Fiber Science

By Chamal Jayasinghe (B.Sc. Engineering (Textiles), AMIESL,

Classification of Textile Fibers , there properties and a brief description of manufacturing methods

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Fibers
Fibers are thin long strands which consist of natural or synthetic materials. Some of these fibers
can be used as a textile fiber when it full fills the needful parameters. Commonly used fibers
can be mentioned as follows.
Cotton , Linen , Silk , Polyester , Nylon , Viscose
Definition of Fiber
Fiber is a unit of matter characterized by flexibility, fineness and a high ratio of length to
thickness.
Basic demands required by a matter to be considered as textile fires are ,
a. Flexibility
b. Fineness
c. High Ratio of Length to Thickness
The most needful thing in a fiber is its length to diameter ratio which should be greater than
100. For example in cotton this ratio is 1400:1.
The present textile fibers can be classified according to their origin as below.
Fiber Classification
Natural
Cellulose
Cotton
Jute
Hemp
Linen

Rubber

Man Made

Protein
Wool
Silk
Angora
Camel

Mineral
Asbestos

Cellulose
Regenerated
Viscose
Rayon
Tencel

Synthetic
Polyester
Nylon
Polypropylene

Protein
Regenerated
Soybean

Mineral
Glass
Carbon

Metal
Steel
Gold
Silver
1

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Staple and Filament Fibers

Fibers with infinite (long) lengths are called filament fibers while fibers with short lengths
are called staple fibers. Cotton, Wool, Kapok are good examples for staple fibers while
polyester and nylon are examples for filament fibers.

Image 1.1 Filament and Staple Fibers

Internal Structure of a natural Fiber
Natural Fibers are created by natural polymerization, the basic unit which begins
polymerization calls monomer. Monomers joined together and create a Polymer. Polymers
join together and create Micro Fibrils. Micro fibrils lay parallel to each other and create
fibrils and then Fibers.

Monomer

Polymer

Image 1.2 How fibers are made in plant cells

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Amorphous and Crystalline areas

We can find two special areas in a fiber when look deep in to their polymer arrangements,
Those are crystalline and amorphous areas. In crystalline areas, polymer chains lye parallel and
close to each other. In amorphous areas, polymer chains lye randomly and unevenly.

Image 1.3 Crystalline and Amorphous areas of fibers

These crystalline areas are high in strength , yet has very less dye and moisture absorbency,
crystalline areas gives more strength to fibers.
In amorphous areas, polymers do not lye close to each other; these areas are less in strength
yet increase fiber qualities of flexibility, moisture & dye absorption. Basically the crystalline
area accounts for the strength of a fiber while the amorphous area accounts for the flexibility
of it.
Degree of Polymerization ( DP )
The degree of polymerization, or DP, is usually defined as the number of monomer units in a
macromolecule or polymer molecule.

Image.1.4 Monomers being polymerized

3

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

2. Chemical and Physical properties of Fibers

Chemical constituent of polymer (monomer) is mainly responsible for the chemical properties
of textile fibers. Physical arrangement of polymer chains in fiber structure and polymer chain
length is mainly responsible for physical properties of fibers.
Physical Properties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Tenacity
Fineness
Moisture Absorption
Abrasion Resistance
Crease Recovery
Elongation
Elastic Recover

8. Resiliency
9. Luster
10. Flexibility
11. Uniformity
12. Specific Gravity
13. Softening and Melting Points

1. Tenacity (Measuring Unit = g / den)

Image 2.1 Yarn Being Ruptured by a force

The strength of textile fibers is referred to as their tenacity. It is determined by
measuring the force required to rupture or break the fiber.
Sufficient tenacity is required to withstand the mechanical and chemical processing as
well as make textile products which are durable.

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

2. Fineness

Image 2.2 Vary of Fiber Diameter Depending on the source

Fiber fineness governs the end use application of fiber.
For example: You may need a more fine fiber to create a shirt fabric than for creating a
trouser material
Fibers used in clothing fabrics are below 5 decitex and rarely exceeds 15 decitex. .
As the average number of fibers in the cross section is high, fine, staple fibers are more
suitable for producing regular yarns.
Cloths made from fine fibers or filaments have a softer and smother handle
Fabrics made with Fine fibers may have lower resistance to abrasion and can get easily
damaged.

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

3. Moisture Absorption
The ability of a fiber to absorb moisture is referred in moisture regain or moisture
content.
The quantity of moisture picked up varies with the relative humidity and the
temperature of the atmosphere. The standard values are relative humidity of 65% and
temperature of 20 0C.
Depends on chemical nature and physical arrangement of fiber the moisture absorption
changes.
The moisture in a fiber is expressed in two methods
1. Moisture Absorption
2. Moisture Content
Below formulas are used in calculating them

Moisture Content =
Moisture Regain =

Weight of Moisture
Wet Mass
Weight of Moisture
Dry Mass

x 100 %
x 100 %

The influence of moisture absorption of fibers.

The comfort of the wearer.

The amount of shrinkage that will occur during laundering.
The speed with which the textile will dry after laundering.
How fast it can neutralize the static electricity charges.

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

4. Abrasion Resistance (Measuring Unit = loss of weight per constant cycles of abrasion)

Image 4.1 A mans trouser abraded at a highway accident

Fabrics are abraded when use against various materials, the ability of the fiber to
withstand these forces is called abrasion resistance.
The life of a fabric is dependent on its resistance to abrasion.
Nylon has an outstanding resistance to abrasion.
Abrasion resistance is decided by its fiber composition yarn and fabric construction.
5. Crease Recovery (Measuring Unit = degrees in time)

Image 5.1 Fabrics with different crease recovery qualities

7

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

To retain a good appearance of a fabric, the fabric must have a good crease recovery to
recover from unwanted creases occur in fabric usage and laundering.
6. Elongation (Measuring Unit = (ratio, or as a percentage))
The fibers should be able to extend when a force is applied on it , if it brittles in a force without
extended we can hardly use it as a textile fiber.

Lf = Extended Length, L0 = Normal Length

7. Elastic Recovery (Measuring Unit = (ratio, or as a percentage))
Elastic recover is very important for a fiber to come to its original position after extension. If
the elastic recovery is good, the fiber will have its original dimensions after the application of a
certain force.

8. Resiliency

Image 8.1 A sports women dressed up with more resilient dresses

8

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Resiliency refers to the ability of a fiber to come back to its original position after being creased
or folded. Good elastic recovery usually indicates good resiliency
Excellent resiliency is exhibited by polyester, wool and nylon fibers. Flax, rayon and cotton, on
the other hand, have a low resiliency.
9. Luster
Luster is amount of light reflected from the surface of the fiber
Fine fibers provide a greater number of reflecting surfaces. Hence they have good
luster
Fibers with a uniform diameter have a good luster.
The shape of the cross section affects the degree of luster.
Yarns made from continuous filaments are more lustrous than those made from
short fibers.
Manufactured fibers can have their luster subdued by adding de-lustering agents.
10. Flexibility
Fibers should be flexible or pliable in order to be made into yarns and thereafter into fabrics
that permit freedom of movement. Certain end uses require greater flexibility, e.g.,
automobile seat belts.
11. Uniformity
Uniformity of fibers towards its length, ensure production of even yarns which can then
form fabrics of uniform appearance and consistent performance.
12. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity means the density of the fiber related to water density. In here the
water density is considered as 1 (Which is actually 1000 kg / m3). So if a actual density of a
fiber is 1300 kg / m3 , its specific gravity is 1.3.
By looking at the specific gravity figures, we can easily distinguish whether the
fiber floats or sinks in water.
13. Softening & Melting Points
The temperature when a certain polymer starts to soft is called as the softening point
while the temperature that a polymer starts to melt is called as the melting point.

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

3. Chemical Properties of fibers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Resistance to Acids
Resistance to Alkali
Resistance to Organic Solvents
Resistance to Sunlight
Resistance to Mildew
Resistance to Micro Biological Attacks
Resistance to Bleaching , Washing & Dry Cleaning

1. Resistance to Acids
The ability of a fiber to withstand certain concentrations of acids is called as resistance to acids.
Most protein (Wool; Silk; Kashmir) has good resistance to acids. While cellulosic fibers have less
resistance to them.
2. Resistance to Alkali
The ability of a fiber to withstand certain concentrations of bases is called resistance to alkali.
Most cellulosic fibers have good resistance to Alkalis. While protein fibers have less resistance
to alkalis.

10

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

3. Properties of Specific Natural Fibers Natural Fibers

For Further understand in to fibers; lets consider some of the popular fibers in today
industry
3.1 Cotton the miracle fiber

Image 3.1.1 Cotton fluff; and microscopic view of Cotton fiber

The above images shows how to cotton fiber is available in the tree and its longitudinal and
cross sectional views.
Cotton has been using as a textile fiber since more than 3000 years ago. It is the most popular
natural fiber in today textile industry. Cotton has many grate qualities which keeps it in its place
for centuries.
Cotton Harvesting
Cotton is grown as a small plant and harvested using large machineries specially designed for it.

Image 3.1.2 Cotton plant ready to harvesting and being harvested

11

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

The above images show a cotton plant ready to harvest and a harvesting machine. Cotton is
widely cultivated in China, US , India , Australia Pakistan and many other countries.
Ginning
The next process after harvesting is removing the lint from the seed of the cotton. This is called
ginning. The cotton seed is used for making cooking oils and the crushed seed particles are used
as foods to animals.

Image 3.1.4 Cotton Ginning

After ginning cotton fibers are pressed and packed into bales and set off for spinning.

Image 3.1.5 Cotton Bales

12

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Properties of Cotton
Cotton fibres have twist, or convolutions, along the length of the fiber. The appearance of
cotton is unique among fibers. The chemical composition of cotton is the polymer cellulose.
untreated cotton fibers have kidney-shape appearance. The flatter fibers could be immature.
The hollow strip in the center of the fibers is called the lumen. The portion of the fiber between
the lumen and the outer wall is called the secondary wall composed of cellulose.

Image 3.1.6 Morphological Structure of Cotton Fiber

Mercerizing of cotton

Image 3.1.7 Cotton fiber cross

section before and after mercerizing

13

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Mercerization is the immersion of cotton in sodium hydroxide (sometimes called caustic soda),
causing the fibers to swell and the polymer chains to rearrange. The process improves luster,
strength, absorbency, and dye uptake.

Properties of cotton in detail

Composition Cellulose (87-90)%, Water-(5-8)% Others- natural impurities
Obtain from cotton seeds.
Length varies from (16-52) mm.
Vary in color from white to light tan
Moderately strong fiber-Low degree of orientation
Dry-strong (tenacity 3-5 g/denier)
Wet-stronger(tenacity 3.3-6 g/denier)
Inelastic
Poor resilience (easily make creases and wrinkles)
Good absorbent fiber- (Due to countless H bonds.) Hydrophilic fiber (Moisture regain
8.5 %)
Good static resistance (due to good absorbency)
Soft hand feeling- (much regular fiber).
Attacked by mildew.
Fiber turns to yellow when exposure to sunlight (The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
breaks the chemical bonds in the polymer chain)
Good abrasion resistance; durable
Good heat conductor - cool to wear
Cotton can be damage by acids.
Cotton has good resistance to alkalis. (Textile processes such as scouring and bleaching
are generally carried out at a pH of between 10 and 11.)
Does not melt. Decomposes slowly upon exposure to dry heat above 300
Makes comfortable and durable garments.

14

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

3.2 Flax
Flax is the name of the plant which is used to manufacture linen fiber.

Image 3.2.1 Flax plant and fiber

Properties of Flax
Composition- cellulose, water and natural impurities
Cellulosic bast fiber.
Obtain from bast of flax plant.
Used to produce linen fabrics.
Stronger than cotton.
tenacity- dry- 5.5-6.5 g/denier,
tenacity- wet- 6.6-7.8 g/denier)
Inelastic.(elasticity 65%)
Stiff handle.
Make wrinkles and creases.(poor resiliency)
Absorb water rapidly. (moisture regain- 12%)
Expensive fiber.
Good heat conductor- cool to wear.
No pilling problems. (fibers are generally long and not as fine as cotton fibers
Strong acids cause deterioration.
Good resistance to alkalis
Loses strength under sunlight
The typical staple length of flax is ten to fifteen inches,
Linen fabrics are used in table coverings, Draperies, upholstery, and apparel.
15

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

3.3 Wool

Image 3.3.1 Sheeps left and wool fiber microscopic side view at right.
Properties of Wool
Natural protein (Keratin) fiber.
Obtained from sheep.
Color varies from off white to light cream.
length of wool can range from 1.5 to 15 inches
Weak fiber and strength decreases on wetting. (Tenacity dry 1- 1.7 g/denier)
(Tenacity wet -0.8 1.6 g/denier)
Crimp configuration.
Good elastic recovery and resilience.
Poor heat conductivity and warmth configuration.
Very hygroscopic and can take up a high amount of
moisture without felling damp.very hydrophilic (moisture regain 13%-17%)
Poor luster and expensive fiber.

Image 3.3.2 Structure of Wool fiber

16

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

4. Man Made fibers and their production methods

The word spinning can be used to mean the conversion of staple fibers to yarn as well as to
mean the production of man-made filaments by extrusion.
All manmade polymers are solids at normal temperatures. The polymers in solid form must be
converted to liquid form polymer for creating fine fibers. For this purpose the molten polymer
needs to be forced through fine holes of the spinneret to form filaments.
The method used for each fiber depends upon the ease of conversion of the polymer from
solid to liquid state.
There are three methods of spinning manmade fibers:
Melt Spinning Polymer is converted in to liquid state by heating
Dry Spinning

Polymer is dissolved in a suitable solvent which is later evaporated

Wet Spinning Solvent cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical means.

Image 4.1 Methods of manmade fiber manufacturing

17

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

4.1 Melt spinning

Polymer is converted to liquid just by heating chips or pellets of it. The molten polymer is
pumped through the spinneret and the extruded filaments are hardened into solid filaments
after emerging.
Nylon, polyester and olefin fibers are melt-spun fibers.

Image 4.1.1 Melt Spinning Process

18

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

4.2 Dry Spinning

If Polymer is getting chemically damaged by heating, dry spinning is used. In this
method Polymers are dissolved in a suitable solvent which is evaporated in a later stage.
As the jets of solution emerge from the spinneret, a stream of hot air causes the solvent
to evaporate from the spinning solution, leaving solid filaments.
Acetate, Triacetate and Acrylic fibers are produced by using this method.

Image 4.2.1 Dry Spinning Process

19

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

4.3 Wet Spinning

This method is used when the solvent cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical
means. In wet spinning the solution of fiber-forming material is extruded into a coagulating
bath that causes the jets to harden as a result of chemical or physical change.
Viscose, Acrylic, Rayon, Aramid, Modacrylic and spandex are produced by this method.

Image 4.3.1 Wet Spinning Process

20

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

5. Properties of Specific Man Made Fibers

To get familiar with manmade fibers, lets have a look in to properties of few of them.
5.1 Viscose
Viscose is manufactured by wet spinning method.

Image 5.1.1 Viscose fiber side view and cross section

Properties of Viscose
Regenerated cellulose filament fiber.
Raw materials are wood pulp or cotton linters.
Very cheap.
Fair strength. Less strength when wet.
(Tenacity dry - 2.4-3 g/denier)
(Tenacity wet 1.1-1.5 g/denier)
Wrinkle and crease.
Moist absorbent. (moisture regain 11-16)%
Cotton and viscose have same polymer. Fibers are made of the same polymer. But viscose
fibers have much lower crystalline than cotton
High heat resistance
The terms Polynosic and Modal refer to high-wet-modulus rayon.
Easily damaged by strong acids
Good resistance to most alkalis; loses strength in strong alkalis
Lengthy exposure to sunlight weakens the fabric
Greater affinity for dyes than cotton

21

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

5.2 Polyester
Polyester is a manmade fiber manufactured by melt spinning method.

Image 5.2.1 Polyester fabric and microscopic view of fibers

Properties of Polyester

Manmade synthetic fiber.

Fine and translucent.
Stronger fiber.(tenacity- 2.8-6.3 g/denier)
Extremely crystalline.
Completely hydrophobic.(moisture regain-0.4%)
Good resiliency.
Develop static charges readily.
Attracts grease soils and airborne dust.
The hydrophobic nature of polyester can also make it very difficult to remove oily stains
from it. Polyester is sometimes treated with a soil release finishes.
Resistance to most acids
Good resistance to most alkalis
Good resistance to sunlight

22

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

5.3 Nylon
Nylon is a manmade fiber which is made by melt spinning method.

Image 5.3.1 Nylon Fibers and a coat manufactured from nylon

Properties of Nylon

Manmade synthetic fiber.

Good strength.(tenacity 3.5-9 g/denier)
Good elasticity.
High Abrasion resistance
Good resilience.
Less absorbent.(moisture regain 2.8-5)%
Develop static charges.
Poor heat conductivity.
Dissolves in mineral and formic acids
Good resistance to alkalis
Loses strength when expose to sunlight

23

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Natural Cellulose Fibers

Ex: Flax , Cotton , Jute , Linen

Regenerated Cellulose Fibers

Viscose , Rayon, Tencel

Natural Protein Fibers

Wool , Silk , Angora, Alpaca

Synthetic Fibers
Polyester , Nylon

Good tenacity

Tenacity is low than natural fibers

Better tenacity

Average moisture content

Moisture content is higher than natural fibers

Good Tenacity
Moisture content little higher than natural
cellulose

Effected by acids

Easily effected by acids

Effected by acids with mild resistance

Better resistant to alkalis

Better resistant to dry cleaning
agents
Burns like paper
Withstand up to 200 C

Better resistant to alkalis

Effected by alkalis

Acids and alkalis shows

different
effects on different fibers

Better resistant to dry cleaning agents

Resist to dry cleaning agents

Generally resist to dry cleaning

Burns like paper

Withstand up to 260 C
Effected by sunlight - weaker than natural
cellulose

Shrink and burns - smell like hair burning

Withstand up to 120 C

Melt and burns

Withstand up to 140 C- 200 C
Sunlight effect is vary fiber to
fiber

Effected by sunlight

Tendency effect on sunlight

Very low moisture content

Chart 2. Comparison of General Properties of Fibers based on their origin

24

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

Chart 3. Properties of Conventional Textile fibers

25

Textile Fibers by Chamal Jayasinghe

References
1. North Carolina State University
http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/
2. Association of Textile , Apparel and Material Professionals
https://www.aatcc.org

Please contact me for any comments @ chamalj@gmail.com

Chamal Jayasinghe,
Assistant Technologist,
Sri Lanka Institute of Textiles and Apparel,
Rathmalana.

26