Chapter 6

FILTRATION

Filtration
Filtration involves the removal of suspended and
colloidal
ll id l particles
i l from
f
the
h water by
b passing
i it
i
through a layer or bed of a porous granular
i l such
h as sand.
d
material,

Classification of filters
Classificationoffilters
Basedonthefiltermedia
Based on the filter media
Sandfilters,e.g.naturalsilicasand
Anthracitefilters,e.g.crushedanthracitic
coal
Diatomaceousearthfilters,e.g.
diatomaceousearth
Metalfabricfilters(microstrainers),e.g.
stainless steel fabric filter.
stainlesssteelfabricfilter.

Classification of filters
Classificationoffilters
Basedonthedepthoffiltermedia
Based on the depth of filter media
Deepgranularfilters,e.g.sand,dualmedia
andmultimedia(combinationoftwoor
d
lti
di (
bi ti
ft
moremedia),granularactivatedcarbon
Precoatfilters,e.g.diatomaceousearth,
andpowderedactivatedcarbon,filters

Classification of filters
Classificationoffilters
Based
Basedontherateoffiltration,sandfilterscan
on the rate of filtration sand filters can
befurtherclassifiedas
Gravityfilters
Gravity filters
Slowsandfilters
rapidsandfilters
rapid sand filters
highratesandfilters
Pressurefilters
P
filt

Rate of filtration
Rateoffiltration
Rate of filtration ((loadingg rate)) is the flow rate of water
applied per unit area of the filter. It is the velocity of the
water approaching the face of the filter:

Q
va
As
whereva =facevelocity,m/d=loadingrate,m3/d.m2
Q =flowrateontofiltersurface,m
Q
flow rate onto filter surface, m3/d
As =surfaceareoffilter,m2

Example
A city is to install rapid sand filters downstream of
the clarifiers. The design loading rate is selected to
be 160 m3/(m2 d). The design capacity of the water
works is 0.35 m3/s. The maximum surface per filter
i limited
is
li it d to
t 50 m2. Design
D i the
th number
b and
d size
i off
filters and calculate the normal filtration rate.

Example Solution
ExampleSolution

Mechanism of Filtration
MechanismofFiltration
The
Thetheoryoffiltrationbasicallyinvolves,
theory of filtration basically involves
transportmechanisms,and attachment
mechanisms.
mechanisms
Thetransportmechanismbringssmall
particles from the bulk solution to the surface
particlesfromthebulksolutiontothesurface
ofthemedia.
a))
b)
c))
d)

gravitationalsettling,
it ti
l ttli
diffusion,
interceptionand
d
hydrodynamics.

Mechanism of Filtration
MechanismofFiltration
They
Theyareaffectedbyphysicalcharacteristics
are affected by physical characteristics
suchassizeofthefiltermedium,filtration
rate,fluidtemperature,sizeanddensityof
suspendedsolids.
Astheparticlesreachthesurfaceofthefilter
media,anattachmentmechanismisrequired
toretainit.Thisoccursdueto
(i)electrostaticinteractions
(ii)chemicalbridgingorspecificadsorption.

Slow Sand Filters

SlowSandFilters
InSSFwaterisallowedataslowratethrough
abedofsand,sothatcoarsesuspendedsolids
b d f
d
th t
d d lid
areretainedonornearthesurfaceofthebed.
Loadingrateof2.9to7.6m3/d.m2
Therawwaterturbidityhastobe<50NTU.
Th
t t bidit h t b < 50 NTU
Thefilteringactionisacombinationof
g
straining,adsorption,andbiological
flocculation.

Slow Sand Filters

SlowSandFilters
Gelatinousslimesofbacterialgrowthcalled
schmutzdeckeformonthesurfaceandintheupper
sandlayer,consistsofbacteria,fungi,protozoa,rotifera
and a range of aquatic insect larvae.
andarangeofaquaticinsectlarvae.
Theunderlyingsandprovidesthesupportmediumfor
this biological treatment layer
thisbiologicaltreatmentlayer.
Slowsandfiltersslowlylosetheirperformanceasthe
Schmutzdecke growsandtherebyreducestherateof
grows and thereby reduces the rate of
flowthroughthefilter.requiresrefurbishing

Cleaning Slow Sand Filters

CleaningSlowSandFilters
Scrapping:
pp g the top
p few mm of sand is carefullyy scraped
p
off using mechanical plant and this exposes a new layer
of clean sand. Water is then decanted back into the
filter and recirculated
re circulated for a few hours to allow a new
Schmutzedecke to develop. The filter is then filled to
full depth and brought back into service.
wet harrowing: lower the water level to just above the
Schmutzdecke, stirring the sand and thereby
suspending any solids held in that layer and then
running the water to waste. The filter is then filled to
full depth and brought back into service.

Typical slow sand filter

Typicalslowsandfilter
Raw
water
Schmutzec
ke

Supernatant
water

Wei
r

Sand filter
bed
Grav
G
el
Systemof
underdrains

Finished
water

Typical slow sand filter

Typicalslowsandfilter

Typical SSF Construction details

TypicalSSFConstructiondetails

Advantages and Disadvantages

AdvantagesandDisadvantages
Advantages
d a tages

Simpletoconstructandsupervise
Suitablewheresandisreadilyavailable
Effectiveinbacterialremoval
Preferableforuniformqualityoftreatedwater

Disadvantages
Largeareaisrequired
Unsuitablefortreatinghighlyturbidwaters
U it bl f t ti hi hl t bid t
Lessflexibilityinoperationduetoseasonalvariations
in raw water quality
inrawwaterquality

Design criteria for SSF

DesigncriteriaforSSF
Parameter

Recommended
level
(UK
experience)
10-15 year
24 h/day
0.1 0.2 m/h
5-200 m2/filter (minimum of two
filters)

Design life
Period of operation
Filtration rate
Filter bed area
Height of filter bed
Initial
Minimum
0.8-0.9 m
Effective size
0.5-0.6 m
Uniformity coefficient
0.15-0.3 mm
Height of underdrains + < 3
gravel layer
0.3-0.5 m
Height of supernatant water
1m

Example. SSF design

Example.SSFdesign
3/
Designaslowsandfiltertotreataflowof800m
g
/day.
y
Solution:

assumingafiltrationrateof0.15m/h,
Requiredtankarea=(800/24)x(1/0.15)=222m2
Useatank23mlongx10mwide.
From Table 6 1 the height of the tank require is:
FromTable6.1,theheightofthetankrequireis:
Systemunderdrain +gravel0.5m
Filterbed0.9m
Supernatantwater1m

Therefore,totaltankheight=2.4mandtankdimension
g
g
becomes23mlongx10mwidex2.4mhigh

Rapid Sand Filters

RapidSandFilters
Themostcommontypeoffilterfortreating
municipalwatersupplies.
i i l
li
During
Duringfiltration,thewaterflowsdownward
filtration the water flows downward
throughthebedundertheforceofgravity.
Whenthefilteriswashed,cleanwateris
forcedupward,expandingthefilterbed
slightlyandcarryingawaytheaccumulated
impurities.Thisprocessiscalledbackwashing.

Advantages and Disadvantages

AdvantagesandDisadvantages
Advantages
g
Turbidwatermaybetreated
Landrequiredislesscomparedtoslowsandfilter
Operationiscontinuous.

Disadvantages
g
Requiresskilledpersonnelforoperationand
maintenance
Lesseffectiveinbacteriaremoval
Operationaltroubles

Typical
gradation of RSF
TypicalgradationofRSF
afterbackwashing,thelarger
f b k
h
h l
sandgrainssettletothe
bottom first leaving the
bottomfirst,leavingthe
smallersandgrainsatthe
filtersurface.
Allowsindepthfiltration:
providesmorestoragespacefor
thesolids,offerlessresistance
to flow, and allows longer filter
toflow,andallowslongerfilter
runs.

Types of RSF
TypesofRSF
RSFbasedonfiltermaterial,threetypes:
yp
Singlemediafilters: thesehaveonetypeof
,
y
media,usuallysandorcrushedanthracitecoal
Dualmediafilters: thesehavetwotypesof
media,usuallycrushedanthracitecoaland
,
y
sand.
Multi
Multimedia
mediafilters:thesehavethreetypesof
filters: these have three types of
media,usuallycrushedanthracitecoal,sand,
g
andgarnet.

Rapid sand filter

Rapidsandfilter

Operation
of a rsf
Operationofarsf
Terminal head loss.
loss
Constantrate
filtration

Grain size Characteristics

GrainsizeCharacteristics
Sieveanalysis aplotonsemilogpaperof
thecumulativefrequencydistribution,
h
l i f
di ib i
Geometricmean(Xg)and
Geometricstandarddeviation(Sg)

Effectivesize,E,or10percentile,P10,
E=P10 =(Xg/Sg)1.282

Uniformity
Uniformitycoefficient,U,orratioofthe60
coefficient, U, or ratio of the 60
percentiletothe10percentile,P60/P10.
U
U =P
P60/P10 =(S
(Sg)1.535

RSFFiltermediatypicalproperties
yp
p p
PROPERTY UNIT GARNET LMENITE SAND ANTHRACITE
Effective Size,
ES
Uniformity
Coefficient,
UC
Density,
Porosity,
Hardness

0.4 mm 0.2 - 0.4 0.2 - 0.4

0.8
1.3 UC 1.3 - 1.7 1.3 - 1.7
1.7
g/mL 3.6 - 4.2 4.5 - 5.0
%

0.8 - 2.0
1.3 - 1.7

2.65

1.4 - 1.8

Nott
N
40 45 - 58
available 43

47 - 52

Moh 6.5
6 5 -7.5
75

56
5.6

2-3

GAC

0.8 2.0
1.3 2.4
131.3
1.7
Not
availa
ble
Low

Filter Hydraulics
FilterHydraulics
The loss of pressure (head loss) through a clean
stratifiedsand filter with uniform porosity
p
y was
described by Rose:

where hL = frictional head loss through

g the filter,, m
va = approach velocity, m/s
D = depth of filter sand, m
CD = drag force coefficient
f = mass fraction of sand particles of diameter d
d = diameter of sand grains, m
= shape factor and = porosity

Filter Hydraulics
FilterHydraulics

Filter Hydraulics
FilterHydraulics
Thehydraulicheadlossthatoccursduringbackwashing
iscalculatedtodeterminetheplacementofthe
p
backwashtroughsabovethefilterbed.
whereDe=depthoftheexpandedbed,m
=porosityofthebedand
p
y
s=porosityoftheexpandedbed
p
y
p
f=massfractionofsandwithexpandedporosity

Laminar

Turbulent

Settling
velocity

Reynolds number
Reynoldsnumber

Example 3
Example3
A dual medium filter is composed of 0.3
03m
anthracite (mean size of 2.0 mm) that is
placed over a 0.6
0 6 m layer of sand (mean
size of 0.7 mm) with filtration rate of 9.78
m/h Assume the grain sphericity is = 0.75
m/h.
0 75
and a porosity for both is 0.40. Estimate
the head loss of the filter at 15oC.
C

Solution
Calculateheadlossforanthracite
Calculate head loss for anthracite
Calculateheadlossforsand
C l l
h dl
f
d

Example 4
Example4
Estimate the clean filter
h dl
headloss
f
for
a proposed
d
new sand filter using the
sand. Use the followingg
assumptions: loading rate
is 216 m3/d.m2 , specific
gravity of sand is 2.65,
2 65 the
shape factor is 0.82, the
bed porosity is 0.45, the
water temperature is
i 10oC,
C
and the depth of sand is
0.5 m.

Si
Sieve
N
No

% t i
%retain

d(
d(mm)
)

812

5.3

1216

17.1

1.42

1620

14.6

2030

20.4

0.714

3040
30
40

17.6

0.0505

4050

11.9

0.0357

5070

5.9

0.0252

70 100
70100

31
3.1

0 0178
0.0178

100140

0.7

0.0126

Solution

Solution
Solution

Solution
Solution

Example 5
Example5
Determine the depth of the expanded
sand
d filter
fil
b d being
bed
b i
d i d for
designed
f
Example 4.

Solution

Any
Questio
i
ns?