases the likelihood of causing
interference to nearby televisions, radios, and telephones
and, for United States' amateurs, is incompatible with
FCC Part 97 rule, which states that one must use the
minimum power necessary to carry out the desired communications.
HF Coverage - Why QRP is a Challenge. VOACAP simulation of

propagation against distance with 1W (top) and 99W (bottom)
showing the reduced range.
operation.[2][3]
QRSS
The current record for a QRP connection is 1 W for Some extreme QRP enthusiasts use QRSS transmitting extremely slowly to compensate for the decreased
1,650 miles on 10m.[1]
signal-to-noise ratio involved in QRP operation. QRSS
derives from the standard Q code used in radio communications, where QRS?" asks Shall I send more slowly?"
4.4.2 Practice
and QRS requests Send more slowly.
There is not complete agreement on what constitutes Rather than directly listening to such slow transmissions,
QRP power. While most QRP enthusiasts agree that for many QRSS enthusiasts record the transmission for later
CW, AM, FM, and data modes, the transmitter output analysis, later decoding by ear while playing it back at
power should be 5 watts (or less), the maximum out- much faster rates (time compression), or decoding by
put power for SSB (single sideband) is not always agreed eye on the waterfall display of a spectrum analyzer.[4]
upon. Some believe that the power should be no more
than 10 watts peak envelope power (PEP), while others QRSS enthusiasts typically use some form of Morse code,
strongly hold that the power limit should be 5 watts. QR- except much slower rather than a typical 1/10 second
Pers are known to use even less than ve watts, sometimes dit time, QRSS transmissions may use a full second for
operating with as little as 100 milliwatts or even less. Ex- the dit time, or[5]in extreme cases, a full minute for a
tremely low power1 watt and belowis often referred single dit time.
to by hobbyists as QRPp.
Morse code with standard on-o keying
Communicating using QRP can be dicult since the QR FSCW (Morse code with frequency-shift keying),
Per must face the same challenges of radio propagation
where key up is one frequency, key down is anfaced by amateurs using higher power levels, but with the
other frequency.
inherent disadvantages associated with having a weaker
signal on the receiving end, all other things being equal.
DFCW or Dual Frequency CW, where dit is one
QRP acionados try to make up for this through more
frequency, dah is a dierent frequency, and spaces
ecient antenna systems and enhanced operating skills.
have no carrier or a third carrier frequency. With
QRP is especially popular with CW operators and those
using the newer digital modes. PSK31 is a highly efcient, narrow-band mode that is very suitable to QRP
DFCW, the dah time is typically shortened to the

same length as the dit time, and the short space between dit and dah in a letter is often eliminated.
84
A few people apply QRSS techniques to other narrow- 4.4.4 Contests and awards
band communication codes or protocols, such as the
Slowfeld variant of Hellschreiber, slow-scan television, There are specic operating awards, contests, clubs, and
conventions devoted to QRP enthusiasts.
MT63, etc.
4.4.3
Equipment
In the USA, the November Sweepstakes, June and

September VHF QSO Parties, January VHF Sweepstakes, and the ARRL International DX Contest, as well
as many major international contests have designated special QRP categories. For example, during the annual
ARRL's Field Day contest, making a QSO (ham-to-ham
contact) using QRP battery power is worth ve times
as many points as a contact made by conventional means.
The QRP ARCI club sponsors 12 contests during the year
specically for QRP operators. QRP-ARCI Contests
Typical awards include the QRP ARCI clubs thousandmiles-per-watt award, available to anyone presenting evidence of a qualifying contact. QRP ARCI also oers
special awards for achieving the ARRLs Worked All
States, Worked All Continents, and DX Century Club
awards under QRP conditions. Other QRP clubs also offer similar versions of these awards, as well as general
QRP operating achievement awards.[6]
Elecraft transceiver kit for short-wave bands
4.4.5 See also

Amateur radio homebrew
Many of the larger, more powerful commercial

List of QRP Transceivers
transceivers permit the operator to lower their output
level to QRP levels. Commercial transceivers specially
designed to operate at or near QRP power levels have 4.4.6 Notes
been commercially available since the late 1960s. In
1969, American manufacturer, Ten-Tec, produced the [1] According to Rich Arland, K7YHA (now K7SZ), in
World Radio magazine (Feb. 1990, year 19, issue 89, pp.
Powermite-1. This radio was one of Ten-Tecs rst
46-47) http://www.naqcc.info/qrpworks.html
assembled transceivers. (The MR-1 was available, and
it was essentially the same radio, albeit in kit form.)
[2] whyqrp
This radio featured modular construction (all stages
of the transceiver were on individual circuit boards): [3] http://www.nsradio.org/QRP.ppt
the transmitter was capable of about one or two watts
of RF, and the receiver was a direct-conversion unit, [4] QRSS Knights grabber compendium
similar to that found in the Heathkit HW-7 and HW-8
[5] QRSS and You: Using absurdly low-speed CW for comlines. Many amateurs became quite adept at QRP'ing
munications (As well as other ultra-narrowband modes)"
through their use of these early, trend-setting radios
. As QRP has become more popular in recent years , [6] http://www.arrl.org/tis/info/qrpwhtwy.html
ARRL,
QRP: What, Why and How
radio manufacturers have introduced radios specically
intended for the QRP enthusiast. Popular US models
include Elecraft KX3, K2 and K1, the Yaesu Yaesu
FT-817, the Icom IC-703, and the 516 Argonaut V 4.4.7 External links
and the new 539 Argonaut VI from TenTec.[3] Another
Forum dedicated to QRP operation
popular source is Hendricks QRP Kits, which oers a
variety of popular kits. Enthusiasts operate QRP radios
QRP WebRing Home
on the HF bands in portable modes, usually carrying
the radios in backpacks, with whip antennas. Some
QRPer.com - a QRP website specializing in portable
QRPers prefer to construct their equipment from kits or
& eld operations
homebrew it from scratch. Many popular designs are
PortableQRP.com many example videos on QRP
based on the NE612 mixer IC, i.e. the K1, K2, ATS
series and the Softrock SDR.
operation PortableQRP
4.5. CONTESTING
85
Northern California QRP Club
QRP Amateur Radio Club International
The Eastern PA QRP Club
The Colorado QRP Club
EAQRP, Website of Spanish QRP Association
4.5 Contesting
Homemade telegraphy transceiver for 7 MHz
5000+ Member SoftRock Low Cost Software Dened QRP Radio Kit Interest Group
Champions of the 2002 World Radiosport Team Championship

(WRTC), Helsinki, Finland.
Photo: R. A. Wilson, N6TV
Blog del radioclub Liria, Spanish Amateur Radio

club dedicated to qrp and homebrew
Contesting (also known as radiosport) is a competitive
activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest,
Ten Tec AC-5 Antenna tuner video
an amateur radio station, which may be operated by an
individual or a team, seeks to contact as many other am QRP Building Tips
ateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time
Elecraft KX3, K2 and K1
and exchange information. Rules for each competition
dene the amateur radio bands, the mode of communi Blog dedicated to one of the best QRP radio Yaesu
cation that may be used, and the kind of information that
FT 817 ND
must be exchanged. The contacts made during the contest contribute to a score by which stations are ranked.
Contest sponsors publish the results in magazines and on
QRP Clubs
web sites.
American QRP Club
Contesting grew out of other amateur radio activities in
the 1920s and 1930s. As intercontinental communica VKQRP Club - CW Operators QRP Club Inc.
tions with amateur radio became more common, compe Four State QRP Group
titions were formed to challenge stations to make as many
contacts as possible with amateur radio stations in other
GQRP Club
countries. Contests were also formed to provide opportunities for amateur radio operators to practice their mes New England QRP Club
sage handling skills, used for routine or emergency com New Jersey QRP Club
munications across long distances. Over time, the number and variety of radio contests has increased, and many
North Georgia QRP Club
amateur radio operators today pursue the sport as their
primary amateur radio activity.
NORTEX - North Texas QRP Club
Flying Pigs QRP Club International
North American QRP CW Club
There is no international authority or governance organization for this sport. Each competition is sponsored separately and has its own set of rules. Contest rules do not
86
necessarily require entrants to comply with voluntary international band plans. Participants must, however, adhere to the amateur radio regulations of the country in
which they are located. Because radio contests take place
using amateur radio, competitors are generally forbidden
by their national amateur radio regulations from being
compensated nancially for their activity. High levels of
amateur radio contest activity, and contesters failing to
comply with international band plans, can result in friction between contest participants and other amateur radio
users of the same radio spectrum.
4.5.1
Contesting basics
the band or frequency that was used to make the contact,

in a log.
A contest score is computed based on a formula dened
for that contest. A typical formula assigns some number of points for each contact, and a multiplier based
on some aspect of the exchanged information. The rules
for most contests held on the VHF amateur radio bands
in North America assign a new multiplier for each new
Maidenhead grid locator in the log, rewarding the competitors that make contacts with other stations in the most
locations. Many HF contests reward stations with a new
multiplier for contacts with stations in each country - often based on the entities listed on the DXCC country list maintained by the American Radio Relay League
(ARRL). Depending on the rules for a particular contest, each multiplier may count once on each radio band
or only once during the contest, regardless of the radio
band on which the multiplier was rst earned. The points
earned for each contact can be a xed amount per contact,
or can vary based on a geographical relationship such as
whether or not the communications crossed a continental
or political boundary. Some contests, such as the Stew
Perry Top Band Distance Challenge, award points that
are scaled to the distance separating the two stations.[3]
Most contests held in Europe on the VHF and microwave
bands award 1 point per kilometre of distance between
the stations making each contact.[4]
Radio contests are principally sponsored by amateur radio societies, radio clubs, or radio enthusiast magazines.
These organizations publish the rules for the event, collect the operational logs from all stations that operate in
the event, cross-check the logs to generate a score for each
station, and then publish the results in a magazine, in a society journal, or on a web site. Because the competitions
are between stations licensed in the Amateur Radio Service (with the exception of certain contests which sponsor
awards for shortwave listeners), which prohibits the use
of radio frequencies for pecuniary interests, there are no
professional radio contests or professional contesters, and
any awards granted by the contest sponsors are typically
limited to paper certicates, plaques, or trophies.[1]
After they are received by the contest sponsor, logs are
checked for accuracy. Points can be deducted or credit
and multipliers lost if there are errors in the log data
for a given contact. Depending on the scoring formula
used, the resulting scores of any particular contest can
be either a small number of points or in the millions of
points. Most contests oer multiple entry categories, and
declare winners in each category. Some contests also
declare regional winners for specic geographic subdivisions, such as continents, countries, U.S. states, or Canadian provinces.[5]
A multioperator contest eort involves a team of operators at one

station.
During a radio contest, each station attempts to establish

two-way contact with other licensed amateur radio stations and exchange information specic to that contest.
The information exchanged could include a signal report,
a name, the U.S. state or Canadian province in which the
station is located, the geographic zone[2] in which the station is located, the Maidenhead grid locator in which the
station is located, the age of the operator, or an incrementing serial number. For each contact, the radio operator must correctly receive the call sign of the other station, as well as the information in the exchange, and
record this data, along with the time of the contact and
The most common entry category is the single operator

category and variations thereof, in which only one individual operates a radio station for the entire duration of
the contest. Subdivisions of the single operator category
are often made based on the highest power output levels
used during the contest, such as a QRP category for single
operator stations using no more than ve watts of output
power, or a High Power category that allows stations to
transmit with as much output power as their license permits. Multi-operator categories allow for teams of individuals to operate from a single station, and may either
allow for a single radio transmitter or several to be in use
simultaneously on dierent amateur radio bands. Many
contests also oer team or club competitions in which
the scores of multiple radio stations are combined and
ranked.[6]
4.5. CONTESTING
4.5.2
Types of contests
A wide variety of amateur radio contests are sponsored

every year. Contest sponsors have crafted competitive
events that serve to promote a variety of interests and appeal to diverse audiences. Radio contests typically take
place on weekends or local weeknight evenings, and can
last from a few hours to forty-eight hours in duration. The
rules of each contest will specify which stations are eligible for participation, the radio frequency bands on which
they may operate, the communications modes they may
employ, which other amateur radio stations they may contact, and the specic time period during which they may
make contacts for the contest.
Some contests restrict participation to stations in a particular geographic area, such as a continent or country.
Contests like the European HF Championship[7] aim to
foster competition between stations located in one particular part of the world, specically Europe. There are
contests in which any amateur radio station worldwide
may participate and make contact with any other stations
for contest credit. The CQ World Wide DX Contest permits stations to contact other stations anywhere else on the
planet, and attracts tens of thousands of participating stations each year.[8] In large contests the number of people
taking part is a signicant percentage of radio amateurs
active on the HF bands, although they in themselves are
a small percentage of the total amateurs in the world.
There are regional contests that invite all stations around
the world to participate, but restrict which stations each
competitor may contact. For example, Japanese stations
in the Japan International DX Contest (sponsored by Five
Nine magazine) may only contact other stations located
outside of Japan and vice versa.[9] There are also contests that limit participation to just the stations located in
a particular continent or country, even though those stations may work any other station for points.
All contests use one or more amateur radio bands on
which competing stations may make two-way contacts.
HF contests use one or more of the 160 meter, 80 Meter,
40 Meter, 20 Meter, 15 Meter, and 10 Meter bands. VHF
contests use all the amateur radio bands above 50 MHz.
Some contests permit activity on all HF or all VHF bands,
and may oer points for contacts and multipliers on each
band. Other contests may permit activity on all bands
but restrict stations to making only one contact with each
other station, regardless of band, or may limit multipliers
to once per contest instead of once per band. Most VHF
contests in North America are similar to the ARRL June
VHF QSO Party,[10] and allow contacts on all the amateur
radio bands 50 MHz or higher in frequency. Most VHF
contests in the United Kingdom, however, are restricted
to one amateur radio band at a time.[11] An HF contest
with world wide participation that restricts all contest activity to just one band is the ARRL 10 Meter Contest.[12]
87
are restricted to just CW emissions using the Morse code
for communications, some are restricted to telephony
modes and spoken communications, and some employ
digital emissions modes such as RTTY or PSK31. Many
popular contests are oered on two separate weekends,
one for CW and one for telephony, with all the same rules.
The CQ World Wide WPX Contest, for example, is held
as a phone-only competition one weekend in March, and
a CW-only competition one weekend in May.[13] Some
contests, especially those restricted to a single radio frequency band, allow the competing stations to use several
dierent emissions modes. VHF contests typically permit any mode of emission, including some specialty digital modes designed specically for use on those bands.
As with the other variations in contest rules and participation structure, some contest stations and operators choose
to specialize in contests on certain modes and may not
participate seriously in contests on other modes. Large,
worldwide contests on the HF bands can be scheduled
for up to forty-eight hours in duration. Typically, these
large worldwide contests run from 0000 UTC on Saturday
morning until 2359 UTC Sunday evening. Regional and
smaller contests often are scheduled for a shorter duration, with twenty-four, twelve, and four hours being common variations.
Many contests employ a concept of o time in which a
station may operate only a portion of the available time.
For example, the ARRL November Sweepstakes is thirty
hours long, but each station may be on the air for no
more than twenty-four hours.[14] The o-time requirement forces competitive stations to decide when to be
on the air making contacts and when to be o the air,
and adds a signicant element of strategy to the competition. Although common in the 1930s, only a small number of contests today take place over multiple weekends.
These competitions are called cumulative contests, and
are generally limited to the microwave frequency bands.
Short sprint contests lasting only a few hours have been
popular among contesters that prefer a fast-paced environment, or who cannot devote an entire weekend to a
radio contest. A unique feature of the North American
Sprint contest is that the operator is required to change
frequency after every other contact, introducing another
operational skills challenge.[15] Whatever the length of
the contest, the top operators are frequently those that
can best maintain focus on the tasks of contest operating
throughout the event.
Some contests, such as the Maine 2 Meter FM Simplex
Challenge, sponsored by the Wireless Society of Southern
Maine, oer newly licensed hams the ability to take part
in contestesting for the rst time, by restricting contacts
to a single VHF band, and providing entry categories for
anything from a handheld radio to a fully equipped contest
station.
The wide variety of contests attracts a large variety of

contesters and contest stations. The rules and structure
Contests exist for enthusiasts of all modes. Some contests of a particular contest can determine the strategies used
88
by competitors to maximize the number of contacts made

and multipliers earned. Some stations and operators specialize in certain contests, and either rarely operate in
others, or compete in them with less seriousness. As
with other sports, contest rules evolve over time, and rule
changes are one of the primary sources of controversy in
the sport.
4.5.3
History of contesting
The origin of contesting can be traced to the TransAtlantic Tests of the early 1920s, when amateur radio operators rst attempted to establish long distance
radiocommunications across the Atlantic Ocean on the
short wave amateur radio frequencies. Even after the rst
two-way communications between North America and
Europe were established in 1923,[16] these tests continued
to be annual events at which more and more stations were
successful in establishing two-way contacts over greater
and greater distances. In 1927, the American Radio Relay League, which had been principal in organizing and
publicizing these tests, proposed a new format for the annual event, encouraging stations to make as many twoway contacts with stations in other countries as possible.
The 1928 International Relay Party, as the event was renamed, was the rst organized amateur radio contest.[17]
The International Relay Party was an immediate success,
and was sponsored annually by the ARRL from 1927
through 1935.[18] In 1936, the contest name changed to
the ARRL International DX Contest, the name under
which it is known today.
To complement the burst of activity and interest being generated in DX communications by the popularity
of the International Relay Parties, the ARRL adopted
a competitive operating format for events designed for
non-international contacts. The rst ARRL All-Sections
Sweepstakes Contest was started in 1930.[19] The Sweepstakes required a more complicated exchange of information for each two-way contact that was adapted from
the message header structure used by the National Trac
System. The competition was immediately popular, both
with those operators active in the NTS who participated
as an opportunity to gauge the merits of their station and
operating skills, and among those for whom the competitive excitement of the event was the primary attraction.
The contest, sponsored annually by the ARRL, became
known as the ARRL November Sweepstakes in 1962.[20]
emergency or disaster relief situations. Field day events

have traditionally carried the same general operating and
scoring structures as other contests, but the emphasis on
emergency readiness and capability has historically outweighed the competitive nature of these events.
Modern contests draw upon the heritage of DX communications, trac handling, and communications readiness. Since 1928, the number and variety of competitive
amateur radio operating events have increased. In 1934,
contests were sponsored by radio societies in Australia,
Canada, Poland, and Spain, and the ARRL sponsored
a new contest specically for the ten meter amateur radio band. By the end of 1937, contests were also being sponsored in Brazil, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Hungary, Ireland, and New Zealand. The rst VHF contest was the ARRL VHF Sweepstakes held in 1948,[23]
and the rst RTTY contest was sponsored by the RTTY
Society of Southern California in 1957.[24] The rst publication dedicated exclusively to the sport, the National
Contest Journal, began circulation in the United States in
1973.[25] The IARU HF World Championship, a worldwide contest sponsored by the International Amateur Radio Union, was known as the IARU Radiosport Championship from its inception in 1977 until the name of the
contest changed in 1986. Recognizing the vitality and
maturity of the sport, CQ Amateur Radio magazine established the Contest Hall of Fame in 1986.[26] By the turn of
the century, contesting had become an established world
wide sport, with tens of thousands of active competitors,
connected not just through their on air activities, but with
specialist web sites, journals, and conventions.
Without a single world wide organizing body or authority for the sport, there has never been a world ranking
system by which contesters could compare themselves.
The vast dierences contesters face in the locations from
which they operate contests, and the eect that location
has on both radio propagation and the proximity to major populations of amateur radio operators also conspired
to make comparisons of the top performers in the sport
dicult. The rst face to face World Radiosport Team
Championship event was held in July, 1990 in Seattle,
Washington, USA, and was an eort to overcome some
of these issues by inviting the top contesters from around
the world to operate a single contest from similar stations
in one compact geographic area. Twenty-two teams of
two operators each represented fteen countries, and included some top competitors from the Soviet Union and
nations of the former Eastern Bloc for whom the trip
was their rst to a western nation. Subsequent WRTC
events have been held in 1996 (San Francisco, California,
USA), 2000 (Bled, Slovenia), 2002 (Helsinki, Finland),
and 2006 (Florianpolis, Brazil). The closest thing to a
world championship in the sport of contesting, WRTC
2010 took place in Moscow, Russia.[27] The 2014 event
will by hosted in New England.[28]
Another important innovation in early contesting was the

development of Field Day operating events. The earliest known organized eld day activity was held in Great
Britain in 1930, and was soon emulated by small events
through Europe and North America.[21] The rst ARRL
International Field Day was held in July, 1933, and publicized through the ARRLs membership journal QST.[22]
Field day events were promoted as an opportunity for radio amateurs to operate from portable locations, in envi- There have been controversies among amateur operators
ronments that simulate what might be encountered during over the impact of dense contest trac on the popular HF
4.5. CONTESTING
89
bands, the use of packet cluster systems, log editing, rare lantic Ocean, close to Europe and eastern North America
station QSYs and other techniques.
with their high densities of active contest stations, are frequently the winners. Aruba, Curaao, the Canary Islands,
the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira Island, coastal Morocco
and the islands of Trinidad and Tobago have been the sites
4.5.4 Contesting activity
of some of the most famous radio contesting victories in
The scale of activity varies from contest to contest. The the large world wide contests. Competition between stalargest contests are the annual DX contests that allow tions in large countries, such as Canada, Russia, or the
world wide participation. Many of these DX contests United States can be greatly aected by the geographic
have been held annually for fty years or more, and have locations of each station. Because of these variations,
devoted followings. Newer contests, those that intention- some stations may specialize in only those contests where
ally restrict participation based on geography, and those they are not at a disadvantage, or may measure their own
that are shorter in duration tend to have fewer partici- success against only nearby rivals.
pating stations and attract more specialized operators and Many radio amateurs are happy to contest from home, ofteams. Over time, contests that fail to attract enough en- ten with relatively low output power and simple antennas.
trants will be abandoned by their sponsor, and new con- Some of these operators at modest home stations opertests will be proposed and sponsored to meet the evolving ate competitively and others are simply on the air to give
interests of amateur radio operators.
away some points to serious stations or to chase some
In a specialised contest in the microwave frequency
bands, where only a handful of radio amateurs have the
technical skills to construct the necessary equipment, a
few contacts just a few kilometers away may be enough to
win. In the most popular VHF contests, a well-equipped
station in a densely populated region like Central Europe
can make over 1,000 contacts on two meters in twentyfour hours. In the CQ World Wide DX Contest, the
worlds largest HF contest, leading multi-operator stations
on phone and CW can make up to 25,000 contacts in a
forty-eight hour period, while even single operators with
world-class stations in rare locations have been known
to exceed 10,000 contacts, an average of over three per
minute, every minute. Over 30,000 amateur radio operators participated in the phone weekend of the 2000 CQ
World Wide DX Contest, and the top-scoring single operator station that year, located in the Galpagos Islands,
made over 9,000 contacts.[29] Other HF contests are not
as large, and some specialty events, such as those for QRP
enthusiasts, can attract no more than a few dozen competitors.
unusual propagation. More serious radio contesters will

spend signicant sums of money and invest a lot of time
building a potentially winning station, whether at home,
a local mountain top, or in a distant country. Operators
without the nancial resources to build their own station
establish relationships with those that do and guest operate at other stations during contests. Contesting is often
combined with a DX-pedition, where amateur radio operators travel to a location where amateur radio activity
is infrequent or uncommon.
Several contests are designed to encourage outdoor operations, and are known as eld days. The motivating
purpose of these events is to prepare operators for emergency readiness, but many enjoy the fun of operating in
the most basic of circumstances. The rules for most eld
day events require or strongly incent participating stations to use generator or battery power, and temporary
antennas.[30] This can create a more level playing eld, as
all stations are constructed in a similar manner.
4.5.6 Typical contest exchange

4.5.5
Station locations
Contacts between stations in a contest are often brief. A

typical exchange between two stations on voice in this
The geographic location of a station can impact its poten- case between a station in England and one in New Zealand
tial performance in radio contests. In almost all contests in the CQ World Wide DX Contest might proceed as
it helps to be in a rare location close to a major popula- follows:
tion center. Because the scoring formula in most contests
uses the number of dierent locations contacted (such as
Station 1: CQ contest Mike Two Whiskey,
countries, states or grid locators) as a multiplier, contacts
Mike Two Whiskey, contest.
with stations in rare locations are in high demand. In contests on the VHF and higher frequency bands, having a
location at a high altitude with unobstructed line of sight (Station M2W is soliciting a contact in the contest)
in all directions is also a major advantage. With range
limited to around 1000 kilometers in normal radio propStation 2: Zulu Lima Six Quebec Hotel
agation conditions, a location on high ground close to a
major metropolitan area is an often unbeatable advantage in VHF contests. In the large international HF DX (The station calling, ZL6QH, gives only his callsign. No
contests, stations in the Caribbean Sea and the North At- more information is needed.)
90

Station 1: ZL6QH 59 14 (said as ve nine one
four).
(M2W conrms the ZL6QH call sign, sends a signal report of 59, and is in Zone 14 (Western Europe).)
Station 2: Thanks 59 32 (said as ve nine three
two).
(ZL6QH conrms reception of M2Ws exchange, sends
a signal report of 59, and is in Zone 32 (South Pacic).)
Station 1: 73. Mike Two Whiskey QRZ?
(M2W conrms ZL6QHs exchange, is now listening for
new stations.)
sponsors provide custom log checking reports to participating stations that oer details about the errors in their
log and how they were penalized.[32]
4.5.8 Results and awards

Most contests are sponsored by organizations that either
publish a membership journal, or sell a radio enthusiast magazine as their business. The results of radio contest events are printed in these publications, and often include an article describing the event and highlighting the
victors. Contest results articles might also include photographs of radio stations and operators in the contest,
and a detailed listing of the scores of every participating station. In addition to publication in magazines and
journals, many contest sponsors also publish results on
web sites, often in a format similar to that found in print.
Some contest sponsors oer the raw score results data in a
format that enables searching or other data analysis. The
American Radio Relay League, for example, oers this
raw line score data to any of its members, and oers the
summary report of the winners and the line score data
in a non-searchable format to anyone through their web
site.[33]
On Morse code, suitable well-known abbreviations are

used to keep the contact as brief as possible. Skilled
contesters can maintain a rate over four contacts per
minute on Morse code, or up to ten contacts per minute
on voice during peak propagation periods, using this short
format.[31] The peak rate of contacts that can be made
during contests that employ longer exchanges with more
information that must be sent, received, and acknowlBecause radio contests take place using amateur radio,
edged, will be necessarily lower.
competitors are forbidden by regulation from being compensated nancially for their activity. This international
4.5.7 Logs and log checking
regulatory restriction of the Amateur Radio Service precludes the development of a professional sport. In adMost serious competitive stations log their contest condition to the recognition of their peers, winners in ratacts using contest logging software, although some con- dio contests do, however, often receive paper certicates,
tinue to use paper and pencil. There are many dierent wooden plaques, trophies, engraved gavels, or medals in
software logging programs written specically for radio recognition of their achievements. Some contests provide
contesting. Computer logging programs can handle many trophies of nominal economic value that highlight their
additional duties besides simply recording the log data; local agricultural or cultural heritage, such as smoked
they can keep a running score based upon the formula of salmon (for the Washington State Salmon Run contest)
the contest, track which available multipliers have been or a bottle of wine (for the California QSO Party).
worked and which have not, and provide the operator
with visual clues about how many contacts are being made
on which bands. Some contest software even provide a 4.5.9 See also
means to control the station equipment via computer, re Contest logging software - Contest logging software
trieve data from the radio and send pre-recorded morse
code, voice or digital messages. After the conclusion of a
Contesting controversies
contest, each station must submit its operational log to the
Contesting technology
contest sponsor. Many sponsors accept logs by e-mail, by
upload on web sites, or even by postal mail.
World Radiosport Team Championship
Once a contest sponsor receives all the logs from the competitors, the logs undergo a process known as crosschecking. In cross-checking, the contest sponsor will 4.5.10 References
match up the contacts recorded in the logs and look for
errors or omissions. Most contests enforce sti points Cited References
penalties for inaccuracies in the log, which means that
the need for speed in operation must be balanced against [1] International Telecommunications Union (2005). Radio
Regulations: Article 1, Section III, paragraph 1.59. Rethe requirement for accuracy. It is not uncommon for
trieved Jan. 20, 2006.
a station to lead in points at the end of the contest, but
slip behind a more accurate competitor after the cross- [2] CQ Amateur Radio. CQ DX Zones of the World map.
Originally published 1947. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
checking process has assessed penalties. Some contest
4.5. CONTESTING
[3] Boring Amateur Radio Club (2006). Rules, 11th Stew

Perry Top Band Distance Challenge. Retrieved Jan. 24,
2006.
[4] Radio Society of Great Britain General Rules for VHF
Contests (2012), , Deutscher Amateur Radio Club General Rules for VHF Contests (2006) .
[5] An example of published results that break down winning entries by continent: Japan Amateur Radio League
(2004). Results of the 45th All Asian DX Contest. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[6] American Radio Relay League (2005). Club Competition. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[7] Slovenia Contest Club (2005). Rules, European HF
Championship. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[8] CQ Amateur Radio (2005). CQ World Wide DX Contest.
Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[9] JIDX Contest Committee (2005). Japan International DX
Contest Rules. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[10] American Radio Relay League (2005). 2005 ARRL June
VHF QSO Party Rules. Retrieved Jan. 23, 2006.
[11] Radio Society of Great Britain VHF Contest Committee
(2012). RSGB VHF/UHF/SHF Contests Calendar 2012.
Retrieved Jan. 11, 2012.
[12] Jones, David K4DLJ (2005). The 2004 ARRL 10 Meter
Contest Results. QST. July, 2005, p. 101.
[13] Bolia, Stephen N8BJQ (2006). CQ WPX Contest. Retrieved Jan. 23, 2006.
[14] American Radio Relay League (2005). 2005 ARRL
November Sweepstakes Rules. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[15] National Contest Journal (2005). NAQP CW/SSB/RTTY
Rules. Retrieved Jan. 24, 2006.
[16] Warner, K.B. 1BHW (1923). The Transatlantic Triumph. QST. Feb., 1923, p. 7.
[17] Handy, F.E. 1BDI (1927). Coming--An International
Relay Party. QST. Mar., 1927, p. 28.
[18] Handy, F.E. W1BDI (1935). The Seventh International
Relay Competition. QST. Feb. 1935, p. 34.
[19] Battey, E.L. W1UE (1930). The All-Section Sweepstakes Contest. QST. May, 1930, p. 43.
[20] Handy, F.E. W1BDI (1962). The November Sweepstakes. QST. Nov., 1962, p. 81.
[21] Warner, Kenneth W1EH (1930). British Societies...Club
Field Day. QST. June, 1930. p. 7.
[22] Handy, F.E. W1BDI (1933). First Annual Field Day Report. QST. Sep., 1933, p. 35.
[23] Tilton, E.P. W1HDQ (1947). VHF Sweepstakes, January 17th-18th. QST. Dec., 1947, p. 128.
[24] RTTY Sweepstakes Announcement. QST (Operating
News). Oct. 1957, p. 101.
91
[25] American Radio Relay League (1999). NCJ Collection

CD-ROM 1973-1998. CD-ROM. ISBN 0-87259-773-3.
[26] CQ Amateur Radio (2003). Members, CQ Contest Hall
Of Fame (as of May 2003). Retrieved Jan. 20, 2006.
[27] World Radiosport Team Championship ocial web site.
[28] World Radiosport Team Championship 2014
[29] Cox, Bob K3EST (2001). Results of the 2000 CQ WW
DX SSB Contest. CQ Amateur Radio. Aug., 2001, p.
11.
[30] American Radio Relay League (2005). Field Day 2005
Rules. Retrieved Jan. 24, 2006.
[31] Klimo, Timo OH1NOA. Rate is King. Retrieved April
2, 2007.
[32] CQ World Wide Contest Committee (2003). Guide to
CQWW DX-Contest UBN and NIL Reports. Retrieved
Jan. 24, 2006.
[33] American Radio Relay League (2006). ARRL Contest
Results. Retrieved Jan. 24, 2006.
General References
DeSoto, Clinton (1936). 200 Meters and Down.
West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: American Radio
Relay League.
Ford, Steve WB8IMY (1996). The ARRL Operating Manual. Chapter 7: Contests. West Hartford,
Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League.
Fifth Edition.
Lombry, Thierry ON4SKY (2005). The History of
Amateur Radio. Retrieved Dec. 8, 2005.
Chapter 5
Means of Communication
5.1 List of amateur radio modes
D-STAR (Digital Voice) (D*DV)

DMR
This list is incomplete; you can help by

expanding it.
FreeDV - Uses Codec2 instead of AMBE. Primarily

used on HF.
The following is a list of the modes of radio communicaMorse code

tion used in the amateur radio hobby.
5.1.1
Morse code is still used by amateurs. Operators may either key the code manually and decode by ear, or they
may use computers to send and receive the code.
Modes of communication

Continuous wave (CW)
can be tested in the amateur radio service, although na Modulated continuous wave (MCW) is most often
tional regulations may require disclosure of a new mode
used by repeaters for identication.
to permit radio licensing authorities to monitor the transmissions. Encryption, for example, is not generally permitted in the Amateur Radio service except for the speImage
cial purpose of satellite vehicle control uplinks. The following is a partial list of the modes of communication
Image modes consist of sending either video or still imused, where the mode includes both modulation types and
ages.
Amateur television, also known as Fast Scan television (ATV)
Analog voice
Slow-scan television (SSTV)
Facsimile
Text and data

Amateur teleprinting over radio (AMTOR)
Digital voice
Digital voice modes encode speech into a data stream before transmitting it.
D-STAR (Digital Data) a high speed (128 kbit/s),

data-only mode.
Hellschreiber, also referred to as either Feld-Hell, or
Hell
APCO-25 (P25)
92
5.1. LIST OF AMATEUR RADIO MODES

Tone 63 (MT63)
Multiple frequency-shift keying (MFSK) modes
such as
Olivia MFSK
Packet radio (AX25)
PACTOR
Phase-shift keying:
QPSK31
QPSK63
Other modes
Spread spectrum, which may be analog or digital
in nature, is the spreading of a signal over a wide
Bandwidth.
High-speed multimedia radio, networking using
802.11 protocols
5.1.2
Activities known as modes
Certain activities in amateur radio are also commonly referred to as modes, even though no one specic modulation scheme is used.
Automatic link establishment (ALE) is a method of
automatically nding a sustainable communications
channel on HF.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) uses the Moon to communicate over long distances.
Echolink connects amateurs and amateur stations
via the internet.
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) connects
repeaters via the internet.
Satellite (OSCAR- Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio)
5.1.3
Sources
http://www.ac6v.com/opmodes.htm
93
Chapter 6
Common Means of Communication

6.1 Morse code
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
The length of a dot is one unit.

A dash is three units.
The space between parts of the same letter is one unit.
The space between letters is three units.
The space between words is seven units.
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
a space equal to seven dots. The dot duration is the basic

unit of time measurement in code transmission.[1] To increase the speed of the communication, the code was designed so that the length of each character in Morse varies
approximately inversely to its frequency of occurrence in
English. Thus the most common letter in English, the letter E, has the shortest code, a single dot.
Morse code is most popular among amateur radio operators, although it is no longer required for licensing in most
countries. Pilots and air trac controllers usually need
only a cursory understanding. Aeronautical navigational
aids, such as VORs and NDBs, constantly identify in
Morse code. Compared to voice, Morse code is less sensitive to poor signal conditions, yet still comprehensible
to humans without a decoding device. Morse is therefore a useful alternative to synthesized speech for sending automated data to skilled listeners on voice channels.
Many amateur radio repeaters, for example, identify with
Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.
SOS, the standard emergency signal, is a Morse code prosign.
In an emergency, Morse code can be sent by improvised

methods that can be easily keyed on and o, making it one of the simplest and most versatile methods of
Morse code is a method of transmitting text information telecommunication. The most common distress signal is
as a series of on-o tones, lights, or clicks that can be SOS or three dots, three dashes and three dots, internadirectly understood by a skilled listener or observer with- tionally recognized by treaty.
out special equipment. The International Morse Code[1]
encodes the ISO basic Latin alphabet, some extra Latin
letters, the Arabic numerals and a small set of punctu- 6.1.1 Development and history
ation and procedural signals as standardized sequences
of short and long signals called dots and dashes,[1] or Beginning in 1836, the American artist Samuel F. B.
dits and dahs. Because many non-English natural lan- Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and Alfred
guages use more than the 26 Roman letters, extensions to Vail developed an electrical telegraph system. This systhe Morse alphabet exist for those languages.
tem sent pulses of electric current along wires which conEach character (letter or numeral) is represented by a trolled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving
unique sequence of dots and dashes. The duration of a end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transdash is three times the duration of a dot. Each dot or mit natural language using only these pulses, and the sidash is followed by a short silence, equal to the dot dura- lence between them. Morse therefore developed the foretion. The letters of a word are separated by a space equal runner to modern International Morse code.
Chart of the Morse code letters and numerals.[1]
to three dots (one dash), and the words are separated by In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in
94
6.1. MORSE CODE
95
American
(Morse)
Continental
(Gerke)
International
(ITU)
B
C
CH
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
A typical straight key. This U.S. model, known as the J-38, was
manufactured in huge quantities during World War II, and remains in widespread use today. In a straight key, the signal is on
when the knob is pressed, and o when it is released. Length
and timing of the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the
telegraphist.
V
W
X
Y
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
England began using an electrical telegraph that also used

electromagnets in its receivers. However, in contrast with
any system of making sounds of clicks, their system used
pointing needles that rotated above alphabetical charts to
indicate the letters that were being sent. In 1841, Cooke
and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters
from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer. This machine was based on their 1840 telegraph and worked well;
however, they failed to nd customers for this system and
only two examples were ever built.[2]
0
0 (alt)
Comparison of historical versions of Morse code with the current

standard. 1. American Morse code as originally dened. 2.
The modied and rationalized version used by Gerke on German
railways. 3. The current ITU standard.
In the original Morse telegraphs, the receivers armature

made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. The telegraph operators
soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly
into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus
making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code
was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes
were sent as short and long pulses. It was later found that
people become more procient at receiving Morse code
when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of
one read from a page.[4]
On the other hand, the three Americans system for

telegraphy, which was rst used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morses original telegraph
receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper
tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto
the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape.
When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the
stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained un- To reect the sounds of Morse code receivers, the operamarked.
tors began to vocalize a dot as dit, and a dash as dah.
The Morse code was developed so that operators could Dots which are not the nal element of a character bethe letter c was
translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into came vocalized as di. For example,
[5][6]
then
vocalized
as
dah-di-dah-dit.
text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned
to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look
up each word according to the number which had been
sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred
Vail to include letters and special characters, so it could be
used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use
of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper
in Morristown.[3] The shorter marks were called dots,
and the longer ones dashes, and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shorter sequences of dots
and dashes.
In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication, before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, most high-speed international communication
used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables and
radio circuits. In aviation, Morse code in radio systems
started to be used on a regular basis in the 1920s. Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark
gap system of transmission was dicult to use, there had
been some earlier attempts. In 1910 the US Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.[7] That
96
same year a radio on the airship America had been instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.[8] Zeppelin
airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and
naval scouting during World War I,[9] and ground-based
radio direction nders were used for airship navigation.[9]
Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use
of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical
radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s
there was no radio system used by such important ights
as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in
1927. Once he and the Spirit of St. Louis were o the
ground, Lindbergh was truly alone and incommunicado.
On the other hand, when the rst airplane ight was made
from California to Australia in the 1930s on the Southern
Cross, one of its four crewmen was its radio operator who
communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.
CHAPTER 6. COMMON MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

ing the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of 500 kHz.[12] However the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code
and written tests.[13] Licensees have reactivated the old
California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this Call sign or as KSM.
Similarly, a few US Museum ship stations are operated
by Morse enthusiasts.[14]
6.1.2 User prociency
Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots

were required to be able to use Morse code, both for
use with early communications systems and for identication of navigational beacons which transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identiers in Morse code.
Aeronautical charts show the identier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map.
Radio telegraphy using Morse code was vital during
World War II, especially in carrying messages between
the warships and the naval bases of the belligerents.
Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio
telegraphy, using encrypted messages, because the voice
radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both
their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also
extensively used by warplanes, especially by long-range
patrol planes that were sent out by those navies to scout
for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships.
In addition, rapidly moving armies in the eld could not
have fought eectively without radiotelegraphy, because
they moved more rapidly than telegraph and telephone
lines could be erected. This was seen especially in the
blitzkrieg oensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in
Poland, Belgium, France (in 1940), the Soviet Union, and
in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa,
Italy, and the Netherlands; and by the U.S. Army in
France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany
in 1945.
A commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to generate high-speed Morse code,
the timing of which is controlled by the electronic keyer. Manipulation of dual-lever paddles is similar to the Vibroplex, but
pressing the right paddle generates a series of dahs, and squeezing the paddles produces dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. The actions
are reversed for left-handed operators.
Morse code speed is measured in words per minute

(wpm) or characters per minute (cpm). Characters have
diering lengths because they contain diering numbers
of dots and dashes. Consequently words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they
contain the same number of characters. For this reason,
a standard word is helpful to measure operator transmission speed. PARIS and CODEX are two such standard words.[15] Operators skilled in Morse code can often
understand (copy) code in their heads at rates in excess
of 40 wpm.
International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North
Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a
still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 wpm.[16]
William Pierpont N0HFF also notes that some operators may have passed 100 wpm.[16] By this time they are
hearing phrases and sentences rather than words. The
fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in
1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35
wpm in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of dierent
The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of
eras it is useful to keep in mind that dierent standard
Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any
words (50 dot durations versus 60 dot durations) and difradio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, includferent interword gaps (5 dot durations versus 7 dot duraMorse code was used as an international standard for
maritime distress until 1999, when it was replaced by
the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the
French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31,
1997, the nal message transmitted was Calling all. This
is our last cry before our eternal silence.[10] In the United
States the nal commercial Morse code transmission was
on July 12, 1999, signing o with Samuel Morses original 1844 message, "What hath God wrought", and the
prosign SK.[11]
6.1. MORSE CODE

tions) may have been used when determining such speed
records. For example speeds run with the CODEX standard word and the PARIS standard may dier by up to
20%.
97
because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the
transmitters symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code
into displayed letters.
Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high speed code ability, one group Amateur radio
consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm.[17]
Also, Certicates of Code Prociency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10 wpm
with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available
to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members
of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreters strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards
for translating code at 5 wpm.
6.1.3
Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years
longer than any other electrical coding system. What is
called Morse code today is actually somewhat dierent
from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse.
The Modern International Morse code, or continental
code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848
and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and
Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the
alphabet and all of the numerals resulting substantially in
the modern form of the code. After some minor changes,
International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and was
later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morses original code specication, largely limited to use in the United States and
Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used
except in historical re-enactments.
Aviation
In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids.
To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations all transmit a short set of identication letters (usually a two-to-ve-letter version of the
station name) in Morse code. Station identication letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the
VOR based at Manchester Airport in England is abbreviated as MCT, and MCT in Morse code is transmitted
on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T
code ( ) or the code may be removed, which
tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable. In
Canada, the identication is removed entirely to signify
the navigation aid is not to be used.[18][19] In the aviation service Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed
of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not
actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter
Vibroplex brand semiautomatic key (generically called a bug).

The paddle, when pressed to the right by the thumb, generates a
series of dits, the length and timing of which are controlled by a
sliding weight toward the rear of the unit. When pressed to the left
by the knuckle of the index nger, the paddle generates a single
dah, the length of which is controlled by the operator. Multiple
dahs require multiple presses. Left-handed operators use a key
built as a mirror image of this one.
International Morse code today is most popular among

amateur radio operators, where it is used as the pattern
to key a transmitter on and o in the radio communications mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave"
or CW to distinguish it from spark transmissions, not
because the transmission was continuous. Other keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as
frequency shift keying.
The original amateur radio operators used Morse code
exclusively, since voice-capable radio transmitters did not
become commonly available until around 1920. Until
2003 the International Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code prociency as part of the amateur radio
licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse
code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.[20]
Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements.[21]
Until 1991 a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of ve words per minute
(wpm) was required to receive an amateur radio license
for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was
still required for the privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000 prociency at the 20 wpm level was required to
receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); eective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the
Extra Class requirement to ve wpm.[22] Finally, eec-
98
tive on February 23, 2007 the FCC eliminated the Morse Through May 2013 the First, Second, and Third Class
code prociency requirements from all amateur radio li- (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests
censes.
based upon the CODEX standard word were still being
While voice and data transmissions are limited to specic issued in the United States by the Federal Communicaamateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is per- tions Commission. The First Class license required 20
mitted on all amateur bandsLF, MF, HF, UHF, and WPM code group and 25 WPM text code prociency,
VHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur the others 16 WPM code group test (ve letter blocks sent
radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM
code text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to
signals only.
pass written tests on operating practice and electronics
The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class
sent led to the development of an extensive number of was a requirement of a year of experience for operators
abbreviations to speed communication. These include of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed
prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbrevia- the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship.
tions for typical message components. For example, CQ However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high
is broadcast to be interpreted as seek you (I'd like to frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS)
converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting expeman), YL (young lady) and XYL (ex-YL wife) are rience requirement for the First was very dicult.) Curcommon abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an opera- rently only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Opertor when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is ator Certicate, is issued. This is granted either when the
used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed
QTH is location (My QTH is My location). The use and become this lifetime license. For new applicants it
of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation requires passing a written examination on electronic theeven when the operators speak dierent languages.
ory, as well as 16 WPM code and 20 WPM text tests.
Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is However the code exams are currently waived for holdstill used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi- ers of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their
automatic keyers (known as bugs) and of fully auto- operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirematic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Software is ment.
also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aerocode radio signals.
nautical use broadcast identifying information in the form
of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identication.[23] Warships, including those of
Other uses
the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange
messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part,
as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.
Submarine periscopes include a signal lamp.
ATIS (Automatic Transmitter Identication System) uses
Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite
transmissions.
Applications for the general public
Representation of SOS-Morse code.
A U.S. Navy signalman sends Morse code signals in 2005.
An important application is signalling for help through

SOS, " ". This can be sent many ways:
keying a radio on and o, ashing a mirror, toggling a
ashlight and similar methods. SOS is not three separate
characters, rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters.[24]
6.1. MORSE CODE
99
Morse code as an assistive technology
common ashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot
Morse code has been employed as an assistive technol- and a long pull for a dash.
ogy, helping people with a variety of disabilities to comMorse code is transmitted using just two states (on and
municate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe moo). Historians have called it the rst digital code. Morse
tion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor
code may be represented as a binary code, and that is
control. An original solution to the problem that caretakwhat telegraph operators do when transmitting messages.
ers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typeWorking from the above ITU denition and further denwriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were
ing a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be
sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing morse
made from the a combination of the following ve bit
or votem, Newell and Nabarro, 1968.
strings:
Morse code can also be translated by computer and used
in a speaking communication aid. In some cases this
1. short mark, dot or dit () 1
means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic
tube ("sip-and-pu" interface). An important advantage
2. longer mark, dash or dah () 111
of Morse code over row column scanning is that, once
3. intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes
learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it
within a character) 0
appears faster than scanning.
People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or blind)
can receive Morse through a skin buzzer. .
In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine
QST,[25] an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke
and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking
his eyes in Morse. Another example occurred in 1966
when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked
the word TORTURE. In these two cases interpreters were
available to understand those series of eye-blinks.
4. short gap (between letters) 000

5. medium gap (between words) 0000000
Note that the marks and gaps alternate: dots and dashes
are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps
are always separated by a dot or a dash.
Morse messages are generally transmitted by a handoperated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver
more experienced operators can send and receive at faster
speeds. In addition, individual operators dier slightly,
for example using slightly longer or shorter dashes or
gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called
6.1.4 Representation, timing and speeds
their st, and experienced operators can recognize specic individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends
International Morse code is composed of ve elements:[1]
clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a good st.
A poor st is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy
1. short mark, dot or dit () dot duration is one Morse code.
time unit long
2. longer mark, dash or dah () three time units Timing
long
3. inter-element gap between the dots and dashes Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase
within a character one dot duration or one unit MORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where represents
long
dahs and represents dits:
4. short gap (between letters) three time units long
M O R S E C O D E
5. medium gap (between words) seven time units Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with
long
= representing signal on, and . representing signal o,
each for the time length of exactly one dit:
Transmission
Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also
as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones,
or as a mechanical, audible or visual signal (e.g. a ashing
light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789
M-----O---------R-----S--E
C---------O---------D-----E
===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ | dah dit | | symbol space letter space word space
100
Spoken representation

operators usually override the standards.
For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United

States, the Federal Communications Commission species tests for Morse code prociency in words per minute
and in code groups per minute.[26] The Commission species that a word is 5-characters long. The Commission
species Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per
M O R S E C O D E (space) minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute,
and 25 words per minute.[27] The word per minute rate
would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code

is orally:
groups per minute would be close to the CODEX stanDah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di- dard.
dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.
While the Federal Communications Commission no
Note that there is little point in learning to read written longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses,
Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters the old requirements were similar to the requirements for
and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and re- commercial radiotelegraph licenses.[28]
ceiving.
A dierence between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random charSpeed in words per minute
acters along with plain language text. For each class of
license, the code group speed requirement is slower than
All Morse code elements depend on the dot length. A the plain language text requirement. For example, for
dash is the length of 3 dots, and spacings are specied in the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must
number of dot lengths. An unambiguous method of spec- pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word
ifying the transmission speed is to specify the dot duration per minute code group test.[13]
as, for example, 50 milliseconds.
Based upon a 50 dot duration standard word such as
Specifying the dot duration is, however, not the common PARIS, the time for one dot duration or one unit can be
practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. computed by the formula:
That introduces ambiguity because words have dierent
numbers of characters, and characters have dierent dot
T = 1200 / W
lengths. It is not immediately clear how a specic word
rate determines the dot duration in milliseconds.
Some method to standardize the transformation of a word Where: T is the unit time, or dot duration in milliseconds,
rate to a dot duration is useful. A simple way to do and W is the speed in wpm.
Morse code is often spoken or written with dah for
dashes, dit for dots located at the end of a character,
and di for dots located at the beginning or internally
within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:
this is to choose a dot duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If,
Farnsworth speed
for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13
words per minute, the operator would choose a dot rate
Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the
that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one
timing rules above are changed so two dierent speeds
minute.
are used: a character speed and a text speed. The characThe typical word thus determines the dot length. It is ter speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text
common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For examare two common typical words: PARIS and CODEX. ple, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-perPARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural lan- minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps
guage words and reects the benets of Morse codes may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per
shorter code durations for common characters such as e minute.
and t. CODEX oers a word rate that is typical of 5Using dierent character and text speeds is, in fact, a
letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using
common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method
the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dot units is
of learning Morse code.
50 and a simple calculation shows that the dot length at
20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word
CODEX with 60 dot units, the dot length at 20 words per Alternative display of more common characters in Inminute is 50 milliseconds.
ternational Morse code
Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely
that an operator could be that precise with the dot length, See also: Human coding
and the individual characteristics and preferences of the
6.1. MORSE CODE
101
Some methods of teaching or learning Morse code use a 6.1.6 Learning methods
dichotomic search table.
People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth
method are taught to send and receive letters and other
symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each
symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named
for Donald R. Russ Farnsworth, also known by his call
sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give thinking
A graphical representation of the dichotomic search table: the time to make the sound shape of the letters and symuser branches left at every dot and right at every dash until the bols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with
character is nished.
practice and familiarity.
Another popular teaching method is the Koch method,
named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which
uses the full target speed from the outset, but begins with
just two characters. Once strings containing those two
6.1.5 Link budget issues
characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character
Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical radioteletype set is mastered.
(RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a link mar- In North America, many thousands of individuals have
gin or a link budget for the simple reason of it pos- increased their code recognition speed (after initial memsessing variable length dots and dashes as well as vari- orization of the characters) by listening to the reguant timing between letters and words. For the purposes larly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by
of Information Theory and Channel Coding comparisons W1AW, the American Radio Relay Leagues headquarthe word PARIS is used to determine Morse Codes prop- ters station.
erties because it has an even number of dots and dashes.
In the United Kingdom many people learned the Morse
Morse Code when transmitted essentially creates an AM code by means of a series of words or phrases that have
signal (even in on/o keying mode), assumptions about the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, Q
signal can be made with respect to similarly timed RTTY in Morse is dah-dah-di-dah, which can be memorized by
signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an the phrase God save the Queen, and the Morse for F
on-o keyed radio signal, it requires less complex trans- is di-di-dah-dit, which can be memorized as Did she like
mission equipment than other forms of radio communi- it.
cation.
A well-known Morse code rhythm from the Second
Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice World War period derives from Beethovens Fifth Symcommunication, typically 100150 Hz, compared to the phony, the opening phrase of which was regularly played
roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at the beginning of BBC broadcasts. The timing of the
at a lower data rate.
notes corresponds to the Morse for V"; di-di-di-dah and
Morse code is usually received as a medium-pitched au- stood for V for Victory (as well as the Roman numeral
dio tone (6001000 Hz), so transmissions are easier to for the number ve).[31][32]
copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal ennumbers, punctuation,
vironments. The transmitted power is concentrated into 6.1.7 Letters,
a limited bandwidth so narrow receiver lters can be used
prosigns and non-English variants
to suppress interference from adjacent frequencies.
The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the Symbol representations
natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This eciency makes The &, $ and _ signs are not dened inside the ITU recCW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, ommendation on Morse code.
as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called
"QRP operation", from the Q-code for reduce power). Exclamation Mark
The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders
called ARRL Farnsworth Spacing [29] that is supposed
to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse [30] have implemented the standard.
There is no standard representation for the exclamation

mark (!), although the KW digraph ( ) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor
of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment).
102
While Morse code translation software prefers the
Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as
some amateur radio operators in North America and the
Caribbean continue to prefer the older MN digraph (
) carried over from American landline telegraphy code.
Currency symbols
The ITU has never codied formal Morse Code representations for currencies as the ISO 4217 Currency Codes are preferred for transmission.
The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips
Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on
land line telegraphy, as SX.
Ampersand
The representation of the & sign given above, often
shown as AS, is also the Morse prosign for wait. In
addition, the American landline representation of an
ampersand was similar to ES ( ) and hams have
carried over this usage as a synonym for and (WX
HR COLD ES RAINY, the weather here is cold &
rainy).
Keyboard AT @

Unusual variants
During early World War I (1914-1916) Germany briey
experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence
adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT,
and standard Morse was restored by Spring 1916. Only
a small percentage of Western Front (North Atlantic and
Mediterranean Sea) trac was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse
during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly
remembered in the book The Codebreakers by Kahn and
in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whose
SIGINT operators copied most of this Morse variant).
Kahns cited sources come from the popular press and
wireless magazines of the time.[34]
Other forms of 'Fractional Morse' or 'Fractionated Morse'
have emerged.[35]
6.1.8 Decoding Software

It is possible to decode morse code using software. The
variety ranges from wide-band software dened radio receivers coupled to the Reverse Beacon Network[36] where
a software for the Windows operating system decodes a
bunch of signals at once and detects CQ messages on ham
bands, to mobile apps (i.e. for the iPad [37] ).
On May 24, 2004 the 160th anniversary of the 6.1.9 See also
rst public Morse telegraph transmission the
Radiocommunication Bureau of the International
ACP-131
Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added
the @ ("commercial at" or commat) character to
CW Operators Club
the ocial Morse character set, using the sequence
denoted by the AC digraph ( ).
Guglielmo Marconi
This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent
A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter a inside a
swirl represented by a C.[33] The new character facilitates sending email addresses by Morse code and
is notable since it is the rst ocial addition to the
Morse set of characters since World War I.
High Speed Telegraphy

Hog morse
Instructograph
List of international common standards
Non-Latin extensions
Main article: Other alphabets in Morse code
For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map
Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code
uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow
Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps
hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script
and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean. For
Russian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic
characters to four-digit codes.
Morse code abbreviations

Morse code mnemonics
NATO phonetic alphabet
Procedural signals (prosigns) for Morse code
Tap code
Wabun Code
Wireless telegraphy
6.1. MORSE CODE
6.1.10
References
103
[23] Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)". Retrieved

2007-12-10.
[1] International Morse code Recommendation ITU-R

M.1677-1. itu.int. International Telecommunication
Union. October 2009. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
[24] Prosigns. www.qsl.net. QTH.Com. Retrieved January

21, 2015.
[2] Burns 2004, p. 79
[25] Dennis W. Ross, Morse Code: A Place in the Mind,

QST, March, 1992, p. 51.
[3] Burns 2004, p. 84

[4] ARRLWeb: ARRLWeb: Learning Morse Code (CW)!
[5] L. Peter Carron, Morse Code: The Essential Language,
Radio amateurs library, issue 69, American Radio Relay
League, 1986 ISBN 0-87259-035-6.
[6] R. J. Eckersley, Amateur radio operating manual, Radio
Society of Great Britain, 1985 ISBN 0-900612-69-X.
[7] History of Communications-Electronics in the United
States Navy
[8] 100 Years ago this airship sailed from Atlantic City
[9] How the Zeppelin Raiders Are Guided by Radio Signals. EarlyRadioHistory.us. United States Early Radio History/Popular Science Monthly (April 1918). Retrieved January 21, 2015.
[10] An obituary for Morse code, The Economist, January
23, 1999.
[26] Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations 13.207(c) and Title

47 Code of Federal Regulations 13.209(d)
[27] 47 CFR 13.203(b)
[28] Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations 97.503, 1996 version
[29] http://www.arrl.org/files/file/Technology/x9004008.pdf
[30] Custom Farnsworth Spacing Conguration.
morse.com. Retrieved 2013-11-21.
Win-
[31] Glenn Stanley, The Cambridge Companion to Beethoven,

p.269, Cambridge University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-52158934-7.
[32] William Emmett Studwell, The Americana Song Reader,
p.62, Routledge, 1997 ISBN 0-7890-0150-0.
[33] International Morse Code Gets a New ITU Home, New
Character. Archived from the original on September 30,
2007. Retrieved February 27, 2007.
[11] The End of Morse - The day the keys in North America
fell silent
[34] Wytho, Grant (July 2014). The Invention of Wireless

Cryptography. The Appendix: Futures of the Past 2 (3).
[12] Amendments to the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual
[35] Fractionated Morse, and Other Oddities.

bloc.com. Retrieved 2013-11-21.
[13] Radiotelegraph Operator License (T)". fcc.gov. Federal

Communications Commission. Retrieved January 21,
2015.
[36] Reverse Beacon Network http://www.reversebeacon.net/
[14] Maritime Radio Historical Society

[15] Perera, Tom. The Morse Code and the Continental
Code. W1TP Telegraph & Scientic Instruments Museums. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
[16] The Art & Skill of Radio Telegraphy. 2002. Retrieved
2013-06-14.
[17] Extremely High Speed Club ocial web page
[18] Chapter 1. Air Navigation. faa.gov. January 3, 2015.
Retrieved January 21, 2015.
[19] COM 3.2, Canadian AIM
[20] IARUWeb: The International Amateur Radio Union
[21] Italy Joins No-Code Ranks as FCC Revives Morse Debate in the US. The ARRL Letter 24 (31). August 12,
2005. Retrieved 2012-04-02.
[22] 1998 Biennial Regulatory Review Amendment of
Part 97 of the Commissions Amateur Service Rules
(PDF). Archived from the original on October 31, 2005.
Retrieved December 4, 2005.
Quadi-
[37] Comparison of morse decoder apps for the iPad

http://gerolfziegenhain.wordpress.com/2013/05/20/
morse-decoder-test-iphone-ipad/
Burns, R. W. (2004), Communications: an international history of the formative years, Institution of

Electrical Engineers, ISBN 0-86341-327-7

Morse code at DMOZ
Everyone Knows Morse at TV Tropes. Includes
a list of uses and appearances of Morse Code in
movies, television episodes, and other popular culture.
Morse Code resources
International Morse Code, Hand Sending US Army
training video 1966.
Morse Code Radio Operator Training Technique
of Hand Sending US Navy 1944.
Codes of the World
104
6.2 PSK31
SLOWBPSK program written for Motorolas EVM radio. Instead of the traditional frequency-shift keying,
the information is transmitted by patterns of polarityreversals (sometimes called 180-degree phase shifts).
PSK31 was enthusiastically received, and its usage grew
like wildre worldwide, lending a new popularity and
tone to the on-air conduct of digital communications.
Due to the eciency of the mode, it became, and still remains, especially popular with operators whose circumstances do not permit the erection of large antenna systems, the use of high power, or both.
6.2.2 Use and implementation

A PSK31 operator typically uses a single-sideband (SSB)
transceiver connected to the sound card of a computer
running PSK31 software. When the operator enters a
message for transmission, the software produces an audio tone that sounds, to the human ear, like a continuous whistle with a slight warble. This sound is then fed
through either a microphone jack (using an intermediate resistor to reduce the sound cards output power to
microphone levels) or an auxiliary connection into the
transceiver, from which it is transmitted.[3]
A waterfall display depicting several PSK31 transmissions at

around 14,070 kHz. The green lines indicate a station that is
transmitting.
PSK31 or "Phase Shift Keying, 31 Baud" is a popular computer-soundcard-generated radioteletype mode,

used primarily by amateur radio operators to conduct
real-time keyboard-to-keyboard chat, most often using
frequencies in the high frequency amateur radio bands
(near-shortwave). PSK31 is distinguished from other digital modes in that it is specically tuned to have a data
rate close to typing speed, and has an extremely narrow bandwidth, allowing many conversations in the same
bandwidth as a single voice channel. This narrow bandwidth also concentrates the RF energy in a very narrow
bandwidth, allowing relatively low-power equipment (25
watts) to communicate globally using the same skywave
propagation used by shortwave radio stations.
6.2.1
History
PSK31 was developed and named by English amateur radio operator Peter Martinez (call sign G3PLX) and introduced to the wider amateur radio community in December 1998.[1][2]
The 31 baud BPSK modulation system used in PSK31
was introduced by Pawel Jalocha (SP9VRC) in his
From the perspective of the transmitter, the sound

amounts to little more than somebody whistling into the
microphone. However, the software rapidly shifts the
phase of the audio signal between two states (hence the
name phase-shift keying), forming the character codes.
These phase shifts serve the same function as the two
tones used in traditional RTTY and similar systems.
To decode PSK31, the audio whistle received from the
transceivers headphone output is fed into a computer
sound cards audio input, and software decodes it. The
software displays the decoded text.[3]
The use of PSK31 does not require exclusive use of a
dedicated computer. When it is not running the PSK31
program, the computer can still be used for normal activities. Because PSK31 was developed for use through a
computers sound card, many programs have since been
created to use the same technology for other modes, such
as RTTY, Hellschreiber, and Olivia MFSK. So, once it
has been set up to run PSK31, a computer can be used to
explore a variety of digital message transmission modes.
Aside from a standard radio transceiver and a computer
with a sound card, very little equipment is required to use
PSK31. Normally, an older computer and a few cables
will suce, and many PSK31 software applications are
free. Many operators now use a commercially available
interface/modem device (or nomic) between their computers and radios. These devices incorporate the necessary impedance matching and sound level adjustment to
permit the sound card output to be injected into the microphone input, send the radios audio output to the sound
card input, and handle the radios transmit-receive switching. Recently introduced interfaces also incorporate their
6.2. PSK31
105
own sound card and can be powered and run from the The boundaries between character codes are marked by
computer via a single USB connection.
two or more consecutive zeros. Since no character code
contains more than one consecutive zero, the software can
easily identify the spaces between characters, regardless
6.2.3 Resistance to interference
of the length of the character. The idle sequence, sent
when an operator is not typing, is a continuous sequence
Like other narrow band digital modes, PSK31 can often of phase-shifts, which do not print on the screen.[2] Marovercome interference and poor propagation conditions tinez arranged the character alphabet so that, as in Morse
in situations where voice or other methods of commu- code, the more frequently occurring characters have the
nication fail. However, PSK31 was designed only for shortest encodings, while rarer characters use longer enleisure use by amateurs, and due to its relatively slow codings. He named this encoding scheme "varicode".
speed and limited error control, is not suitable for transmitting large blocks of data or text, or critical data requir- PSK31s symbol rate of 31.25 Hz was chosen because a
normal typing speed of about 50 words per minute reing high immunity from errors.
quires a bit rate of about 32 bits per second, and speciPSK31 works well over propagation paths that preserve cally because 31.25 Hz could easily be derived from the
phase, and resists fading (QSB) well. However, it can be 8 kHz sample rate used in many DSP systems, includadversely aected by propagation modessuch as trans- ing those used in the computer sound cards commonly
polar pathswhere auroral utter or multipathing can used for PSK31 operation (31.25 Hz is 8 kHz divided by
disrupt the signal phase continuity. In such cases the use 256, and so can be derived from 8 kHz by halving the
of QPSK (see below) is often benecial.
frequency eight times in succession).
Some software supports PSK10 and PSK05 variants, run- Colloquial usage of the term 'PSK31' in amateur radio
ning at 10 baud and 5 baud, respectively. These slower usually implies the use of the most commonly used varispeeds sacrice throughput to provide greater resistance ant of PSK31: binary phase shift keying (BPSK). BPSK
to noise and other interference. Conversely, PSK63 is uses no error control, but an allied mode, QPSK31, uses
increasingly used for faster exchanges, especially during four phases instead of two, to provide a degree of forward
contest operating.
error correction. It is simple to switch from BPSK to
6.2.4
Technical information
QPSK if diculties arise during a contact. When QPSK

is used; after encoding into varicode, the binary signal is
further transformed into a quaternary set of phase shifts.
A sliding window of ve bits is used to select one of the
four possible phase shifts, providing a means of error correction by spreading each bit of data across adjacent bits.
Successful decoding of an input bit requires a large number of phase shift sequences to be received, causing a 20bit, 640-millisecond latency (delay) in the output of the
decoder.[5]
Example of PSK31 modulation
6.2.5 Spectrum eciency compared to

other modes
PSK31 is typically created by software that generates an
amplitude- and phase-modulated waveform that is converted to an audio frequency analog signal by a sound
card. In the most-commonly-used variant, BPSK31, binary information is transmitted by either imparting a 180degree phase shift (a binary zero) or no phase shift (a
binary one) in each 32ms symbol interval. The 180degree phase shift for a zero bit code occurs at a null
amplitude.[4]
As shown in the gure, a raised-cosine lter is used to
smooth the rise and fall times of the audio waveform and
eliminate key clicks. All subsequent amplication of the
signal must be linear to preserve the modulation waveform and ensure minimum occupied bandwidth. In practice, this means limiting the transmit audio volume to below the level where the transmitter generates Automatic
Level Control (ALC) feedback and disabling any audio
compression or speech processing.
PSK31s eciency and narrow bandwidth make it highly

suitable for low-power and crowded-band operation.
PSK31 contacts can be conducted at less than 100 Hz
separation, so with disciplined operation at least twenty
simultaneous PSK31 contacts can be carried out side-byside in the 2.5 kHz bandwidth required for just one SSB
voice contact.
6.2.6 Common frequencies

The following amateur radio frequencies are commonly
used for transmitting and receiving PSK31 signals. They
normally occupy the lower edge of each bands digital modes section. PSK31 operators generally use upper sideband (USB), even on frequencies below 10 MHz
where the convention normally calls for lower sideband.
106
This is because (a) signals then spread upwards into the

digimode section from the base frequency, and (b) using QPSK requires both stations to use the same sideband.
* Current usage as of 2010, based on observation, is centered on 7,070.15 and 21,070.15. 7,035.15 is commonly
used in Region 2 as of 2012. There is no authoritative
list, as the frequencies are determined by common convention.
PSK31 email discussion list with contests, app reviews, and more
European PSK Club
An online PSK31 receiver tuned to the active Ham
band
Another PSK31 receiver in Ukraine

The IARU Region 1 Bandplan was revised in March 2009
to reect the expanded 40 meter band. The CW-only section within Europe, Africa, the Middle East and the for6.3 D-STAR
mer USSR is now 7.000 to 7.040. Region 2 - The Americas - followed in September 2013. Region 3 - South Asia
and Australasia - has not yet synchronised its bandplan This article is about a digital voice mode used in amateur
radio. For the physical quantity, see Specic detectivity.
with Regions 1 and 2.
For the concept in robotics, see D* search algorithm.
For more details on this topic, see List of amateur radio
modes.
6.2.7 References
D-STAR (Digital Smart Technologies for Amateur
[1] The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications. 84th Radio) is an FDMA and GMSK digital voice and data
Ed. (2007):9-13.
protocol specication developed in the late 1990s by the
Japan Amateur Radio League for amateur radio. There
[2] Steven L Karty, N5SK. PSK31 Spec. ARRL Website.
are newer digital radio modes used by amateurs, D-STAR
Retrieved 18 Dec 2010.
was the rst packet-based standard designed and widely
[3] Jacob Gillespie, KD5TEN. PSK31 guide. Retrieved used specically for amateur radio.
2011-08-08.
Digital voice modulation uses less bandwidth than older

analog
voice modes such as amplitude modulation,
[4] McDermott, Tom (1998). Wireless Digital Communicafrequency
modulation, and single sideband. The quality
tions: Design and Theory. Tucson Amateur Packet Radio
of
the
data
received is also better than an analog signal at
Corporation. p. 50. ISBN 0-9644707-2-1.
the same signal strength, as long as the signal is above a
[5] Peter Martinez G3PLX. PSK31 theory. Retrieved minimum threshold, and there is no Multipath propaga2011-08-08.
tion.
D-STAR compatible radios are available for VHF, UHF,
and microwave amateur radio bands. In addition to the
over-the-air protocol, D-STAR also provides specications for network connectivity, enabling D-STAR radios
to be connected to the Internet or other networks, allow Martinez, Peter. PSK31: A new radio-teletype ing streams of voice or packet data to be routed via amamode with a traditional philosophy (PDF)
teur radio.
[6] http://aintel.bi.ehu.es/psk31.html
Steve Ford, WB8IMY (2001). Chapter 4 PSK31. ARRLs HF digital handbook. Newington,
CT: The American Radio Relay League. ISBN 087259-823-3.
The only manufacturer to oer D-STAR compatible radios is Icom. As of February 1, 2013, no other amateur
radio manufacturer supports D-STAR, which requires a
proprietary AMBE codec owned by Digital Voice Systems, Inc.
Meltz, Steve The New HF Digital Modes - PSK31,

QST, April, 1999, pp. 50-51
6.3.1 History
Martinez, Peter. PSK31: A New Radio-Teletype

Mode. RadCom, December 1998, updated Febru- In 1999 an investigation was put into nding a new way of
ary 1999
bringing digital technology to amateur radio. The process
was funded by the Japanese government and administered
by the Japan Amateur Radio League. In 2001, D-STAR
was published as the result of the research.
The Ocial PSK31 Page
PSK31 Setup and Operation | a PSK31 guide
In September 2003 Icom named Matt Yellen, KB7TSE

(now K7DN), to lead its US D-STAR development
program.[1]
6.3. D-STAR
107
radios to operate in D-STAR mode. Eventually Icom
began selling the card and once installed into the radios it provided D-STAR connectivity for each of the
transceivers. The June 2005 edition of the ARRLs QST
magazine reviewed the Icom IC-V82.
JARL released some changes to the existing D-STAR
standard in late 2004. Icom, aware that the changes were
coming, had placed the release of their hardware on hold
for a period of as much as a year while they awaited the
changes. As soon as the changes were out, Icom announced they would be able to nish up and release equipment.
The Icom ID-1 1.2 GHz mobile radio was released in late
2004. The ID-1 was the rst and only D-STAR radio that
provides digital data (DD) mode operation. In this mode
data via TCP/IP can be transferred at 128 kbit/s.
The rst D-STAR over satellite QSO occurred between
Michael, N3UC, FM-18 in Haymarket, Virginia and
Robin, AA4RC, EM-73 in Atlanta, Georgia while working AMSATs AO-27 microsatellite (Miniaturized satellite) in 2007.[2] The two operators used a variety of Icom
gear to make the contact and experienced slight diculty
with doppler shift during the QSO.
As of late 2009 there are around 10,800 D-STAR users
talking through D-STAR repeaters which have connectivity to the Internet via the G2 Gateway. There are around
550 G2 enabled repeaters now active. Note, these numbers do not include users with D-STAR capabilities but
not within range of a repeater, or working through DSTAR repeaters that do not have Internet connectivity.
The rst D-STAR capable microsatellite was scheduled
for launch during early 2012. OUFTI-1 is a CubeSat
and is built by Belgian students at the University of Lige
and I.S.I.L (Haute cole de la Province de Lige). The
name is an acronym for Orbital Utility For Telecommunication Innovation. The goal of the project is to develop
experience in the dierent aspects of satellite design and
operation.[3][4] The satellite weighs just 1 kilogram and
will utilize a UHF uplink and a VHF downlink.[5]
6.3.2 Technical details

The system today is capable of linking repeaters together
locally and through the Internet utilizing callsigns for
routing of trac. Servers are linked via TCP/IP utilizICOM IC-91AD handheld transceiver with the D-STAR UT-121 ing proprietary gateway software, available from Icom.
This allows amateur radio operators to talk to any other
digital voice board installed
amateurs participating in a particular gateway trust environment. The current master gateway in the United
Starting in April 2004 Icom began releasing new D- States is operated by the K5TIT group in Texas, who were
[6]
STAR optional hardware. The rst to be released the rst to install a D-STAR repeater system in the U.S.
commercially was a 2-meter mobile unit designated IC- D-STAR transfers both voice and data via digital encod2200H. Icom followed up with 2 meter and 440 MHz ing over the 2 m (VHF), 70 cm (UHF), and 23 cm (1.2
handheld transceivers the next year. However, the yet to GHz) amateur radio bands. There is also an interlinking
be released UT-118 add-on card was required for these radio system for creating links between systems in a local
108
area on 10 GHz, which is valuable to allow emergency mal system operation, and also sends trac and other
communications oriented networks to continue to link in data to servers operated under the domain name of
the event of internet access failure or overload.
dstarusers.org. By this means a complete tracking of
Within the D-STAR Digital Voice protocol standards user behaviour is technically possible. Installation of this
(DV), voice audio is encoded as a 3600 bit/s data stream software also includes JavaAPRSd, a Java-based APRS
using proprietary AMBE encoding, with 1200 bit/s FEC, interface which is utilized on Gateway 2.0 systems to inleaving 1200 bit/s for an additional data path between terface between the Icom/D-STAR GPS tracking system
radios utilizing DV mode. On air bit rates for DV mode called DPRS to the more widely known and utilized amateur radio APRS system.
are 4800 bit/s over the 2 m, 70 cm and 23 cm bands.
In addition to digital voice mode (DV), a Digital Data
(DD) mode can be sent at 128 kbit/s only on the 23 cm
band. A higher-rate proprietary data protocol, currently
believed to be much like ATM, is used in the 10 GHz
link radios for site-to-site links.
Radios providing DV data service within the low-speed
voice protocol variant typically use an RS-232 or USB
connection for low speed data (1200 bit/s), while the
Icom ID-1 23 cm band radio oers a standard Ethernet
connection for high speed (128 kbit/s) connections, to allow easy interfacing with computer equipment.[7]
Gateway server
The current gateway control software rs-rp2c version 2.0,
more commonly called Gateway 2.0. Though most
Linux distributions should be suitable, the recommended
conguration uses CentOS Linux 5.1 with the latest updates, typically running (kernel 2.4.20. glibc 2.3.2 and
BIND 9.2.1 or later). The CPU should be 2.4 GHz or
faster and the memory should at least be 512 MB or
greater. There should be two network interface cards and
at least 10 GB free of hard drive space which includes
the OS install. Finally for middleware, Apache 2.0.59,
Tomcat 5.5.20, mod_jk2 2.0.4, OpenSSL 0.9.8d, Java
SE 5.0 and postgreSQL 8.2.3 are utilized, but these can
be dierent as updates occur.
Along with the open-source tools, the Icom proprietary
dsipsvd or D-STAR IP Service Daemon and a variety of
crontab entries utilize a mixture of the local PostgreSQL
and BIND servers to look up callsigns and pcname elds
(stored in BIND) which are mapped to individual 10.x.x.x
internal-only addresses for routing of both voice and data
trac between participating gateways.
During installation, the Gateway 2.0 software installation
script builds most of the Web-based open-source tools
from source for standardization purposes, while utilizing some of the packages of the host Linux system, thus
making CentOS 5.1 the common way to deploy a system,
to keep incompatibilities from occurring in both package
versions and conguration.
How Gateway 2.0 works Each participating amateur

station wanting to use repeaters/gateways attached to a
particular trust server domain must register with a gateway as their home system, which also populates their
information into the trust servera specialized central
gateway systemwhich allows for lookups across a particular trust server domain. Only one registration per
trust domain is required. Each amateur is set aside eight
10.x.x.x internal IP addresses for use with their callsign
or radios, and various naming conventions are available to
utilize these addresses if needed for specialized callsign
routing. Most amateurs will need only a handful of these
registered IP addresses, because the system maps these
to callsigns, and the callsign can be entered into multiple
radios.
The gateway machine controls two network interface controllers, the external one being on a real 10.x.x.x network behind a router. A router that can perform network
address translation on a single public IP address (can
be static or dynamic in Gateway 2.0 systems) to a full
10.x.x.x/8 network is required. From there, the Gateway
has another NIC connected directly to the D-STAR repeater controller via 10BaseT and the typical conguration is a 172.16.x.x (/24) pair of addresses between the
gateway and the controller.
Dierences between Gateway 1.0 and 2.0 The main
dierences between Gateway 1.0 and 2.0 are the addition of a relational database (PostgreSQL) for more exibility and control of updates, versus the previous use of
only BIND for database activities, the addition of both
an administrative and end-user Web interface for registration which was previously handled via command-line
commands by the Gateway 1.0 system administrators,
dropping the requirement for static public IP addresses
for gateways, and the ability of the software to use a fully
qualied domain name to nd and communicate with the
trust server, allowing for redundancy/failover options for
the trust server administrators. Finally, a feature called
multicast has been added for administrators to be able
to provide users with a special name they can route calls
to which will send their transmissions to up to ten other
D-STAR repeaters at the same time. With cooperation
between administrators a multicast group can be created for multiple repeater networks or other events.
Additionally, gateways operating on the U.S. trust server

are asked during initial setup to install DStarMonitor
which is an add-on tool that allows the overall system
administrators to see the status of each Gateways local clock and other processes and PIDs needed for nor- Another additional feature of Gateway 2.0 is the ability
6.3. D-STAR
109
to use callsign suxes appended to the users callsign

in a similar fashion to the repeaters and gateways in the
original system, which allow for direct routing to a particular users radio or between two user radios with the same
base callsign, by utilizing the 8th most signicant eld of
the callsign and adding a letter to that location, both in the
gateway registration process on the web interface, and in
the radios themselves.
It was in the Great Coastal Gale of 2007 the Washington County ARES group was able to test D-STAR during
this series of several strong Pacic storms that interrupted
conventional communication systems for up to one week.
Primary emergency trac for the American Red Cross
and the Vernonia, Oregon Fire Department was handled
by the group using traditional FM voice because the group
had no D-STAR repeater equipment available. Once the
situations communication needs became established the
D*Chat messaging function was used to send small text
Gateway 1.0 control software The Gateway 1.0 soft- transmissions via D-STAR simplex at distances of up to
ware was similar to Gateway 2.0, and utilized Fedora seventeen miles.[10]
Core 2+ or Red Hat Linux 9+ OS on a Pentium-grade
An ability for amateurs to send les during this weather
2.4 GHz or faster machine.
event would have greatly increased the capacity for ARES
to help during the emergency.[10] Although D*Chat was a
Add-on software Various projects exist for gateway useful means of communication D-RATS was developed
administrators to add add-on software to their gate- to help ll the gaps that may have been lacking.[10] Anways, including the most popular package called dplus other improvement over D*Chat that D-RATS provides
created by Robin Cutshaw AA4RC. A large number of is form support. Users can set up frequently used forms
Gateway 2.0 systems are oering services added by this well before they're necessary and when the need comes
software package to their end-users, and users are getting all thats required is to ll in the elds. In this way, for
used to having these features. Features include the abil- example, emergency forms from the Red Cross, National
ity to link systems directly, voice mail (a single inbox Trac System, or the Incident Command System, such
today), ability to play/record audio to and from the re- as the FEMA standard ICS-213, could be generated and
peaters connected to the Gateway and the most important, sent.
the ability for DV-Dongle users to communicate from the
Internet to the radio users on the repeaters.[8]
There is often a misconception by users and system administrators alike that the Gateway 2.0 systems have these
add-on features from dplus by default, a testament to the
popularity of this add-on software. Dplus software development has an active following, and features such as
multiple repeater/system connections similar to the type
of linking done by other popular repeater-linking systems
(IRLP and EchoLink) are being worked on.
6.3.3
D-RATS
See also: Amateur Radio Emergency Service
6.3.4 Criticisms
Proprietary codec
D-STAR uses a closed-source proprietary voice codec

(AMBE) thats patented by Digital Voice Systems, Inc.
(DVSI).[11] Amateurs do not have access to the specication of this codec or the rights to implement it on their
own without buying a licensed product. Amateurs have
a long tradition of building, improving upon and experimenting with their own radio designs. The modern digital age equivalent of this would be designing and/or implementing codecs in software. Critics say the proprietary nature of AMBE and its availability only in hardware form (as ICs) discourages innovation. Even critics
praise the openness of the rest of the D-STAR standard
which can be implemented freely. An open-source replacement for the AMBE codec would resolve this issue.
Also, 'vendor lock-in' is often cited as an issue with only
one major manufacturer making most or all of the equipment.
D-STAR is able to send data to emergency responders in

the event of a disaster. Served agencies can relate to sending e-mail or other documents to someone. The quantity
of data sent can be higher compared to traditional amateur modes. voice and even CW are capable of getting a
message through albeit slowly, but D-STAR can transfer
documents, images, and spreadsheets.
Bruce Perens, K6BP, amateur radio and open source adD-RATS is a D-STAR communications tool that supports vocate, evangelized the need for an open source codec
text chat, TCP/IP forwarding, le transfers, and can act for amateur radio.[12] David Rowe, VK5DGR, has imas an e-mail gateway. There is also the ability to map plemented an Alpha-test replacement codec under the
users positions using the DPRS function of D-STAR. LGPL and is continuing in its development.[13]
The application is written in Python/GTK and is crossplatform. It runs on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. Trademarked name
The application was developed by Dan Smith (KK7DS)
for the Washington County Amateur Radio Emergency Despite many protestations from the Pro-D-STAR lobby
that the standard was developed by the JARL and DService in Oregon.[9]
110
STAR is not only an Icom system, the mark 'D-STAR'
is itself a registered trademark of Icom.[14] According to
the United States Patent and Trademark Oce, a trademark is dened as a word, phrase, symbol or design, or a
combination of words, phrases, symbols or designs, that
identies and distinguishes the source of the goods of one
party from those of others.[15] While Icom does hold a
trademark for its stylized D-STAR logo, Digital Voice
Systems, Inc. (DVSI)[16] has patented the voice technology.
Usable range compared to FM

2011, Martin Lynch & Sons website lists the Icom 2820
(without D-STAR) at 489, while the equivalent Yaesu,
the FT8800, is listed at just 337).
Other digital modes
Amateur radio operators have been using the Project
25 (FDMA, C4FM) standard for some time. P25 was
developed by the Association of Public-Safety Communications Ocials-International for use by federal,
state/province and local public safety agencies,[19] and has
been around since 1995.[20] The P25 suite of standards
is rmly established and has proven itself in multiple public service agencies. P25 was designed from the ground
up as a Public Safety system with a central control facility (IE: a local emergency management agencys 911 facility) managing the communications system. some P25
radio equipment is eld programmable and has 'FPP' or
'Front Panel Programming' as an included or purchasable
option.
D-STAR, like any digital voice mode has comparable usable range to FM, but it degrades dierently. While the
quality of FM progressively degrades the further a user
moves away from the source, digital voice maintains a
constant voice quality up to a point, then essentially "falls
o a cli".[17] This behavior is inherent in any digital data
system, and it demonstrates the threshold at which the
signal is no longer correctable, and when data loss is too With P25 designed for Govt and Federal Emergency use,
great, audio artefacts can appear in the recovered audio. it lacks Amateur-centric features for example, P25 amateur radio implementations do not use call sign routing, and they cannot control linked reectors or repeaters
Emergency Communications Concerns
but do have DTMF, telegrams, phone patch, MDC1200,
D-STARs performance envelope relies heavily on inter- TMS messaging, any many more signalling facilities, innet connections. During widespread disasters that com- cluding several advanced security features.
promise commercial telecommunications infrastructure,
D-STAR systems (and other modes that rely on the internet such as Winlink) may suer outages or performance
degradation that severely impacts operations. Without
simulating such outages during drills, it is dicult to assess the impact of or establish D-STAR service recovery
procedures in the event of such failures. As of the fall
of 2011, there has been almost no discussion in the ham
radio literature regarding actual drills where D-STAR
systems were tested with completely failed or even intermittent telecommunications infrastructure. Comprehensive emergency communications plans used by ARES
and other such organizations should address the possibility that such systems may not function as intended during
major disasters.
Cost
D-STAR does signicantly add to the cost of a radio,
which is a barrier to the adoption of the technology. In
2006 the cost of a D-STAR radio was compared to that
of a standard analog radio, and the price dierence was
nearly double.[18] This is due partly to the per-unit cost
for the voice codec hardware and/or license and partly to
manufacturer research and development costs that need
to be amortized. As is the case with any product, as more
units are sold, the R&D portion of the cost will decrease
over time. The D-STAR capable radios also cost more
than their equivalents from other brands, even before the
D-STAR options boards are added (in the UK as of April
Ready to operate P25 equipment is widely available from

multiple manufacturers and websites, Main manufacturers are Motorola, ICOM, EF Johnson and more, rather
than from just one manufacturer as with DSTAR; however a few of suppliers are producing D-STAR accessories. P25 equipment is not manufactured for Amateur Radio use, but the costs of used commercial radios
that employ the P25 technology have fallen as they were
even higher than that of o-the-shelf D-STAR radios.[18]
However, as of early-2014, there is an ample supply of
used P25 equipment at prices less than that of even some
old used ham gear. Motorola Astro Saber Astro Spectra
P25 transceivers can be often found on eBay for about
$160 or less, well below the price of used D-STAR equipment. The XTS 2500/XTS5000 mid to high tier portables still commanding somewhat higher prices. There is
a thriving Amateur Radio community devoted to these
commercial digital systems.
There are groups of Radio Amateurs in Europe experimenting with TETRA on the 70 cm band. The
most prolic called the Tetra & Digital Radio Linking Project based in the UK. This group links TETRA,
MotoTrbo, DMR and other digital radios via a program
called Teamspeak and regularly publish videos of their
experiments to YouTube. However, the largest growth
as of June 2011 was seen in Digital Mobile Radio and in
2014 is growing exponentially and specically Motorolas
DMR product called MOTOTRBO. DMR is manufactured by more than two dozen manufacturers including Motorola, Icom,Kenwood, Vertex Standard, Hytera,
6.3. D-STAR
Harris rebranded Hytera, Tait, Kirisun, Simoco, and
many other companies. Since DMR is a worldwide standard, the radios from dierent manufacturers are interoperable on almost all features. Digital Mobile Radio
(DMR) use a 12.5 kHz 2-slot Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) system. This means that each repeater has
2 simultaneous voice channels for 1/2 the cost of 2 traditional FM or FDMA systems. TDMA is also uses less
battery life than FDMA and analog systems due to the
50% transmit duty cycle of TDMA. Currently the DMRMARC group has over 200 (and rapidly growing) worldwide MOTOTRBO DMR repeaters linked on one system. DMR has seen much faster Amateur Radio growth
than P25 or TETRA due to much less expensive equipment as it is used Worldwide by thousands of dierent agencies and users already, and with TDMA features
that FDMA systems simply cannot provide, mobile, and
portable radio costs are lower and with doubled repeater
capacity, useful for an IRLP or Echolink repeater not having to be tied up with one QSO, another QSO can still
operate completely and with no knowledge of the other
QSO taking place on the other 'time slot', even in simplex on the same frequency, the ability to de-key a transmitting set whilst it is still transmitting and messaging/data,GPS, IP multi-site connect, roaming, even full
duplex capability is rumoured to be planned, it is proving
an exciting mode for Amateurs. Even TETRA repeaters,
which can be purchased from Cleartone, in the form of
the CM9000 for 411 delivered (April 2013). The growing number of DMR-MARC connected repeaters in the
UK and the huge amount of used commercial Motorola
DP3400 MotoTrbo digital/FM sets from 75 upwards as
many users change into the next generation MotoTrbo
sets, with Top-Teir Mobile dual-mode MotoTrbo brand
new at 380 (DM4600/XPR5550) it is not hard to see
how technology is changing Amateur Radio... even down
at the pocket-money end.
Questionable legality
111
6.3.5 Non-Icom D-STAR Repeaters

The worlds rst non-Icom D-STAR repeater GB7MH,
fully linked to the K5TIT G2 network and D-Plus, went
live on 10 September 2009, in West Sussex, England.
Whilst waiting for the DSL line installation, the repeater
is connected to the Internet via a 3G dongle from network
operator Three. The system is built around Satoshi Yasudas GMSK Node Adapter, a Mini-ITX system running
CentOS 4, a Tait T800 repeater and G2 code written by
G4ULF. All the usual G2 features such as callsign routing, D-Plus linkage and DPRS via D-STAR Monitor are
supported.
Today a home-brewed D-STAR repeater can be built using open source software, used commercial radio equipment and a computer. One group advocating the construction of home-brewed D-STAR repeaters is FreeStar. Free-Star is an experimental approach to the implementation of a vendor neutral, and open source, digital
communication network for amateur radio.[22]
6.3.6 Compatible programs and projects

D-StarLet
A Web-based text messaging application using D-STAR
digital data technology.
D-StarLet is an open source client-server solution that allows content creation and modication from certain persons. D-StarLet interfaces with a D-STAR radio through
the serial port. It works with Windows (98+), Linux (Red
Hat 7.3+), Apple Mac OS X, and others.
D-PRS interface
D-PRS is GPS for ham radio. Includes DStarTNC2,
javAPRSSrvr, DStarInterface, and TNC-X
DStarMonitor
Many have argued that the proprietary codec constitutes

a form of encryption, and encryption is prohibited by almost every countrys amateur radio licence conditions.
According to FCC rules, if the algorithm is publicly published or otherwise widely available enough that transmissions are not secret, it is considered encoding rather
than encryption. Unfortunately D-STAR uses AMBE, a
non public codec. However, French regulators, in April
2010, have issued a statement that rules D-STAR illegal
in France, due to the ability to create a connection to the
internet with it and the proprietary nature of the codec
used. The French Amateur Radio society, DR@F - Digital Radioamateur France has an online petition against
this ruling, calling for the government to allow the mode,
as to ban it would deny them 'fundamental rights.[21]
A Java application run on the repeater gateway PC which

logs activity on the attached repeaters. Additional features include APRS object representation of each repeater.
DStarQuery
DStarQuery monitors the low-speed data stream of a DSTAR radio looking for queries sent from a remote station. When a valid query is received, a predened sequence is executed and the results transmitted from the
station running DStarQuery. For example, a station transmits "?D*rptrs?" and it is received by a DStarQuery station which responds with a list of local repeaters.
112
The program D-PRS Interface includes a Query entry

eld that streamlines this process allowing the user to simply enter the desired command. Most DStarQuery systems will respond with a list of available commands when
"?D*info?" is received.
Dstar Comms PRO
An advanced software application for use with DStar enabled radios. Supports advanced text chat, personal messaging with auto-reply and inbox, e-mail gateway and
a beacon mode. GPS Tracking / Logging and a GPS
Beacon emulator and Internet linking. New features are
added weekly and users can suggest new features through
the Dstar Comms forum. www.dstarcomms.com
DStar TV
Slow Scan TV for DStar radios and video streaming for
Icom ID-1 by GM7HHB. Runs on Windows XP and
Vista.
6.3.7
Home-brew D-STAR radio
See also: Amateur radio homebrew
Decoder/Receivers:
Reception done by a Software Dened Radio and decoding of the D-Star
header information done by the program
dstar.exe.[23]
Reception done by a Software Dened
Radio and speech decoding done by
the program DSD 1.7 (Digital Speech
Decoder).[24]
Repeater equipment:
GMSK Node Adapter - these devices are
hardware GMSK modems with rmware
to take D-STAR protocol frames over
a USB cable and provide the necessary
logic and GMSK modulation to control
a simplex node or a full duplex repeater.
One repeater that is easily adaptable is
the Kenwood TKR-820 as documented
by K7VE.[25]
GMSK using a sound card - this method
uses a computer sound card to generate
GMSK modulation and de-modulation.
The primary software for this method is
developed by Jonathan Naylor.
Icom D-STAR equipment
The rst presumed D-STAR radio including pictures and

diagrams can be found at Moetronix.coms Digital Voice
Transceiver Project. This page includes the schematic,
source, and whitepaper.
Another project is Satoshi Yasudas (7M3TJZ/AD6GZ)
experiments with a UT-118 DV adapter. This project
involves interfacing Icoms UT-118 with other manufacturers amateur radio tranceivers. With this project
some VHF/UHF/SHF amateur radio tranceivers are capable of being adapted for D-STAR operation. This requires access to the receivers discriminator and to the
direct FM modulator of the radio, sometimes available
at a 9600 bit/s packet interface. Satoshis product is
no longer available. There is an alternative available at
www.dutch-star.nl
Antoni Navarro (EA3CNO) also has designed another interface based on a PIC microprocessor and UT-118 module.
With the raise of cheap RTL-chip based Software Dened Radios, there also appeared various software decoders to decode digital speech information carried by
radio signals. Recently, this also includes D-Star. There
are decoders available, either for the protocol data and for
the digital speech content, but they are illegal because the
protocol is under a registered trademark and AMBE2 is
a proprietary codec.
6.3.8
Equipment
Homebrew
TransceiversD-STAR and Analog FM

Capable:
Icom ID-1: 23 cm digital voice and digital data mobile transceiver. Power is selectable at 1 W or 10 W. USB control port
and Ethernet connection for data.
Icom IC-2820H/IC-E2820: 2 m / 70
cm twin band digital voice mobile
transceiver. Power up to 50 W on each
band. May be purchased with or without
D-STAR module. The D-STAR module
includes a built-in GPS receiver with
accompanying antenna.
Icom ID-31 and ID-31A: 70 cm digital voice hand held transceiver (5W). Includes a built-in GPS receiver and repeater database.
Icom ID-51 and ID-51A: 2 m / 70
cm dual band digital voice hand held
transceiver (5W). Includes a built-in GPS
receiver and repeater database. Also reception of broadcast FM, AM, and shortwave
Icom ID-800H: 2 m / 70 cm dual band
digital voice mobile transceiver. Power
up to 55 W on 2 m and 50 W on 70 cm.
Icom ID-880H: 3rd gen 2 m / 70 cm digital voice mobile transceiver (50W).
Icom IC-80AD: 3rd gen 2m / 70 cm digital voice hand held transceiver (5W).
6.3. D-STAR
Icom IC-92AD: 2 m / 70 cm twin band
digital voice hand held transceiver. Four
power settings up to 5 W on each band.
Rugged and submersible design, optional
microphone with embedded GPS.
Icom IC-91AD/IC-E91 + D-STAR: 2 m
/ 70 cm twin band digital voice hand held
transceiver. Power is selectable at 0.5 W
or 5 W on each band.
Icom IC-2200H: 2 m single band digital voice mobile transceiver. Power up to
65 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom IC-V82: 2 m single band digital
voice hand held transceiver. Power up
to 7 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom IC-U82: 70 cm single band digital voice hand held transceiver. Power up
to 5 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom
IC-9100:
HF/VHF/UHF
transceiver.
Must purchase optional
UT-121 D-STAR module.
Icom
IC-7100:
HF/VHF/UHF
transceiver. Includes built-in D-STAR
capability.
Receivers:
Icom IC-R2500: HF/VHF/UHF/SHF receiver/scanner. Must purchase optional
D-STAR module.
Repeater equipment:
113
is a repeater but its not associated with
an Internet gateway.[26] The dongle works
along with the DVTOOL software, a simple application that mimics the controls
on a D-STAR radio, although the interface doesn't actually look like a radio
panel. Note: Now available from a number of amateur radio dealers or by homebrew using documentation at Moetronix.
DV-AP: A DVAP Dongle (DV Access
Point Dongle) is also a USB device that
creates a connection to the D-STAR network through an Internet connected computer. But instead of using the computers audio system, the DVAP Dongle has an antenna and a 10 mW twometer transceiver that provides shortrange over-the-air access using a DSTAR radio (usually a handheld). Note
that a D-STAR radio is required. The
DVAP does not convert an analog FM
signal to D-STAR.
Kenwood D-STAR equipment[27]
Transceivers:
Kenwood TMW-706S: 2 m / 70 cm dual
band digital voice mobile transceiver.
Power up to 50 W.
Kenwood TMW-706: 2 m / 70 cm dual
band digital voice mobile transceiver.
Power up to 20 W.
Icom ID-RP2000V: 2 m digital voice reNote: These transceivers are not

peater.
available in North America and ap Icom ID-RP4000V: 70 cm digital voice
pear to be OEM versions of the Icom
repeater.
ID-800H
Icom ID-RP2V: 23 cm digital voice repeater.
Icom ID-RP2D: 23 cm digital data access 6.3.9 See also
point.
Icom ID-RP2C: Repeater controller. Can
MDC-1200
support up to four digital voice repeaters
and digital data access points. Required
NXDN, a related commercial two-way digital radio
to operate any Icom D-STAR digital
standard with similar characteristics
voice repeater or digital data access point.
Inet Labs
Computer accessory:
DV-Dongle: The dongle is a USB device
with the AMBE codec built in. Amateurs can use this with a personal computers audio system to communicate over
the D-STAR network. This is a good option for experiencing D-STAR if there
isn't a local D-STAR repeater or if there
Project 25, a related digital radio standard sponsored

by APCO
Ricochet modems
TETRA, a digital two-way radio standard in use outside of North America
MOTOTRBO, a Motorola digital two-way radio
system, based on DMR, an ETSI standard.
114
6.3.10
References
[1] Icom names new D-STAR technical specialist.

American Radio Relay League.
2003.
Retrieved
2009-11-27.
[2] Michael Wyrick. Satellite Detail AMRAD-OSCAR 27.
AMSAT. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
[3] SA Announces Vega CubeSat Selection. European
Space Agency. 2008. Archived from the original on 200807-18. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
[4] The ARRL Letter. American Radio Relay League.
2008. Retrieved 2008.
[5] Steven Ford, WB8IMY (September 2009), A D-STAR repeater in space, QST
[6] About K5TIT - The Texas Interconnect Team. Texas
Interconnect Team.
[7] What is D-STAR?". Icom America.
[8] Gary Pearce, KN4AQ (September 2008), ICOM IC-92AD
Dual Band Handheld Transceiver, QST
[9] D-RATS - What is it?". Icom Incorporated. Retrieved
2009-12-17.
[10] Dan Smith, KK7DS (September 2008), D-RATS an
Application Suite for D-STAR - Make D-STAR meet your
needs with text chatting, le sharing and other applications,
QST
[11] An AMBE open source compatible codec?".
[12] Bruce Perens. The Codec2 Project: Next-Generation
Audio Codecs and Vocoders for Two-Way Radio. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
[13] David Rowe. Codec2 - Open Source Low Bit Rate
Speech Codec. Retrieved 2010-02-22.
[23] http://www.rtl-sdr.com/decoding-d-star-headers-rtl-sdr/
[24] http://www.rtl-sdr.com/
receiving-dstar-voice-dsd-1-7-windows/
[25] John Hays, K7VE. Converting the Kenwood TKR-820
to use with D-STAR.
[26] Gary Pearce, KN4AQ (February 2009), DV Dongle DSTAR Adapter, QST
[27] Amateur Equipment. Kenwood (Google Translation).
6.3.11 Journal
ARRL: QST Icom IC 2820H Dual Band FM
Transceiver Vol 91 No 11 November 2007 Page 74,
by Steve Ford, WB8IMY does a review on the IC
2820H Dual Band FM Transceiver.
RSGB: RadCom March 2008 (Vol 83 No 03) review
of Icom IC-E2820 transceiver and overview of DSTAR.
CQ-VHF: D-STAR in the Southeastern U.S., Greg
Sarratt, W4OZK, (partial), http://www.cq-vhf.
com/D-StarWin08.html
N1ICs Review of Icom ID-51 http://nicktoday.com/
icom-id-51-id-51a-first-quick-review/

Icom D-STAR Microsite
Alabama D-STAR Information
D-STAR FAQ and Information
[14] D-STAR Trademark Details. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
Icom D-STAR information
[15] http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/trade_defin.
jsp. Missing or empty |title= (help)
opendstar.org
[16] Digital Voice Systems, Inc. (DVSI)".

[17] Mark Miller, N5RFX (2008). DStar DV Sensitivity vs.
Analog Sensitivity. qsl.net. Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[18] Bob Witte, KNR (2006). D-STAR Digital Voice for
VHF/UHF. CQ VHF. p. 45.
[19] Steven Ford, WB8IMY (2008). ARRLs VHF Digital
Handbook (1 ed.). American Radio Relay League. ISBN
978-0-87259-122-6.
[20] Mike Kionka, KlQGO (September 2008). Project 25 for
Amateur Radio. QST. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[21] [url=http://draf.asso.fr/index.php?post/2010/06/28/
D-STAR-situation-in-France Digital Voice Situation
in France / European Parliament Petition (Update 1)"].
DR@F - Digital Radioamateur France.
[22] http://www.va3uv.com/freestar.htm
The Rain Report by J. Maynard, K5ZC

dstarusers.org
D-STAR video by the Washington County ARES
group
Chapter 7
Fancy Means of Communication

7.1 Meteor burst communications
tempting to establish communications. Because these

ionization trails only exist for fractions of a second to as
long as a few seconds in duration, they create only brief
windows of opportunity for communications.
7.1.2 Development
Meteor scatter propagation as used by SNOTEL
Meteor burst communications (MBC), also referred

to as meteor scatter communications,[1] is a radio
propagation mode that exploits the ionized trails of
meteors during atmospheric entry to establish brief communications paths between radio stations up to 2,250
kilometres (1,400 mi) apart.
7.1.1
How it works
As the earth moves along its orbital path, billions of particles known as meteors enter the earths atmosphere every
day; a small fraction of which have properties useful for
point to point communication.[2] When these meteors begin to burn up, they create a trail of ionized particles in
the E layer of the atmosphere that can persist for up to
several seconds. The ionization trails can be very dense
and thus used to reect radio waves. The frequencies that
can be reected by any particular ion trail are determined
by the intensity of the ionization created by the meteor,
often a function of the initial size of the particle, and are
generally between 30 MHz and 50 MHz.[3]
The distance over which communications can be established is determined by the altitude at which the ionization is created, the location over the surface of the Earth
where the meteor is falling, the angle of entry into the
atmosphere, and the relative locations of the stations at-
The earliest direct observation of interaction between

meteors and radio propagation was reported in 1929 by
Hantaro Nagaoka of Japan. In 1931, Greenleaf Pickard
noticed that bursts of long distance propagation occurred
at times of major meteor showers. At the same time, Bell
Labs researcher A. M. Skellett was studying ways to improve night-time radio propagation, and suggested that
the oddities many researchers were seeing were due to
meteors. The next year Schafer and Goodall noted that
the atmosphere was disturbed during that years Leonid
meteor shower, prompting Skellett to postulate that the
mechanism was reection or scattering from electrons in
meteor trails. In 1944, while researching a radar system
that was pointed up to detect the V-2 missiles falling on
London, Hay conrmed that the meteor trails were in fact
reecting radio signals.
In 1946 the US Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) found a direct correlation between enhancements
in VHF radio signals and individual meteors. Studies conducted in the early 1950s by the National Bureau of Standards and the Stanford Research Institute had limited success at actually using this as a medium.
The rst serious eort to utilize this technique was carried out by the Canadian Defence Research Board in the
early 1950s. Their project, JANET, sent bursts of data
pre-recorded on magnetic tape from their radar research
station in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan to Toronto, a distance exceeding 2,000 km. To burst the data, a 90 MHz
carrier signal was monitored for sudden increases in
signal strength, signalling a meteor, which triggered a
burst of data. The system was used operationally starting in 1952, and provided useful communications until
the radar project was shut down around 1960.
115
116
7.1.3
CHAPTER 7. FANCY MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Military use
One of the rst major deployments was COMET

(COmmunication by MEteor Trails), used for long-range
communications with NATO's Supreme Headquarters
Allied Powers Europe headquarters. COMET became
operational in 1965, with stations located in the Netherlands, France, Italy, West Germany, the United Kingdom,
and Norway. COMET maintained an average throughput
between 115 and 310 bits per second, depending on the
time of year.
Meteor burst communications faded from interest with
the increasing use of satellite communications systems
starting in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s it became
clear that the satellites were not as universally useful as
originally thought, notably at high latitudes or where signal security was an issue. For these reasons, the U.S. Air
Force installed the Alaska Air Command MBC system in
the 1970s, although it is not publicly known whether this
system is still operational.
A more recent study is the Advanced Meteor Burst Communications System (AMBCS), a testbed set up by SAIC
under DARPA funding. Using phase-steerable antennas
directed at the proper area of the sky for any given time of
day, the direction where the Earth is moving forward,
AMBCS was able to greatly improve the data rates, averaging 4 kilobits per second (kbit/s). While satellites may
have a nominal throughput about 14 times greater, they're
vastly more expensive to operate.
7.1.5 Amateur radio use

Most meteor scatter communications is conducted between radio stations that are engaged in a precise schedule of transmission and reception periods. Because the
presence of a meteor trail at a suitable location between
two stations cannot be predicted, stations attempting meteor scatter communications must transmit the same information repeatedly until an acknowledgement of reception from the other station is received. Established protocols are employed to regulate the progress of information
ow between stations. While a single meteor may create
an ion trail that supports several steps of the communications protocol, often a complete exchange of information requires several meteors and a long period of time to
complete.
Any form of communications mode can be used for
meteor scatter communications. Single sideband audio
transmission has been popular among amateur radio operators in North America attempting to establish contact
with other stations during meteor showers without planning a schedule in advance with the other station. The use
of Morse code has been more popular in Europe, where
amateur radio operators used modied tape recorders,
and later computer programs, to send messages at transmission speeds as high as 800 words per minute. Stations receiving these bursts of information record the signal and play it back at a slower speed to copy the content
of the transmission. Since 2000, several digital modes
implemented by computer programs have replaced voice
and Morse code communications in popularity. The most
popular program for amateur radio operations is WSJT,
which was written explicitly for meteor scatter communications.
Additional gains in throughput are theoretically possible

through the use of real-time steering. The basic concept is
to use backscattered signals to pinpoint the exact location
of the ion trail and direct the antenna to that spot, or in
some cases, several trails simultaneously. This improves
the gain, allowing much improved data rates. To date, 7.1.6 References
this approach has not been tried experimentally, so far as
is known.
[1] Weitzen, J.A. Meteor scatter communication: A new un-
derstanding. In Meteor Burst Communications. Wiley,

New York, 1993, 958.
7.1.4
Scientic use
[2] Fuduka; Mahmud; Mukumoto (June 2000). IEICE

Transactions on Communications. E8#-B (6). p. 1269.
CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.29.7934.
[3] "ITU - The Meteor Burst Communication Network System"
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

uses meteor scatter extensively in its SNOTEL system. [4] SNOTEL Data Collection Network Fact Sheet
Over 800 snow water content gauging stations in the
Western United States are equipped with radio transmitters that rely upon meteor scatter communications to send 7.1.7 External links
measurements to a data center. The snow depth data col Meteor Burst Communications: An Additional
lected by this system can be viewed on the Internet.[4]
Means of Long-Haul Communications
In Alaska, a similar system is used in the Alaskan Me MeteorComm Meteor Burst Technology
teor Burst Communications System (AMBCS), collecting data for the National Weather Service from automated
Meteor burst communications tutorial
weather stations, as well as occasional data from other US
Listen to live meteor echoes at Livemeteors.com
government agencies.
7.2. OSCAR
7.2 OSCAR
117
7.2.1 Satellites
OSCAR 1
This article is about the satellite. For other uses, see
Oscar (disambiguation).
Main article: OSCAR 1
OSCAR is an acronym for Orbiting Satellite Carrying The rst amateur satellite, simply named OSCAR 1, was
OSCAR 1
Amateur Radio. OSCAR series amateur radio satellites

use amateur radio frequency allocations to facilitate communication between amateur radio stations. AMSAT was
started by a group of Amateur Radio Operators most of
whom were working at or associated with NASAs Goddard Space Center north of Washington DC.
USSR postal stamp depicting amateur radio satellites, RS-1 and

RS-2
launched on December 12, 1961, barely four years after

the launch of worlds rst satellite, Sputnik I. OSCAR 1
was the rst satellite to be ejected as a secondary payload
(Discoverer 36) and subsequently enter a separate orbit.
These satellites can be used for free by licensed amateur Despite being in orbit for only 22 days OSCAR 1 was
radio operators for voice (FM, SSB) and data communi- an immediate success with over 570 amateur radio opercations (AX.25, packet radio, APRS). Currently over 5 ators in 28 countries forwarding observations to Project
fully operational satellites in orbit act as repeaters, linear OSCAR.
transponders or store and forward digital relays.
The beginning of this project was very humble. The satellite had to be built in a very specic shape and weight in
place of one of the weights used to balance the payload
in the rocket stage. By NASA specication, it could not
contain any propulsion system so as not to pose danger to
the expensive payload the Thor Agena launch vehicle was
carrying.
Throughout the years OSCAR satellites have helped
make breakthroughs in the science of satellite communications. A few advancements include the launch of the
rst satellite voice transponder (OSCAR 3) and the development of highly advanced digital store-and-forward
messaging transponder techniques. To date, over 70 OSCARs have been launched.
OSCAR 10
Most of the components for OSCAR 10 were o the
shelf and tested by group members. Jan King led the
project. Solar cells were bought in batches of 10 or
20 from Radio Shack and tested for eciency by group
members (A. Sergio Torloni then a senior in high school)
the most ecient cells were kept for the project, the rest
were returned to RadioShack. Once ready, OSCAR 10
was mounted aboard a private plane and own on a couple
of occasions to evaluate its performance and reliability.
Special QSL cards were issued to those who participated
in the airplane based ights. Once it was found to be operative and reliable, the satellite was shipped to Kennedy
118
Space Center where it was mounted in the 3rd stage of precisely near the frequency. Frequency modulation is
the launch vehicle.
more tolerant of doppler shifts than single-sideband, and
therefore FM is much easier to tune manually.
7.2.2
Operations
OSCAR satellite communications

Currently OSCAR satellites support many dierent types
of operation including FM voice, SSB voice, as well as
digital communications of AX.25 FSK (Packet radio) and
PSK-31.
Mode designators
Historically OSCAR uplink (transmit to) and
downlink (receive from) frequencies were designated using single letter codes.
Mode A: 2 m uplink / 10 m
downlink
Mode B: 70 cm uplink / 2 m
downlink
Mode J: 2 m uplink / 70 cm
downlink
New uplink and downlink designations use
sets of paired letters following the structure
X/Y where X is the uplink band and Y is the
downlink band.
Low Earth Orbit FM OSCARs

A number of low earth orbit (LEO) OSCAR satellites use
frequency modulation (FM). These are also commonly
referred to as FM LEOs or the FM Birds. Such satellites act as FM amateur radio repeaters that can be communicated through using omni-directional antennas and
commonly available amateur radio equipment. Due to
the relative ease of tuning FM as compared to SSB and
the decreased distance of LEO satellites from earth stations communication can be achieved even with handheld
transceivers and using manual doppler correction. The
orbit of these satellites however causes the available time
in which to communicate to be limited to only a few minutes per pass.
7.2.3 Launches
Launches (Past & Current)
The names of the satellites below are sorted in
chronological order by launch date, ascending. The status column denotes the current operational status of the
satellite. Green signies that the satellite is currently operational, orange indicates that the satellite is partially
operational or failing. Red indicates that the satellite is
non operational and black indicates that the satellite has
re-entered the Earths atmosphere. The country listing
denotes the country that constructed the satellite and not
the launching country.
Doppler shift Due to the high orbital speed of the OSCAR satellites, the uplink and downlink frequencies will
vary during the course of a satellite pass. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler eect. While the In development
satellite is moving towards the ground station, the down IRSHSAT-1 - A cubesat is being built by the stulink frequency will appear to be higher than normal and
dents at Pakistan Student Satellite Program. Launch
therefore, the receiver frequency at the ground station
Date sometime in 2011.
must be adjusted higher in order to continue receiving the
satellite. The satellite in turn, will be receiving the uplink
BLUEsat - A microsatellite built by the students
signal at a higher frequency than normal so the ground
of The University of New South Wales. Unstations transmitted uplink frequency must be lower in
known launch date. The next test will be in April
order to be received by the satellite. After the satellite
2014 when it is own from a stratospheric weather
passes overhead and begins to move away, this process
balloon.[9]
reverses itself. The downlink frequency will appear lower
ZSAT - A microsatellite initiated and funded by the
and the uplink frequency will need to be adjusted higher.
U.S. Department of Science and Technology. UnThe following mathematical formulas relate the doppler
known launch date.
shift to the velocity of the satellite.
Due to the complexity of nding the relative velocity of
the satellite and the speed with which these corrections
must be made, these calculations are normally accomplished using satellite tracking software. Many modern
transceivers include a computer interface that allows for
automatic doppler eect correction. Manual frequencyshift correction is possible, but it is dicult to remain
AMSAT-Phase 3E - A satellite built by AMSAT.

Delayed Indenitely.[10]
KiwiSAT - A microsatellite built by AMSAT-ZL.
Scheduled to launch from mid to late 2009
ESEO - A microsatellite built by SSETI. Scheduled
to launch in 2015-2016.[11]
7.2. OSCAR
119
AMSAT-Eagle - A satellite built by AMSAT. Related names

Cancelled.[12]
SuitSat, an obsolete Russian space suit with a transmit Del-n3Xt - The second nano-satellite from Delft ter aboard, is ocially known as OSCAR 54. In a twist
University of Technology. Launched the 21 Novem- of fate, Oscar was the name given to an obsolete space
ber 2013.[13]
suit by its young owner in the book Have Space SuitWill
Travel, by Robert A. Heinlein. This book was originally
Fox-1 - A 1u cubesat from AMSAT-NA. Scheduled
published a year after the launch of the rst articial satelto launch in the August of 2015.[14]
lite (Sputnik).
7.2.4
Facts
7.2.5 References
Multinational eort
[1] OSCAR Number for LituanicaSAT-1.
Currently 23 countries have launched an OSCAR satellite. These countries, in chronological order by date of
launch, include: The
[2] SA AMSAT. Southern African Amateur Radio Satellite

Association. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
1. United States of America

2. Australia
3. Spain
4. United Kingdom
5. Japan
6. Brazil
7. Argentina
8. Pakistan
9. Russia
10. France
[3] AMSAT AO-51 Control Team News. AO-51 Command Team and Operations Group. Retrieved 2012-0115.
[4] ISS Fan Club. ISS Fan Club. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
[5] Ocial AO-27 HomePage. AO-27 Control Operators
Association. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
[6] 2010 AMSAT Field Day Competition (PDF). The Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation. 2010. p. 1. Retrieved
2011-07-26. ...the FM voice satellites like AMSATOSCAR 16, AMRAD-OSCAR-27, SaudiSat-Oscar-50,
or AMSAT-OSCAR-51...
[7] AMSAT OSCAR 16 (PacSAT)". The Radio Amateur
Satellite Corporation. Retrieved 2011-07-26. Mode FM
Voice Repeater (Downlink is DSB. Operation is Intermittent)
[8] VO-52 Hamsat end of mission. AMSAT.
[9] http://www.bluesat.unsw.edu.au/
11. Portugal
[10] http://www.amsat.org/amsat-new/express/
12. Korea
[11] http://www.esa.int/Education/ESEO_mission
13. Italy
[12] http://www.amsat.org/amsat-new/eagle/
14. Mexico
[13] http://www.delfispace.nl/
[14] http://ww2.amsat.org/?page_id=1118
15. Israel
16. Thailand
17. South Africa
18. Malaysia
19. Saudi Arabia
20. Germany
21. India
22. Colombia
23. the Netherlands
7.2.6 Notes
Space Satellites from the Worlds
Garage -- The Story of AMSAT. The
Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation.
The Extraordinary History of Amateur
Radio Satellites. Space Today Online.
A Brief History of Amateur Satellites.
N7HPR. Retrieved 2006-09-05.
120

Satellite Development Programs. The
Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation.
Amateur (ham) Radio Satellites. Colorado State University. Archived from
the original on 2006-08-31. Retrieved
2006-09-07.
7.2.7
External links
7.3.2 EME communications technical details

As the albedo of the Moon is very low (maximally 12%
but usually closer to 7%), and the path loss over the
770,000 kilometre return distance is extreme (around
250 to 310 dB depending on VHF-UHF band used,
modulation format and Doppler shift eects), high power
(more than 100 watts) and high-gain antennas (more than
20 dB) must be used.
In practice, this limits the use of this technique to the

AMSAT Corporation a nonprot corporation that spectrum at VHF and above.
coordinates construction and launch of the satellites
The Moon must be above the horizon in order for EME
Project OSCAR organization that built OSCAR-1 communications to be possible.
NASA J-Track Amateur Track amateur satellites in To determine EME Path Loss we need to know real-time
1. Moon distance from either the transmitting or re SSTL Builders and operators of the UoSat series
ceiving station
satellites
Work-Sat Work the FM satellites - with equipment
most hams already own!
7.3 EME
2. Transmitter station output in watts, expressed as

ERP [roughly transmitter power output (minus feedline loss) x forward antenna gain]
3. Receive station gain (actual receiver gain minus
feedline loss, x antenna gain)
4. The operating frequency of the transmitter and reEarthMoonEarth communication (EME), also
ceiver
known as moon bounce, is a radio communications technique which relies on the propagation of radio waves from
an Earth-based transmitter directed via reection from Free space loss from an isotropic omnidirectional antenna
the surface of the Moon back to an Earth-based receiver. is described by this formula. It calculates the surface area
of an imaginary sphere of radius, d, that the radio wave
illuminates uniformly:
7.3.1
History
2
1. Loss = ( 4d
) where pi 3.14, d = distance and
The use of the Moon as a passive communications satellambda = wavelength, in meters
lite was proposed by W.J. Bray of the British General Post
Oce in 1940. It was calculated that with the available
2. Lambda = c/F F = Hz, c = 3 108 meters/sec.
microwave transmission powers and low noise receivers,
3. Lambda = 300
it would be possible to beam microwave signals up from
F when F is in MHz.
Earth and reect o the Moon. It was thought that at least
Substituting F into the free-space loss formula and conone voice channel would be possible.[1]
verting to d into km:
The moon bounce technique was developed by the
United States Military in the years after World War II,
d
Loss = 4 103 F 300
or
with the rst successful reception of echoes o the Moon
being carried out at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey on Jan Loss(dB) = 32.45 + 20 log F + 20 log d
uary 10, 1946 by John H. DeWitt as part of Project Diana.[2] The Communication Moon Relay project that followed led to more practical uses, including a teletype Adding factors for reection from the Moon results in
link between the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and
Loss-eme(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log(F) + 20Log(2*d) +
United States Navy headquarters in Washington, DC. In
50.21 - 10Log(.065)
the days before communications satellites, a link free of
the vagaries of ionospheric propagation was revolutionary.
The standard radar path link formula is basis for EME
Later, the technique was used by non-military commer- path-loss calculations
cial users, and the rst amateur detection of signals from
Pr = Pt Gt Gr Loss
the Moon took place in 1953.
7.3. EME
Loss = 2 /(4 pi)3 d4
After including the factor for surface reectivity it becomes
LossEM E (dB) = 100.4+20 log(F )+40 log(d)
10 log()
121
d is distance (average distance at any given time)
or about 2.4 s at perigee
or about 2.7 s at apogee
or about 2.56 s on average, but for message coding
2.25 s is used
= 0.065 D2 /4 where D is the Moons diam- The Moon is nearly spherical, and its radius corresponds
eter
to milliseconds of wave travel time. The trailing parts of
an echo, reected from irregular surface features near the
edge of the lunar disk, are delayed from the leading edge
Since the diameter of the Moon is 3500 km
by as much as twice this value.
= 6.25 1011 m2
The formula becomes
Loss-eme(dB) = 20Log(F) + 40Log(d) - 17.49, F =
MHz, d = km
Most of the Moons surface appears relatively smooth

at the typical microwave wavelengths used for amateur
EME. Most amateurs do EME contacts below 6 GHz,
and dierences in the moons reectivity are somewhat
hard to decern below 1 GHz.
Lunar reections are by nature quasi-specular (like those

from a shiny ball bearing). The power useful for commuFor some reason not specied, Josef has increased the nication is mostly reected from a small region near the
center of the disk.
loss by 3-dB producing:
1. Loss-eme(dB) = 103.4 + 20Log(F) + 40Log(d) 10Log(rho) or
2. Loss-eme(dB) = 20Log(F) + 40Log(d) - 14.49
Note that the distance from Earth to the Moon varies because the Moons orbit is not perfectly circular, but somewhat elliptical with a mean radius of 390,000 kilometres
(240,000 mi). This means there is an apogee (the largest
distance) and a perigee (the shortest distance). In addition, the orbital plane precesses with a principal period of
18.6 years.
The Moon is nearly spherical, with the reection dierential being the Moons radius divided by the speed of
light, ~5.8 ms (electromagnetic wave travel time).
The eective time spread of an echo amounts to no more
than 0.1 ms.
There is one note with respect to antenna polarization :
Reections from a smooth surface preserve linear polarization but reverses the sense of circular polarizations.
At shorter wavelengths the lunar surface appears increasingly rough, so reections at 10 GHz and above contain a
signicant Diuse Component as well as a quasi-specular
component.
Depending on the position of the Moon with respect to The Diuse Component is depolarized, and can be
Earth, apogee can be as much as 406,700 km, whereas viewed as a source of low level system noise.
perigee can be as little as 356,400 km.
Signicant portions of the Diused Component arise
This translates to as much as 2.25 dB dierence in from regions farther out toward the lunar rim. The median time spread can then be as much as several millisecpath loss from apogee to perigee.
onds.
The mean distance from Earth to Moon is given as In all practical cases, however, time spreading is small
384,400 km.
enough that it does not cause signicant smearing of CW
These calculations consider the fact that the Moon is
only 7% ecient as a reector, use the radar equation (which denes a two-way path-loss model) and
the assumption that the Moon is a spherical reector.
7.3.3
Echo delay and time spread
keying or inter-symbol interference in the slowly keyed

modulations commonly used for digital EME.
Faster message keying may encounter the Diused Component as signicant system noise.
EME Time Spreading does have one very signicant effect. Signal components reected from dierent parts of
the lunar surface travel dierent distances and arrive at
Earth with random phase relationships.
Radio waves propagate at the speed of light c, exactly As the relative geometry of the
299,792,458 m/s.
Propagation time to the Moon and back is therefore 2d/c
transmitting station
122
receiving station
reecting lunar surface
changes, signal components may sometimes add and
sometimes cancel.
software. The technology was applied to a live performance called OPTICKS during which digital images are
sent to the Moon and back in real time and projected live.
7.3.5 Modulation types and frequencies
The dynamic addition and cancellation will create large

optimal for EME
amplitude uctuations. These amplitude variations are
referred to as Libation Fading. These Libation Fading VHF
amplitude variations will be well correlated over the Coherence Bandwidth (typically a few kHz). The Libation
CW
Fading components are related to the inverse of the time
spread.
JT65A
7.3.4
Current EME communications
JT65B
Amateur radio (ham) operators utilize EME for two-way

communications. EME presents signicant challenges to UHF
amateur operators interested in working weak signal communications. Currently, EME provides the longest com CW
munications path any two stations on Earth can utilize for
bi-directional communications.
JT65C
Amateur operations use VHF, UHF and microwave fre SSB
quencies. All amateur frequency bands from 50 MHz
to 47 GHz have been used successfully, but most EME
communications are on the 2 meter, 70-centimeter, or
Microwave
23-centimeter bands. Common modulation modes utilized by amateurs are continuous wave with Morse Code,
digital (JT65) and when the link budgets allow, voice.
CW
Recent advances in digital signal processing have allowed
EME contacts, admittedly with low data rate, to take
place with powers in the order of 100 Watts and a single Yagi antenna.
World Moon Bounce Day, June 29, 2009, was created by
Echoes of Apollo and celebrated world-wide as an event
preceding the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon
landing. A highlight of the celebrations was an interview
via the Moon with Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders. He
was also part of the backup crew for Apollo 11. The University of Tasmania in Australia with their 26m dish was
able to bounce a data signal o the surface of the Moon
which was received by a large dish in the Netherlands Dwingeloo Radio Observatory. The data signal was successfully resolved back to data setting a world record for
the lowest power data signal returned from the Moon with
a transmit power of 3 milliwatts - about 1,000th of the
power of a strong ashlight lament globe. World Moon
Bounce Day 2010 was set to precede the Apollo 13 mission sometime in early 2010. The second World Moon
Bounce Day was April 17, 2010 and coincided with the
landing of Apollo 13 on its 40th anniversary.
In October 2009 visual artist Daniela de Paulis and
the CAMRAS radio amateurs association based at
Dwingeloo radio telescope (NL) developed a new application of Moonbounce, called Visual Moonbounce,
which allows moonbouncing images using the MMSSTV
SSB
JT4F or G
7.3.6 Other factors inuencing EME communications

Doppler Eect at 144 MHz band is 300 Hz at Moonrise or Moonset. The Doppler Oset goes to around Zero
when the Moon is overhead. At other frequencies other
Doppler Osets will exist. The 300hz oset is the average Doppler Oset for the 144 MHz band.
At moonrise, returned signals will be shifted approximately 300 Hz higher in frequency due to the
Doppler eect between Earth and the Moon.
In the Northern Hemisphere, as the Moon traverses
the sky to a point due south the Doppler eect approaches nothing. As the Moon sets, signals are
shifted lower in frequency until at Moonset they are
shifted 300 Hz lower.
Doppler eects cause many problems when tuning
into and locking onto signals from the Moon.
7.3. EME
123
Gallery
An array of 8 Yagi antennas for 144 MHz EME at
EA6VQ, Balearic Islands, Spain
A part of 144 MHz EME antenna array at WA6PY
in California, USA
A dish antenna for microwave EME work at
WA6PY, California, USA
A dish antenna for UHF EME at I2FZX, Milan, Italy
Amateur Radio antenna array used for Earth
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Kilafors in Middle Sweden. Owner Sverker
Hedberg, SM3PWM.
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Jder, Middle Sweden. Owner Leif sbrink,
SM5BSZ.
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Staanstorp, South Sweden. Owner Kjell Rasmusson, SM7BAE.
7.3.7
See also
Information theory
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
Meteor burst communications
Passive repeater
Radar Equation
7.3.8
References
[1] Pether, John (1998). The Post Oce at War. Bletchley

Park Trust. p. 25.
[2] Butrica, Andrew J. (1996). To See the Unseen: A History
of Planetary Radar Astronomy. NASA. Archived from
the original on 2007-08-23.
http://www.opticks.info
7.3.9
External links
NASA, Beyond the Ionosphere: the development of

satellite communications
http://www.k5rmg.org/tech/EME.html
calculator)
(another
http://www.df9cy.de/tech-mat/pathloss.htm (gives
formulas for EME path loss calculation)
site of CAMRAS radio amateurs association at

Dwingeloo radio telescope
http://www.opticks.info
World Moon Bounce Day - Echoes of Apollo
Amateur Radio - August 2009 - Wireless Institute
of Australia
Chapter 8
Organizations and Magazines

8.1 American Radio Relay League
The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the
largest membership association of amateur radio enthusiasts in the USA. ARRL is a non-prot organization, and
was founded in 6th April 1914 by Hiram Percy Maxim of
Hartford, Connecticut. The ARRL represents the interests of amateur radio operators before federal regulatory
bodies, provides technical advice and assistance to amateur radio enthusiasts, supports a number of educational
programs and sponsors emergency communications service throughout the country. The ARRL has approximately 154,000 members. In addition to members in
the US, the organization claims over 7,000 members in
other countries. The ARRL publishes many books and
a monthly membership journal called QST. The ARRL
held its Centennial Convention in Hartford, Connecticut
in July 2014.
Director are elected by the members of each Division to

serve a three-year term. Director elections are staggered
so that approximately one-third of the Directors and Vice
Directors are up for election each year. The Board of Directors manages policy direction for the organization as a
whole.[4] The Board of Directors appoints an Executive
Committee, led by the President and consisting of members of the ARRL Board of Directors, to make policy
decisions between full Board meetings. ARRLs ocers
manage day-to-day administrative operation of the organization, led by the Chief Executive Ocer. These paid
ocers hold their positions as long as the Board of Directors approve but have no vote on the Board.[3]
Local and regional operational activities of the American Radio Relay League are carried out through its
Field Organization. The organization divides the 15 Divisions into 71 separate geographic regions called Sections. Each Section has a similar team of one elected,
volunteer Section Manager and several volunteer positions. Section Managers are elected by the members living within the section for a two-year term. The Section
Manager appoints a team of volunteers. A Section Manager may optionally appoint one or more Assistant Section Managers.[7]
The ARRL is the primary representative organization of

amateur radio operators to the US government. It performs this function by lobbying the US Congress and the
Federal Communications Commission. The ARRL is
also the international secretariat of the International Amateur Radio Union, which performs a similar role internationally, advocating for amateur radio interests before the An important function of the ARRL Field Organization
International Telecommunications Union and the World is organizing emergency communications in the event
Administrative Radio Conferences.
of civil or natural disaster. The ARRLs Amateur RaThe organization is governed by a member-elected, vol- dio Emergency Services (ARES) program is organized
unteer Board of Directors. Each director serves a three- through the ARRL Field Organization. Each Section of
year term and represents the members within their par- the Field Organization has an appointed Section Emerticular region of the country. The national headquarters gency Coordinator. The ARES organization supports
facilities are located in Newington, Connecticut. Along training, establishes Memorandums of Understanding
with the administrative headquarters, the 7-acre (2.8 ha) (MOU) with governmental and relief agencies, and orsite is home to amateur radio station W1AW. The ARRL ganizes regular practice exercises.
Field Organization carries out local and regional activities ARES has provided essential supplemental emergency
across the United States.
communications innumerable times throughout the
leagues history. In 1989, hundreds of amateurs responded to the Loma Preita Earthquake in the San
8.1.1 Governance
Francisco Bay area putting in over 3000 volunteer
hours in the rst week. In 2005, ARES, with hundreds
The ARRL is governed by a member-elected, volunteer of volunteer amateur radio operators, provided key
Board of Directors. The organization divides its mem- communications assistance to recovery organizations
bership into 15 Divisions, each representing a separate and ocials coordinating Hurricane Katrina disaster
portion of the country. One Director and one Vice- relief.[8]
124
8.1. AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
125
Over 2,000 Amateur Radio clubs are members of the tion. Maxim and Clarence Tuska, the secretary of the
ARRL Aliated Club Program.[5]
Hartford Radio Club, developed application forms and
sent them out to every amateur station they could think
of. Although they limited membership to highly qualied
8.1.2 History
amateurs only, the response was tremendous. By September 1914 they had over 230 stations on the roster.
In early 1915, disagreements began to surface as to the
role of the Hartford Radio Club in the new organization,
and in February the ARRL split o from the club and incorporated under Connecticut law. Finances were shaky,
and most of the income came from sales of booklets,
maps and message blanks. But the ARRL kept growing.
By March 1915, there were 600 stations on the roster, and
due to improvements in equipment and operating ability,
some of the better stations were claiming communication
ranges of up to a thousand miles. It was apparent that
the ARRL now needed some kind of bulletin to stay in
touch with its members, but there was no money for such
a thing. Maxim and Tuska agreed to personally nance
it, and in December 1915 the rst, sixteen page issue of
QST was sent free to all members. Further issues would
be supplied through subscription at $1.00 per year.
Hiram Percy Maxim, founder of the ARRL, ca. 1914.
19141920
In 1914, Hiram Percy Maxim of Hartford, Connecticut, was a prominent businessman, engineer, and inventor (notably of the Maxim Silencer). He was also an active radio amateur, with one of the best-equipped stations
in the Hartford area. One night in April he attempted
to send a message to another ham in Springeld, Massachusetts. He had a one-kilowatt station (call 1WH), and
Springeld was only 30 miles (48 km) away, well within
his normal range. He was unable to make contact, and remembering that he knew another ham in Windsor Locks,
about halfway, he contacted the Windsor Locks ham, and
asked him to relay the message, which was successfully
done. This was not the rst time a message had been relayed, but it set Maxim to thinking. At that time, a great
deal, perhaps most of amateur radio activity consisted of
sending and receiving messages, not only between amateurs, but involving the general public as well. But at that
time the maximum reliable range of a station was a few
hundred miles or less, and so Maxim realized that a formally organized relay system would be of tremendous use
to amateurs.[9]
In 1916, with ARRL membership nearing a thousand,

Maxim set up six trunk lines of relay stations, both eastwest and north-south, and individual managers were appointed. Messages were now being relayed over longer
and longer distances, and in February 1917 a message
was sent from New York to Los Angeles and an answer
received in one hour and twenty minutes.
Also in 1917, the ARRL was reorganized. Up to that time
it had been run entirely by Maxim and Tuska, but it was
time for a more formal organization. A constitution was
adopted, twelve directors and four ocers were elected
(including President Maxim and Secretary Tuska), and
membership was opened to anyone interested in radio.
No sooner had this happened than all amateurs received
a letter from the Department of Commerce ordering them
o the air and to dismantle all antennas, because the USA
had just entered World War I.
During the war the ARRL facilitated the recruitment of

amateurs into communications positions with the armed
services, but had little else to do since all civilian experimentation with radio equipment was prohibited. In
November 1918 the Armistice was signed, but at the
same time, Congress introduced bills to put all radio operations in the United States under control of the Navy. The
ARRL strongly opposed the bills, of course; Maxim testied before Congressional committees and the League
organized an eective grass roots campaign with thousands of individuals contacting their congressmen in opposition. The bills were defeated, and in April 1919 amateurs were permitted to put up antennas again, but only
Maxim was a member of the Radio Club of Hartford, and for receiving.
he presented a plan for the organization of an AmeriMeanwhile, the League needed reorganization. With
can Radio Relay League (he had already decided on the
the long lapse in activity, the ARRL now had exactly
name) to the club at its April 1914 meeting. The club
$33 in the treasury. A privately nanced, four-page
agreed to sponsor the development of such an organiza-
126
CHAPTER 8. ORGANIZATIONS AND MAGAZINES
miniature issue of QST was produced announcing the reorganization, and applications began to come in. A nancing plan consisting of selling bonds to members was
adopted and about $7500 was raised. QST was purchased
from its owner, Clarence Tuska. ARRL continued to
lobby Congress for the resumption of transmitting privileges, and after a number of protests and appeals, amateur
radio was fully restored in November 1919.
Maxim died in 1936. His callsign W1AW was licensed

to the League and remains in use as the rst-ever Memorial Station. In 1937 the DXCC Award, for working
100 countries, was established, and it still is the premier
achievement in amateur radio. Operators, often under
the ARRL Emergency Corps, helped at numerous disasters. The Leagues QST magazine acted as a forum for experimenters in voice, television, and very high frequency
work.
19201964
History repeated itself during World War II with US amateurs being told to leave the air. The ARRL responded
by developing the government-approved War Emergency
Radio Service, a Civil Defense system. Thousands of
League members, and many thousands more who received technical training through its publications, served
in the conict. When hostilities ceased the ARRL successfully lobbied Congress to reauthorize Amateur Radio
and in late 1945 the bands began to reopen. The end of
the war brought a tremendous expansion of amateur radio
as large amounts of war surplus equipment was available,
many recently trained operators became active, and experiments began in such newly developed modes as single
sideband and microwaves.
ARRL radiogram delivery postcard, c. 1925
The 1920s saw tremendous technical growth in radio.

Pushed both by wartime demands and by the growing
commercialization of radio, equipment rapidly improved.
The use of spark gap technology quickly disappeared as
the more ecient continuous wave system of generating radio-frequency energy and transmitting Morse Code
became standard. In 1923 a two-way contact between
Connecticut and France bridged the Atlantic Ocean for
the rst time.
The 1950s saw the continued development of amateur

radio and consequent growth of the ARRL. New civil
defense systems and procedures were developed by the
League, including regular communications between isolated service members and their families. Equipment
rapidly improved, although there was some trouble with
television interference. The ARRL and many of its members cooperated with scientists during the International
Geophysical Year in 1957, measuring the eects of solar
activity on propagation in the VHF band.
A controversial idea was originated in 1961 when the

League encouraged incentive licensing, which sought
reversion to the principle that higher levels of license
privileges should require higher levels of demonstrated
knowledge and CW skill but took away some amateur
privileges until licensees requalied at higher levels; incentives are still in eect and only holders of the highest class of license (Extra) maintain all amateur privileges. By 1964 the positive inuence of the ARRL was
so evident that the United States issued a commemorative
postage stamp on its 50th anniversary. As the League
prepared for the future a new headquarters building was
Other activities during this time included transcontinental opened at Newington.[10]
relays to quickly move messages across the United States,
communications assistance in several emergencies, and
encouragement for an amateur radio operator on an Arc- 1965present
tic expedition of Donald B. MacMillanperhaps the rst
beginnings of DXpeditions. The League also began to act 8.1.3 Regulatory advocacy
in an advisory capacity for the American delegations at
international radio conferences. In 1925 the International The ARRL has opposed regulatory support for
Amateur Radio Union was formed, and it remains head- Broadband over Power Lines, arguing that the power
quartered at Newington.
lines will radiate interfering radio energy, impeding
All this led to rapid growth in both the number of amateurs and membership in the League. With government
uncertainty as to how to allocate both commercial and
amateur frequencies, the ARRL kept discipline in amateur ranks so that spectrum was not unnecessarily occupied. They worked with Washington and the result
was that amateurs received the orderly series of harmonic
frequency bands that they largely hold today (originally
1.8, 3.5, 7, 14, 28, and 56 MHz; other bands have since
been added and the 56 MHz allocation was changed to 50
MHz).
The 1930s was a more dicult period, as the Great amateur radio activities. The League has led several
Depression took its toll on development. Hiram Percy interference reports with the FCC. The ARRL sued the
8.1. AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

FCC, claiming that the FCC violated the Administrative
Procedure Act in creating its rules pertaining to BPL.
On April 25, 2008, a US Court of Appeals agreed with
the ARRL that the FCC violated the APA, especially
by redacting data from the public that could have shed
doubt on the FCCs decision. It is one thing for the
Commission to give notice and make available for
comment the studies on which it relied in formulating
the rule while explaining its non-reliance on certain
parts, D.C. Circuit Judge Judith Rogers wrote. It is
quite another thing to provide notice and an opportunity
for comment on only those parts of the studies that the
Commission likes best.[11]
8.1.4
Services
127
tions monthly membership journal, named after a Morse
code Q signal that means calling all stations. The organization also publishes two bimonthly magazines of special interest: QEX for radio electronics experimenters,
and the National Contest Journal for contesting enthusiasts. The ARRL publishes various technical books
and online courses. Members of the organization also
have access to a special Members Only section of the
ARRL web site that includes technical documents, expanded product reviews of amateur radio equipment, expanded contesting information, and a searchable database
of all league publications. A agship annual publication,
The Radio Amateurs Handbook, has been published since
1926.[12] the ARRL also publishes a series of manuals designed to assist interested persons in obtaining an amateur
radio license or upgrading to a higher class of license.
Contests
The ARRL sponsors numerous amateur radio contests
throughout the year with the biggest of these being
November Sweepstakes and the International DX Contest. Other contests and sponsored operating events include Straight Key Night, VHF Sweepstakes, UHF Contest, and 10 GHz and Up Contest. The ARRL also participates as a Headquarters station for the IARU HF World
Championship. Field Day is an annual event organized
by the ARRL that includes both a competitive element as
well as an emphasis on emergency communications readiness and the promotion of amateur radio.
One of the many guest operators at W1AWs Studio One. (2004)
8.1.5 Controversy
The American Radio Relay League oers several services to members that support their on-air operations. For
members with an interest in DXing, the organization operates both incoming and out-going QSL bureaus for the
exchange of QSL cards with stations in other countries.
Sta at the organization headquarters maintain and operates station W1AW, the Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial
Station, as a living memorial to the Father of Organized
Amateur Radio. The W1AW station is used for regular
Morse code training transmissions for those wishing to
learn and also broadcasts a variety of bulletins of interest to radio amateurs. The ARRL/VEC (Volunteer Examiner Coordinator) sponsors amateur radio license examinations for the three classes of amateur license. License classes and examinations are held in various locations throughout the year. Although the FCC currently
recognizes 14 dierent organizations as VECs, the VEC
sponsored by the ARRL oversees about two-thirds of all
U.S. amateur radio license examinations.
Publications
Criticisms of ARRL have included its support for less

strict licensing requirements in the 2000s, which opponents consider a "dumbing down" of amateur radio or
making it more like CB radio, moves allegedly made to
gain additional membership.[13] Other critics have felt
almost the opposite, however, arguing that the ARRL
was slow to lobby for the removal or the easing of the
Morse code prociency requirements of the various license classes, a conservatism keeping otherwise qualied people out of amateur radio and thus threatening its
future.[13]
Other critics have cited ARRLs support for segmentation
of the HF amateur bands in the U.S. by bandwidth, rather
than by mode, which some have claimed gives preference to users of the Winlink system[14] and manufacturerspecic proprietary modes such as Pactor 3, DSTAR
and Wide-coverage Internet Repeater Enhancement System (WIRES). Regulation by bandwidth favors these
proprietary technologies at the expense of narrowband
and open-standard digital modes (such as JT65, PSK31,
RTTY, and CW).
The ARRL provides several publications and journals to Many Amateur Radio operators who are seeking to deboth members and non-members. QST is the organiza- velop and experiment with new technology see the ARRL
128
as backing down too quickly on the regulation by bandwidth issue. Recent FCC rulings on the new soundcard
mode called ROS point to the need to drop regulations
that hinder experimentation and impede the development
of narrowband techniques on the bands where they are
most needed[15]
8.1.6
Elser-Mathes Cup
The Elser-Mathes Cup was created in 1928 by U.S.

Amateurs Fred Johnson Elser (W6FB/W7OX) and Stanley M. Mathes (7OE/K1CY) to be awarded for the First
Amateur Two-Way Communication Earth & Mars. The
cup is a Philippine Igorot wood carving, a bowl supported
by two standing gures.[16]
8.1.7
Organization
In the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) and the

Radio Amateurs of Canada (RAC), the Section Manager
is an elected volunteer who implements and manages programs in the section. The Section Manager is elected by
the members of the organization who reside in the section
and holds oce for a two-year term. There are no term
limits.
Section Trac Manager

Section Youth Coordinator
State Government Liaison
Technical Coordinator
The Section Manager also appoints volunteers to serve
within these program areas. The volunteers in any given
Section serve at the pleasure of the Section Manager. The
Section Manager also assists members with questions, issues or problems dealing with the organizations products
and services; maintains liaison with the frequency coordinating body in the jurisdiction; maintains a relationship
with the local eld oce of the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC)(US only), and maintains communications with members in the section via email bulletins,
web pages, and personal visits to Amateur Radio club
meetings, hamfests and conventions.
There are currently 71 sections in the ARRL,[17] (United
States) and 12 sections in the RAC[18] (Canada).
An Aliated Club Coordinator is the assistant to the Section Manager for radio club matters. One ACC is appointed in each section by the Section Manager to encourage club aliation with the national organization on
a section-wide basis.
For each of the sections activities, the Section Manager

The Section Trac Manager is appointed by the Section
appoints individuals to oversee the activities. These indiManager to supervise and coordinate trac handling efviduals are collectively referred to as the cabinet.
forts within the National Trac System and the section.
The Section Emergency Coordinator is the assistant to
the Section Manager for amateur radio emergency communications preparedness. The SEC is appointed by the
Section Manager.
8.1.8 See also

Amateur Radio Emergency Service
ARRL International Humanitarian Award
International Amateur Radio Union
National Trac System
ARRL / RAC Section Organization Chart
Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service
Cabinet positions include:
W1AW
Assistant Section Managers

Aliated Club Coordinator
Bulletin Manager
Ocial Observer Coordinator
Public Information Coordinator
Section Emergency Coordinator
8.1.9 References
[1] American Radio Relay League (1999). W1AW Bulletin. ARLB047 July 20, 1999.
[2] American Radio Relay League (2005).
ARRL. Jan. 5, 2005.
About the
[3] American Radio Relay League (2010). Ocers of the

ARRL. Feb. 23, 2010.
8.2. FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION
[4] American Radio Relay League (2008). ARRL Divisions. Jan. 29, 2008.
[5] American Radio Relay League (2008). Annual Report.
Dec. 31, 2008.
[6] American Radio Relay League (2010). About the ARRL.
Feb. 23, 2010.
129
8.2 Federal
Communications
Commission
FCC redirects here. For other uses, see Ministry of
Communications and FCC (disambiguation).
[7] American Radio Relay League (2008). The ARRL Field

Organization. Feb. 1, 2008.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is

an independent agency of the United States government,
[8] Amateur Radio Emergency Service (2008). Katrina: created by Congressional statute (see 47 U.S.C. 151 and
47 U.S.C. 154) to regulate interstate communications
The Untold Story. Retrieved February 14, 2008.
by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable in all 50
[9] DeSoto, Clinton B. (1936). Two Hundred Meters and
Down. West Hartford, CT: American Radio Relay states, the District of Columbia and U.S. territories. The
FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband,
League, Inc.
competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and
[10] Fifty Years of A.R.R.L., American Radio Relay homeland security. The Commission is also in the proLeague, 1965
cess of modernizing itself.[4]
[11] FCC dealt setback in broadband-over-power-lines push |
Tech news blog - CNET News.com
[15] ARRL Website, March 4, 2010 FCC Rearms Statement

on ROS>.
The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of

1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the
Federal Radio Commission. The FCC took over wire
communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce
Commission. The FCCs mandated jurisdiction covers
the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions. The FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The
FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees. It has an estimated scal-2011 budget of US$335.8 million and a proposed scal-2012 budget of $354.2 million. It has 1,720
federal employees.[2]
[16] Fred Johnson Elser W6FB/W7OX (Dec 1969). That

Planet Mars QSO Cup. QST (American Radio Relay
League): 98.
8.2.1 Mission and strategy
[12] Meier, Dave, N4NW ARRL Classic Publications, retrieved 7/26/2010

[13] Moseson, Rich (2004). They Just Want to Make More
Money... Zero Bias editorial column. CQ Amateur Radio.
April, 2004.
[14] Moseson, Rich (2004). Regulation by Bandwidth Zero
Bias editorial column. CQ Amateur Radio. November,
2004.
[17] 'ARRL Sections
The FCCs mission, specied in Section One of the

Communications Act of 1934 and amended by the
Telecommunications Act of 1996 (amendment to 47
U.S.C. 151) is to make available so far as possible,
to all the people of the United States, without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national ori The ARRL Ham Radio License Manual, ARRL
gin, or sex, rapid, ecient, Nation-wide, and world-wide
wire and radio communication services with adequate fa8.1.11 Bibliography
cilities at reasonable charges. The Act furthermore provides that the FCC was created for the purpose of the na De Soto, Clinton B., Two Hundred Meters and tional defense and for the purpose of promoting safety
Down, the Story of Amateur Radio, Hartford: of life and property through the use of wire and radio
ARRL, 1936.
communications.[4]
[18] 'RAC Sections
Fifty Years of ARRL, Newington, CT: ARRL, 1965.
Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as

Schumacher, Alice Clink, Hiram Percy Maxim, Fa- the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act
ther of Amateur Radio, Schumachers: Great Falls, (GPRA), the FCC has identied six goals in its 2006
2011 Strategic Plan. These are:
MT, 1970.
Jahnke, Debra A. and Katherine A. Fay, eds., From
Broadband All Americans should have aordable acSpark to Space, a Pictorial Journey through 75 Years
cess to robust and reliable broadband products
of Amateur Radio, Newington, CT: ARRL, 1989.
and services. Regulatory policies must promote
Bartlett, Richard A., The World of Ham Radio,
technological neutrality, competition, investment,
1901-1950, Jeerson, NC: McFarland, 2007.
and innovation to ensure that broadband service
130

providers have sucient incentives to develop and
oer such products and services.
Competition Competition in the provision of communication services, both domestically and overseas,
supports the Nations economy. The competitive
framework for communications services should foster innovation and oer consumers reliable, meaningful choice in aordable services.
Spectrum Ecient and eective use of non-federal
spectrum domestically and internationally promotes
the growth and rapid development of innovative and
ecient communication technologies and services.
Media The Nations media regulations must promote
competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery.
Public Safety and Homeland Security
Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health,
defense, and emergency personnel, as well as
all consumers in need.
The Nations critical
communications infrastructure must be reliable,
interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable.
Modernize the FCC The Commission shall strive to
be highly productive, adaptive, and innovative organization that maximizes the benets to stakeholders,
sta, and management from eective systems, processes, resources, and organizational culture.[4]
8.2.2
Organization
Commissioners
The FCC is directed by ve commissioners appointed by
the President of the United States and conrmed by the
U.S. Senate for ve-year terms, except when lling an unexpired term. The President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman. Only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None
of them may have a nancial interest in any FCC-related
business.[3][5]
consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains collaborative partnerships with state, local, and
tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness and implementation of new technologies.
The Enforcement Bureau (EB) is responsible for
enforcement of provisions of the Communications
Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, and terms and
conditions of station authorizations. Major areas of
enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement
Bureau are consumer protection, local competition,
public safety, and homeland security.
The International Bureau (IB) develops international policies in telecommunications, such as coordination of frequency allocation and orbital assignments so as to minimize cases of international electromagnetic interference involving U.S.
licensees. The International Bureau also oversees
FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations and other international agreements.
The Media Bureau (MB) develops, recommends
and administers the policy and licensing programs
relating to electronic media, including cable television, broadcast television, and radio in the United
States and its territories. The Media Bureau
also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct
broadcast satellite service.
The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, including licensing. The bureau
also implements competitive bidding for spectrum
auctions and regulates wireless communications services including mobile phones, public safety, and
other commercial and private radio services.
The Wireline Competition Bureau (WCB) develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in wireline technology infrastructure, development, markets, and services.
The Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau was launched in 2006.
Bureaus
Oces
The FCC is organized into seven Bureaus,[7] which process applications for licenses and other lings, analyze The FCC has eleven Sta Oces.[7] The FCCs Oces
complaints, conduct investigations, develop and imple- provide support services to the Bureaus.
ment regulations, and participate in hearings.
The Oce of Administrative Law Judges
The Consumer & Governmental Aairs Bu(OALJ) is responsible for conducting hearings
reau (CGB) develops and implements the FCCs
ordered by the Commission. The hearing function
consumer policies, including disability access. CGB
includes acting on interlocutory requests led in
serves as the public face of the FCC through outthe proceedings such as petitions to intervene,
reach and education, as well as through their Conpetitions to enlarge issues, and contested discovery
sumer Center, which is responsible for responding to
requests. An Administrative Law Judge, appointed
131
under the Administrative Procedure Act, presides

at the hearing during which documents and sworn
testimony are received in evidence, and witnesses
are cross-examined. At the conclusion of the
evidentiary phase of a proceeding, the presiding
Administrative Law Judge writes and issues an
Initial Decision which may be appealed to the
Commission.
The Oce of Legislative Aairs (OLA) is the

FCCs liaison to the United States Congress, providing lawmakers with information about FCC regulations. OLA also prepares FCC witnesses for Congressional hearings, and helps create FCC responses
to legislative proposals and Congressional inquiries.
In addition, OLA is a liaison to other federal agencies, as well as state and local governments.
The Oce of Communications Business Opportunities (OCBO) promotes telecommunications

business opportunities for small, minority-owned,
and women-owned businesses. OCBO works with
entrepreneurs, industry, public interest organizations, individuals, and others to provide information
about FCC policies, increase ownership and employment opportunities, foster a diversity of voices
and viewpoints over the airwaves, and encourage
participation in FCC proceedings.
The Oce of the Managing Director (OMD) is

responsible for the administration and management
of the FCC, including the agencys budget, personnel, security, contracts, and publications.
The Oce of Engineering and Technology

(OET) advises the Commission concerning engineering matters.
Its chief role is to manage the electromagnetic
spectrum, specically frequency allocation
and spectrum usage. OET conducts technical
studies of advanced phases of terrestrial and
space communications and administers FCC
rules regarding radio devices, experimental
radio services, and industrial, scientic, and
medical equipment.
OET organizes the Technical Advisory Council, a committee of FCC advisors from major
telecommunication and media corporations.
OET operates the Equipment Authorization
Branch, which has the task of overseeing
equipment authorization for all devices using
the electromagnetic energy from 9 kHz to 300
GHz. OET maintains an electronic database
of all Certied equipment which can be easily
accessed by the public.
The Oce of General Counsel serves as the chief
legal adviser to the Commission. The General
Counsel also represents the Commission in litigation
in United States federal courts, recommends decisions in adjudicatory matters before the Commission, assists the Commission in its decision making
capacity and performs a variety of legal functions
regarding internal and other administrative matters.
The Oce of the Inspector General (OIG) recommends policies to prevent fraud in agency operations. The Inspector General recommends corrective action where appropriate, referring criminal
matters to the United States Department of Justice
for potential prosecution.
The Oce of Media Relations (OMR) is responsible for the dissemination of Commission announcements, orders, proceedings, and other information
per media requests. OMR manages the FCC Daily
Digest, website, and Audio Visual Center.
The Oce of the Secretary (OSEC) oversees the
receipt and distribution of documents led by the
public through electronic and paper ling systems
and the FCC Library collection. In addition, OSEC
publishes legal notices of Commission decisions in
the Federal Register and the FCC Record.
The Oce of Strategic Planning & Policy Analysis (OSP), essentially a think tank within the FCC,
identies policy objectives for the agency. OSP
works closely with the FCC Chairman and is responsible for monitoring the state of the communications industry to identify trends, issues and overall industry health. OSP acts as expert consultants
to the Commission in areas of economic, business,
and market analysis. The Oce also reviews legal
trends and developments not necessarily related to
current FCC proceedings, such as intellectual property law, the Internet, and electronic commerce.
Previously OSP was called the Oce of Plans and
Policy (OPP). OSP is also the home of the FCCs
Chief Economist and the Chief Technologist.
The Oce of Workplace Diversity (OWD) develops policy to provide a full and fair opportunity for
all employees, regardless of non-merit factors such
as race, religion, gender, color, age, disability, sexual orientation or national origin, to carry out their
duties in the workplace free from unlawful discriminatory treatment, including sexual harassment and
retaliation for engaging in legally protected activities.
8.2.3 History
Communications Act of 1934
In 1934, Congress passed the Communications Act,
which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and
132

the networks may broadcast. Previously a network could
demand any time it wanted from an aliate. The second
concerned artist bureaus. The networks served as both
agents and employers of artists, which was a conict of
interest the report rectied.
Freeze of 1948
Federal Communications Commission seen in Washington, D.C.

in 1937. Seated (l-r) Eugene Octave Sykes, Frank R. McNinch,
Chairman Paul Atlee Walker, Standing (l-r) T.A.M. Craven,
Thad H. Brown, Norman S. Case, and George Henry Payne.
In assigning television stations to various cities after

World War II, the FCC found that it placed many stations
too close to each other, resulting in interference. At the
same time, it became clear that the designated VHF channels, 2 through 13, were inadequate for nationwide television service. As a result, the FCC stopped giving out construction permits for new licenses in October 1948. Most
expected this Freeze to last six months, but as the allocation of channels to the emerging UHF technology and
the eagerly awaited possibilities of color television were
debated, the FCCs re-allocation map of stations did not
come until April 1952, with July 1, 1952 as the ocial
beginning of licensing new stations.
Other FCC actions hurt the edgling DuMont and ABC
networks. AT&T Corporation forced television coaxial
cable users to rent additional radio long lines, discriminating against DuMont, which had no radio network operation. DuMont and ABC protested AT&Ts television
policies to the FCC, which regulated AT&Ts long-line
charges, but the commission took no action. The result
was that nancially marginal DuMont was spending as
much in long-line charge as CBS or NBC while using only
about 10 to 15 percent of the time and mileage of either
larger network.[8]
FCC Commissioners inspect the latest in television, December 1,

1939.
transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission, including in it also
the telecommunications jurisdiction previously handled
by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Title II of the
Communications Act focused on telecommunications using many concepts borrowed from railroad legislation and
Title III contained provisions very similar to the Radio
Act of 1927.
Report on Chain Broadcasting
In 1940, the Federal Communications Commission issued the Report on Chain Broadcasting which was led
by new FCC Chairman James Lawrence Fly. The major point in the report was the breakup of NBC (National
Broadcasting Company), which ultimately led to the creation of ABC (American Broadcasting Company), but
there were two other important points. One was network
option time, the culprit here being CBS. The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times
The FCCs Sixth Report & Order ended the Freeze. It

would take ve years for the U.S. to grow from 108 stations to more than 550. New stations came on line slowly,
only ve by the end of November 1952. The Sixth Report
and Order required some existing TV stations to change
channels, but only a few existing VHF stations were required to move to UHF, and a handful of VHF channels were deleted altogether in smaller media markets like
Peoria, Fresno, Bakerseld and Fort Wayne, Indiana to
create markets which were UHF islands. The report
also set aside a number of channels for the newly emerging eld of educational television, which hindered struggling ABC and DuMont's quest for aliates in the more
desirable markets where VHF channels were reserved for
non-commercial use.
The Sixth Report and Order also provided for the intermixture of VHF and UHF channels in most markets;
UHF transmitters in the 1950s were not yet powerful
enough, nor receivers sensitive enough (if they included
UHF tuners at all - they were not formally required until
the 1960s All-Channel Receiver Act), to make UHF viable against entrenched VHF stations. In markets where
there were no VHF stations and UHF was the only TV
service available, UHF survived. In other markets, which

were too small to nancially support a television station, too close to VHF outlets in nearby cities, or where
UHF was forced to compete with more than one wellestablished VHF station, UHF had little chance for success.
Denver had been the largest U.S. city without a TV station
by 1952. Senator Edwin Johnson (D-Colorado), chair of
the Senates Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, had made getting Denver the rst post-Freeze station his personal mission. He had pressured the FCC,
and proved ultimately successful as the rst new station
(a VHF station) came on-line a remarkable ten days after the Commission formally announced the rst postFreeze construction permits. KFEL (now KWGN-TV)'s
rst regular telecast was on July 21, 1952.[9][10]
133
Radio Act in the 111th Congress has gotten out of committee and will go before the house oor with bi-partisan
support,[12] and unanimous support of the FCC.[13]
By passing the Telecommunications Act of 1996,
Congress also eliminated the cap on the number of radio
stations one entity could own nationwide and substantially
loosened local radio station ownership restrictions. Substantial radio consolidation followed.[14] Restrictions on
ownership of television stations were also loosened.[15]
Public comments to the FCC indicated that the public
largely believed that the severe consolidation of media
ownership had resulted in harm to diversity, localism,
and competition in media, and was harmful to the public interest.[16]
Connection permissivity, indecency crackdowns
Telephone monopoly to competition

See also: History of AT&T
The important relationship of the FCC and the American
Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company has evolved
over several years. For many years, the FCC and state
ocials agreed to regulate the telephone systems as a
natural monopoly. The FCC controlled telephone rates
to limit the prots of AT&T and ensure nondiscriminatory pricing. In the 1960s, the FCC began allowing other
long-distance companies, namely MCI, to oer specialized services. In the 1970s, the FCC allowed other companies to expand oerings to the public. A lawsuit in
1982 led by the Justice Department after AT&T underpriced other companies, resulted in the split of the Bells
from AT&T. Beginning in 1984, the FCC implemented
a new goal that all long-distance companies had equal access to the local phone companies customers.
Telecommunications Act of 1996
Main article: Telecommunications Act of 1996
In 1996, Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act
of 1996, in the wake of the break-up of AT&T resulting from the U.S. Justice Departments antitrust
suit against AT&T. The legislation attempted to create
more competition in local telephone service by requiring
Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers to provide access to
their facilities for Competitive Local Exchange Carriers.
This policy has thus far had limited success and much
criticism.[11]
The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as President of the

United States in 1981 accelerated an already ongoing shift
in the FCC towards a decidedly more market-oriented
stance. A number of regulations felt to be outdated were
removed, most controversially the Fairness Doctrine in
1987. The FCC also took steps to increase competition
to broadcasters, fostering broadcast alternatives such as
cable television. In terms of indecency nes, there was
no action taken by the FCC from FCC v. Pacica until
1987, about ten years later.
In the early 2000s, the FCC began stepping up censorship
and enforcement of indecency regulations again, most notably following the Janet Jackson "wardrobe malfunction"
that occurred during the halftime show of Super Bowl
XXXVIII. However, the FCCs regulatory domain with
respect to indecency remains restricted to the public airwaves, notably VHF and UHF television and AM/FM radio.
On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush signed into
law the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005
sponsored by then-Senator Sam Brownback (now Governor of Kansas), a former broadcaster himself, and endorsed by Congressman Fred Upton of Michigan who
authored a similar bill in the United States House of
Representatives. The new law stiens the penalties for
each violation of the Act. The Federal Communications
Commission will be able to impose nes in the amount
of $325,000 for each violation by each station that violates decency standards. The legislation raised the ne
ten times over the previous maximum of $32,500 per
violation.[17][18]
Past chairs and notable commissioners

The development of the Internet, cable services and wireless services has raised questions whether new legislative
initiates are needed as to competition in what has come to Main article: List of chairmen of the Federal Communibe called 'broadband' services. Congress has monitored cations Commission
developments but as of 2009 has not undertaken a major
revision of applicable regulation. The Local Community A complete list of commissioners is available on the FCC
134
website.[19] In addition to chairmen, Frieda B. Hennock 8.2.6 Controversies

(D-NY) was the rst female commissioner of the FCC.
Unreleased reports
8.2.4
Broadcast licensing
Regulatory powers and enforcement
2003 study of commercial radio concentration In

2003, the FCC Media Bureau produced a draft report analyzing the impact of deregulation in the radio
industry.[21] The report stated that from March 1996
through March 2003, the number of commercial radio
stations on the air rose 5.9 percent while the number of
station owners fell 35 percent. The concentration of ownership followed a 1996 rewrite of telecommunications
law that eliminated a 40-station national ownership cap.
The FCC regulates broadcast stations, amateur radio

operators, and repeater stations as well as commercial
broadcasting operators who operate and repair certain
radiotelephone, television, radar, and Morse code radio
stations. In recent years it has also licensed people who
maintain or operate GMDSS stations. Broadcast licenses The report was never made public, nor have any similar
are to be renewed if the station meets the public interest, analyses followed, despite the fact that radio industry reconvenience, or necessity.
ports were released in 1998, 2001 and 2002. In Septemwho had received a
The FCCs enforcement powers include nes and broad- ber 2006, Senator Barbara Boxer,
[22]
copy
of
the
report,
released
it.
cast license revocation (see FCC MB Docket 04-232).
Burden of proof would be on the complainant in a petition
to deny. Fewer than 1% of station renewals are not im- 2004 study of television media concentration In
mediately granted, and only a small fraction of those are 2004, the FCC ordered its sta to destroy all copies of
ultimately denied.
a draft study by Keith Brown and Peter Alexander, two
While the FCC maintains control of the written and economists in the FCCs Media Bureau. The two had anMorse testing standards, it no longer administers the ex- alyzed a database of 4,078 individual news stories broadams, having delegated that function to private organiza- cast in 1998, and showed local ownership of television
stations adds almost ve and one-half minutes of total
tions.
news to broadcasts and more than three minutes of onlocation news.
Broadcasting tower database
The conclusion of the study was at odds with FCC arguAn FCC database provides information about the height
and year built of broadcasting towers in the US.[20] It does
not contain information about the structural types of towers or about the height of towers used by Federal agencies,
such as most NDBs, LORAN-C transmission towers or
VLF transmission facilities of the US Navy, or about most
towers not used for transmission like the BREN Tower.
These are instead tracked by the Federal Aviation Administration as obstructions to air navigation.
ments made when it voted in 2003 to increase the number of television stations a company could own in a single
market. (In June 2004, a federal appeals court rejected
the agencys reasoning on most of the rules and ordered
it to try again.)
In September 2006, Senator Barbara Boxer, who had

received a copy of the report indirectly from someone
within the FCC who believed the information should be
made public, wrote a letter to FCC Chairman Kevin
Martin, asked whether any other commissioners past
or present knew of the reports existence and why it
was never made public. She also asked whether it was
8.2.5 Internet
shelved because the outcome was not to the liking of
some of the commissioners and/or any outside powerful
In North America, the FCC made its original Internet interests?" Boxers oce said if she does not receive adpolicy statement containing four principles subject to equate answers to her questions, she will push for an inreasonable network management in 2005. The Com- vestigation by the FCC inspector general.[23]
mission established the following principles: To encourage broadband deployment and preserve and promote the
open and interconnected nature of the public Internet, Action by FCC Chairman In a letter in response to
Consumers are entitled to access the lawful Internet con- Senator Boxer, FCC Chairman Martin said I want to astent of their choice; Consumers are entitled to run ap- sure you that I too am concerned about what happened to
plications and use services of their choice, subject to the these two draft reports. The letter also said I have asked
needs of law enforcement; Consumers are entitled to con- the inspector general of the FCC to conduct an investiganect their choice of legal devices that do not harm the tion into what happened to these draft documents and will
network; Consumers are entitled to competition among cooperate fully with him. Martin added that he was not
network providers, application and service providers, and chairman at the time the reports were drafted, and that
neither he nor his sta had seen them.[22]
content providers.

NSA wiretapping
When it emerged in 2006 that AT&T, BellSouth and Verizon may have broken U.S. laws by aiding the National
Security Agency in possible illegal wiretapping of its customers, Congressional representatives called for an FCC
investigation into whether or not those companies broke
the law. The FCC declined to investigate, however,
claiming that it could not investigate due to the classied
nature of the program a move that provoked the criticism of members of Congress.
135
Use of white space
White spaces are radio frequencies that went unused after the federally mandated transformation of analog TV
signal to digital. On October 15, 2008, FCC Chairman
Kevin Martin announced his support for the unlicensed
use of white spaces. Martin said he was hoping to take
advantage of utilizing these airwaves for broadband services to allow for unlicensed technologies and new innovations in that space.[29]
Google, Microsoft and other companies are vying for the
use of this white-space to support innovation in Wi-Fi
technology. Broadcasters and wireless microphone manufacturers fear that the use of white space would disrupt their broadcasts and the signals used in sports events
and concerts.[30] Cell phone providers such as T-Mobile
USA have mounted pressure on the FCC to instead offer up the white space for sale to boost competition and
market leverage.
Today the watchdog agency that oversees the countrys

telecommunications industry refused to investigate the
nations largest phone companies reported disclosure of
phone records to the NSA, said Rep. Edward Markey
(D-Mass.) in response to the decision. The FCC, which
oversees the protection of consumer privacy under the
Communications Act of 1934, has taken a pass at investigating what is estimated to be the nations largest violation of consumer privacy ever to occur. If the oversight On November 4, 2008, the FCC commissioners unanibody that monitors our nations communications is step- mously agreed to open up unused broadcast TV spectrum
for unlicensed use.[31][32]
ping aside then Congress must step in.[24]
Net neutrality
Main article: Net neutrality in the United States
Diversity
With the major demographic shifts occurring in the country in terms of the racial-ethnic composition of the population, the FCC has also been criticized for ignoring the
issue of decreasing racial-ethnic diversity of the media.
This includes charges that the FCC has been watering
down the limited armative action regulations it had on
the books, including no longer requiring stations to make
public their data on their minority stang and hiring. In
the second half of 2006, groups such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition, the National Latino Media Council, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the
National Institute for Latino Policy, the League of United
Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and others held town
hall meetings[25] in California, New York and Texas on
media diversity as its eects Latinos and minority communities. They documented widespread and deeply felt
community concerns about the negative eects of media
concentration and consolidation on racial-ethnic diversity in stang and programming.[26] At these Latino town
hall meetings, the issue of the FCCs lax monitoring of
obscene and pornographic material in Spanish-language
radio and the lack of racial and national-origin diversity
among Latino sta in Spanish-language television were
other major themes.
President Barack Obama appointed Mark Lloyd to the
FCC in the newly created post of Associate General
Counsel/Chief Diversity Ocer.[27][28]
The FCC has claimed some jurisdiction over the issue

of net neutrality and has laid down guideline rules that it
expects the telecommunications industry to follow. On
February 11, 2008 Rep. Ed Markey and Rep. Chip
Pickering introduced HR5353 To establish broadband
policy and direct the Federal Communications Commission to conduct a proceeding and public broadband summit to assess competition, consumer protection, and consumer choice issues relating to broadband Internet access services, and for other purposes.[33] On 1 August
2008 the FCC formally voted 3-to-2 to upholding a complaint against Comcast, the largest cable company in the
US, ruling that it had illegally inhibited users of its highspeed Internet service from using le-sharing software.
The FCC imposed no ne, but required Comcast to end
such blocking in 2008. FCC chairman Kevin J. Martin
said the order was meant to set a precedent that Internet providers, and indeed all communications companies,
could not prevent customers from using their networks
the way they see t unless there is a good reason. In
an interview Martin stated that We are preserving the
open character of the Internet and We are saying that
network operators can't block people from getting access
to any content and any applications. Martins successor,
Julius Genachowski has maintained that the FCC has no
plans to regulate the internet, saying: I've been clear repeatedly that we're not going to regulate the Internet.[34]
The Comcast case highlighted broader issues of whether
new legislation is needed to force Internet providers to
136
maintain net neutrality, i.e. treat all uses of their networks

equally. The legal complaint against Comcast related to
BitTorrent, software that is commonly used for downloading larger les.[35] On November 10, 2014, President
Obama recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to
preserve net neutrality.[36][37][38] On January 16, 2015,
Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.
S. Congress H. R. discussion draft bill, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from
accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation aecting Internet service providers (ISPs).[39][40]
On January 31, 2015, AP News reported the FCC will
present the notion of applying (with some caveats)
Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of
1934 to the internet in a vote expected on February 26,
2015.[41][42][43][44][45] Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of
telecommunications [46] and, according to Tom Wheeler,
chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality.[47][48] The
FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times.[49][50]
dio, which crowds the existing FM broadcast band and

even AM broadcast band with in-band adjacent-channel
sidebands, which create noise in other stations. This is
in contrast to worldwide DAB, which uses unused TV
channels in the VHF band III range. This too has patent
fees, while DAB does not. While there has been some
eort by iBiquity to lower them,[59] the fees for HD Radio are still an enormous expense when converting each
station, and this fee structure presents a potentially high
cost barrier to entry for community radio and other noncommercial educational stations when entering the HD
Radio market.[60]
On February 26, 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net

neutrality by applying Title II (common carrier) of the
Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 of the
Telecommunications act of 1996 to the Internet.[51][52][53]
The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This
is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First
Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech. They both
stand for the same concept.[54] Net neutrality is supported by 81% of Americans, according to a Washington
Post poll. According to the poll, 81% of Democrats and
85% of Republicans said they opposed fast lanes.[55]
In mobile telephony, the FCC abandoned the "any lawful

device" principle decided against AT&T landlines, and
has instead allowed each mobile phone company to dictate what its customers can use.[61][62]
For digital radio, the FCC chose proprietary HD Ra-
systems, citing 200 dierent systems for only 1750 peo-
Satellite radio (also called SDARS by the FCC) uses

two proprietary standards instead of DAB-S, which requires users to change equipment when switching from
one provider to the other, and prevents other competitors
from oering new choices as stations can do on terrestrial
radio. Had the FCC picked DAB-T for terrestrial radio,
no separate satellite receiver would have been needed at
all, and the only dierence from DAB receivers in the rest
of the world would be in software, where it would need
to tune S band instead of L band.
DTV controversy
The FCC has been criticized for awarding a digital TV

(DTV) channel to each holder of an analog TV station
license without an auction, as well as trading auctionOn March 12, 2015, the FCC released the specic details able spectrum to Nextel to resolve public safety RF interference problems. Conversely, it has also been critiof the net neutrality rules.[56][57][58]
cized for forcing stations to buy and install all new equipment (transmitters, TV antennas, and even entirely new
broadcast towers), and operate for years on both channels
Proprietary standards
at once.
The FCC has also been criticized for ignoring interna- After delaying the original deadlines of 2006, 2008, and
tional open standards, and instead choosing proprietary eventually February 17, 2009, on concerns about elderly
closed standards, or allowing communications companies and rural folk, on June 12 all full-power analog terrestrial
to do so and implement the anticompetitive practice of TV licenses in the U.S. were terminated as part of the
vendor lock-in, thereby preventing a free market.
DTV transition, leaving terrestrial television available
In the case of digital TV, it chose the ATSC standard, only from digital channels and a few low-power LPTV
even though DVB was already in use around the world, stations. To help U.S. consumers through the conversion,
including DVB-S satellite TV in the U.S. Unlike com- Congress established a federally sponsored DTV Conpeting standards, the ATSC system is encumbered by nu- verter Box Coupon Program for two free converters per
merous patents, and therefore royalties that make TV sets household.
and DTV converters much more expensive than in the
rest of the world. Additionally, the claimed benet of
Modernization of the FCCs information technology
better reception in rural areas is more than negated in ursystems
ban areas by multipath interference, which other systems
are nearly immune to. It also cannot be received while in David A. Bray joined the Commission in 2013 as Chief
motion for this reason, while all other systems can, even Information Ocer and quickly announced goals of modwithout dedicated mobile TV signals or receivers.
ernizing the FCCs legacy information technology (IT)
137
ple a situation he found perplexing.[63][64] He was

the production of books, documents, and panamed as one of the top 70 Most Social U.S. federal
pers and to make such investigations as may be
technology professionals in 2014, openly discussing new
necessary in the performance of its duties.
opportunities with the public as @fcc_cio on Twitter and
actively blogging about FCC eorts.[65][66]
Thus, it is clear that public consultation, or at least consulBray has openly encouraged opportunities to broaden the tation with outside bodies was regarded as central to the
denition of public service to include citizen-led initia- Commissions job from early on. Though it should not be
tives and great public-private partnerships.[67][68] He also surprising, the Act also stipulated that the Commission
has emphasized: As IT accelerates its global distribu- should verbally communicate with those being assigned
tion and ubiquitous availability, the importance of as- licenses. Section 11 of the Act noted:
suring the integrity of digital communications become
paramount and that communications support national
If upon examination of any application for a
growth, prosperity, security, safety, and freedom.[69][70]
station license or for the renewal or modicaLocal broadcasting
After being successful in opening the FM band as a superior alternative to the AM band by allowing colleges and
other schools to start ten-watt LPFM stations, the FCC
banned new ones around 1980.
tion of a station license the licensing authority shall determine that public interest, convenience, or necessity would be served by the
granting thereof, it shall authorize the issuance,
renewal, or modication thereof in accordance
with said nding. In the event the licensing authority upon examination of any such application does not reach such decision with respect
thereto, it shall notify the applicant thereof,
shall x and give notice of a time and place
for hearing thereon, and shall aord such applicant an opportunity to be heard under such
rules and regulations as it may prescribe.
Numerous controversies have surrounded the city of license concept as the internet has made it possible to
broadcast a single signal to every owned station in the nation at once, particularly when Clear Channel became the
largest FM broadcasting corporation in the US after the
Telecommunications Act of 1996 became law - owning
over 1200 stations at its peak. As part of its license to
buy more radio stations, Clear Channel was forced to di- Public hearings As early as 1927, there is evidence
that public hearings were indeed held; among them,
vest all TV stations.
hearings to assess the expansion of the radio broadcast
band.[74] At these early hearings, the goal of having a
broad range of viewpoints presented was evident, as not
8.2.7 Public consultation
only broadcasters, but also radio engineers and manufacAs the public interest standard has always been important turers were in attendance. Numerous groups representto the FCC when determining and shaping policy, so too ing the general public appeared at the hearings as well,
has the relevance of public involvement in U.S. commu- including amateur radio operators and inventors as well
nication policy making.[71] The FCC Record is the com- as representatives of radio listeners organizations. Interprehensive compilation of decisions, reports, public no- estingly,
tices, and other documents of the FCC, published since
1986.[72][73]
History of the issue

1927 Radio Act In the 1927 Radio Act, which was formulated by the predecessor of the FCC (the Federal Radio Commission), section 4(k) stipulated that the commission was authorized to hold hearings for the purpose
of developing a greater understanding of the issues for
which rules were being crafted. Section 4(k) stated that:
Except as otherwise provided in this Act, the
commission, from time to time, as public
convenience, interest, or necessity requires,
shall have the authority to hold hearings,
summon witnesses, administer oaths, compel
While some speakers at the 1927 hearings referred to having received invitations, Herbert Hoovers assistant observed in a letter at
the time that the Radio Commission has sent
out a blanket invitation to all people in the
country who desire either to appear in person
or to submit their recommendations in writing. I do not understand that the Commission has sent for any particular individuals,
however [Letter from George Akerson, assistant to Sec. Hoover, to Mrs. James T.
Rourke, Box 497, Commerce Period Papers,
Herbert Hoover Presidential Library (March
29, 1927)] (FN 14)[74]
Including members of the general public in the discussion
was regarded (or at least articulated) as very important to
138
the Commissions deliberations. In fact, FCC Commissioner Bellows noted at the time that it is the radio listener we must consider above everyone else.[74] Though
there were numerous representatives of the general public at the hearing, some expressing their opinions to the
commission verbally, overall there was not a great turnout
of everyday listeners at the hearings.
Though not a constant xture of the communications
policy-making process, public hearings were occasionally
organized as a part of various deliberation processes as
the years progressed. For example, seven years after the
enactment of the Radio Act, the Communications Act of
1934 was passed, creating the FCC. That year the Federal Governments National Recovery Agency (associated
with the New Deal period) held public hearings as a part
of its deliberations over the creation of new broadcasting
codes.[75]
A few years later , the FCC held hearings to address
early cross-ownership issues; specically, whether newspaper companies owning radio stations was in the public interest.[76] These newspaper divorcement hearings
were held between 1941 and 1944, though it appears that
these hearings were geared mostly towards discussion by
industry stakeholders. Around the same time, the Commission held hearings as a part of its evaluation of the national television standard,[77] and in 1958 held additional
hearings on the television network broadcasting rules.[78]
Though public hearings were organized somewhat infrequently, there was an obvious public appeal. In his now
famous vast wasteland speech in 1961, FCC Chairman
Newton Minow noted that the commission would hold a
well advertised public hearing in each community to
assure broadcasters were serving the public interest,[79]
clearly a move to reconnect the Commission with the public interest (at least rhetorically).
Media ownership review 2003 In September 2002,
the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking stating
that the Commission would re-evaluate its media ownership rules pursuant to the obligation specied in the
Telecommunications Act of 1996. As 2003 was approaching, a battle of words (and perhaps actions) developed between Chairman Powell and Democratic Commissioner Michael Copps. Commissioner Copps felt that
the Republican FCC was too focused on the neo-liberal
agenda, and not focused enough on hearing the publics
voice regarding the issues at hand, noting, We need a
much wider participation this is not an inside-theBeltway issue.[80] Copps repeatedly called for the FCC
to hold public hearings with time devoted to public input. Powell responded by noting that the public had already taken advantage of the online comment submission
process and that no public hearings would be necessary.
A spokesman for Powell noted, if Commissioner Copps
thinks something more can be gained from having hearings, he should feel free to do so.[81] In the end, Commissioner Copps and Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein

organized a number of unocial FCC hearings.
On January 16, 2003, the FCC held an unocial public hearing on media ownership at Columbia University;
Chairman Michael Powell was in attendance. His opening remarks, however, certainly reected the lack of interest the Commission had displayed towards public hearings in recent years:
I would be the rst to agree that this kind of
public discourse is one of the most, uhh, critical things that the Commission can participate
in, an opportunity to hear a wide ranging set of
views. Umm, I want to apologize in advance,
regrettably I also have to participate today in a,
a Rainbow Push Wall Street project later in the
day, so I won't be able to be here all day.
The Chief of the Media Bureau and some other associates
would be there all day to hear a full report on the event.
Copps remained adamant that all Commissioners should
attend an ocial FCC hearing before any decisions were
made. An editorial in Broadcasting and Cable articulated
the heated nature of the eventual decision regarding an
ocial hearing (at least from the Republican standpoint).
The article is quoted at length as it includes a variety of
points that are relevant:
FCC Commissioner Michael Copps got his
way. Chairman Michael Powell gave in,
saying he would schedule a hearing in Richmond, Va. Why Richmond? To save
money, says Powell. With the Virginia capital just 100 miles down I-95, the FCC won't
have to pay for a lot of hotel rooms and airline tickets. We understand what Copps is
trying to do: Get some thoughts on mediaownership deregulation from the common folk
outside of Washington on the theory that wisdom grows proportionately with the distance
from Washington. But thats a romantic notion. Does Copps really think that people in
the provinces think much about media consolidation? At best, what you will get in any given
town are local fronts for the Washington lobbyists and groups that spend their lives grappling with the issues. In Richmond, you probably would be able to stir up a better discussion
on McClellans Peninsula Campaign of 1862
than you will on the Telecommunications Act
of 1996. As Powell hinted in grudgingly agreeing to the hearing, it won't add much of value
to the record. That is in part because this FCC
has already taken extraordinary steps to analyze the media marketplace and build a record
that will lead not only to reasonable action this
spring but also to a new set of rules that may
withstand judicial scrutiny. We understand

that big media can be too big and that there may
be a need for some restrictions. But the burden of proof is on those who would regulate,
who would place hobbles on companies and
entrepreneurs for fear of what might happen
(there is already a Justice Department and antitrust laws to handle what does happen), who
would deprive someone of the right to speak
through any medium anywhere. That proof
might be out there, but it doesn't require a road
trip to Richmond.[82]
8.2.8
Headquarters
139
Grandfather clause
List of telecommunications regulatory bodies
National broadband plans from around the world
Open spectrum
Part 15 (FCC rules)
Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
Public, educational, and government access (PEG)
8.2.10 References
[1] Employee Prole at the FCC. FCC. 30 Jul 2013. Retrieved 31 Dec 2014.
[2] 2012 Budget Estimate FCC Budget Estimates. FCC.
[3] Cecilia Kang (31 October 2011). Obama names FCC
commissioners, both agency, Hill veterans. The Washington Post; Post Tech. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
[4] 2008 Performance and Accountability Report. Federal
Communications Commission. September 2008.
[5] FCC Commissioners. FCC. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
[6] Terms expire June 30 of the subject year.
[7] FCC Bureaus & Oces. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
Federal Communications Commission in Washington, D.C.
[8] Boddy, William. Fifties Television: the Industry and Its

Critics. University of Illinois Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0252-06299-5
The FCC leases space in the Portals building in southwest

Washington, D.C. Construction of the Portals building
[9] Clarke Ingram, The DuMont Television Network: Hiswas scheduled to begin on March 1, 1996. In January
torical Web Site. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
1996 the General Services Administration signed a lease
with the buildings owners, agreeing to let the FCC lease [10] http://www.southplainscollege.edu/dub/postfreeze.htm
Douglas Gomery, Television Sweeps the Nation: The
450,000 square feet (42,000 m2 ) of space in Portals for
Story Behind the Pioneering Post-"Freeze Stations.
20 years, at a cost of $17.3 million per year in 1996 dolFrom the W. D. Dub Rogers, Jr. Television Collection
lars. Prior to its current arrangement, the FCC had space
at South Plains College. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
in six buildings by 19th Street NW and M Street NW.
The FCC rst solicited bids for a new headquarters com- [11] See, e.g., Robert Crandall
plex in 1989. In 1991 the GSA selected the Portals site.
The FCC had wanted to move into a more expensive area [12] Local Community Radio Act of 2009. Govtrack.us.
2009-10-29.
along Pennsylvania Avenue.[83]
8.2.9
See also
Bleep censor
Broadcast Standards and Practices (US)
Censorship of broadcasting in the United States
Comcast Corp. v. FCC
FCC Record
Frequency assignment authority
[13] FCC Oversight Hearing (September 17, 2009). FCC:

Unanimous, bipartisan support for LPFM.
[14] Rachel M. Stilwell, Which Public - Whose Interest - How
the FCCs Deregulation of Radio Station Ownership Has
Harmed the Public Interest, and How We Can Escape
from the Swamp, 26 Loy. L.A. Ent. L. Rev. 369, Mar.
1, 2006.
[15] David Oxenford Broadcast Law Blog,

On
the 15th Anniversary of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, The Eect on Broadcasters
is Still Debated, Feb.
9 2011, available at:
http://www.broadcastlawblog.com/2011/02/articles/
on-the-15th-anniversary-of-the-telecommunications-act-of-1996-the-effect
140
[16] See Rachel M. Stilwell, 26 Loy. L.A. Ent. L. Rev. 369,

supra.
[17] Ahrens, Frank (2006-06-08). The Price for On-Air Indecency Goes Up. The Washington Post. Retrieved 27
June 2009.
[18] Bill Number S. 193. Broadcast Decency Enforcement
Act of 2005 (Introduced in Senate) from Congressional
THOMAS DB. Retrieved 11 April 2005.
[19] Commissioners from 1934 to Present FCC
[20] ASR Registration Search. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
[21] Fifth Review of the Radio Industry, FCC Media Bureau,
undated.
[22] John Dunbar, Senator says media study suppressed Senator says media study suppressed, Associated Press, 200609-18.
[23] John Dunbar, Lawyer says FCC ordered study destroyed, Associated Press, 2006-09-14.
[24] FCC Refuses to Investigate NSA Program, Predicting
Likely Administration Road Blocks Edward J. Markey.
May 23, 2006.
[25] Ferris, David (2006-10-20). publish.nyc.indymedia.org |
FCC Town Hall Meeting Marked by Concerns over Media
Consolidation. Nyc.indymedia.org. Retrieved 4 March
2012.
[37] NYT Editorial Board (November 14, 2014). Why the

F.C.C. Should Heed President Obama on Internet Regulation. New York Times. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
[38] Sepulveda, Ambassador Daniel A. (January 21, 2015).
The World Is Watching Our Net Neutrality Debate, So
Lets Get It Right. Wired (website). Retrieved January
20, 2015.
[39] Weisman, Jonathan (January 19, 2015). Shifting Politics of Net Neutrality Debate Ahead of F.C.C.Vote. New
York Times. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
[40] Sta (January 16, 2015). H. R. _ 114th Congress, 1st
Session [Discussion Draft] - To amend the Communications Act of 1934 to ensure Internet openness... (PDF).
U. S. Congress. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
[41] Lohr, Steve (February 2, 2015). In Net Neutrality Push,
F.C.C. Is Expected to Propose Regulating Internet Service as a Utility. New York Times. Retrieved February 2,
2015.
[42] Lohr, Steve (February 2, 2015). F.C.C. Chief Wants to
Override State Laws Curbing Community Net Services.
New York Times. Retrieved February 2, 2015.
[43] Flaherty, Anne (January 31, 2015). Just whose Internet
is it? New federal rules may answer that. AP News. Retrieved January 31, 2015.
[44] Fung, Brian (January 2, 2015). Get ready: The FCC says
it will vote on net neutrality in February. Washington
Post. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
[26] See El Diario La Prensas editorial on media diversity.

[27] SSRC.
[28] Obamas Diversity Oensive Against Talk Radio August
30, 2009 By Christopher Ruddy.
[29] Olga Kharif (October 15, 2008). FCCs Kevin Martin
Supports Freeing White Spaces. Business Week. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
[45] Sta (January 2, 2015). FCC to vote next month on net

neutrality rules. AP News. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
[46] Lohr, Steve (February 4, 2015). F.C.C. Plans Strong
Hand to Regulate the Internet. New York Times. Retrieved February 5, 2015.
[47] Wheeler, Tom (February 4, 2015). FCC Chairman Tom
Wheeler: This Is How We Will Ensure Net Neutrality.
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[30] David Gonzalez (October 15, 2008). FCC Chairman

Kevin Martin wants to allow the use of portable devices
on white spaces. UnWiredView.com. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
[48] The Editorial Board (February 6, 2015). Courage and

Good Sense at the F.C.C. - Net Neutralitys Wise New
Rules. New York Times. Retrieved February 6, 2015.
[31] Marguerite Reardon (November 4, 2008). FCC opens

free 'white space' spectrum. CNET. Retrieved 5 November 2008.
[49] Weisman, Jonathan (February 24, 2015). As Republicans Concede, F.C.C. Is Expected to Enforce Net Neutrality. New York Times. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
[32] FCC opens up wireless 'white spaces;' Assessing winners,

losers and wild-cards November 5, 2008.
[50] Lohr, Steve (February 25, 2015). The Push for Net Neutrality Arose From Lack of Choice. New York Times.
Retrieved February 25, 2015.
[33] HR5353
[34] The FCC Doesn't Need to Be by Peter Suderman, Reason
[35] Hansell, Saul (2008-08-02). F.C.C. Vote Sets Precedent
on Unfettered Web Usage. The New York Times.
[36] Wyatt, Edward (November 10, 2014). Obama Asks
F.C.C. to Adopt Tough Net Neutrality Rules. New York
Times. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
[51] Sta (February 26, 2015). FCC Adopts Strong, Sustainable Rules To Protect The Open Internet (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved February
26, 2015.
[52] Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Lohr, Steve (February 26, 2015). In
Net Neutrality Victory, F.C.C. Classies Broadband Internet Service as a Public Utility. New York Times. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
[53] Flaherty, Anne (February 25, 2015). FACT CHECK:

Talking heads skew 'net neutrality' debate. AP News. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
[54] Liebelson, Dana (February 26, 2015). Net Neutrality
Prevails In Historic FCC Vote. The Hungton Post. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
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[55] Ehrenfreund, Max.

New poll: Republicans and
Democrats both overwhelmingly support net neutrality.
Washington Post.
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University of North Texas Libraries. Retrieved 3 March
2014.
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Neutrality Rules. New York Times. Retrieved March 13,
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[74] Moss, D.A.; Lackow, J.B. Rethinking the role of history

in law & economics: the case of the Federal Radio Commission in 1927 (working paper)".
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[75] Mazzocco, D. Radios New Deal: The NRA and U.S.

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The FCC Doesn't Need to Be By Peter Suderman,
5 April 2010
New Wave: The case for killing the FCC and selling
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Harvey J. Levin: Pioneering the Economics of the
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The Invisible Resource: Use and Regulation of the
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Papers of Robert E. Lee, Commissioner of the FCC,
19531981, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
142
The Federal Communications Commission: Current Structure and Its Role in the Changing
Telecommunications Landscape Congressional Research Service
banned all amateur radio activities, and a large percentage of the magazines subscribers had entered military
service. The ban on amateur radio was lifted after the
conclusion of the war. QST returned in May 1919 with
no cover billed as ARRL Special Bulletin and only
8 pages long. At a meeting in New York on March 29,
a group that included Maxim, Tuska, and nine others decided to nance its return in this form and make a plea
Ocial website
for membership and subscription renewals.[6] The June
1919 issue, still without a cover, announced that the war
FCC Rules (CFR Title 47) from the Government
time ban on receiving had been lifted. Finally, in July
Printing Oce
1919, QST resumed its previous format, although amateurs would not be permitted back on the air until that
FCC in the Federal Register
fall, when a supplement to the October issue proclaimed
The FCC Record from the UNT Digital Library
BAN OFF. By September 1920, QST was back up to
100 pages, a size not seen since April 1917.
Publication continued throughout World War II, despite
amateur radios hiatus by order of the U.S. government.
During both wars, amateurs were in high demand as milFor the Quebec Provincial Sales Tax, see Quebec Sales itary radio operators, and QST's sta pitched in for the
Tax. For the professional road bicycle racing team, see war eort.
Quick Step.
As part of its centennial celebration in 2014, ARRL pub-
8.3 QST
QST (OCLC 1623841) is a magazine for amateur radio enthusiasts, published by the American Radio Relay League (ARRL). It is a membership journal that is
included with membership in the ARRL. The publisher
claims that circulation of QST in the United States is
higher than all other amateur radio-related publications in
the United States combined.[2] Although an exact number
for circulation is not published by the American Radio
Relay League, the organization claimed 154,627 members at the end of 2008, almost all of whom receive the
magazine monthly, in addition to issues delivered to libraries and newsstands.[1]
lished two volumes of QST reprints from 1915-2013: one

on Amateur Radio technology and the other on advertising.
8.3.2 Content
Today, QST includes projects for the amateur radio
enthusiast, pictures, articles, columns, and reports on
ARRL aairs. Particular interest is given to amateur radios role in emergency communications such as in the
hours after the September 11 attacks[7] and in Hurricane
Katrina.[8]
The name of the magazine is derived from the radio Q

signal that means calling all stations. The magazine was
rst published in December, 1915, and has been contin- 8.3.3 References
uously published since May, 1919. Supplemental content
to the magazine is available on the ARRL web site, in- [1] American Radio Relay League (2009). 2008 Annual Report. Retrieved on June 31, 2009.
cluding a complete archive in PDF format, available to
[1]
ARRL members starting in 2008.
8.3.1
History
The magazine was rst published in December 1915, with

its rst three issues nanced by American Radio Relay League founder Hiram Percy Maxim and secretary
Clarence D. Tuska, with an expectation that increased
membership would nance its continued existence.[3][4]
In October 1916, the editors announced the formation of
The QST Publishing Company, mostly to insulate Maxim
and Tuska from possible litigation risks.[5]
Publication of QST was temporarily suspended after the
September 1917 issue. In April 1917, the United States
government, following its entrance into World War I,
[2] American Radio Relay League (2009). Advertisers,

Ham Ads (Classieds) and Advertising Information. Retrieved on June 31, 2009.
[3] Announcement, QST, December 1915, p.2
[4] DeSoto, Clinton B.,200 Meters and Down, The American Radio Relay League, Inc., 1936, p.43
[5] The Publishers, Editorial, QST, October 1916, p.302
[6] Special Bulletin, QST, May 1919, p.1
[7] This Is Not A Test, QST, November 2011, pp. 28-34,
59
[8] Hurricane Katrina Relief, QST, November 2005, p. 12
8.4. WORLDRADIO
8.3.4
External links
Ocial website
8.4 WorldRadio
WorldRadio was a monthly amateur radio enthusiast
magazine published in the United States from July, 1971
to November, 2008. The magazine was published in
English and drew its subscription base primarily from the
United States of America and Canada, although it had
subscribers around the world. The sta of the magazine
had an amateur radio club that has been assigned the call
sign WR6WR. This magazine is unrelated to a magazine
called WORLD-RADIO published in the United Kingdom prior to WWII.
8.4.1
Sale to CQ Communications, Inc.
On November 12, 2008, CQ Communications, publishers of CQ Amateur Radio magazine, CQ VHF Magazine,
and Popular Communications magazine announced that
they had purchased WorldRadio magazine from WorldRadio publisher Armond Noble.[1] All paid subscriptions for WorldRadio were to be turned into CQ Amateur
Radio subscriptions, while WorldRadio was to be continued as an on-line magazine. The rst online issue, renamed WorldRadio Online, was published in February,
2009.
8.4.2
References
[1] CQ Communications (2008). CQ Communications Acquires WorldRadio Magazine. CQ Publications News

Archive. Posted November 12, 2008.
8.4.3
External links
worldradiomagazine.com
143
Chapter 9
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
9.1 Text
Amateur radio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio?oldid=654506423 Contributors: WojPob, Brion VIBBER, Vicki
Rosenzweig, Mav, Ap, Ik1tzo, PierreAbbat, Waveguy, Artsygeek, Heron, Arj, Netcrusher88, DevilRaysFan, Michael Hardy, Altailji,
Bdowd, CesarB, Nanshu, Glenn, Kimiko, Kwekubo, Cimon Avaro, Deisenbe, John K, Wfeidt, Dying, Charles Matthews, Andrevan,
Reddi, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, SEWilco, Xyb, Mignon, Bloodshedder, M1fcj, Frazzydee, Mrdice, Denelson83,
Robbot, Cdang, KeithH, TMC1221, R3m0t, Scriptwriter, RedWolf, Kadin2048, Lowellian, Halibutt, TheLight, Hadal, Kd4ttc, Wikibot, Lupo, SpellBott, Jrash, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Yama, Laudaka, Sj, Oherrala, Nichalp, Dfrandin, Inter, Patrick-br, Ssd, Niteowlneils,
Rdcole, Yekrats, BigHaz, Finn-Zoltan, Albany45, IrrelevantQuestionBoy, Peter Ellis, Wmahan, JeyJeyMan2004, Wleman, Piotrus,
AlexanderWinston, Heirpixel, Icairns, Defenestrate, Sam Hocevar, Thparkth, N4zhg, Jakro64, Njh@bandsman.co.uk, ChrisRuvolo, Gachet, GoodStu, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Guanabot, Somegeek, ArnoldReinhold, Flynns32547, User2004, Gerry Lynch, Esn1d,
PaulMEdwards, Petersam, Huntster, Nile, C1k3, Allyn, Adambro, Simon South, Nigelj, Ptemples, Cje, Mink Butler Davenport, Cmdrjameson, Cmacd123, Brim, Sparkgap, Sukiari, Tractor, Analogdemon, Flashweb, Jumbuck, Musiphil, Alansohn, Gblaz, BeeJay, Stillnotelf,
KB3JUV, Wtshymanski, Danhash, Wikicaz, CloudNine, Zoohouse, Ianblair23, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, Firthy2002, Jakes18,
Richard Weil, Johnwcowan, Feezo, Stemonitis, Flawiki, Bushytails, Linas, Pauley2483, Theloniouszen, Plaws, Rjairam, Df2dr, Shadyman,
Andromeda321, Eyreland, Zzyzx11, Jon Harald Sby, MechBrowman, Kotoviski, Tslocum, Vu2ukr, Graham87, K3wq, BD2412, Jbarr,
Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mdinan, Pyt, M1LCR, Linuxbeak, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Gerard Hill, Yamamoto Ichiro, N0YKG, ZoeL, FlaBot,
Mirror Vax, SchuminWeb, EnDumEn, Anonym1ty, RobyWayne, TeaDrinker, Alphachimp, Darranc, Flecom, Drakcap, Jittat, Vchapman,
Chobot, ShadowHntr, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Huw Powell, Mukkakukaku, StuOfInterest, Jetheji, Kilowattradio,
Epolk, Hmss007, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Randyholloway, Member, K.C. Tang, Deskana, 9cds, Brandon, Edmondo,
Gregburd, Mikeblas, Voidxor, Ma3nocum, Belayet, Brauhaus, Scottsher, Mysid, Gadget850, Jeh, Jrbonica, Ke5crz, Dddstone, Gadget17, Yudiweb, Gat0r, Searchme, Erpingham, Light current, Ninly, Encephalon, Mike Selinker, David Jordan, MathGeek06, Rearden9,
GutoAndreollo, EuroRaver, Practicalairsoft, Elliskev, Veinor, RupertMillard, SmackBot, BlakJak, Robfwb, Nsayer, Kipio, N3sgd, Kth,
Gary Kirk, Goleson, Sailin, Grey Shadow, KVDP, TheDoctor10, Rjayres, Unforgettableid, Aij, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Kmarinas86,
Jenhowse, Schmiteye, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Pberrett, Kharker, Thumperward, Vees, RomaC, Dan Zimmerman, Zsinj, Dethme0w,
Frap, Nixeagle, Neo3DGfx, MikeAus, Ian01, PetesGuide, Dreadstar, Kc2idf, Ras123, Pilotguy, WA3VJB, Drunken Pirate, Will Beback,
Kb2jpd, Shane oneal, Harryboyles, KLLvr283, Jidanni, Rcasey, Dejudicibus, Andrewjuren, GCW50, 16@r, StanBrinkerho, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, Ryulong, Lenn0r, Ethertaxi, Iridescent, Paul Koning, CuteWombat, Mwhite66, Tophtucker, Zero sharp, Stereorock, Ki4ihc,
DJGB, HDCase, Wb9mcw, Sir Vicious, Tuvas, Makeemlighter, Smallpond, Requestion, Wingman358, KXL, Mike65535, ChardingLLNL,
JFreeman, Palmiped, Julian Mendez, Starionwolf, Kozuch, Dmbaty, JodyB, Bolesjohnb, Nite owl, ZS5Z brad, Billth87, WillMak050389,
Dfrg.msc, M0x, AgentPeppermint, Pcbene, Booshakla, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Cvos, KidIncredible, JurgenG, CPWinter, Edit Centric, ErinHowarth, LuckyLouie, K0VIN, Jaredroberts, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, MER-C, CosineKitty, Afarhan, Captbryan, TAnthony, 7severn7, VoABot II, Skapare, Dsergeant, Think outside the box, TARBOT, Ling.Nut, BlakJakNZ, Robomojo, Ps2babyboy, WhatamIdoing,
DodgerDean, March of the Ducks, LorenzoB, Edward321, Ekotkie, Misibacsi, TigerMo, PhantomS, Kf4yfd, Erazmus, N734LQ, Microsloth, PrestonH, Theonlysilentbob, EdBever, AceNZ, J.delanoy, EscapingLife, Wa3frp, Wikip rhyre, Neon white, Little Professor,
ZacharyWyman, Davandron, Cannibalicious!, Tarotcards, AntiSpamBot, Pianotech, Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee, Squidfryerchef, Finley Breese, BillyMassie, VolkovBot, John Darrow, Umalee, N2ueg, Nmewarlok, Noerrorsfound, Karl Shoemaker, Lradrama, AtaruMoroboshi, CodyGraves, Sultec, Jaqen, Andy Dingley, Haseo9999, Kmlengel1, BlueH2O, Synthebot, Expeditionradio, LittleBenW, ChrisZeddybear, Paloma Walker, Daveh4h, Billblyth25, VU3RDD, SieBot, Briefer, Euryalus, Whimsley, Simmonds001, Gimili2, Pyroglyph, Oxymoron83, PamRivers8, Miniapolis, Lightmouse, Callidior, Navy.enthusiast, Diego Grez, Svick, RedBlade7, Iknowyourider, Dodger67,
Jacob.jose, MM3OXB, Omsk, Nacarlson, Martarius, ClueBot, EoGuy, Ndenison, Kotalampi, Niceguyedc, Sv1xv, Excirial, Jusdafax, Crywalt, Papna, Rcooley, EhJJ, Maniago, Another Believer, Doggydudu, Samson3000, InternetMeme, BarretB, XLinkBot, VK6DNA, 13
of Diamonds, Eliran Levi, Philsherrod, WikHead, Chuvaris, Cmr08, Leonarp, Thatguyint, CalumH93, Addbot, Willking1979, Stuart
lyster, DOI bot, Landon1980, Linespermillimter, Cst17, W4auv, Coasting, Glane23, Kc8nlr, Chzz, LinkFA-Bot, Jaydec, KALZOID-7320METER, Krano, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Ubuntujason, Jim1138, AdjustShift, RandomAct, Citation bot, Ekconklin,
EnamelWildcat, Almabot, ZimmerCircus, Qwertyzxcvbn, Surv1v4l1st, Fullautoglock, RadiomanPA, PigFlu Oink, Biker Biker, Sadaqa,
Pinethicket, Jonesey95, A412, SpaceFlight89, PeopleString, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Francis E Williams, Aiken drum, Jacers1, N4LXL,
Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Mstern001, Kcuel, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Desertroad, Lunaibis, Dewritech,
, Jstarx, Dgaddis, Sbmeirow, ClueBot NG, Codynosbig, Taxilian, Karan Kamble, ChristophE, Paul Gaskell, HHaeckel, Arrrknot,
144
9.1. TEXT
145
Widr, JordoCo, Wiki7373, Captain Klystron, Ham Radio Microphone, Dangerang, Xmike87, Sirhc808, Wp4oca, Rcunderw, Duxwing,
TheUnnamedNewbie, Cqdx, Several Pending, Lucy34bell, Tow, Dexbot, Kk4kcu, Giancabr, Kf5kfj, Avianoutremont, Tentinator, Mw0rkb,
Clientkill, Shrekogrelord, KK7PW, 2 Hertz, 32RB17, Wylieq, MW6WOD, Monkbot, Ruben The Handy Man, Paewiki, Pishcal, JopV,
Comealongpond and Anonymous: 564
DXing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DXing?oldid=631900511 Contributors: Tim Ivorson, Mormegil, Discospinster, Shenme, Ceyockey, Woohookitty, Rjairam, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Tbone, Anonym1ty, Mhking, YurikBot, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Mysid, Jeh,
Mike Selinker, SmackBot, Rutja76, Millifoo, Andy M. Wang, Bluebot, Neo-Jay, A. B., Jmlk17, Radagast83, Forster 06, ChrisCork,
Thijs!bot, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Alphachimpbot, Dman727, JAnDbot, Milonica, Harryzilber, MER-C, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, STBot,
Jim.henderson, Mange01, TomCat4680, Natobxl, AntiSpamBot, STBotD, Bonadea, Xnuala, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, N5na, Falcon8765,
Djdubuque, 400Hz100V, SieBot, Igor.grigorov, EEMajor, TTQ07, Dlrohrer2003, ClueBot, TinyMark, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sv1xv, Cgord,
Rcooley, Dxinginfo, Mlas, Addbot, Quantock, SamatBot, Lightbot, Ivanov id, Zorrobot, Yobot, Cureden, RibotBOT, Asfarer, FrescoBot,
Jcoltrane666, Nen, Khazar2, Pyroray, Jjssfjfjd and Anonymous: 64
Field Day (amateur radio) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%20Day%20(amateur%20radio)?oldid=647581840 Contributors:
Arj, Spliced, Wfeidt, Zoicon5, Alan Liefting, Neilc, N1zyy, Quill, Rich Farmbrough, Bdk, Ptemples, Mink Butler Davenport, Bookandcoee, ScottDavis, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Kerowyn, ShadowHntr, RussBot, Brandon, Ninly, SmackBot, KD5TVI, Kharker, TheLeopard, Erzahler, OrphanBot, Parent5446, PetesGuide, GCW50, Steve413Z, KMCCLA, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Escarbot, Kf4yfd, BJ Axel,
The3wire, Watcher328, ChrisZeddybear, Swilson317, Old AM guy, Loren.wilton, Escapedtowisconsin, Sv1xv, Leonarp, Addbot, Da dawg
911, Yobot, Tulebox, Sierrathomas, BenzolBot, ZroBot, Cqdx, ChrisGualtieri, HBD20, Va3paw and Anonymous: 27
Radiosport Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiosport?oldid=648000966 Contributors: Ebear422, Silence, Gerry Lynch, Amire80,
Eubot, Brandon, Zzuuzz, Finell, Flibirigit, Choalbaton, Bluebot, Kharker, N5iln, R'n'B, Una Smith, Radio23, Dodger67, Addbot, Rubinbot,
Rw3fo, Agomarp and Anonymous: 2
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio%20emergency%
20communications?oldid=623363064 Contributors: Denelson83, ChrisRuvolo, ArnoldReinhold, Adambro, Rjairam, Rjwilmsi, Eubot, Ground Zero, Anonym1ty, Wavelength, StuOfInterest, Rsrikanth05, Member, Dsmouse, AndyCunningham, Ninly, Mike Selinker,
Bernd in Japan, Chris the speller, Kharker, Coinchon, MikeAus, Green1, Euchiasmus, Andrewjuren, Kc5fm, GCW50, DJGB, MnSteve,
Starionwolf, Thijs!bot, N5iln, Dawnseeker2000, Silver Edge, K7aay, LuckyLouie, Jc3, Harryzilber, Denpick, STBot, R'n'B, Wikip rhyre,
Tuckj001, Jronan, AHMartin, Lightmouse, Mygerardromance, ClueBot, XLinkBot, CMC5146, Stuckinthemud, Addbot, Some jerk on the
Internet, Photo1canada, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Bihco, Surv1v4l1st, Edderso, 9w2zxz, PleaseStand, EmausBot,
KK3Q, F, Dgaddis, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Richard Corso, BattyBot, Chris.rider81, Sheritnt, Mines.io, UB3GBN, HBD20
and Anonymous: 41
Amateur radio operator Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio%20operator?oldid=652923486 Contributors: Tempshill, Boy b, AJim, Peter Ellis, Piotrus, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Andrejj, Huntster, Sandstig, Kotoviski, Gjd131, Ground Zero,
StuOfInterest, Wigie, Member, Felsir, Thomas H. White, Ninly, Pb30, SmackBot, Kharker, Thumperward, Jorgen veisdal, GCW50,
Kozuch, Daven200520, Dweiss, Pcbene, Escarbot, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Skomorokh, Quentar, Wikip rhyre,
Thals1992, Vipinhari, HS2JFW, Synthebot, Magiclite, Kbrose, O2Explore, Diego Grez, MM3OXB, EoGuy, Pyr0technician, Sv1xv,
EhJJ, Kingdomer, Razorame, Onecrazy2003, Eliran Levi, Addbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Ilmap, Nojiratz, HRoestBot,
MastiBot, LA7ZKA, Neo-wikipedian, AToX15, DASHBot, H3llBot, GoldenGlory84, Widr, Jt1cs, Lz1aat, Hmainsbot1, Werddemer and
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Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Ap, Ik1tzo, PierreAbbat, Waveguy, Artsygeek, Heron, Arj, Netcrusher88, DevilRaysFan, Michael Hardy, Altailji, Bdowd, CesarB, Nanshu, Glenn, Kimiko, Kwekubo, Cimon Avaro, Deisenbe, John K, Wfeidt, Dying, Charles Matthews, Andrevan,
Reddi, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, SEWilco, Xyb, Mignon, Bloodshedder, M1fcj, Frazzydee, Mrdice, Denelson83,
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KB3JUV, Wtshymanski, Danhash, Wikicaz, CloudNine, Zoohouse, Ianblair23, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, Firthy2002, Jakes18,
Richard Weil, Johnwcowan, Feezo, Stemonitis, Flawiki, Bushytails, Linas, Pauley2483, Theloniouszen, Plaws, Rjairam, Df2dr, Shadyman,
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Gary Kirk, Goleson, Sailin, Grey Shadow, KVDP, TheDoctor10, Rjayres, Unforgettableid, Aij, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Kmarinas86,
Jenhowse, Schmiteye, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Pberrett, Kharker, Thumperward, Vees, RomaC, Dan Zimmerman, Zsinj, Dethme0w,
Frap, Nixeagle, Neo3DGfx, MikeAus, Ian01, PetesGuide, Dreadstar, Kc2idf, Ras123, Pilotguy, WA3VJB, Drunken Pirate, Will Beback,
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DodgerDean, March of the Ducks, LorenzoB, Edward321, Ekotkie, Misibacsi, TigerMo, PhantomS, Kf4yfd, Erazmus, N734LQ, Microsloth, PrestonH, Theonlysilentbob, EdBever, AceNZ, J.delanoy, EscapingLife, Wa3frp, Wikip rhyre, Neon white, Little Professor,
146
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Richard Weil, Richwales, Dismas, Woohookitty, RHaworth, LrdChaos, LOL, Dwilke, Plaws, Rjairam, Skywayman, Bunthorne, Zzyzx11,
GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Graham87, Haikupoet, Dpr, Broccoli, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, ZanderSchubert, Jmcc150, Vegaswikian, FlaBot,
SchuminWeb, Mark Sublette, GagHalfrunt, Anonym1ty, Mrschimpf, Antiuser, 121a0012, Burnte, Zimbabweed, Jpfagerback, Borgx, Raccoon Fox, Danbarnesdavies, RadioFan, Gaius Cornelius, Skotte, SigPig, Dputig07, Scottsher, Northstop, Flapeyre, Mysid, Lcmortensen,
Rayc, Ke6jjj, Ninly, Bayerischermann, Arthur Rubin, Danielx, LeonardoRob0t, Mgirardi, SmackBot, Gigs, WSpaceport, Karmastan, LaurenMcMillan, Small Point, Commander Keane bot, Robster2001, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Kharker, Wolfponddelta, Thaimodz,
Bazonka, Neo-Jay, Spiky Sharkie, Raymie, Trekphiler, Justox dizaola, Jmnbatista, Ctifumdope, BIL, MrRadioGuy, Dakilang Isagani,
WayKurat, BayRadioDJ, Ohconfucius, JKBrooks85, Ourai, Andrewjuren, MilborneOne, GCW50, Stattouk, Reverendlinux, Sjf, Arjoll,
Dr.K., Norm mit, Haus, Stereorock, Eastlaw, Toropop, Requestion, Virose09, Lironl, Phase Theory, Cydebot, Jmaynard, Gogo Dodo,
Bridgecross, Chris Henniker, N5iln, Darklilac, Leuqarte, Harryzilber, Giler, Charlene.c, RBBrittain, Ling.Nut, Buckshot06, Fallschirmjger, Jemauvais, MartinBot, E2a2j, Jim.henderson, Krushdiva, Zaky fahmi, R'n'B, Rorygoodbody, SarahHolloway, TomCat4680,
SenorBeef, HiLo48, Khairul hazim, CardinalDan, VolkovBot, PlaysInPeoria, RightSideNov, TXiKiBoT, Tonicblue, Rei-bot, HS2JFW,
Wiikipedian, Kwesta1a, Dblan010, Fasouzafreitas, Ultratone85, Y, Synthebot, AlleborgoBot, Jwc58, SieBot, Dav94, Editus Reloaded,
Dm955, Webfan29, Thor21, Judicatus, Diyforlife, Vk2cz, Mk32, Maelgwnbot, Hamiltondaniel, CARLMART, Omsk, ClueBot, EoGuy,
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Jafeluv, Stuart lyster, Tjlynnjr, CL, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Eivindbot, LaaknorBot, WikiEditor50, Favonian, Lightbot, , Nuberger13, Ivanov id, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Spewtime234, AnomieBOT, RadioBroadcast, ArthurBot, LilHelpa,
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bot, Fas426, Rr parker, Tbhotch, Garandel, Ripchip Bot, John of Reading, Marriage101, Dewritech, JustinTime55, Ryguy611, QuentinUK,
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YB9CES, Jakemarz197, Meeeeeeee39, Robert0288, Finnusertop, GinAndChronically and Anonymous: 266
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FlaBot, Intgr, Srleer, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Borgx, Aghost, CanadianCaesar, Tole, Bovineone, Alynna Kasmira, Mikeblas,
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UR3IRS, Addbot, Mortense, MrOllie, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, Uu2008, Ulesses, RibotBOT, FrescoBot,
Dcjones21,
, Dmuellenberg, EmausBot, Clusternote, BrianSnasSSI, Mocks9, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, 88frog, Sallyber, Sibyl77,
TransceiversUSA, DavidLeighEllis, Cabral88 and Anonymous: 71
Antenna (radio) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20(radio)?oldid=653810385 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Timo
Honkasalo, Andre Engels, Waveguy, Heron, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Dante Alighieri, Dcljr, Ellywa, Mac, Stevenj, Kingturtle, Aarchiba, Julesd, Glenn, AugPi, LouI, Cimon Avaro, GRAHAMUK, Arteitle, RickK, Reddi, Ww, Doradus, Greenrd, Zoicon5,
9.1. TEXT
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Jpgordon, Bobo192, Adrian, SpeedyGonsales, Haham hanuka, Hooperbloob, Red Winged Duck, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Wtshymanski, Stephan Leeds, Tony Sidaway, AngryParsley, Zoohouse, Bonzo, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Algocu, Angr, Woohookitty, Nuggetboy, Pol098, CaptainTickles, Kgrr, Zzyzx11, Clarkefreak, Kotoviski, Mandarax, BD2412, Snaekid, Tizio, Zbxgscqf, Sauermfj, Darguz
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, GrouchoBot,
, Nedim
Ardoa, AltairPayne, Shadowjams, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Nageh, Jc3s5h, Steve Quinn, OgreBot, Krish Dulal, Broadcasttransmitter, RedBot, Crcwiki, Cnwilliams, Digitat, Jugni, Trappist the monk, Francis E Williams, Hickorybark, Callanecc, Alanacheng,
DexDor, It1224, Bothamdesign, DASHBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, MrFawwaz, GoingBatty, Jmencisom, K6ka, Hhhippo, Johnnymartins, MaskedAce, Quondum, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Historikeren, Coolvariant, JordoCo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ybhavd, BG19bot,
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Eagle5eagle, Sunnymsoma, Antenna Guru, Maniladevi, Hrgirase and Anonymous: 311
Radio propagation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20propagation?oldid=652105223 Contributors: The Anome, Waveguy,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, Glenn, Marknew, Wfeidt, Andrevan, Reddi, Dysprosia, Denelson83, Twang, Robbot, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, Ssd,
Albany45, Beland, MistToys, Ojw, Geof, Rich Farmbrough, Cacophony, Smalljim, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Munkymu, RoySmith, Atomicthumbs, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, LOL, Bhamer, Plrk, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Nihiltres, Athantor, Compotatoj, Srleer, Random
user 39849958, Bgwhite, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Splash, Bergsten, Brandon, Mikeblas, Ma3nocum, Dan Austin, Reyk, ArielGold, DasBub, Kingboyk, SmackBot, Timrb, Hmains, Kmarinas86, A. B., Harumphy, Wharron, Drkirkby, Frap, MitchellShnier, Andrewpayneaqa,
Lambiam, Khazar, BDM, MonstaPro, SlayerK, Hetar, JoeBot, Civil Engineer III, G-W, Chetvorno, Nczempin, Requestion, Andkore,
Cydebot, Nsaum75, After Midnight, Epbr123, Barticus88, Sean2074, Malvineous, Autocracy, Lperez2029, CosineKitty, SiobhanHansa,
Otivaeey, WikiTraveller, NMarkRoberts, Logictheo, Highsand, Read-write-services, Kf4yfd, Sm8900, AntiSpamBot, Ale2006, Kn4lf,
The Original Wildbear, HopsonRoad, AlleborgoBot, NW7US, Lohost, Hertz1888, Rjfry, Igor.grigorov, Aillema, Miniapolis, Fratrep,
Susan118, Dabbdabb, Dp67, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Kathleen.wright5, Niceguyedc, Sv1xv, PixelBot, Rwestafer, Solterdisp, Cowpip, JediSaint, Addbot, Fgnievinski, TutterMouse, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, GateKeeper, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Nedim Ardoa, Stiepan
Pietrov, Veganacity, FrescoBot, Raise-the-Sail, BenzolBot, Kmarawer, 2A4Fh56OSA, Bejinhan, MaxDel, NZ4O, Dimitrisouza, Marie
Poise, N0nbh, GoingBatty, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Jimbo1qaz, Kkddkkdd, ChristophE, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Sirhc808, ChrisGualtieri, Bnland, Spyglasses, VE3BMV and Anonymous: 104
RST code Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RST%20code?oldid=653710039 Contributors: Dante Alighieri, Bdowd, Glenn, Mulad,
Andrevan, Denelson83, Wereon, Oberiko, Mboverload, Albany45, Gary D, D6, ArnoldReinhold, Topynate, Antaeus Feldspar, ChrisJ, Gene
Nygaard, Jcbos, Vegaswikian, RexNL, StuOfInterest, Stassats, Nozomikobe, Mysid, Ntouran, SmackBot, BirdValiant, Kharker, Neo-Jay,
Zsinj, Tsca.bot, PetesGuide, RST Ninja, MnSteve, Thijs!bot, LuckyLouie, OhanaUnited, Davandron, Synthebot, Truthanado, AHMartin,
VVVBot, Sv1xv, Sintaur, Addbot, OlEnglish, Pracchia-78, Legobot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, RadiomanPA, 2A4Fh56OSA, EmausBot, ZroBot,
Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, 32RB17 and Anonymous: 25
Amateur radio homebrew Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio%20homebrew?oldid=625355362 Contributors:
Denelson83, Alan Liefting, Mcapdevila, D6, Wtshymanski, Vegaswikian, StuOfInterest, Chris the speller, Kharker, Wizardman, Katin,
Scientizzle, N5iln, ErinHowarth, LuckyLouie, Nono64, MooresLaw, VU3RDD, O2Explore, Old AM guy, ClueBot, Mrbbking, Arkoutdoors, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Pyrocatch, Kc9ndr, Badbeaver9, John of Reading, Wingman4l7, UU1CC, Hoeksas, Ego White
Tray, KLBot2, Mohamed CJ, SkylonS, Eric Corbett and Anonymous: 13
Vintage amateur radio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintage%20amateur%20radio?oldid=654653815 Contributors: ArnoldReinhold, Adambro, Je3000, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Brandon, Tony1, Jhamner, KVDP, HeartofaDog, Kharker,
W8IMP, Tktktk, Lenn0r, Judgesurreal777, Stereorock, Ve3bdb, N5iln, JustAGal, ErinHowarth, LuckyLouie, Rico402, Harryzilber, Petecarney, Dsergeant, Nposs, Totalpardo, Nono64, Rpeh, Finley Breese, VolkovBot, Addbot, Pietrow, The Bushranger, Yobot, Tanceymae,
F1jmm, W8jyz, Ego White Tray, Floydvirginia, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kendall-K1, Cqdx, LezFraniak, W5hro, Powercat30544 and
Anonymous: 22
Amateur television Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20television?oldid=652705457 Contributors: SimonP, Tedernst,
Chuq, Jwrosenzweig, Radiojon, Itai, Denelson83, Robbot, Rfc1394, Texture, Dianora, Alan Liefting, Wmahan, Bumm13, Tomwalden,
Kevin Rector, Cmdrjameson, Sparkgap, Redfarmer, Wtshymanski, Jakes18, Plaws, Eyreland, Rjwilmsi, Misternuvistor, Krash,
Anonym1ty, RobyWayne, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Member, Brandon, Mikeblas, Voidxor, Mysid, SmackBot, Nsayer, KelleyCook, Pberrett, Benjamin Mako Hill, PiMaster3, Hoof Hearted, Jcembree, Dakart, Joseph Solis in Australia, Stereorock, Cydebot, Barticus88, Elec-
148
tron9, Tirk, JustAGal, Harryzilber, CosineKitty, Gwern, Kf4yfd, G1MFG, R'n'B, Kc8ryw, RingtailedFox, Alinja, Barkeep, ClueBot,
EoGuy, Winston365, Microscan5ep, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Pyrocatch, WikiDreamer Bot, Wasabi, TheAMmollusc, Captain-n00dle, A little insignicant, Francis E Williams, DASHBot, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, Majestic Pyre, JordoCo, Cqdx, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous:
37
QRP operation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QRP%20operation?oldid=640681666 Contributors: The Anome, Arj, Michael
Hardy, Wfeidt, Wik, KeithH, DavidCary, Ds13, Ssd, Albany45, Vu2lid, Rich Farmbrough, Ptemples, Andrewpmk, K8la, Wtshymanski,
FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Jengelh, Zwobot, Espia, Dddstone, Curpsbot-unicodify, Elliskev, SmackBot, JohnMarranca, KD5TVI, Kharker,
Adamantios, Cthighe, Deritchie, Thijs!bot, Kantarjiev, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Kauczuk, Rico402, Terrypin, Dsergeant, Nodekeeper, Olsonist, Masoris, Adavidb, Tkgd2007, Dnevil, TXiKiBoT, Billinghurst, N5na, GlassFET, Briefer, Igor.grigorov, Callidior, Dlrohrer2003, R
in remacr, Arkoutdoors, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, KVK2005, Legobot, Yobot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Eumolpo, 2A4Fh56OSA, Kk5na,
EmausBot, Floydvirginia, Leschyna, ClueBot NG, Cntras, Ea5bcx, Vk2gaz, Cqdx, Cqeme and Anonymous: 52
Contesting Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contesting?oldid=652044448 Contributors: Arj, Marcika, Gerry Lynch, Sietse Snel,
Richard Weil, ScottDavis, Admrboltz, MONGO, Plaws, Rjairam, Andromeda321, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Ian Pitchford, StuOfInterest, M0RHI, Brandon, Theodolite, Zedex, Wikiwawawa, JLaTondre, SmackBot, McGeddon, Sloman, Betacommand, Bluebot, Kharker,
Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Radagast83, FlyHigh, 16@r, Hu12, JZap, KyraVixen, MnSteve, Requestion, Mike65535, Betacommand2, N5iln, X96lee15, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Alphachimpbot, Dsergeant, R. A. Wilson, DerHexer, Lisamh, Nono64, Numbo3,
CWii, Rclocher3, Lu1dz, Radio23, Pj2dx, Dodger67, ImageRemovalBot, Sdrtirs, DumZiBoT, Philsherrod, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot,
Yobot, Gerixau, FrescoBot, MastiBot, Rw3fo, ChristophE, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Agomarp, Kb1hnz, 32RB17 and Anonymous:
135
List of amateur radio modes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20amateur%20radio%20modes?oldid=638676266 Contributors: Glenn, ChrisRuvolo, Smalljim, Sparkgap, Wtshymanski, Bookandcoee, ScottDavis, SmackBot, Kharker, ChardingLLNL,
Edit Centric, Kf4yfd, Nono64, Andy Dingley, Expeditionradio, Alexbot, Bagdadginger, VK6DNA, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Asd6845, Kjotte, SteenthIWbot and Anonymous: 6
Morse code Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse%20code?oldid=655250314 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Tobias Hoevekamp,
WojPob, Mav, Bryan Derksen, 0, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ed Poor, Christian List, Ben-Zin, Mjb, Heron, Arj, Xoder, PhilipMW,
Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Cyde, Delirium, Altailji, CruciedChrist, Gbleem, Ducker, Ahoerstemeier, Rboatright,
Rossami, Kwekubo, Hpa, Wfeidt, Denny, Mulad, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Geary, Bjh21, Timc, Radiojon, Furrykef, Tero, Omegatron,
Bevo, Xyb, Joy, Dcsohl, Pakaran, Johnleemk, Denelson83, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Noldoaran, Friedo, Fredrik, Chris 73, Scriptwriter, RedWolf, Altenmann, Romanm, Lowellian, YBeayf, Wikibot, Wereon, Vikreykja, Pifactorial, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, David Gerard,
Giftlite, JamesMLane, Thorne, Laudaka, Nichalp, BenFrantzDale, Lee J Haywood, Lupin, RealGrouchy, Hagedis, Karn, Ds13, Everyking,
Gus Polly, Lussmu, Ssa, Ssd, Filceolaire, Sdsher, Tom-, Jackol, Pne, Bobblewik, Ragib, Celerityfm, DavidBrooks, Gazibara, Slowking
Man, Sonjaaa, Cyber-It, Rdsmith4, Glogger, Heirpixel, Xeroc, Jagnor, ArthurDenture, Mschlindwein, Demiurge, Lacrimosus, Grstain,
ChrisRuvolo, Ultratomio, Spiko-carpediem, Discospinster, Brianhe, Jerde, ArnoldReinhold, Smyth, R.123, Mani1, SpookyMulder, ZeroOne, Kjoonlee, Violetriga, Pt, Kwamikagami, Shanes, RoyBoy, Orlady, Gdt, Femto, One-dimensional Tangent, Causa sui, Bobo192,
Nigelj, Vervin, MaxHund, Elipongo, Slugguitar, Acjelen, Slambo, David Gale, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Hooperbloob, Leifern, Xideum, TobyRush, Ranveig, Alansohn, Andrewpmk, Verdlanco, Yamla, Lectonar, Zippanova, ScooterSES, SlimVirgin, Gblaz, Bart133, DreamGuy,
Wtmitchell, BRW, Wtshymanski, RainbowOfLight, John5008, Joeva3eo, DV8 2XL, Mattbrundage, Mosesofmason, Richard Weil, DrDaveHPP, Jerey O. Gustafson, Oxling, Daira Hopwood, MONGO, Beastmaster, Rjairam, Kelisi, Frungi, Eyreland, Waldir, Jonnabuz,
Gimboid13, Essjay, Waterboy12, Palica, Kotoviski, MrSomeone, Mandarax, Kesla, SqueakBox, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae,
BD2412, Li-sung, Reisio, Josh Parris, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, Koavf, Syndicate, Binkowski, Jivecat, Leeyc0, Tangotango,
Goldfndr, SMC, NeonMerlin, Bubba73, Bhadani, Dermeister, Sango123, N0YKG, FlaBot, Wars, Anonym1ty, TeaDrinker, Sderose, Vidkun, Butros, Jarubel, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Sceptre, Kencaesi, Kniveton, FrenchIsAwesome,
Me and, Cougarwalk, Bergsten, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Stephenb, Grubber, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Wimt, NatureBoy, Den68cube, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Astral, Kemkerj, ONEder Boy, Maikeru Go, Robchurch, Waterguy, Ke4djt, Brandon, Jpbowen,
Mikeblas, Ospalh, RussHolsclaw, Scottsher, DeadEyeArrow, Jeh, Graham Jones, Nescio, Thomas H. White, Cstaa, Poochy, Slicing,
EAderhold, Blueyoshi321, Orchid Righteous, Emijrp, Sagsaw, Ninly, Zeppelin4life, Theda, Xorx, Skittle, Yaco, PMHauge, Moomoomoo,
GrinBot, Elliskev, DVD R W, That Guy, From That Show!, Mawa, Crystallina, SmackBot, MattieTK, Timrb, Mmernex, Hydrogen Iodide, Dminott, Pgk, C.Fred, Blue520, Jagged 85, Michael Dorosh, Jab843, Xaosux, Cool3, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, Leighklotz, LeighKlotz, Durova, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kharker, W8IMP, Ian13, Jordanhurley, Miquonranger03, McNeight, Wtroopwept, DHN-bot, Audriusa, Royboycrashfan, Dethme0w, NYKevin, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Nixeagle, TheKMan, Rrburke, Sidious1701, Gragox, Nakon, PetesGuide, Weregerbil, The PIPE, Fagstein, Pilotguy, NeoVampTrunks, Blahm, SashatoBot,
EMan32x, Xdamr, Michael Thomas Ryan, Mouse Nightshirt, Ringmaster j, Buchanan-Hermit, Minna Sora no Shita, Gahs, Peterlewis, Mr.
Lefty, Special-T, Beetstra, SQGibbon, KHAAAAAAAAAAN, SlayerK, Rizome, Warder, Es330td, Mets501, MTSbot, Zapvet, Twinpinesmall, Klimot, Paul Koning, Lathrop1885, Grblomerth, Wikited, Rangi42, JayHenry, Tawkerbot2, Vanisaac, Aplonis, JForget, Dkazdan,
Washi, Nczempin, MnSteve, W1tgf, Trocisp, Requestion, Moreschi, MeekMark, Smoove Z, HiFlyChick, Cydebot, Abeg92, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Mike65535, MC10, Gogo Dodo, Palmiped, Numnuz, Tawkerbot4, Dinnerbone, Briantw, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daa89563,
N5iln, Mojo Hand, Berria, A3RO, LarsJensen, Siwiak, Miller17CU94, Big Bird, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, Nivek1385, Escarbot,
Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Yonatan, JurgenG, Seaphoto, Czj, Doc Tropics, Sconklin, LuckyLouie, North Shoreman, Spencer, Wolf grey,
Lklundin, Ingolfson, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, MER-C, CosineKitty, Aris00, MegX, Magioladitis, Bakilas, Hkiernan, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Benimatt, JNW, Yakushima, Dsergeant, Aka042, Avicennasis, Bubba hotep, Catgut, WikiTraveller, ChrisSmol, DonVincenzo, LindaKaySmith, Glen, DerHexer, 1549bcp, Eeera, Dadrados, Hdt83, MartinBot, BetBot, Ratty., Juansidious, Glrx, Miltnoda,
Mschel, R'n'B, Paulmcdonald, Slugger, J.delanoy, Carre, Maurice Carbonaro, Rob Burbidge, Benscripps, Tdadamemd, Acalamari, G4bki,
Michael Daly, Hardaker, Ncmvocalist, McSly, MaxNewby, Davandron, Glens userspace watcher, NewEnglandYankee, Gnofs, Newtman,
ThinkBlue, Mufka, Rumpelstiltskin223, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Evb-wiki, Spiesr, Vanished user 39948282, Pekster, Gtg204y, Zomgpwnagedeath, OmgIRox0rz, Finley Breese, Vilem l., PeaceNT, Deor, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Lordmontu, Kriplozoik, Leebo, JoeDeRose,
Cullaloe, Ai4ijoel, DancingMan, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, Muro de Aguas, Alsaf, Miranda, Spence598, Anonymous
Dissident, HS2JFW, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Seraphim, Mars12343, Dapet123456, Wizzkid11, Liberal Classic, Ruzmutuz, Teh romaoer,
Rhopkins8, GerdLivJalla, Spinningspark, Kaori, Magiclite, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Quantpole, Aducore, EmxBot, Willy on Waterloo,
K7DFA, SieBot, Junh1024, Tiddly Tom, WereSpielChequers, Caltas, Joeames, Happysailor, Flyer22, Ts15210, Oxymoron83, Nuttycoconut, KoshVorlon, RW Marloe, Alex.muller, Stephen Shaw, Svick, Mygerardromance, Altzinn, Philkawa, Tiny plastic Grey Knight, ClueBot, Marcinjeske, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, FLAHAM, CounterVandalismBot, Sv1xv, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax,
Dh1jc, Da rulz07, Jammy0002, Shivanyomira, NuclearWarfare, Jotterbot, Tnxman307, P1415926535, ChrisHodgesUK, La Pianista, Ax-
9.1. TEXT
149
elRvR, Thingg, Thecommonenemy, Aitias, Tostitoscheese, DerBorg, MelonBot, Kruusamgi, Onomou, Iceman2566, Antediluvian67,
DumZiBoT, Sm7etw, Amosm, XLinkBot, Kjelles, PvtKing, Spitre, James Kanjo, Jovianeye, Actam, WikHead, SilvonenBot, MagnesianPhoenix, ThatWikiGuy, Ohmdad, Sintaur, Alchaemist, Addbot, 3qwerty100, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Chieltjee123, DaughterofSun, AkhtaBot, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, FDT, Cst17, Download, Sillyfolkboy, Glane23, Chzz, Debresser, Doniago, Ductape821, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Math Champion, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Nallimbot, KeelNar, KamikazeBot, Alexkin,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Fahadsadah, Quispiam, Kingpin13, Law, Ulric1313, Flewis, Materialscientist,
ImperatorExercitus, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Eumolpo, Emilhem, Frankenpuppy, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Xqbot, HomieGangstas,
Dawzab, JimVC3, Tad Lincoln, Jmundo, Frenchpoodle53, GrouchoBot, Narrow Mind, Tembry, Mark Schierbecker, Joshuakester, Catzrcute, Erik9, Tylermc94, Empobla, Shooter.tim, StaticVision, Michael93555, Xhaoz, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, DrilBot, Pinethicket,
Grigg Skjellerup, 2A4Fh56OSA, MJ94, Fizzotter, Sudfa, Tim1357, MusicNewz, TobeBot, SchreyP, Ticklewickleukulele, Matzpersson,
Skb999, Lotje, Vrenator, Johns birds, Lukeruth64, Weedwhacker128, Tbhotch, Minimac, Baytowngirl, Taher2000, Jotge, DexDor, Regancy42, Ajraddatz, Wikipelli, Shearonink, Battoe19, H3llBot, AManWithNoPlan, Demiurge1000, L Kensington, Conan the editor, Orange Suede Sofa, Raggy big man, Rocketrod1960, Yeksort, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Zelpld, Hans Eo, JDB1126!, ChristophE,
Reg porter, Pete k1po, Kasirbot, Widr, JordoCo, ImperioIgnus, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Andrew Gwilliam, Titodutta, Ohhhhhno,
BG19bot, Pure Crazy, Nen, MusikAnimal, Insidiae, HTML2011, Verzer, Viktor Eikman, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Spicyitalianmeatball, Czech is Cyrillized, Graphium, AshFR, Bubbaslars, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Rachelhjae, Hoppeduppeanut, Hu Ping Sanchez, Gregnes2000, Ginsuloft, George8211, Stu 1977 SEmelb, Gangstagoalie, Giovanny.ores85, JohnSHicks, Markfont, TerryAlex, Hg76b, Bob the
builder211 and Anonymous: 954
PSK31 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSK31?oldid=654552661 Contributors: Arj, Glenn, Wfeidt, Dysprosia, Bloodshedder, Denelson83, Scriptwriter, Naddy, Graeme Bartlett, Ssd, Albany45, Bobblewik, TonyW, Jcorgan, MementoVivere, Femto, Simon South, Watsonladd, Gblaz, RJFJR, Eyreland, EdDavies, FlaBot, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Mysid, Deville, Ninly, Rearden9, Tom Du, SmackBot, ChrisRed, LeighKlotz, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Thumperward, McNeight, OSborn, Adamantios, A5b, Autopilot, KerryVeenstra,
Requestion, Kauczuk, CosineKitty, Chrismurf, ChrisSmol, Kf4yfd, Conquerist, Omehegan, Davandron, Banjodog, Chris G4PDJ, Sv1xv,
Sun Creator, Norandav, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Wolfeye90, Lightbot, Vincent stehle, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Oalp1003,
Jonesey95, Jacobwg, D2lraq, AvicBot, F, TallGary, DavieCook, Jodosma and Anonymous: 51
D-STAR Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-STAR?oldid=655350325 Contributors: Edward, Bruce Perens, Glenn, Monupics, Ssd,
Rchandra, Albany45, Bobblewik, DmitryKo, ChrisRuvolo, Adambro, Pearle, Alansohn, Stephan Leeds, Danhash, Shadyman, Rjwilmsi,
CQJ, The Deviant, Gary Cziko, Anonym1ty, Intgr, StuOfInterest, Revclyde, Smartyhall, Brandon, Rearden9, Edward Waverley, SmackBot, ArielGonzalez, Nsayer, Hmains, Betacommand, Kharker, McNeight, EdgeOfEpsilon, OrphanBot, Midnightcomm, MrRadioGuy,
Hornetd, GCW50, Wickethewok, Chrisn8cuh, Iridescent, Bonkerzbanks, CmdrObot, Neelix, Gogo Dodo, Odysseus654, Betacommand2,
N5iln, We6jbo, Dawnseeker2000, Hyperial, Flex Flint, SolarWind, MER-C, Terrypin, Singularity, Oroso, PhantomS, Kf4yfd, Conquerist,
G1MFG, Speck-Made, BJ Axel, W2xab, Cometstyles, Kc0yef, TXiKiBoT, Hubtech, Squirejohn, Castco, Aviator00, Rjcabral, Lightmouse, Altzinn, Sneaky rupert, ClueBot, Natetech, Sv1xv, Sun Creator, Martin 262, Ray599, Quest2k, XLinkBot, Danmsmith, Addbot, Ewoodrick, W6ob, BeckyTech, Download, Ettrig, EA3BKZ, Luckas-bot, Hwardsil, AnomieBOT, On4sax, LilHelpa, J04n, Alanwaye2000, FrescoBot, BigDwiki, Hatchradio, Irbisgreif, Cnwilliams, Jerey.d.miller, KF7CEG, Pearce10, John of Reading, Dewritech,
Josve05a, H3llBot, MinersC, ZacharyLassiter, Kc0itf, Tot12, Mongoosander, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Bobofthedeep, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Kgregc, Nen, Bonnie13J, Bridog2010, Pedroypinacolada, Teeed, Schakko, Monkbot, AKS.9955, Johnny The Bass, Bluebelly99, Icom
UK, F4FXL, Rahul kapoor193 and Anonymous: 147
Meteor burst communications Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor%20burst%20communications?oldid=654100070 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Phil Boswell, Bobblewik, Beland, Gerry Lynch, Andromeda321, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Ground Zero, Gurch,
Anonym1ty, CambridgeBayWeather, Howcheng, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Jairbear, Kharker, Colonies Chris, Sholom,
Autopilot, Vgy7ujm, Andrewjuren, AT2663, Hikitsurisan, N2e, Requestion, Cydebot, Harryzilber, LorenzoB, STBot, Akulo, TXiKiBoT,
This, that and the other, Iknowyourider, Kurihaya, Addbot, Lightbot, Wasabi, AnomieBOT, Tom.Reding, Greyboar and Anonymous: 22
OSCAR Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSCAR?oldid=650663039 Contributors: The Anome, Andre Engels, Netcrusher88, Ellywa, Dimadick, David Edgar, Pengo, Karn, Ssd, Siroxo, Peter Ellis, LaithPreston, Gadum, Keith Edkins, MarkBurnett, Bumm13,
ChrisRuvolo, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold, Eric Shalov, Bender235, John Vandenberg, Sparkgap, Poli, RoySmith, Drydiggins, Hu,
Snowolf, Simone, Woohookitty, Plaws, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Henristosch, Jordan Elder, Bgwhite, Whosasking,
YurikBot, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Member, Pstakem, Brandon, SmackBot, Brian Patrie, Kharker, Colonies Chris,
Beatgr, Adamantios, Ultraexactzz, John, SimonasK, Daniel5127, Will314159, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandalBot, Achra, Ad88110, Harryzilber, Bongwarrior, Swpb, Glen, DerHexer, Kf4yfd, R'n'B, Javawizard, PhirePhly, Katharineamy,
Acdtrux, Kyle the bot, Qxz, Jetforme, COBot, Dodger67, I8B, Orionfrankie, ClueBot, Grebenkov, Marcric, Noosentaal, Eliran Levi,
Addbot, Dawynn, CarsracBot, Bae gab1978, Bunnyhop11, Del-n3Xt, Thedillybar, RadioBroadcast, Eumolpo, Xqbot, Grinofwales,
FrescoBot, Qassimy citizen, Full-date unlinking bot,
, John of Reading, H3llBot, Clintbradford, ChuispastonBot, ChiZeroOne,
ClueBot NG, Jostikas, Technical 13, Ninney, Newdoor, Cqdx, Khazar2, DryominG, Pvpoodle, PE7EB, Josephhoang69 and Anonymous:
71
EME (communications) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication?oldid=
649982015 Contributors: Malcolm Farmer, Bukowski, LUNDAVRA, KeithH, Greudin, Spamhog, Litefantastic, Hartze11, Mstyne, Edsanville, Gordonjcp, Gerry Lynch, Adambro, Sukiari, Wtshymanski, Eyreland, Kotoviski, Vegaswikian, Bubba73, Metropolitan90, Tdevries, Brandon, Evmore, Fernblatt, Nolanus, Rearden9, Curpsbot-unicodify, RupertMillard, SmackBot, KelleyCook, Hmains, Bluebot,
Harumphy, GCW50, JorisvS, RoboDick, Pierre cb, Chetvorno, Emote, KerryVeenstra, RM21, Marc W. Abel, Cydebot, Quibik, Markus
Pssel, Twodeel, Jim.henderson, VolkovBot, HS2JFW, Adi86, VVVBot, This, that and the other, Iknowyourider, Dodger67, ClueBot,
Egmontaz, Ea6vq, Addbot, Chzz, Watson v2, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, Xqbot, Ekconklin, Alan.poindexter, Full-date unlinking
bot, IVAN3MAN, Robertfbrand, EmausBot, Jmencisom, ZroBot, Wingtipvortex, Visual Moonbounce, Andyhowlett and Anonymous: 48
American Radio Relay League Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Radio%20Relay%20League?oldid=642638836 Contributors: Hephaestos, DavidWBrooks, CatherineMunro, Timc, Maximus Rex, Morwen, Bloodshedder, Denelson83, Scriptwriter, TheLight, Crculver, Ssd, Albany45, Wmahan, Dingo, Fredcondo, Grstain, CanisRufus, Ptemples, Jeodesic, Gblaz, Phyllis1753, KB3JUV,
Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Richard Weil, Flawiki, Aperezbios, Pol098, Rjairam, Wikiklrsc, Stmoose, Rjwilmsi, GeekNJ, Vegaswikian,
StuOfInterest, DanMS, Malepheasant, Ninly, Markvs88, Elliskev, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Kharker, Dojotony, Neo-Jay, Dethme0w,
OrphanBot, Stereorock, CmdrObot, MnSteve, Thijs!bot, N5iln, LuckyLouie, Glennwells, Harryzilber, CosineKitty, Micah1701, Balloonguy, Kf4yfd, Adavidb, Ka6s, Daveh4h, AHMartin, Thor21, Lightmouse, RedBlade7, Dodger67, Rumping, PipepBot, FLAHAM,
150
Kathleen.wright5, Sv1xv, Stepheng3, DumZiBoT, SPasse, W1agp, Wmorine, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Xqbot, Ekconklin, FrescoBot, RadiomanPA, ChristophE, DonnaHalper, Jtpmalloy, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, DaltonCastle, DangerouslyPersuasiveWriter, Sonanto, Sankar510, Monkbot, Bleakre and Anonymous: 34
Federal Communications Commission Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Communications%20Commission?oldid=
655434223 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, The Cunctator, The Anome, Christian List, William Avery, DavidLevinson, Lefte, RamMan, Edward, Patrick, Wapcaplet, Zanimum, Paul A, Minesweeper, Ellywa, Stan Shebs, Mac, Darkwind, Glenn, Jeandr du Toit, Mxn,
Mulad, Novum, Charles Matthews, WhisperToMe, Radiojon, Markhurd, Kaare, Furrykef, Populus, Jeq, Owen, Denelson83, Sdedeo, Earl
Andrew, Scriptwriter, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Modulatum, Calmypal, Tim Ivorson, Postdlf, Rfc1394, JoeBaldwin, Acegikmo1, PBP,
Superm401, Alan Liefting, Kevin Sa, Cokoli, Tom harrison, Lupin, Gamaliel, Maroux, Guanaco, Mboverload, Alvestrand, Wmahan,
Ran, Antandrus, JoJan, CaribDigita, Jokestress, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Jacooks, Scottk, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pmsyyz, Ericamick, MeltBanana, Bender235, Evice, PedanticallySpeaking, El C, DS1953, Bletch, SS451, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Dralwik, Mochi, Viriditas,
R. S. Shaw, ZayZayEM, Adrian, Darwinpolice, Kyouteki, RussBlau, Maxl, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Roryconlin, CyberSkull, Andrewpmk,
Zippanova, Echuck215, TommyBoy, Wtmitchell, RPH, Wtshymanski, Staeiou, Amorymeltzer, H2g2bob, S3ven, Cmc0, Seth Goldin, Algocu, Ceyockey, Richard Weil, Weyes, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Firsfron, Woohookitty, Scriberius, Rajiv Varma,
Tluskie, Rjairam, Tapir2001, Dzordzm, Bbatsell, SDC, Dtwitkowski, Karam.Anthony.K, Jcuk, Deltabeignet, GoldRingChip, Kalmia,
BD2412, Kbdank71, Sj, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, WCFrancis, NekoFever, Vegaswikian, Yamamoto Ichiro, N0YKG, SNIyer12,
Ground Zero, WWC, CR85747, Nowhither, Doc glasgow, Gurch, RStevens, Mrschimpf, BMF81, Chobot, Hermitage, VolatileChemical, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, SkyCaptain, Aussie Evil, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Crazytales, Peter S., Belarm,
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Superluser, Geopgeop, Erpingham, Deville, Josh3580, Rlove, TBadger, Peter, Mais oui!, SkinnerIJA, Garion96, Katieh5584, JayWright,
John Broughton, D Monack, Chrismith, CraigRNielsen, Snalwibma, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, MattieTK, Ntz, JMPerez, Hydrogen Iodide, C.Fred, Mrsfgc, Antrophica, Discordanian, Frymaster, Mauls, Ga, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Andy M. Wang, Chris the
speller, Kharker, Keegan, NCurse, Thumperward, Moogle001, EncMstr, Deuxhero, Vees, Hibernian, A. B., Mikker, Famspear, Muboshgu,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Msr69er, JonHarder, Greenshed, Elendils Heir, Demoeconomist, MrRadioGuy, Romwarne, Nuj, Shadow1,
Thething88, IrisKawling, Vndr, Gbinal, DMacks, Airwolf, Rodrigogomespaixao, Qmwne235, Pixelanteninja, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, Michael Romanov, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Alakey2010, Kuru, J. Finkelstein, Astuishin, Slakr, Shangrilaista, NAFLK,
Arctic-Editor, Rcannon100, Beefyt, Levineps, Hetar, BranStark, Jastcy, Cats Tuxedo, Iridescent, 293.xx.xxx.xx, RekishiEJ, Amakuru,
CapitalR, Marysunshine, Courcelles, Morgan Wick, Tawkerbot2, Jh12, Conrad.Irwin, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dycedarg, Clindberg, Edward Vielmetti, Eagleearthelf, Rikva, Jokes Free4Me, Jetcat33, Simply south, Chessmaster3, Cydebot, Mjmarcus, Reywas92,
Thewinchester, Paddles, Zzsignup, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, 0dd1, Hazmat2, 24fan24, PHV, Highnote, Wildthing61476, Fairytale master,
Therequiembellishere, Rachellechong, Dawnseeker2000, Pie Man 360, Lasarletter, Visik, Baville, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Luna Santin,
Widefox, Seaphoto, Mattva01, Superzohar, Jkosmin, Storkk, Leuko, Husond, Harryzilber, Barek, MER-C, Prpolicy, Instinct, Getaway,
Tstrobaugh, Kirrages, .anacondabot, Geniac, SteveSims, Rogerroll, Xoneca, Meeples, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot,
RBBrittain, Skapare, Hekerui, JLMadrigal, Cgingold, Mathmagic, MartinBot, Jeconn, Jim.henderson, Blomster, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, J.delanoy, Erisie, Jesant13, Vanished user 342562, DarkFalls, Ncmvocalist, McSly, Tvbarn, JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, Mrceleb2007, DadaNeem, STACKAGUCCI, Doomsdayer520, Gwen Gale, Mincebert, Jvcdude, Andy Marchbanks, Useight, N6ne,
StoptheDatabaseState, Xiahou, Funandtrvl, GIBBOUS3, X!, Deor, RingtailedFox, Hersfold, Mermcb, Tentative, Soliloquial, Helenalex,
Philip Trueman, Fran Rogers, Rmauger, TreyTateM, GDonato, Ann Stouter, Qxz, Econterms, Vgranucci, Maxim, Ordermaven, TheValentineBros, HiDrNick, Zarek, AlexShalom, DBowers, No fcc, Nxxus, Yngvarr, ToePeu.bot, Iw, Bachcell, Caltas, Keilana, Bentogoa, Quest for Truth, Arbor to SJ, Jsjellybean26, Larvaofthelost, SilverbackNet, Lightmouse, Mayalld, Replkk, Int21h, Pianodeblues,
AlanUS, StaticGull, Wuhwuzdat, TaerkastUA, Nbarnosky, Kanonkas, Cellorelio, RsVolcom, ClueBot, LP-mn, Fyyer, L12ra, Rodhullandemu, EoGuy, Synthiac, Alfredemv, UKoch, Blanchardb, Axcordion, Killallrappers, Auntof6, Jak picard, Time for action, Excirial,
-Midorihana-, John Nevard, Adimovk5, Rhododendrites, Razorame, Ottawa4ever, Aitias, Versus22, MelonBot, Rockahe, DumZiBoT,
Scapler, XLinkBot, Forbes72, AURRYZ, Dthomsen8, SilvonenBot, Wca08, Chrisproctor123, Addbot, ConCompS, Melab-1, Landon1980,
Friginator, Ronhjones, Scientus, Vrray people107, Jarvishunt, RTG, Gifas, Ruanagger?, Buster7, SomeDamnGoodKing, Ld100, Slepsta, Spursrule27, Bwrs, Tide rolls, WQDW412, Lightbot, SasiSasi, Jarble, Yobot, Librsh, AnomieBOT, Samcan, Galoubet, Justme89,
Materialscientist, RadioBroadcast, Ewikdjmco, AHamiltonPhillips, Sweendog13, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Jimmyward13, Xqbot, LQHenry,
Jayarathina, GranoblasticMan, Brejes, Takencharm, Winterize, Heslopian, Dupomang, SpaceGirl09, Ptmc2112, Wikijihad, WikiJihad2,
Sewblon, A.amitkumar, BoomerAB, Komitsuki, Tobby72, Poolsouimet, Nsmolney, Johnaldinio, M Jennings06, Tintenschlein, Elockid,
LizzieBabes419, Abc518, Mehrunes Dagon, F A ERLKG, Wiki editor 874, Lotje, MAsutakusu, Landmobile, Ireneswu, Superman83,
LifeWizard101, Keegscee, RjwilmsiBot, Mcmonsterbrothers, Jesseesteves, Barrymanilow15, Crazyjack56, Wintonian, Salvio giuliano,
Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, Domesticenginerd, Ajraddatz, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Gallantgoat2, Mreatard, KnowlegeFirst, Cranko90s,
Dopo14, Osmium192, Seamussor, AutoGeek, Mohsen.1987, Sross (Public Policy), Dojobrahman, Bobbotheclown, Redcentralmule, ClueBot NG, Jaobar, Twillisjr, Fruitmonster2, Ea0308, Svlberg, CopperSquare, TheMorbidAngel, JordoCo, Anupmehra, Thengeveld, Arrya, Johnwest1999, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, Johnlynksex, Adrianna8j, BG19bot, M0rphzone, MusikAnimal, Dan653,
DPBT1, Thelastredshirt, Fccdave, Qataq, Glacialfox, David78209, Riley Huntley, Popyman, ChrisGualtieri, BDE1982, Epicgenius, CsDix, I am One of Many, Hut001, One Of Seven Billion, Kharkiv07, Arunge2698, Mesyre, Ginsuloft, FDMS4, Henry3898383, Ethically
Yours, Violationofairspace, Iwonderwhereioatnext, Benutzernamen188 66 8 0, FCC = Htr Apologists, Sciophobiaranger, Tellthefcc,
Sparky rad, MrWonka, AMuseOfFire, HappytobebackinCalifornia and Anonymous: 606
QST Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QST?oldid=647081473 Contributors: Bearcat, Scriptwriter, Ebear422, Klemen Kocjancic, D6,
Adambro, Evolauxia, Grenavitar, Ceyockey, Brookie, Alynna Kasmira, Thomas H. White, Reyk, SmackBot, Kharker, Slackermonkey, MnSteve, Cristo39, Derekbd, McM.bot, FLAHAM, Kathleen.wright5, Janisterzaj, Addbot, Jojhutton, Luckas-bot, Surv1v4l1st, RadiomanPA,
Lotje, Set theorist, ZroBot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 16
WorldRadio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldRadio?oldid=647082752 Contributors: Bearcat, Evolauxia, SmackBot, Kharker,
Badtux, Dawnseeker2000, RightSideNov, Dawynn, VernoWhitney, Jkummerwro, Mike Tarrant and Anonymous: 1
9.2 Images
File:"40-9'er"_QRP_CW_Transceiver.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/%2240-9%27er%22_
QRP_CW_Transceiver.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: 40-9'er QRP CW Transceiver Original artist: kc7fys
9.2. IMAGES
151
File:0_number_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/0_number_morse_code.ogg License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: JoeDeRose
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File:5_number_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/5_number_morse_code.ogg License:
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File:6_number_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/6_number_morse_code.ogg License:
File:6_sector_site_in_CDMA.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/6_sector_site_in_CDMA.jpg License:
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File:8_number_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/8_number_morse_code.ogg License:
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Original artist: ?
File:A6-2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/A6-2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:A6-4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/A6-4.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:ARRL_Radiogram_front.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/ARRL_Radiogram_front.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:ARRL Radiogram.jpg Original artist:
The American Radio Relay League (g7ahn)
File:A_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/A_morse_code.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: JoeDeRose
File:A_through_Z_in_Morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/A_through_Z_in_Morse_code.
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artist: ?
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File:Antenna.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Antenna.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own
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File:Arrl_logo.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c4/Arrl_logo.png License: Fair use Contributors:
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152
File:Atlas210x.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/93/Atlas210x.png License: Public domain Contributors:

public domain
Original artist:
LuckyLouie (talk) 13:28, 10 July 2008 (UTC)
File:B_morse_code.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/B_morse_code.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: JoeDeRose
File:Bencher_paddle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Bencher_paddle.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
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File:Camporee.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Camporee.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original uploader was GCW50 at en.wikipedia Original artist: GCW50
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File:Civil_Air_Patrol_Cessna_172_on_flight_line.jpg Source:
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YellowIcon
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artist: ?
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? Original artist: ?
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Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
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minimally).
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File:Ethernet-media-converter-transceiver-0a.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/
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States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID hec.27745.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Harris & Ewing

File:FCC_HQ.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/FCC_HQ.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: The original uploader was Ser Amantio di Nicolao at English Wikipedia
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of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID hec.23448.
Original artist: Harris-Ewing collection
9.2. IMAGES
153
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9.2. IMAGES
155
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Radio Afición (Vol. 1)

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Radio Afición (Vol. 1)

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Amateur Radio (Vol.

Amateur radio license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Activities and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

International Field Day Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contest Activity and Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Promotion of amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio direction nding

High Speed Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio emergency communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur Radio in More Detail

Amateur radio operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Activities and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio operating award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Special event stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ships and boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Broadcast call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Military call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transmitters requiring no call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Basic antenna models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Antenna design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mutual impedance and interaction between antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Free space propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amateur radio homebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Homebrewing with vacuum tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vintage amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Clubs, events, and publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

North American context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contests and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Typical contest exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Logs and log checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Results and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of amateur radio modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Activities known as modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Common Means of Communication

Development and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

International Morse Code

Representation, timing and speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Link budget issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns and non-English variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Decoding Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

6.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Use and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Spectrum eciency compared to other modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Common frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Technical details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Non-Icom D-STAR Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Compatible programs and projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Home-brew D-STAR radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

6.3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Fancy Means of Communication

Meteor burst communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116