Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure

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Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2007) 365, 589622

doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1925
Published online 13 December 2006
Structural health monitoring

of civil infrastructure
B Y J. M. W. B ROWNJOHN *
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, University of Shefeld,
Mappin Building, Shefeld S1 3JD, UK
Structural health monitoring (SHM) is a term increasingly used in the last decade to
describe a range of systems implemented on full-scale civil infrastructures and whose
purposes are to assist and inform operators about continued tness for purpose of
structures under gradual or sudden changes to their state, to learn about either or both of
the load and response mechanisms. Arguably, various forms of SHM have been employed
in civil infrastructure for at least half a century, but it is only in the last decade or two
that computer-based systems are being designed for the purpose of assisting owners/
operators of ageing infrastructure with timely information for their continued safe and
economic operation.
This paper describes the motivations for and recent history of SHM applications to various
forms of civil infrastructure and provides case studies on specic types of structure. It ends
with a discussion of the present state-of-the-art and future developments in terms of
instrumentation, data acquisition, communication systems and data mining and presentation procedures for diagnosis of infrastructural health.
Keywords: structure; performance; monitoring; bridge; dam; building
1. Introduction
Civil infrastructure provides the means for a society to function and includes
buildings, pedestrian and vehicular bridges, tunnels, factories, conventional and
nuclear power plants, offshore petroleum installations, heritage structures, port
facilities and geotechnical structures, such as foundations and excavations.
Depending on importance, ownership, use, risk and hazard, such structures
have inspection, monitoring and maintenance programmes that may even be
mandated by law. The effectiveness of maintenance and inspection programmes
is only as good as their timely ability to reveal problematic performance, hence
the move to supplement limited and intermittent inspection procedures by
continuous, online, real-time and automated systems.
Major drivers in this area have been the oil industry, operators of large dams
and highways agencies, whose installations have received the greatest attention
and research effort. Residential and commercial structures have received
relatively little attention due to potential obligations and consequences of
*james.brownjohn@shefeld.ac.uk
One contribution of 15 to a Theme Issue Structural health monitoring.
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q 2006 The Royal Society
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
owners knowing about poor structural health. In these cases, structural health
monitoring (SHM) can only be implemented after efforts have been made to
educate owners or to coerce them via building control protocols (legislation) or
insurance premiums (Chang 2000).
A signicant challenge in developing an SHM strategy for civil infrastructure
is that except for certain types of public and private housing, every structure is
unique. This means that there is no baseline derived from type-testing or the
expensive qualication procedures applicable for aerospace structures. Hence, a
unique feature of SHM for civil infrastructure is that a major part of the system
has to be geared towards a long-term evaluation of what is normal structural
performance or health, the two terms being synonymous (Aktan et al. 2001).
2. Fundamental objectives of civil infrastructure monitoring

Ross & Matthews (1995a) and Mita (1999) identied the cases where the
following structural monitoring may be required:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
modications to an existing structure,

monitoring of structures affected by external works,
monitoring during demolition,
structures subject to long-term movement or degradation of materials,
feedback loop to improve future design based on experience,
fatigue assessment,
novel systems of construction,
assessment of post-earthquake structural integrity,
decline in construction and growth in maintenance needs, and
the move towards performance-based design philosophy.
Historically, the monitoring of structures has involved many ingredients of the

modern SHM paradigm, such as data collection and processing followed by
diagnosis. At the simplest level, recurrent visual observation and assessment of
structural condition (cracking, spalling and deformations) could be viewed as
SHM, yet the aim of present-day research is to develop effective and reliable
means of acquiring, managing, integrating and interpreting structural
performance data for maximum useful information at a minimum cost while
either removing or supplementing the qualitative, subjective and unreliable
human element. Historical developments in SHM have generally focused on
subsets of the SHM paradigm, but in recent years, a few research teams have
begun to focus on, or at least recognize (Fanelli 1992), the need for a holistic
approach to optimization of SHM.
At its core, SHM is a continuous system identication of a physical or
parametric model of the structure using time-dependent data. The signals used in
SHM are derived not only from vibrations, but also from slowly changing quasistatic effects, such as diurnal thermal cycles. Once a baseline system model is
identied, SHM procedures are aimed at identifying occurrences when output
signals do not correspond to predictions based on the established form.
One of the many sub-disciplines within SHM is condition assessment (CA), a
one-off but thorough identication of the structural system. SHM should be
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2007)
SHM for civil infrastructure
591
capable of carrying out a minimal level of CA in real time, but it is more probable
that a follow-up investigation (CA) would be triggered by the SHM system and
supported by the evidence it provides.
In the short term, developments of SHM for civil infrastructure may not be
expected to have an inherent capability for damage location and quantication
and, while many research teams are progressing in this area, it is still not a
reality to recover reliable component-level structural information in real time by
system identication. Despite the body of research dedicated to vibration-based
damage detection (VBDD; Doebling et al. 1996), success is limited to
simulations, laboratory studies and well-controlled experiments, such as the
Z24 bridge (Maeck et al. 2001), and its effectiveness still remains to be proven for
operational civil structures.
Hence, short-term aims are less optimistic and focus on automatic provision of
reliable and timely indication of a progressive or novel structural fault along with
limited diagnostic information.
3. History and motives for development of SHM in the twentieth

century
Signicant developments in SHM have originated from major construction
projects, such as large dams, long-span cable-supported bridges and offshore
gas/oil production installations. The term SHM is a recent standard that has
evolved from activities formerly known as structural monitoring, structural
integrity monitoring or just monitoring. It is impossible to identify the rst
form of SHM, but discounting simple periodic visual observation, formal
structural monitoring and interpretation using recording instruments began in
the latter half of the last century and accelerated with the use of electronic
data storage and computer data acquisition. So much recent attention in the
civil SHM community has been focused on bridges that it has overshadowed
the formal application of SHM technology to other infrastructures such as
dams (Ross & Matthews 1995b) that has been a legal requirement in the UK,
at least for several decades.
(a ) Dams
A legislation mandating regular inspection of dams originated in the UK due
to the failure of a 30 m embankment dam that claimed the lives of 254 people
near Shefeld, UK in 1864. The most recent form of legislation in the UK is
the Reservoir Act of 1975, which gives a supervising engineer (DETR 2001) the
responsibility for continual surveillance of a reservoir and dam, including
the keeping and interpretation of operational data. Thus, dams are historically
the rst class structure for the mandated application of SHM, and there is much
to learn from this experience that can be applied to other structures.
In the dam engineering community, SHM is equivalent to surveillance, and a
good idea of what this entails is described, for example, by ANCOLD (1994) and
in more detail with respect to formalized monitoring by the International
Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD 2000). Many of the elements of the modern
SHM paradigm are in place, for example:
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
(i) a range of instrumentation optimized to provide safety-critical response

data, supplemented by visual inspections,
(ii) automated data collection, and
(iii) intelligent interpretation of data against established behaviour patterns
and identication of anomalies.
In the UK, item (iii) is typically the role of the supervising engineer, while
research in articial intelligence (AI) applications for this role was spearheaded
by the ISMES, the research arm of the Italian electricity utility ENEL. The
extent of the ENEL dam monitoring programme reported by Fanelli (1992) is
worth summarizing, as it embodies much of the technology being investigated for
other structures.
Every major dam in the ENEL inventory of over 260 structures is equipped
with transducers activated by central processor at regular intervals to measure
static structural effects, such as
relative or absolute displacements: horizontal crest displacements are the
most important for concrete dams;
strains (for concrete dams) with temperature correction;
uplift pressures quantifying loads, which, for example, contributed to the
failure of Malpasset Dam in 1959; and
seepage rates.
Transducers are also activated to record external inuences to which the dam
responds with structural effects, for example
water level;
structural temperature; and
meteorological conditions.
The variations of structural effects are evaluated for acceptability in the
light of the environmental variations. This is the judgment that requires deep
knowledge of the dam and its structural behaviour. Traditionally, this is the
role of a supervising engineer, but this has been taken over by developments
of the monitoring system. Salvaneschi et al. (1996) reported that the
commercial implementation of the information system under the name of
MIDAS had, since 1985, been managing data of 200 dams in 10 different
countries.
Recognizing the limitations of such a system, ENEL foresaw the need to
integrate the formalized tools, such as MIDAS, with the non-formal
information from historical observations and engineering judgment. Development of two AI applications, DAMSAFE and MISTRAL, is also described by
Salvaneschi et al. (1996). MISTRAL is a real-time system that considers
groups of effects with or without relation to inuences. In the former case,
physics-based or statistical models are used for comparison and identifying
anomalies, whereas in the latter case, it is still possible to identify anomalous
behaviour. DAMSAFE (Comerford et al. 1992) is aimed at assisting engineers
with dam safety management procedures. It works off-line and functions
more like an expert system incorporating past experiences into its
593
knowledge base. This line of research has now largely disappeared from
public view, but is being developed in other countries for bridges and dams
(Wu & Su 2003).
Dynamic response monitoring plays a part in dam SHM for two reasons.
First, earthquakes are a serious threat to the safety of dams and every
opportunity is taken to improve understanding of seismic dam performance
specically and generically (Severn et al. 1981) through calibration of models
and simulations. Second, estimates of dynamic characteristics obtained from
ambient monitoring (Darbre & Proulx 2002) or deliberate forced vibration
(Bettinali et al. 1990) provide a means to track the structural characteristics as
indicators of structural health.
(b ) Bridges
Bridge monitoring programmes have historically been implemented for the
purpose of understanding and eventually calibrating models of the loadstructureresponse chain (e.g. Bampton et al. 1986; Barr et al. 1987; Leitch et al. 1987;
Brownjohn et al. 1994; Cheung et al. 1997; Macdonald et al. 1997; Catbas et al.
2000; Miyata et al. 2002; Chung 2003; Wong 2003; Koh et al. 2003; Wang et al.
2003). One of the earliest documented systematic bridge monitoring exercises, by
Carder (1937), was conducted on the Golden Gate and Bay Bridges in San
Francisco in an elaborate programme of measuring periods of the various
components during their construction to learn about the dynamic behaviour and
possible consequences of an earthquake.
University of Washington (1954) describe monitoring of the rst Tacoma
Narrows Bridge over its short life before it collapsed due to wind-induced
instability, again focusing on vibration measurements, but with an obviously
warranted concern for the health of the structure. The Tacoma Narrows
experience has far reaching importance since almost all of the long-span
suspension bridge monitoring exercises to date have been related to concerns
about wind-induced response and possible instability, for example at Humber
(Brownjohn et al. 1994) and Deer Isle (Kumarasena et al. 1990). Despite great
progress in understanding bluff-body aeroelasticity, there continue to be
surprises in long-span bridge aerodynamics (Larsen et al. 2000), and the
strategic importance and capital investment justify the expense of the most
elaborate SHM systems applied to civil infrastructure.
In the last decade, permanent bridge monitoring programmes have evolved
into SHM systems, which have been implemented in major bridge projects in
Japan, Hong Kong and, latterly, North America. Long-span bridge monitoring
systems also provide ideal opportunities to implement and study SHM
systems; for example, the wind and SHM system (Wong 2003) implemented on
the Lantau xed crossing has stimulated SHM research in Hong Kong, not
only concerning the performance of the bridges themselves, but also of SHM
methodologies.
Being the important lifeline structures, modern long-span suspension bridges
typically have elaborate inspection and maintenance programmes, so that
signicant damage and deterioration of the superstructure is likely to be picked
up visually, whereas an SHM system would require a high density of sensors to
detect it. It is probably that only global changes such as foundation settlement,
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
bearing failure or major defects, such as loss of main cable tension or rupture of
deck element, are detectable by global SHM procedures with a minimum of
optimally located sensors.
Less glamorous but possibly ultimately more benecial developments of SHM
would be for optimal monitoring approaches for conventional short-span bridges.
There is a history of research in full-scale testing for short-span highway bridge
assessment (Salane et al. 1981; Bakht & Jaeger 1990) and obvious opportunities
to extend such approaches to automated monitoring exercises. For smaller
bridges, global response is more sensitive to defects, visual inspection is less
frequent and SHM systems can and do (Alampalli & Fu 1994) make a real
contribution. European research has been focused on the shorter-span bridges,
where the BRIMOS system (Geier & Wenzel 2002) has been used to track
dynamic characteristics. Studies in Australia have focused on the typical very
short-span highway and railway bridges; in one case leading to a commercial
product the Bridge Health Monitor or HMX (Heywood et al. 2000), which is
programmed to record selected waveforms of vehicle-induced response while
logging statistics of strains due to such events.
Direct motivation for monitoring is also found within bridge management
programmes (Yanev 2003) and bridge upgrading projects, where some form of
validation is required, which is even made the responsibility of the contractor to
ensure the effectiveness of the upgrade. Examples include the Severn and Wye
Bridge Refurbishment (Flint & Smith 1992), Tamar Bridge (List 2004) in the
UK and Pioneer Bridge, Singapore (Brownjohn et al. 2003a,b). In a related sense,
the role of monitoring within build, own, operate and transfer contracts can
provide investors with condence in their assessment and subsequent owners
evidence of good condition at the end of the concession.
(c ) Offshore installations
In the 1970s, the energy crisis and discovery of large oil reserves in the
North Sea led to rapid developments in offshore infrastructure, specically
the xed steel and concrete production installations operating in water
depths of 150 m or more and subjected to extreme environmental loads. With
mandatory requirements for inspection (Det Norske Veritas 1977) and the
expense and danger of diver inspection came a urry of interest in vibrationbased diagnostic systems (Coppolino & Rubin 1980; Kenley & Dodds 1980;
Shahrivar & Bouwkamp 1980; Brederode et al. 1986). For example,
environmental and platform performance (E- and P-) data (Spidsoe et al.
1980) were collected, under the responsibility of the platform operator
according to the requirements of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate: in
order to assess the safety of the load carrying structure of the platforms and
their foundation. The studies resulted in identication of dynamic
characteristics and loadresponse mechanisms for a number of installations
on the Norwegian continental shelf.
At about the same time, a range of system identication techniques for
ambient response were developed that were precusors of the modern discipline of
operational modal analysis (Peeters & De Roeck 2001a). Procedures such as
maximum entropy method (Campbell & Vandiver 1980) and random decrement
(Yang et al. 1981) were being applied to platform response data to improve the
595
reliability and accuracy of dynamic parameter estimates for the vibration-based

diagnostics. Most of these studies concluded that while detection was possible, it
was either under controlled conditions or where severe and usually obvious
structural damage had occurred.
The study by Structural Monitoring Limited (now part of Fugro Ltd; Kenley &
Dodds 1980) went on to state that techniques will not be developed further unless
the offshore industry develops an integrated philosophy covering .inspection,
maintenance and monitoring and works with contractors to produce an effective
tool. If such effective tools now exist, it is probable that they will be proprietary,
not in the public domain.
A particular problem for offshore installations is that the structure is a nonstationary system with continual changes to mass properties through structural
modications, loading or unloading of stores, uid movements in processing plant
and drilling operations. An apocryphal tale tells of a damage detection system
being fooled into identifying a failed structural member because a new structural
module was added without the system knowing about it.
(d ) Buildings and towers
Historically, developments in monitoring of buildings were motivated by the
need to understand building performance during earthquakes and storms.
Originally, understanding of low-amplitude dynamic response was obtained
from vibration testing (Hudson 1977; Jeary & Ellis 1981), but it has always
been preferable to know the building response during a typical but not ultimate
large amplitude loading event, and this has required long-term monitoring. In
California, mandatory structural monitoring is managed by the California
Strong Motion Instrumentation Programme (CSMIP) (California Geological
Survey 2003), which uses levies on building owners to fund installation and
operation of strong motion instruments on buildings and other structures of
their choosing. While such data can provide some feedback on structural
health, the aim is to provide information on ground motions and for
improvement in structure design based on performance subject to these ground
motions. The need to identify full-scale structural performance has always been
central to earthquake engineering research.
Hence, the majority of monitoring exercises on buildings and towers has been
aimed at improving understanding of loading and response mechanisms, not only
for earthquakes, but also for wind loads, for example studies on the Bank of
Commerce Building in Toronto (Dalgleish & Rainer 1978) and Hume Point,
London (Littler & Ellis 1990). In Singapore, studies on high-rise apartment
blocks have been aimed at assessing wind loads on even taller blocks yet to be
built (Balendra et al. 2003), where occupant comfort is a concern.
Signicant motivation for SHM of buildings has also resulted from recent
major earthquakes, such as in Kobe and Northridge, where timely information
about the condition of structures would be invaluable in assessing safety and
need for repair (Mita 1999). This is one application where SHM provides the
trigger for and then assists CA, and has provided an ideal opportunity for an
integrated approach to SHM involving discrete autonomous novel sensors,
embedded systems, communications, data management and mining, etc.
(Kiremidjian & Straser 1998; Lynch 2005).
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
Evolved out of two decades of experience on full-scale structural testing and

monitoring, the approach to SHM advocated by Jeary and co-authors (Jeary et al
1981; 2001) is a simple and pure approach to the classical SHM paradigm. The
success of the approach means that it has been commercialized and details are
not in the public domain. In essence, the system uses high specication
accelerometers and data acquisition equipment and developments of random
decrement techniques to track fundamental mode damping along with building
tilt. Both these parameters provide indication of structural distress and have
been used to diagnose problems in tall buildings in Hong Kong. This rare
application of damping for SHM is notable compared with the abundance of less
successful techniques based on tracking natural frequencies.
(e ) Nuclear installations
Smith (1996) provides an overview of the inspection and monitoring regime for
a sample of the UKs civil nuclear reactors. For the safety-critical structural
components of nuclear reactors, instrumentation for measuring structural
response is used to validate and calibrate designs during performance testing
and also contributes to the condition monitoring during normal operation.
In the UK, each civil nuclear power station uses a pair of reactors and all but
one of these reactors is either Magnox or an advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR),
which is a development of Magnox. For all AGRs, plus the most recently built
pair of Magnox reactors, the critical structural component is the prestressed
concrete pressure vessel (PCPV), which contains the reactor core and primary
coolant. The PCPV is typically a very thick cylindrical vessel with massive steel
reinforcement, including redundant helically wound non-grouted post-tensioning
cables maintaining the vessel in a constant state of compression. As described by
installation operators (Smith 1996; Smith & McCluskey 1997), licences to
operate nuclear reactors are granted by the Nuclear Installations Inspectorate
(NII) under the provisions of the Nuclear Installations Act (1965). One of the
conditions of granting or renewing such a licence is that the licensee shall have
proven the performance of the PCPV during testing as well as during any
previous operation. It is up to the licensee to demonstrate, within a safety case
presented to NII, that the reactor is t for purpose and capable of meeting its
nuclear safety role.
Reactors have statutory outages or programmed shutdowns at 3-year
intervals for thorough inspections. As a condition for restarting the reactor, a
report must be submitted to NII by a responsible appointed examiner (AE), who
has a similar role to the supervising engineer for dams and is nominally
independent from the licensee and NII. The AE reports on results of inspections
and tests during the outage, together with structural and other performance data
from monitoring during pre-outage operation. This report forms part of the
licensees application to the NII for consent to restart the reactor.
Obviously, the critical and constantly monitored performance parameter is
temperature, while the structural performance data, from vibrating wire strain
gauges (SGs), play a lesser role. The primary role of the strain data is by postprocessing to assess in-service structural performance and to calibrate and
update analytical simulations of the temperature-dependent structure performance. Hence, it is fair to say, in the UK at least, that online monitoring of
597
structural response so far does not play a major role in tracking the health of the
PCPV. The potential is there, as the strain data are automatically logged and
show clear indications of changes in other operational parameters. The discovery
of a 15 cm cavity in the pressure vessel head of the Besse-Davis nuclear reactor
(Cullen 2002) may motivate such applications.
(f ) Tunnels and excavations
Tunnel monitoring (Okundi et al. 2003) is aimed at ensuring whether tunnel
deformation is within limits in terms of stability and effects on or from adjacent
structures. Hence, while stresses and strains may be measured, the emphasis is
on deections. Monitoring of heritage and other structures during nearby
tunnelling or mining is a major concern; examples include the monitoring of
Mansion House in London during construction of extension to an underground
railway (Price et al. 1994) and monitoring of listed nineteenth century mining
facilities in Australia close to explosive blasting in nearby open-cast mining
operation (Roberts et al. 2003). These ground surface monitoring exercises are
temporary, but feature all the technology of permanent monitoring systems.
In Singapore, tunnel deection monitoring systems (Tan & Chua 2003) are
also required during construction activities taking place at the surface that may
affect tunnel alignment and integrity. Surface and tunnel deection monitoring
employ wireless remote monitoring technology for data transmission, with
Internet access or text messaging to operators indicating threshold crossings of
deection parameters.
Geotechnical constructions stand to derive signicant benets from true SHM
systems while offering the simplest situations to study. A recent fatal collapse of
tunnelling excavations in Singapore in April 2004 highlights this point (Loh
2004). Post-accident examination of recordings from instrumentation revealed
that some movements in the excavation wall had been detected two months
before the accident and had exceeded trigger levels. Such relatively slow and
monotonic movements and any acceleration in the movement could most
probably have been identied easily and reliably by limited online processing
with resulting automated alarm. This incident has accelerated the applications of
wireless automated monitoring in Singapore.
The SHM technology has also been applied to landslide monitoring, for
example Reid & LaHusen (1998) used telemetry to monitor the Clevelend Corral
landslide for 5 years and Civera et al. (2003) developed MEMS inclinometers,
communicating by wireless to provide warning of ground movements around
quarry excavations.
4. Case studies of SHM
The following examples represent the authors experience in structural
monitoring and span the range of motivation for the monitoring dened by
Ross & Matthews (1995a). They highlight the relevance and limitations of
monitoring and illustrate the application of the latest technology.
In the rst study, a major suspension bridge was monitored owing to the
novelty of the structure (the worlds longest span) and for feedback to the design
for a similar but much larger structure. In the second study, a concrete
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
section 7
2
section 5
Hessle (N)
section 10
section 11
2
section 12
section E
Barton (S)
section 14
section 15
section 00
section 9
2
section 1
section 0
2
2
section 3
2
2
section 4
section 6
2
2
2
section 8
2
scale:
0
200 m
section 13
signal
wind speed
vertical wind direction
horizontal wind direction
vertical lift force
wind pressure
vertical acceleration
horizontal acceleration
section angle
hanger acceleration
hanger bending
vertical displacement
horizontal displacement
section displacement
longitudinal displacement
temperature
type and symbol

cup
vane
vane
winglet
pitot tube
servo acc.
servo acc.
inclinometer
piezo acc.
LVDT
optometer
optometer
vision
potentiometer
solid-state
qty.
13
11
4
1
1
10
2
5
4
4
2
1
1
2
2
Figure 1. Instrumentation conguration for Humber Bridge monitoring. LVDT, linear variable
differential transformer.
box-girder bridge in Singapore was monitored from 1997 to 2003 to track

performance through application of anomaly detection procedures to identify
structural changes, including degradation. In the third study, a short-term
monitoring exercise was used to check the condition of a short-span bridge before
and after structural upgrade. Fourth, a building response monitoring system that
tracked wind load, acceleration response and absolute deections is described;
this system was useful for assessing the performance of a novel form of
construction and turned the structure into a super-sensor for capturing strong
wind and tremor events used in calibrating loading codes. Finally, a system for
real-time tracking of deections on the surface and in the tunnel during
construction of an underground railway is reported.
(a ) Long-span suspension bridge monitoring for simulation validation
Several full-scale measurement exercises have been conducted on the Humber
Suspension Bridge (Stephen et al. 1993; Brownjohn et al. 1994; Ashkenazi &
Roberts 1997), which from 1984 to 1998 held the world record for the largest span
of any structure, at 1410 m.
In the 1980s, research was being conducted to establish the performance of
long-span suspension bridges in seismic areas subject to different ground
vibrations at the widely separated towers and anchorages. The Bosporus
(Istanbul) and Humber (UK) Bridges have a similar design; both feature
aerodynamic closed steel box decks and inclined hangers, so nite-element
modelling procedures applied to Bosporus Bridge (Dumanoglu & Severn 1987)
were validated by comparing ambient vibration survey data and nite-element
simulations of the more accessible Humber Bridge (Brownjohn et al. 1987).
Humber was subsequently used in a similar mode for validating simulations of
the in-wind performance of proposed 3300 m span Stretto di Messina (Messina
Straits) Suspension Bridge (Branceleoni & Diana 1993). To this end, an
instrumentation project was sponsored by Stretto di Messina Spa, organized by
Politechnico di Milano and assisted by the University of Bristol, ISMES (now
ENEL) Bergamo and Humber Bridge Board. Figure 1 is a schematic of the
elaborate instrumentation installed on the bridge, employing over 32 km of
instrument cabling.
599
Aeroelasticity (utter) is always a concern for long-span exible bridges, a problem

that can be treated mathematically by solving for eigenvalues of the homogeneous
form of the second-order multi-degree of freedom differential equations of the
structure in wind,
M z C Cstr KCae z_ C Kstr KKae z Z pbuf t;
4:1
where z and its time derivatives describe the structural motion; M, K and C are the
mass, stiffness and damping matrices, respectively; terms with sufx str are purely
structural; those with sufx ae represent aeroelastic functions depending on the
response; and the term with sufx buf represents gust-induced buffeting loading
varying with time and space and depending on the varying static aerodynamic
coefcients of the structure.
Flutter instability, in different forms, arises due to changes in frequency and
damping of vibration modes, which are represented as ratios of either total K/M
or total C/M. The aerodynamic inuences in these ratios depend on wind
conditions, vibration frequency, deck prole and other factors.
Achieving high utter speeds, to ensure safe operation under normal
conditions, by designing the deck girder shape depends on a good understanding
of the way wind interacts with such a structure. Even with reasonably accurate
modelling of the structure, which is possible for a suspension bridge, and despite
advances in computational uid dynamics, there is still great uncertainty in the
loading and interaction mechanisms, hence the need for full-scale studies.
In the monitoring exercise, wind, displacement and acceleration signals were
recorded for a representative range of wind conditions, allowing for system
identication with reference to the aeroelastic components of the stiffness and
damping, for comparison with values estimated from wind tunnel studies. More
importantly, simulation software used the identied structural and aeroelastic
information to predict wind-induced response. Validation of the simulation using
measured response allowed for the software and procedures to be applied to the
much longer Italian bridge.
While providing the means to validate the wind simulations, the monitoring
exercise also provided data for establishing relationships between the various loading
effects and responses, allowing for identication of the various aerodynamic and
structural coefcients. For example, gure 2 shows variations of modal properties of
amplitude, damping and frequency with wind characteristics for the fundamental
vertical and torsional modes V1 and T1, derived from the analysis of wind and
response data over the entire monitoring period and reecting the effect of the
aerodynamic terms Cae, Kae in equation (4.1).
Inspection and maintenance programmes for Humber follow the UK
guidelines. Each structural component is checked every 2 years, with principal
inspections (and any necessary testing) every 6 years and special inspections, for
example, after a major storm. Numerical simulations have shown that
observation of global response, e.g. deck accelerations, is highly unlikely to
indicate structural damage or deterioration to the major components of the
superstructure. The components that do need occasional attention or even
replacement are hangers (suspenders) and bearings, for which a range of shortterm assessment procedures can be applied (Tabatabai et al. 1998), and this
could be an ideal application for low-cost autonomous wireless vibration sensors
(Lynch 2005).
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40
35
(b) 10
I=0 5%
I=5 10%
I=10 15%
9
mode V1 damping (%)
mode V1 r.m.s amplitude (mm s2)
(a) 45
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10
15
20
normal wind
25
30
(m s1)
10
15
normal wind
20
25
30
(m s1)
mode T1 frequency (mHz)
(c) 316
314
312
310
308
306
304
10
15
20
25
30
normal wind (m s1)
Figure 2. Variation of Humber Bridge modal parameters with wind speed. (a) First vertical mode
(V1) response levels for different wind speeds and turbulent intensities I, (b) mode V1 damping
ratio and (c) rst torsional mode (T1) natural frequency.
One observation from the Humber monitoring and from dynamic tests on the
two suspension bridges in Istanbul (Brownjohn 1994) is that the character of
deck fundamental vertical vibration modes is very sensitive to the condition of
the bearings, which are designed to allow limited free movement of the deck at
the piers or anchorages. Hence, a simple system to track fundamental vertical
mode characteristics can help to assess the bearing condition.
(b ) Concrete box-girder bridge SHM
Owing to the novelty of the construction technique, a monitoring programme
to study the performance of glued segmental box-girder bridges was conducted
in the UK in the 1980s (Barr et al. 1987), with the primary aim of establishing
the structural effects of temperature variation. These employed embedded
instrumentation in the form of a vibrating wire SG (VWG). VWGs resemble a
dumbbell, the ends locking mechanically into the concrete and the slender shaft
housing a taut wire stretched between the ends. To obtain a strain reading, the
wire is plucked by a magnet and the frequency of the vibrations in the wire
601
recorded. Tension varies as the gauge ends move together or apart (in
compression or tension). Because they are robust and installation techniques
well developed, VWGs have become an industry standard.
During construction of the Second Link bridge between Singapore and
peninsular Malaysia, the opportunity arose to specify an instrumentation scheme
to validate the design and performance, and the instrumentation that had
worked so well on the UK studies was adapted for the Second Link (Brownjohn &
Moyo 2001), and supplemented by stress cells, previously used in monitoring of
tunnel linings. The stress cells work in a similar way to a blood pressure gauge; a
thin disc lled with mercury is cast into the concrete, and after the concrete has
cured and shrunk away from the disc surface, the mercury is squeezed into the
disc to engage with the concrete surface. Stress variations, converted to mercury
pressure, are read from a vibrating wire sensor. Figure 3 shows the incremental
construction in progress with a new segment being cast, and the arrangement of
installed instruments in segment 31, which is closest to the pier. Instrumentation
in these segments comprises 12 vibrating wire SGs, 12 vibrating wire stress cells
(prestressed concrete, PC), thermistors (T) accompanying each of these and
additionally laid out in vertical arrays in selected webs, and a triaxial
accelerometer, all supplying local loggers managed by a local computer accessible
remotely via a modem.
The most useful data were retrieved from the strain, stress and temperature
cells, read at hourly intervals over long periods during the monitoring, and great
use of these data has been made (Moyo & Brownjohn 2002a,b; Omenzetter &
Brownjohn 2006) for developing procedures for anomaly detection. In particular,
the continuous recording during the construction process provided reference
characteristics for events, such as post-tensioning and concrete pouring that have
analogues in post-construction activity.
One of the fundamental problems in SHM is that of data normalization under
a range of environmental or ambient loads or noise sources that affect the
measured signals (Alampalli 1998; Cornwell et al. 1999), and it is necessary to
compensate for or lter out these effects. Such ltering may be possible, given
establishment of loadeffect relationships, but it is their non-stationarity that
may signal an altered structural state, for example, by variation in terms of an
auto-regressive moving average (ARMA) model of the system or detection of
outliers from the established pattern of response.
A loadeffect relationship implies that a structural model, either physics-based
or parametric, is available. In the case of Second Link, no such model was
available and an output-only ARMA type model is used in the following
procedure (Omenzetter et al. 2004).
Raw strain data are ltered into high- and low-frequency components using the
Daubechies D4 discrete wavelet transform. The highest frequency component,
called D1, is retained as a series of time-varying coefcients and conveniently
indicates discontinuities in the original time-series, as shown in gure 4, in which
C27F24 represent construction events associated with segments cantilevered out
in sequence from the segment 31. Wavelet coefcients are further processed by
forming a vector ARMA model of multiple channels to represent the time-series.
A best-t second-order AR system model is then obtained, and the more
permanent innovative outliers and transient or additive outliers with respect to
this system examined. As the data are multi-channel, it is possible to collapse the
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
(a)
VWT1
(b)
SG1, PC1
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
SG2, PC2
VWT2
SG3, PC3
T11
T12
T13
T14
T15
T16
T17
T18
T19
T20
SG4, PC4
Figure 3. (a) Tuas Second Link under construction. (b) Incremental construction in progress
showing the arrangement of installed instruments in segment 31, which is closest to the pier. PC,
pressure cell; SG, strain guage; T, thermocouple; VWT, temperature sensor.
signals to fewer dimensions using principal component analysis to highlight

outliers consistent among the channels and differentiate effects on different parts of
the structure.
This procedure served to identify occurrences of anomalous behaviour
potentially useful to the bridge operators. Given the occurrence of such
anomalies, the next stage is intervention analysis (Moyo & Brownjohn 2002b),
which uses a BoxJenkins model (similar to ARMAX) on original strain timeseries in the region of the identied anomaly to quantify and qualify the change
in the strain pattern. For example, gure 5 shows how one tensioning event is
characterized by a rapid change of level (gure 5b). Asymptotic change,
asymptotic recovery from change and gradual monotonic change can also be
identied and characterize events in construction and degradation. By the
combination of the above procedures, anomalous events can be identied and
characterized without any knowledge of the structure.
(c ) Short-term monitoring for short-span bridge retrot
All but a handful of highway bridges in Singapore use reinforced or posttensioned concrete and the Land Transport Authority of Singapore (LTA)
603
strain (microstrain)
(a) 440
420
400
380
(b)
wavelet details
(microstrain)
360
C27 T27 F27
C26 T26 F26
C25 T25
C24 T24 F24
5
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
time (h)
Figure 4. (a) Strain data from segment 31 SG1 and (b) discrete wavelet transform level 1 details
identifying discontinuities in strain time-series corresponding to construction events. C, concreting;
T, cable tensioning; F, shifting of concreting form. e.g. T26, tensioning of cables in segment 26.
recently conducted a major programme of upgrades to strengthen existing bridges

to sustain higher axle loads. The upgrade programme included a desk-based
structural assessment according to applicable codes of practice, together with
visual inspection and sample testing, followed by tendering for the necessary
works. The LTA included a provision for structural monitoring in the tender
specications, making the upgrade contractor responsible for producing evidence
of satisfactory improvement in performance. The specications for instrumentation and proof of structural improvement are evolving, and research (Moyo et al.
2004) has been conducted to identify a rational procedure for assessing the success
of the upgrade, based on the procedure proposed by Heywood et al. (2000).
The proposed approach has been demonstrated on Pioneer Bridge (gure 6;
Brownjohn et al 2003a,b; Moyo et al. 2004), an 18 m span bridge comprising
parallel prestressed inverted T-beams tied together by transverse tendons and
deck slab and all supported on nominally pinned bearings. The major structural
change in the bridge upgrade programme involved xing the deck end bearings
via massive reinforcement.
A multi-stage approach was used to assess the upgrade. First, an HMX bridge
health monitor (Heywood et al. 2000) was installed to log trafc-induced vertical
accelerations and longitudinal strains on the soft of sample T-beams. Sample
waveforms were logged while statistics of strain excursions during passage of
heavy vehicles were obtained over a one-month monitoring period. Second, a
modal survey of the bridge was conducted to establish a validated nite-element
strain (microstrain)
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
tensioning
50
100
150
200 250
time (h)
300
350
400
(a)
450
(b)
0
(c)
(d)
1
0
0
time
... T 1 T T+1 ...
time
... T1 T T +1 ...
Figure 5. Intervention analysis of a cable tensioning event: strain time-series and types of change in
response. (a) Transient change, (b) level shift, (c) gradual change and (d ) linear trend.
model of the bridge. Third and fourth, after the structural upgrade, the modal
survey and short-term monitoring were repeated. The fth stage combined
statistics of live strains with dead loading was characterized using the validated
nite element model to estimate extreme strain values compared to capacity.
Figure 7 shows the driving point frequency response functions (FRF) for the
same testing and measurement point on the bridge before and after the
upgrade using a portable shaker, together with the set of the lowest clearly
identiable vibration mode shapes. The ordinates of the FRFs are inertance
(or accelerance), the ratio of acceleration to force at the location of the shaker
and the inverse of apparent mass.
Mode shapes were obtained from vertical acceleration measurements using a
grid of accelerometers, and in order to obtain ner spatial resolution to detect
changes in curvature at the abutments after the upgrade, a denser array of sensor
locations was used. Pairing of similar mode shapes before and after upgrade
showed that corresponding vibration modes increased in frequency due to the
605
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Pioneer Bridge. (a) General view showing the bridge with accelerometers and strain
gauges mounted at midspan on upgraded bridge and (b) showing a strain gauge attached to the
soft of an inverted T-beam before upgrading.
upgrade, indicating a considerable increase in stiffness. System identication

applied to the FRFs also shows an increase in damping capacity for all modes.
The FRF and mode shape data were used to update nite-element models, which
were used for the structural assessment.
The effect of the upgrade on strains induced by passing vehicles is shown in
gure 8. Strain waveforms for passing vehicles are captured using the HMX
and peak values saved to produce a Gumbel plot for estimating extreme
values for specied return periods (or probabilities) as follows. The maximum
strains for N successive days are ranked in the ascending order of size, so that
rank mZ1 is assigned to the smallest value and rank mZN to the largest. The
values are plotted against the reduced variate yZKlnKlnm=N C 1 and the
line of best t is extrapolated, in this instance to determine the 200 000-year
strain, which equivalent to the value of strain for which the probability of
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
driving point FRF
metric tonnes1
(a)
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
mode: 1 f =5.547 Hz
mode: 2 f =6.26 Hz
mode: 3 f =7.534 Hz
mode: 4 f =10.3 Hz
mode: 5 f =14.76 Hz
(b) 0.06
mode: 1 f =8.31 Hz
mode: 2 f =9.34 Hz
mode: 3 f =10.71 Hz
mode: 4 f =12.95 Hz
mode: 5 f =17.15 Hz
mode: 8 f =27.91 Hz
metric tonnes1
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
10
15
20
25
F (Hz)
Figure 7. Pioneer Bridge one-third span driving point frequency response functions and mode
shapes (a) before and (b) after upgrading. Similar mode shapes identify corresponding modes before
and after the upgrade.
being exceeded in 120 years is 0.06. Since the observation period was short, a
procedure called the method of independent storms (MIS) (Cook 1982) was
used to make use of independent extreme values occurring within shorter but
variable periods.
The validated nite-element model and information about the tensioning
tendons was used to estimate the dead load strains, which were then added to the
peak live strains from the Gumbel plots, accounting for load distribution between
the beams. Comparison of dead and live strains to the allowable yield strains
showed an effective improvement in load capacity after the upgrade.
While the more elaborate modal survey and model updating procedures are
not likely to be used in all upgrade exercises, simplied forms of testing including
operational analysis (Peeters & De Roeck 2001a) that can show an improvement
in fundamental frequency could be used to show improvements in stiffness.
(d ) Tall building load and response monitoring
The contractor for Republic Plaza (gure 9), a 65 storey, 280 m ofce tower in
Singapore provided a valuable opportunity to monitor the performance of the
structure during and after construction by installing stress and SGs in structural
components in a representative one-eighth segment around the 18th level of the
building. SGs were installed on the main beams of the horizontal framing system
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(a) 20
(b)
MIS variate
15
10
5
0
5
100
200 300
strain (m e)
400
500
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

strain (m e)
30
strain (m e)
25
20
peak strain
15
10
5
0
5
0
100
100
150
200
250 300
time (10 2 s)
350
400
450
500
Figure 8. Gumbel probability plots for Pioneer Bridge girder strain (a) before and (b) after
upgrading. MIS variate reects the extreme value probability density function obtained using the
method of independent storms.
of two oors and on the steel tubes of the external ring of vertical load-bearing
columns, while stress cells and SGs were installed in the concrete shear core and
in the concrete within the steel columns.
The static gauges were read manually at intervals during the construction
and for a while following completion, while the fundamental translational
frequencies were tracked by free vibration measurements during the latter part
of the construction and beyond. During its operational life this instrumentation revealed clearly the way in which the structural components distributed
the structural dead load (Brownjohn et al. 1998) and how the load distribution
changed over time. For example, gure 10 shows the variation of stress and
strain within the core wall during and after completion. These data indicate a
degree of creep and redistribution of vertical load from concrete core to outer
columns, a conclusion supported by the development of consistent bending
moments in the horizontal beams.
In order to validate nite-element modelling, a set of modal parameters for the
completed structure was obtained from vibration survey of the completed
building and followed by installation of a dynamic response monitoring system
(Brownjohn & Pan 2001), which was updated progressively from 1996 until the
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(a)
J. M. W. Brownjohn
(b)
(c)
Figure 9. (a) Two hundred and eighty metres Republic Plaza building, (b) under construction,
nite-element model showing structural elements and (c) after completion.
system was shut down in 2005. In its nal form, the system sensed horizontal
accelerations at roof and basement levels, wind vectors at opposite corners of the
roof and absolute displacements of the roof via a dual rover GPS. The system
had two purposes: to capture ground vibrations caused by large earthquakes
occurring at least 400 km from Singapore and to determine the characteristics of
wind loading in Singapore (Brownjohn 2005).
Together with the validated baseline structural model shown in gure 9, the
system has provided the means to track any variations in the structural
system, but the greater need was to determine, by direct measurement or
inverse techniques, the character of horizontal loading experienced in an
environment where normal design code approaches are inappropriate. For
example, with the risk attached to a major nancial centre close to an area of
signicant seismic activity, there is a need to consider seismic response in
design, and this need has been more keenly felt since the 2004 Aceh
earthquake. However, there are no design codes for the case of remote but not
local earthquakes. The strongest wind loading in Singapore is due to
thunderstorms and squalls, but no wind codes so far make for this type of
wind system. Hence, lateral loads due to earthquakes and wind are not dealt
with appropriately or at all, other than by over-conservative prescriptions,
and there is (still) a need for more rational code provisions.
One of the signals used to help characterize seismic loading is shown in
gure 11, which resulted from a magnitude 8 Indonesian earthquake in 2000. Like
all other regional tremors, this generated a very low-frequency rigid body
movement of the whole building. The effects of minor earthquakes are not so
strongly felt and cannot usually be distinguished from other signals at ground
level, so the ringing of the upper level of the building in its second mode of
vibration was used to trigger selective recording of tremors.
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800
20
700
600
15
400
10
me
s (Nmm2)
500
300
200
stress1
stress 2
stress 3
stress 4
stress 5
stress 6
strain 2
strain 1
1000
2000
days
3000
100
0
4000
Figure 10. Stresses (left) and strains (right) in core wall before and after construction using two
SGs and six stress cells show respective decrease and increase, indicating creep and load
redistribution.
(e ) Deection monitoring system for underground railway construction

In recent years, limits on space above ground in Singapore have meant that
new expressway and railway projects involve tunnelling. As such, deection
monitoring of tunnel lining and surface structures are both required. For
example, the new mass rapid transit (MRT) line to Changi Airport passes below
the main runway, whose surface deections were continuously monitored during
construction. In this application, automated total stations or motorized optical
surveying instruments scanning arrays of reective targets at intervals were used
to monitor the deections continuously and warn of excessive values and danger
to aircraft safety.
An advanced version of such a system is described by Tan & Chua (2003), where
the system was extended to include transmission of data via public low-cost wireless
networks, automated updating of deection databases, automated emailing of data
to users and issue of SMS (text) alerts upon threshold crossing or other alarm states.
Figure 12 shows a MRT tunnel with an array of optical targets (the bright dots) and
gure 13 shows the schematic of the system in operation, sending a text message
alert that a trigger level has been exceeded. General packet radio service (GPRS)
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
(a)
Bengkulu Lat 4.7 Long 102.1 (685 km) Ms 8.0 tremor 16:28:25 04 Jun 2000 GMT
L65A acc (mms 2)
50
(b)
10
B1A acc (mms2)
50
5
0
5
10
10
15
20
25
time (min) since 00:29:02 05 Jun 2000

Figure 11. (a) Republic Plaza rooftop acceleration response and (b) basement signal due to tremors
in remote Indonesia.
communications that are always on have now replaced early GSM systems, so
there is no longer the need to wait for the next dial-up connection, and the system is
as near real-time as the sensor reading cycle permits.
Although the total station optical system is used here as the front-end, the wireless
system, server architecture with email and SMS alerts is now being applied to a range
of other instrumentation systems, including bridge monitoring.
5. Application of novel sensors for SHM
Robust and established sensor technology for civil SHM is well described
elsewhere (Ross & Matthews 1995a), for geotechnical applications by Hanna
(1985) and Dunnicliff (1994) and novel SHM sensors are described elsewhere in
this journal issue, so only two new developments that have potential for SHM of
civil structures are discussed here.
One of the major focuses of SHM research, particularly in North America,
has been the advanced sensor development, and as a classical example of
technology transfer, sensors developed within other engineering disciplines are
now nding their way into civil applications. Particular examples are bre
optic sensors (FOS), GPS and piezo-impedance transducers (PZT patches),
but specialized sensors continue to be developed for civil applications, e.g.
Iwaki et al. (2001), Mita & Takahira (2003), Sumitro & Wang (2003).
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(a)
(b)
(c)
typical crosssection for prism
scale 1:50 mm
Figure 12. Tunnel monitoring. (a) Total station with bright spots showing (b) reectors and (c)
located around the tunnel section.
prisms
SMS (text)
alert
total
station
RTU
wireless
GPRS
public
network
central
server
10.0
right-dX
RgtX30/06/03
06.00
5.0
RgtX30/06/03
14.00
0.0
RTU
support up to 128
RTUs
RgtX30/06/03
22.00
10.0
right-dZ
10.0
RgtZ30/06/03
06.00
5.0
0.0
RgtZ30/06/03
14.00
5.0
10.0
RgtZ30/06/03
22.00
001
006
011
016
021
026
031
036
041
046
051
056
fully automatic
data transfer to
end-users Internet
email accounts
5.0
Figure 13. Real-time automated monitoring of tunnel movements using wireless GPRS and SMS
alerts due to deection exceeding setpoint. RTU, remote terminal unit.
Such sensors need to have proven reliability and advantages over conventional
sensors, and major SHM exercises, particularly those with academic origin,
provide real-life (not laboratory) situations for their evaluation. Two particular
types of sensor appear to have a bright future, and while the technology of the
systems is beyond the scope of this paper, some applications to full-scale
monitoring programmes are reported.
(a ) FOS
As can be seen from proceedings of various conferences organized by the
International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE), the majority of civil SHM
sensor research is on FOS (Udd 1991). The advantages have often been stated
(Ross & Matthews 1995a) as
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
precision and sensitivity over large measurement ranges;

immunity to electromagnetic interference;
versatility of application;
stability of material; and
operability under extreme climatic conditions (temperature, moisture).
The bre Bragg grating is widely used in civil SHM (Moyo et al. 2005) owing
to its multiplexing capability. This provides for the possibility of strain
measurement with high resolution in time and space from a single bre, so
that separate and discrete SG and accelerometers will be redundant. A number of
civil SHM systems have employed FBG sensors, for example in the
Confederation Bridge (Mufti et al. 1997). Like VWGs, FBGs can be adapted
to read a range of response parameters. One impediment to more extensive use of
FBGs for civil infrastructure SHM is the availability of robust and affordable
loggers for eld applications, as FBG technology has developed from
communications research that appears to enjoy greater funding and more benign
operating environments. Other impediments, also diminishing, are fragility of
bres, unfamiliarity and reluctance to use new technology.
The commercially available SOFO system (Inaudi et al. 1996; Inaudi 1997),
which uses a Michelson interferometer to measure length changes in a tube
installed in a structure, has gained wide acceptance for application in bridges,
dams, ports and heritage structures in Europe. It has also been accepted by the
traditionally conservative public housing authority in Singapore and recent
developments allow for use in dynamic measurements (Inaudi 2004).
(b ) GPS
The GPS has provided new possibilities for direct measurement of
infrastructure deections, which had until recently required solutions, such as
liquid levels, plumb lines, laser interferometry, digital image processing for realtime target tracking and variations on analogue detection of moving director
reected light sources. A differential GPS, which depends on accurate
measurement of transit times for radio waves from satellite to receiver, promises
direct and absolute measurement of deection without many of the problems
associated with the optical system.
A base station GPS antenna and logger is set up on a stable xed reference
location as close as possible to the monitored structure, with line of sight to at
least ve orbiting GPS satellites. A rover antenna and logger are installed on the
structure, also with satellite visibility. The locations of rover and base station are
obtained in the appropriate geodetic coordinates, but each will have a measure of
inaccuracy depending on factors affecting radio transmission times between the
satellites and receivers. Provided that base station and receiver are close, the
factors should affect signals in almost the same way, and differences between
the known position of the reference base station and the position computed by
GPS can be transmitted as errors in real time to the rover, whose calculated
location is corrected to determine a far more accurate x. This real-time
kinematic form of GPS position measurement (Rizos 2002) should be capable to
provide positional accuracy better than 1 cm at rates of up to 10 Hz. Positional
errors increase with roverbase station separation, but it has been claimed
613
(Ashkenazi & Roberts 1997) that accuracy of the order of 1 mm can be obtained
using GPS, although not necessarily with real-time systems. The alternative to
the real-time mode is the processing of data saved by separate receivers. These
data provide full information about signal transit times and satellite parameters
enabling the use of research-level processing algorithms and derivation of
positional quality indicators. A recent development by major GPS equipment
suppliers is the virtual reference system with which location-specic corrections
are available from a national network of supplier-managed receivers, so there is
no need for a dedicated base station.
An extension of the Republic Plaza system (Brownjohn et al. 2004) shows that
real-time solutions can defect displacements of the order of 23 mm. The
accuracy is difcult to evaluate due to the absence of reliable alternate measures,
although having two rovers installed (separated by about 11 m) indicates the
probable errors. Experience in this trial is that variance errors can be as large as
the range of normal movement for the building, which is in the range of a few
centimetres.
Other recent projects that demonstrate the potential of GPS for performance
monitoring include the Chicago project (Kijewski-Correa & Kareem 2003), in
which fast ofine processing is applied to GPS data from three skyscrapers and
measurements of a radio mast in Japan (Li et al. 2004). What is remarkable
about the latter study is the identication of the mast response in the second
vibration mode response at 2.16 Hz, from 10 Hz GPS data recorded during an
earthquake signal.
If slower sample rates are required, adaptive ltering can be implemented to
remove noise and obtain more accurate static solutions, a possibility not lost on
the operators of dams and other structures where slow movements are of
particular concern as indicators of structural health (Hillman et al. 2003).
For further reading, proceedings of symposia and conferences organized by
the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) present a growing number of
applications of GPS to civil SHM on many classes of structure. The most
successful SHM applications are where the base station can be located close
to the structure and where structural movements can be measured in
centimetres with very slow dynamic or static movements. This makes GPS
ideal for tracking performance of long-span suspension bridges, such as
Akashi-Kaikyo and Tsing Ma (Wong et al. 2001) due to low natural
frequency or dams, due to the very slow movements arising from the
environmental loads.
6. Problems and limitations in the development of civil infrastructure
monitoring system
Directions in SHM research and development towards the goal of autonomous
systems for assisting structure managers maintaining their structures safely and
efciently will depend on dealing with key problem areas in SHM.
(a ) System reliability
As SHM systems are intended to assist infrastructure operators/owners in
managing their facilities, an exhaustive costbenet analysis will be required to
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J. M. W. Brownjohn
show that benets outweigh costs. Apart from the initial outlay in planning,
purchase and installation, operation and maintenance costs of the system should
be low.
(b ) Inappropriate instrumentation and sensor overload
In the growing number of instances where a tender specication for structural
works includes a requirement for instrumentation and monitoring, there may be
no incentive for careful selection of sensors and locations with a mind to
obtaining useful information about the performance of the structure. There is a
tendency to over-instrument, as installation of post-construction will usually be
more troublesome. For a given budget, this will affect the quality of the
instruments and their survival rate, so an understanding of expected
performance and critical locations in the structure will help plan for fewer but
more reliable sensors.
Inappropriate instrumentation often results in where the end-user is separated
from the instrumentation contractor by layers of main contractor and
consultants; a specialist consultant should oversee the design, implementation
and early operation of the instrumentation system.
(c ) Data storage and data overload
A corollary of over-instrumentation is data overload, more data than can be
assimilated without an elaborate database management system. Limited research
has been done on optimal placement of sensors, and careful planning using
scenarios of detectable degradation or damage, together with examination of
similar operational SHM systems, will lead to more efcient sensor deployment.
(d ) Communications
Wireless or land links are a necessity for remote unmanned installations; dialup modems or permanently connected leased lines may be used. These may not
be 100% reliable so allowance had to be made for their fallibility. Robust low-cost
wireless systems play an increasing communications role but due to present
limited data capacity, data compression or pre-processing will be necessary
unless data are slowly sampled static signals. The most widely used public
network is the 9.6 kilobit per second (kbps) GSM data communication system,
but as the 30 kbps GPRS network increases in popularity, the cost of real-time
monitoring using wireless technologies for SHM will reduce. The 700 kbps 3G
networks will provide the possibility of simple, cost effective, real-time wireless
dynamic response monitoring from PDA, laptops and cellphones. Zigbee is used
in some commercial wireless SHM solutions (Edwards 2005).
(e ) Environmental factors and noise
VBDD using accelerometer signals may work in controlled conditions, but, as
many exercises on full-scale structures have demonstrated, changes in modal
properties due to environmental conditions will greatly reduce the probability of
successful damage detection and location. Partial mitigation of such effects can
be achieved through physics-based or statistical models of the environmental
effects, but a level of noise will still remain, even with slowly varying static
615
signals. Successful SHM procedures will incorporate the means to compensate for
or lter out the environmental and noise effects (Peeters & De Roeck 2001b) or at
least establish condence levels for anomaly detection against noise.
(f ) Data mining and information presentation
One of the most signicant issues with SHM is converting data to information,
an issue addressed in detail elsewhere in this set of papers. Not to be overlooked
is the charting or presentation of information to operators who are very unlikely
to be familiar with the sophisticated underlying numerical procedures.
(g ) Funding and vested interests
Informed research communities and their funding agencies have begun to
realize that as infrastructure development slows and existing stock ages
(Wenzel 2003), there is a growing need to support research programmes in
SHM. The fruits of such research are slow to grow and funding applications
have to compete with the more fashionable and immediately productive
research areas. For this reason, present mono-disciplinary and singleinstitution paradigms for SHM research with narrow focus may have lower
chances of survival. Approaches to SHM developing in the twenty-rst century
involve the whole spectrum of the problem from sensors to data mining via
advanced sensor technology, embedded systems, communications, IT, expert
systems and AI. They involve collaborations across disciplines and institutions,
as well as across national boundaries, and are ideal cases for industrial support.
In the European Union, the SIMCES project (De Roeck 2003) was funded under
the fourth framework of the EU CORDIS research programme, while the US
National Science Foundation continues to fund research in smart structures
(Flatau & Chong 2002). Within North America, research on a VBDD approach
to SHM is being coordinated by the American Society of Civil Engineers (Dyke
et al. 2003).
Serious research (that is likely to end up being applied) into SHM for legally
mandated applications (dams, offshore and nuclear installations) is generally
conducted by ownersoperators and the bulk of SHM research reported by
academia relates to bridges, buildings and geotechnical installations, where
infrastructure owners lack capacity for in-house research and stand to benet,
with universities, from collaboration. Without nancial or legal pressure on
private owners, SHM studies on tall buildings will be limited to cases where there
is positive publicity or a specic problem. Owners would simply prefer that any
defects do not become public knowledge, as knowledge leads to liability.
(h ) Lack of collaboration
Clearly, different levels of progress have been made for different classes of
structure, and there is much to be learnt from studying procedures not only in
other disciplines (such as condition monitoring of rotating machinery), but also
within the various branches of civil-structural engineering. The experience of
dam monitoring is transferable to other structures, particularly bridges.
However, once a solution has been found for a problem in one part of the
industry, only those with academic background would wish to make technology
616
J. M. W. Brownjohn
available elsewhere. Hence, as research converges on a solution, so it becomes

invisible making the ideal even less attainable without large resources for a
single group.
7. Present state-of-the-art and directions in civil SHM

SHM can have a very wide denition and be implemented in many different ways
for varying motives, but all approaches have common component classes at the
following different levels:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
sensors,
data storage,
data transmission,
database management leading to feature extraction,
data mining for feature extraction,
load/effect model development from study of data,
learning from past experience (heuristics), and
decision-making based on identied features in combination with
identied models.
Not only is there a huge volume of literature published relating to civil SHM,
but also a body of published work that discusses developments of SHM (Ross &
Matthews 1995b; Maguire 1999; Aktan et al. 2001). Concensus appears to be
reached on a number of issues, which are as follows.
Consideration for SHM needs to be incorporated at the design stage, so that
substructures whose performance is uncertain or critical can be monitored
in-service.
Measures of substructure performance (such as strain) and priority for
monitoring should be stated to aid choice and optimization of sensors.
The design should allow for access to sensors via personnel, cables or radio signals.
It is universally agreed that gigabytes of data are useless until distilled into
manageable amounts of information. Either signals are acquired selectively or
conversion of data to information should begin with pre-processing in the data
logger. Hence, for example, time-series of acceleration are converted to mean and
variance values, discrete Fourier transforms to determine peak frequencies or
auto-regressive model coefcients. This is a form of embedded system and with
time, sensor, logger and pre-processor will merge with the communication device.
Such systems are already being built (Lynch 2005).
For performance measurements on full-scale structures in real-life conditions,
the greatest practical problems have often been with cabling and difculty in
establishing reliable communication for data transmission and control. In recent
years, development of wireless local area networks and public radio systems has
mitigated these problems, lowering set-up and maintenance costs.
Management of data/information depends on application and operator, but
this is probably the key area for future research, as various tools of IT are applied
to merge and manipulate information to support decision-making by
617
infrastructure operators. The most productive future SHM research will probably
go with the database management, system identication and AI procedures
representing the back box interface with the operators, an area in which dam
engineers already have a head start.
Lessons learnt from SHM experiences are beginning to nd their way into
guidelines and codes of conduct (ISIS practice; Maguire 1999; Mufti 2001; BSI
2004; Rucker et al. 2006). Also, a number of national and international SHM
interest groups and networks have formed. Some, like SAMCO (www.samco.
org), ISIS (www.isiscanada.com) and ITR (healthmonitoring.ucsd.edu) have
evolved from funded initiatives, others like ISHMII (www.ishmii.org) have
developed from the interests and meetings of key international experts. ISHMII
has general aims that include provision of a focal point for sharing SHM
knowledge and experience, promoting international collaboration, fostering
harmonization of design and application standards and showing the benets of
SHM in civil infrastructure management.
The limited experience of the author was necessarily supplemented by kind assistance from a range
of helpful engineers, in particular, Suresh Bhalla, David Blockley, Wendy Daniell, John Dunnicliff,
Roger Evans, Alan Jeary, Allan Larsen, Tony McNulty, Akira Mita, Pilate Moyo, Piotr
Omenzetter, Tan Guan Hong, Colin Taylor and John Gittus.
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Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure

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org/ on February 10, 2015

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2007) 365, 589622

Structural health monitoring

q 2006 The Royal Society

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2. Fundamental objectives of civil infrastructure monitoring

modications to an existing structure,

Historically, the monitoring of structures has involved many ingredients of the

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SHM for civil infrastructure

3. History and motives for development of SHM in the twentieth

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(i) a range of instrumentation optimized to provide safety-critical response

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SHM for civil infrastructure

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SHM for civil infrastructure

reliability and accuracy of dynamic parameter estimates for the vibration-based

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Evolved out of two decades of experience on full-scale structural testing and

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SHM for civil infrastructure

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type and symbol

box-girder bridge in Singapore was monitored from 1997 to 2003 to track

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SHM for civil infrastructure

Aeroelasticity (utter) is always a concern for long-span exible bridges, a problem

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mode V1 r.m.s amplitude (mm s2)

mode T1 frequency (mHz)

normal wind (m s1)

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SHM for civil infrastructure

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signals to fewer dimensions using principal component analysis to highlight

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SHM for civil infrastructure

C27 T27 F27

C26 T26 F26

C24 T24 F24

recently conducted a major programme of upgrades to strengthen existing bridges

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... T 1 T T+1 ...

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SHM for civil infrastructure

upgrade, indicating a considerable increase in stiffness. System identication

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SHM for civil infrastructure

50 100 150 200 250 300 350

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SHM for civil infrastructure

(e ) Deection monitoring system for underground railway construction

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L65A acc (mms 2)

B1A acc (mms2)

time (min) since 00:29:02 05 Jun 2000

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SHM for civil infrastructure