Environmental Impact of Rameshwara Lift

Soil Aspects
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED
SRI RAMESHWARA LIFT
IRRIGATION SCHEME
VOLUME I
October 2007
Department of Environmental Science, BUB
Soil Aspects
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED
SRI RAMESHWARA LIFT
IRRIGATION SCHEME
VOLUME II
October 2007
Soil Aspects
Chapter No.
I
II
Content
QUESTIONAIRE
Executive Summary
Page No.
i to xix
I to XIV
Chapter III - Salient Features

Paragraph No.
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Content
Introduction
Location and Accessibility
Topography
Drainage
Climate and Rainfall
Geology and Soils
Population
Land use and Socio-economic Aspects
Cropping pattern
Hydrological aspects
Page No.
1
1
1-2
2
2
2-3
3
4
4
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
3.1
3.2
3.3
Content
Page No.
SRLIS Gross Command Area Details

Population as per 2001 census
Summarized Salient Features of
Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
3
3
5-7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Content
Location map of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
Location map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation Scheme
SOI topomap of command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation Scheme
10
Soil Aspects
Chapter IV - Soil Quality Assessment

Paragraph No.
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
Content
Introduction
Soil Water A Dynamic Solution
Soil Management and Micronutrient Needs
Changes in Soil Acidity
Soil Moisture
Fertilizer Applications
Scope of Study
Study Area
4.7.1 Location and Accessibility
4.7.2 Physiography and Drainage
4.7.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological Aspects
4.7.4 Geology
4.7.5 Soil Types
4.7.6 Land Use Pattern
4.7.7 Cropping Pattern
Objectives
Materials and Methods
Soil Analysis
4.10.1 pH and conductivity
4.10.2 Soil Colour
4.10.3 Organic Carbon
4.10.4 Exchangeable Potassium and Sodium
4.10.5 Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium
4.10.6 Available Phosphorus
4.10.7 Chloride
4.10.8 Cation Exchange Capacity
4.10.9 Calcium Carbonate
4.10.10 Exchangeable Sodium percentage
4.10.11 Particle Size Distribution
4.10.12 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR)
4.10.13 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
4.10.14 Salinity
Results
4.11.1 Soil pH
4.11.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)
4.11.3 Salinity
4.11.4 Colour of the Soil
4.11.5 Exchangeable Calcium
4.11.6Exchangeable Magnesium
4.11.7 Percent Organic Carbon
4.11.8 Exchangeable Sodium
4.11.9 Exchangeable Potassium
4.11.10 Percent Chlorides
4.11.11 Available Nitrogen (%N)
4.11.12 Available Phosphorous
Page No.
8
8-9
9
9-10
10
10-11
11-12
12-16
16
16
16-24
24-27
11
Soil Aspects
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
Discussion
4.12.1 pH
4.12.2 Electrical Conductivity
4.12.3 Soil Colour
4.12.8 Available Nitrogen
Particle Size Distribution
Textural Class
Water Holding Capacity (WHC)
Salinity
4.16.1 Salinity Causing Factors
Fertility Status of the Soils
Nutrient index
Estimation of Soil Loss
4.19.1 Erosion Index (EI30) Values on Storm Basis
4.19.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
4.19.3 Nomograph Method
4.19.4 Determination of LS
4.19.5 Evaluation of Cropping Management
Factor (C)
4.19.6 Evaluation of Support Practice Factor (P)
4.19.7 Soil Erosion
4.19.8 Soil Conservation Practices
4.19.9 Soil Conservation Practices for Catchment
Area Treatment
Soil and Water Conservation Measures for
Rameshwara Catchment Area
4.20.1 Gully plugging
Soil Conservation Practices for the Ghataprabha
River at Rameshwara Catchment Area
28-34
34
35
35
35-38
38-39
39-40
40-47
48-49
50-55
12
Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
Content
Quality Problems Related to Agricultural Activities
Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area
Analytical Methods Used for Physico Chemical
Analysis of Soil
Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Soil at
Command Area
Rate of Infiltration under different land use pattern
in the Ghataprabha River Basin
Estimation of Soil Loss in Watersheds of the RLIS
Erodibility Index
Suggested Erosion Reduction Percentages for
Various Mitigation Measures
Specifications for Gully Plugs
Soil conservation Measures and Practices
Recommended for the Ghataprabha River at
Rameshwara Catchment Area
Micro-Watershed of Rameshwara Catchment
Area and Treatment Plan
Cost Estimates as per Soil Treatment Methods
Area and Cost Estimate for Catchment Area
Treatment
Page No.
16
21-22
23
24
40
44
45
47
48
50
51-54
55
55
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Content
Soil sampling points of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
Scheme
Seismic map of India as per IS 1893-2002
Seismic Zoning map of India
Seismic zones of India
13
Soil Aspects
Chapter V - Water quality Assessment

Paragraph No.
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
Content
Introduction
Water Requirement for Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
Ground Water Management
Management Measures for Irrigation Water
Pollutant Transport from Irrigated Lands
Fertilizer Contamination of Water
Irrigation Methods and System Designs
Changes in River Hydrology
Water Application and Drainage
Objectives
Scope of the Study
Study Area
5.12.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological
Aspects
5.12.4 Geology
5.13.1 pH
5.13.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS)
5.13.3 Turbidity
5.13.4 Alkalinity
5.13.5 Total Hardness
5.13.6 Calcium Hardness
5.13.7 Magnesium Hardness
5.13.8 Chloride
5.13.9 Sulphate
5.13.10 Phosphate
5.13.11 Nitrate
5.13.12 Fluoride
5.13.13 Sodium and Potassium
5.13.14 SAR, RSC and Percent Sodium
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ground Water
5.15.1 pH
5.15.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
5.15.4 Total Hardness
5.15.5 Calcium Hardness
5.15.6 Fluorides
5.15.7 Chlorides
5.15.8 Sodium
5.15.9 Potassium
5.15.10 Sulphates
Page No.
56-57
57-59
59
59-60
60
61
61-62
62
63
63
64
64-65
65-67
67-73
74-76
77-88
14
Soil Aspects
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.15.11 Phosphates
5.15.12 Nitrates
5.15.13 Turbidity
5.15.14 Colour
5.15.15 Alkalinity
5.15.16 Salinity
5.15.17 Percent Sodium
5.15.19 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)
Surface Water
5.16.1 pH
5.16.3 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
5.16.4 Hardness
5.16.5 Fluorides
5.16.6 Chlorides
5.16.7 Sodium
5.16.8 Potassium
5.16.9 Sulphates
5.16.10 Phosphates
5.16.11 Nitrates
5.16.12 Turbidity
5.16.13 Colour
5.16.14 Alkalinity
5.16.15 Dissolved oxygen (DO)
5.16.16 Percent Sodium SAR and RSC
5.16.17 Salinity
Conclusion
Hydrogeological Conditions
5.18.1 Granites, Gneisses and Schists
5.18.2 Deccan Traps
5.18.3 Laterites and Alluvium
Ground Water Resource Status
5.19.1 Groundwater Condition
5.19.2 Ground Water Estimation
5.19.3 Ground Water Resource Estimation
Methodology-1997
5.19.4 Assessment of Non-Command Area
Assessment of Command Area
Categorization of Watersheds
Assessment of Ground Water Potential
5.22.1 Ground Water Potential
5.22.2 Ground Water Recharge
5.22.3 Water Table Fluctuation Method (WTF)
5.22.4 Water Level Fluctuation
5.22.5 Specific Yield
5.22.6 Aquifer Area
5.22.7 Normalization of Monsoon Rainfall
Recharge
5.22.8 Recharge Assessment based on
88-95
96-97
97-98
98-101
101
102
102-109
15
Soil Aspects
5.23
5.24
5.25
Rainfall Infiltration (RIF) Method

5.22.9 Rainfall Infiltration Factor
5.22.10 Recharge from other sources
5.22.11 Return flow from Ground Water
Irrigation
5.22.12 Return Flow from Surface Water
Irrigation
5.22.13 Seepage from Canal
5.22.14 Seepage from Tank/ Pond/ Reservoirs
5.22.15 Seepage from Water Conservations
Structure
5.22.16 Allocation for Domestic & Industrial
Purposes
5.22.17 Computation of Unaccounted Natural
Discharge
Ground Water Resource Categorization
5.23.1 Belgaum District
Categorization of Areas based on the level of
Ground Water Development
Hydrological Characteristics
5.25.1 Transmissivity (T)
5.25.2 Specific Yield (Sy)
5.25.3 Specific capacity (C)
5.25.4 Infiltration Rate and Hydraulic
Conductivity
5.25.5 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity
109-115
116-117
118-125
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Content
Analytical Methods Used For Physico-Chemical
Analysis of Ground and Surface Water Samples
Details of Ground Water Sampling Sites at
Command Area
Details of Surface Water Sampling Sites at
Command Area
Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Ground
Water at Command Area
Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface
Water at Command Area
Standards for Physical and Chemical
Parameters in Drinking Water
Salinity in Ground Water
Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Ground
Water
Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Surface
Water
Classification of Salinity of Water
Page No.
70-71
72
73
74
75
76
86
88
92
93-94
16
Soil Aspects
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
Salinity in Surface Water

Comparative Assessment with Standards
Prescribed by BIS for Drinking Water
Number of Villages / Watershed Code
General Description of Ground Water
Assessment Units of Belgaum District
Groundwater Resource Potential of Belgaum
District as on 31.03.04
Stage of Ground Water Development of
Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
Categorization for Ground Water Development
of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
Taluk Wise Ground Water Resources
Categorization of Belgaum District as on
31.03.04
Status of Ground water in Belgaum District as
on 31.12.1999 as Per GWEC Methodology,
1997
Categorization for Ground Water Development
of Belgaum District (as on 1999)
Aquifer Parameters for different wells in
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Area
Hydraulic Properties of Soils in selected
locations of the study area
Preliminary Yield Test (PYT) and Aquifer
Performance Test (APT) Results
94
95
109
112
112
113
114
114
115
117
119
122
123-125
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Content
5.1
Water sampling points of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation

Scheme
Status of Groundwater utilization of Belgaum District
Status of Groundwater utilization of Gokak, Ramdurg and
Soudatti taluks of Belgaum District
5.2
5.3
17
Soil Aspects
Chapter VI Ambient Air quality and Noise Levels assessment

Paragraph No.
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Content
Introduction
Sensory Recognition
Physical Measurement
Impact on Plants, Animals and Buildings
Natural Contaminants
6.4.1 Aerosols
6.4.2 Dust
6.4.3 Smoke
6.4.4 Mists
6.4.5 Fog
6.4.6 Fumes
6.5.1 Criteria Used For Selection of Ambient Air
Quality Stations
Ambient Air Quality Studies
6.6.1 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
6.6.2 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
(RSPM) or (PM10)
6.6.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
6.6.4 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Noise and its Measurements
6.7.1 Noise Pollution Hazards
6.7.2 Noise Pollution Rules 2000
6.7.3 Decibel
6.7.4 Sound Pressure level
6.7.5 Weighted Decibels
6.7.6 Measurement of Noise Levels
Results and Discussion
6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Status
6.8.2 Noise Level Survey
Recommendations
Page No.
126-127
127
127
127-128
128-130
131
131-135
135-140
140-143
144
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Content
Sources of Atmospheric Dust
Sampling Stations for Air and Noise Quality
Studies
Results of Ambient Air Quality Studies
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
and WHO Recommendations
Noise levels (dB) at Pumping Station and Canal
site
Page No.
130
135
142
142
143
18
Soil Aspects
Chapter VII - Biodiversity & Ecological Assessment

Paragraph No.
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
Content
Background
The Ghataprabha River
Location and land use
Climate
Topography
Flora
Trees found in Agricultural and Horticultural
gardens
Exotic Flora
Fauna
7.8.1 Domestic animals
7.8.2 Wild animals
Approach and Methodology
Approach
Methodology
Phyto-sociological Survey of the Study Area
7.12.1 Qualitative observations
7.12.2 Quantitative survey
7.12.3 Screening literature for species status
7.12.4 Faunal diversity in the region
Observation and discussion
7.13.1 Overview of Forests resource of the
Study Area
7.13.2 Composition and the condition of the
forest
7.13.3 Natural regeneration of the forest of the
region
Key features of the study area
Bio-diversity Aspects of Flora in the Study
Area
7.15.1 Plant species richness
7.15.2 Overall Species density and diversity
7.15.3 Shrubs, Herbs and climbers
7.15.4 Conservation status of plants
Biodiversity Aspects of Fauna in the Study
Area
Page No.
145
145
145-146
146
146
146-148
148-149
149
149-154
154
154
154
154-156
156-158
159
159-161
161-165
19
Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Content
Key feature of sampled locations of the project
area
Tree species density and diversity in proposed
project area
List of plant species as under IUCN/Red Data
Book category in the study area
Mammals species recorded for the proposed
project area
Birds species recorded for the proposed
project region
Butterflies recorded for the project area
Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes recorded for
the region
Page No.
159
160
161
162
163
164
164-165
20
Soil Aspects
Chapter VIII - Remote sensing

Paragraph NO.
Content
Page No.
8.0
Introduction
166
8.1
Location and Extent
166-167
8.2
Land Use / Land Cover
167-168
Description of different land use / land cover
classes
8.3.1 Built-up Land
8.3
168-171
8.3.2 Agriculture Land
8.3.3 Wasteland
8.3.4 Water Bodies
8.4
Slope Characteristics
171-172
Hydrogeomorphology
8.5.1 Linear Ridge
8.5.2 Pediment
8.5.3 Valley
8.5
8.5.4 Pediplain Shallow Weathered
172-174
8.5.5 Pediplain Moderate Dissected
8.5.6 Channel Island
8.5.7 Plateau Slightly Dissected
8.5.8 Valley Fill
8.6
Ground Water Prospects
175
8.7
Lithology
176
8.8
Drainage and Watershed
176-178
LIST OF TABLES
Table NO.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
Content
Page No.
Land use / Land cover of Sri Rameshwara Nala
168
Command Area
Categories of slopes and corresponding contour
171-172
spacing on 1:50,000 scale
Hydrogeomorphological units of Sri Rameshwara
173
Nala Command Area
Ground Water Prospects of Sri Rameshwara Nala
175
Command Area
Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Nala Command
176
Area
Watershed Details (up to Watershed) of Sri
177
Rameshwara Nala Command Area
Watershed code of Sri Rameshwara Nala
178
Command Area
Sub-watersheds of Sri Rameshwara Nala
178
Command Area
21
Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table NO.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
Content
FCC of Peninsular India
FCC of the Project site
FCC of the project site
Location map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation scheme
SOI topomap of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation scheme
Base map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
scheme
Land use/Land cover map of Command area of Sri
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme
Slope map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation scheme
Hydrogeomorphology map of Command area of Sri
Groundwater prospects map of Command area of Sri
Lithology map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation scheme
Drainage map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation scheme
Sub-watershed map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation scheme
Micro-watershed map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation scheme
22
Soil Aspects
Chapter IX Socioeconomics
Paragraph No.
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Content
The Settings
The study location
Salient features of the site
Submersion details of the project
Socio-Economic appraisal of the project area
General profile of the villages
9.5.1 Geo-political features of the villages
9.5.1a Aralimatti
9.5.1b Venkatapur
9.5.1c Kuligod
9.5.1d Kowjaligi
9.5.1e Kulguddi
9.5.1f Mannekeri
9.5.2 Demographic and household composition
9.5.3 Transportation facilities existing in the project
area
9.5.4 Educational facilities in the project area
9.5.5 Health facilities in the villages of the project
area
9.5.6 Basic amenities in the villages of project area
9.5.7 Communication facilities in the villages of
project area
9.5.7a Post and telegraph facilities
9.5.7b Telephone connections
9.5.8 Trade and commerce scenario in the villages
of the project area
9.5.8a Existence of commercial banks
9.5.9 Land use pattern and cropping pattern in the
villages of project area
9.5.10 Livestock possession in villages of project
area
Farmer profile and perception on Rehabilitation and
Resettlement programme in the Project area
9.6.1 Farmers profile of the project area: classified
by religion and caste
9.6.2 Farmers profile in the project area:
Occupation Pattern
9.6.3 Farmers profile of the villages in the project
area: income level
9.6.4 Farmers having access to PDS facilities in the
Project area
9.6.5 Farmers in the Project Area: Type of family
and Age pattern
9.6.6 Farmers in the project area: Gender
composition
9.6.7 Farmers in the project area: Education status
Page No.
179-180
180
180-181
181-184
184
184-197
197-206
23
Soil Aspects
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.6.8 Land holding details of farmers in the project

area
9.6.9 Land submersion details of the farmers in the
project area
9.6.10 Livestock owned by the farmers in the
project area
Perception of the farmers towards Rehabilitation
and Resettlement (R and R) policy in the project
area
9.7.1 Sources of information of awareness about
proposed project among households
9.7.2 Extent of information among the farmers
towards land affected under proposed project
Nature of complaints forwarded by the farmers in
the project area
9.8.1 Response from the agencies towards
complaints received from farmers
9.8.2 Apprehensions of farmers towards proposed
project
9.8.3 Area proposed for R and R programme in the
project area
9.8.4 Awareness about legal acquisition of
properties among farmers in the project area
9.8.5 Satisfaction of families towards R and R policy
implementation in the project area
9.8.6 Some suggestive measures expressed by
farmers in the project area
9.8.7 Agency preferred for implementation of R and
R policy
9.8.8 Benefits expected and problems expressed by
families in the project area
Issues emerging from the perception of the farmers
during survey
Socio-economic analysis of R and R policy
The broad contours of the proposed rehabilitation
scheme - The concept
9.11.1 The problems
9.11.2 The strategy
9.11.3 Resettlement centres
9.11.4 Pattern of settlement
9.11.5 Civic amenities
9.11.6 Other facilities
9.11.7 Transport assistance
9.11.8 Concession of stamp duty
9.11.9 Construction of houses
9.11.10 Rehabilitation
9.11.11 Action plan
9.11.12 House sites and proposed land layout
9.11.13 The basis
207-209
209-214
215-217
217-218
219-232
24
Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.3.1
9.4
9.4.1
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16.1
9.16.2
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21.1
Content
Salient features of the Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation Scheme
Villages benefited from the scheme: estimated
area and population
Land and residential sites affected under Shri
Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Scheme
Proposed canal network and its estimated
length (in km)
Population and Housing composition in the
SC/ST Population in the villages of project
area
Transportation facilities existing in the villages
of project area
Educational facilities existing in the villages of
project area
Health facilities existing in the villages of
project area
Basic amenities existing in the villages of
project area
Livestock possession existing in the villages of
project area
Population and sample farmers covered in the
project area
Farmers classified by religion and caste in
Occupation Profile of farmers in the project
area
Farmers classified by income groups in the
Farmers having access to PDS
Farmers in the project area: type of family and
age pattern
Farmers in the Project area: Gender
composition
Farmers in project area: Education status
Land holding details of the families in the
project area
Land submersion details of the farmers in the
project area
Live Stock possession among farmers in the
project area
Sources of information about project
awareness among farmers
Extent of information among the farmers in the
project area
Page No.
181
182-183
183
183-184
187
189
191
192
194
195
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
203
204
205
206
206
207
208
25
Soil Aspects
9.21.2
9.22
9.23.1
9.23.2
9.24
9.25
9.26
9.27
9.27a
Nature of ambiguity about proposed project

among the farmers in the project area
Nature of complaints forwarded from the
families in the project area
Response from the agencies towards
household complaints
Apprehension of the farmers in the project
area
Agencies opted for R and R implementation
among the families in project area
Perceptions and problems expressed by the
farmers in project area
Prevailing market prices for land and house in
the project area (in rupees)
Estimation of area and cost for rising main in
the project area
Estimation of area and cost for Pump house
and Canal Network in the project area
209
209
210
210
213
214
218
218
218-219
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
9.1
9.2
9.3
Content
Gender Composition in project villages
Average family size among project village
Literacy Level - Total, Male and Female
population among Project village
Page No.
188
188
193
26
Soil Aspects
Chapter X - Environmental Management Plan

Paragraph No.
10.0
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
Table No.
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Content
Safeguarding Health of the Labour groups in
the Construction Site
Ground Water Sources
Estimated cost for medical facilities
Surface Water Sources
Solid Waste Management
Management Plan
Command Area Development plan
10.6.1 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Water Logging
10.6.2 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Salinity
10.6.3 Conjunctive use of surface and ground
water to multiple cropping and proper
utilization of available area resources
10.6.4 Cost of Command Area Development
Catchment Area Treatment Plan
10.7.1 Area for treatment
10.7.2 Habitat development works in
Catchment area
10.7.3 Regeneration model for biodiversity
conservation
10.7.4 Natural Forests eco-restoration
10.7.5 Species choice for Reforestation
10.7.6
Measures
to
rehabilitate
the
endangered species in the region
10.7.7 Terrestrial weed management
Canal bank Afforestation
Restoration and Landscaping of Jack well
Sites
10.9.1 Landscaping
Agro-forestry
10.10.1 Silvi-Pasture
10.10.2 Natural Regeneration
10.10.3 Cost estimates for implementing agroforestry plan for project affected villages
Page No.
233
233-234
234-235
236-239
240-241
241
242-245
245-248
249-250
250-251
251-253
LIST OF TABLES
Content
Estimated cost for setting up medical facilities
Estimated waste water and solid waste generation in a
labour camps
Cost estimates for solid waste management*
The details of Erosion control Measures for sites under
catchment Area of Project
Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km)
Species for compensatory afforestation
Overall cost for implementing Biodiversity and
Ecosystem restoration plans
Page No.
234
238
241
246
249
250
253
27
Soil Aspects
Chapter XI - Environmental Monitoring Programme

Para No.
11.0
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
Content
Water Resource Monitoring Programme
Surface and ground water quality monitoring
Types of monitoring programme
Significance of key monitoring parameters
Objectives of monitoring of surface and ground water status
Establishment of optimal network for ground water monitoring
Sampling scheme for ground water monitoring
Sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring surface and
ground water quality during and after the project period
Soil Resource monitoring programme
11.8.1 Soil Resource Monitoring Scheme
Flora and Fauna Monitoring programme
11.9.1 Objectives of Flora and Fauna monitoring programme
11.9.2 Initiatives in RET species conservation
11.9.3 Field data collection format
Monitoring Air and Noise parameters
11.10.1 The sampling frequency of Air and Noise parameters
11.10.2 Details of sampling sites
Overall Cost Estimates for Implementing Environmental
Management Plan
Table No.
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
LIST OF TABLES
Content
Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area
(Ground Water)
Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area
(Surface Water)
Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area
Analytical Methodology to be adopted for Water
Parameters
Report format for Analytical Results of water
Sample parameters
Soil resource monitoring locations
Analytical Methods for soil Analysis
Details of In-situ and ex-situ sites for the purpose
of monitoring Biodiversity
In-situ information sheet related to RET species
Ex-situ information sheet related to RET species
conserved in Field Gene bank
Location for air and noise monitoring
Parameters and methods used for air and noise
monitoring
Item wise budget for the Environmental monitoring
programme
Page No.
254
254
254
254-255
255
255
255-256
257-260
261-263
264-267
268-271
271-272
Page No.
256
256
257
257
260
261
262
266
267
267
268
269
272
28
Soil Aspects
Chapter XII Annexure and Appendix

LIST OF ANNEXURES
Annexure No.
I
II
III
IV
V
Content
Overall species Density and Diversity of Sri
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
Tree species Density and Diversity of Command area
of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation project
Species Density and Diversity of project site Sri
Rameswara Lift Irrigation project
Species Density and Diversity of Riparian vegetation
of Sri Rameswara Lift Irrigation project
Plant Species scientific & common name, family and
habitat of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Project area
Page No.
273-274
274
275
275
276-278
LIST OF APPENDI X
Appendix No.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Content
Page No.
Aralimatti - Land affected under proposed project:
survey number hissa number, extent of area in acres
279
and name of Khathedar/s
Venkatapur - Land affected under proposed project:
suvey number, Hissa number, Extent of area in acres
280-281
and Name of Khathedar/s
Mannikere: Land affected under proposed project:
survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres 282-284
Kalliguddi: Land affected under proposed project:
survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres
284
Koujalgi: Land affected under proposed project:
survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres 285-291
Kulgod: Land affected under proposed project: survey
number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and
292-294
name of Khathedar/s
29
Soil Aspects
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SITE ASSESSMENT OF RIVER

VALLEY AND HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS
I. General Information
A.
Site Information
1. Existing project / Proposed Project/
Proposed Project
Expansion project/ modernization
Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
project:
Scheme,
Near
Aralimatti
Village, Gokak Taluk, Belgaum

District
2. If existing/Expansion/Modernization
Project,
whether
environmental
NA
clearance has been obtained.
B.
Geographical Location
Village/s
District/s
Tehsil/s
State/s
Aralimatti Village
Belgaum
Gokak
Karnataka
160 19 30 N
C. Latitude
750 04 15 E
D. Longitude
E. Elevation above Mean Sea Level
539 m
F. i. Total Area proposed for the project (in ha.)
13800
ii. Forest area (in ha.), if any

G. Nature of Terrain
i) Catchment area
ii) Command area
Nil
undulating terrain
undulating terrain
Black
Cotton
Black
Cotton
30
Soil Aspects
H. Technical Classification of soil:
(Loam, Sandy etc., / aerial extent (ha))
II.
Existing land usage of the proposed project site area (ha)

Main
structure
Submergence
Canal
network
Town
ship
Resettl
ement
Others
Total
5.0
---
378.0
---
----
---
383.0
(ii) Homestead
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(iii) Forest
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(iv) Grazing
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(v) Fallow
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(vi) Water Bodies
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(vii) Marshes
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(viii) Others (pl specify)
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
(ix) Government land
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
5.0
---
378.0
---
----
---
383.0
(i) Agriculture
a. Irrigated
b. Un-irrigated
Total
III.
Alternate sites considered from the environment angle

Aralimatti is the alternate sites considered for the proposed project based
on environmental angle.
IV.
Reason for selecting the proposed site from the

environment angle
Site is suitable for Jack well construction near Aralimatti Village.
V. Details of site
A. Seismicity
1. Whether the proposed dam site fall in seismically active area
NO
If yes
2. What is the estimate of seismic hazard?
(As per IS 1893 part I 2002)

---- NA
31
Soil Aspects
---- NA
3. What models used for estimate?
4.
(a) Determistic seismotictonic approach
---- NA
(b) Combined seismotictonic probabilistic approach
---- NA
---- NA
Result of prediction
B. Landslide Prone zone:

1. Is the proposed project in the landslide prone zone
NO
2. If Yes
(a) Geomorphological condition: NA
---- NA
(b) Degree of Susceptibility to mass movement:

:
---- NO
(a) Frequency of occurrence / decade
---- NA
(b) Area affected (ha)
---- NA
(c) Population affected (Nos.)
---- NA
3. Whether any major landslide occurred in the past

4. If yes,
C. Flood / Cyclone / Droughts

1. Is the area prone to flash flood?
NO
2. If yes
---- NA
---- NA
(c) Population affected (Nos)
---- NA
3. Is the area prone to cyclone?
NO
4. If yes
---- NA
---- NA
(c) Population affected (Nos)
---- NA
32
Soil Aspects
5. Whether there is any relation between cyclone occurrence and flash

flood?
6. If yes, provide details
NA
NO
7. Is the area prone to droughts?

Yes
8. If yes
: 5 - 6 years
: -----
(c) Population affected (Nos.)
: -----
Sites likely to be sub-merged:

1. Mineral bearing
Sl. No.
Name of the mineral
No Mineral deposits
Reserves (million tonnes)

Indicated
Proven
---
2. Archaeological sites / monuments

Sl. No.
Sites/monuments
Antiquity
Nil
----
3. Place of worship Local deity: Non-permanent structure

Sl. No.
Place
1.
Nil
Period of
construction
2.
3.
VI.
4. Agricultural land
Nil
5. Population likely to be affected
65
Objective of the project
33
Soil Aspects
A.
Irrigation (ha)
B.
Power generation (MW)
C.
Drinking water supply (cum)
D.
Industrial water supply (cum/day)
Nil
E.
Flood control (area to be protected, in ha)
----
F.
Other (pl. specify)
----
13800
NA
1.0
VII. Project profile

A. Height of Dam / Reservoir in Mts. NA Above mean sea level
----
From existing ground level
----
From deepest foundation level
----
B. Gross storage capacity (M cum)

C. Catchment area (sq. km)
D. Submergence area (Ha)
E. Command area (Ha)
F. Number of turbines
NA
------
----13800 ha
---
G. Capacity of each turbine (MW)
----
H. Length of Main canal (Km)
69
Lined
Yes
NA
Unlined
I. Length of distributaries (Km)

Lined
102
Unlined
----
J. Cropping Pattern
1. Existing Cropping Pattern
34
Soil Aspects
Sl. No.
Existing area
(Ha)
10000 ha
3800 ha
Crop
1
Khariff Hybrid Jowar
2
Groundnut
2. Proposed pattern
Addl. Area
Sl.
proposed to be
Crop
No.
brought under
cultivation (Ha)
Productivity
(Tonnes/Ha)
1 1.3
3 3.5
Productivity
(Tonnes/Ha)
Production
(Tonnes)
Khariff
Hybrid
Jowar
10000
6 6.3
63000
Groundnut
3800
2 2.5
9500
Water
requirement
Mcum
62.29
K. Rationale for adopting the projected crop pattern

Soil is suitable for growing Jowar, Maize, Wheat, Sunflower and cotton
L. Irrigation intensity (%)
100
M. Water logging (Ha)

1. Area already under water log
Nil
2. Area expected to be under water logging after the

completion of the project.
No
3. Cropping area likely to be affected by water logging due to the project

a. With in the project area.
Nil
b. Out side the project area
Nil
4. Infiltration rate (cm/hour)

(At least for two locations in each of the major soil groups identified)
Major soil group

Infilteration Rate
(cm/hr)
Laterite
6.8
2.3
Alluvial
18.5
8.6
5. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for major soil groups (m/day) using in-situ
auger hole/inverse auger hole method depending on depth of water table from
the ground level within 2 meter or above 2 meters:
0.0073 to 0.2543 m/day
35
Soil Aspects
N. Sedimentation (hectare meter/sq.km/year): NA

1. Present rate
-----
2. Rate expected after catchment after treatment

3. Empirical estimates
4. Historical observations.
---------
O.
Length of river course which is likely to dry up due

to impoundment (km)
P.
In case of project where flow of water will be reduced due to withdrawal of
NA
Water in between head tunnel and tail race tunnel
VIII
1.
Length (meter)
2.
Flow rate in river (cumecs)
NA
NA
Please indicate the area earmarked of the following (in Ha)

A. Dam Structure
NA
B. Pen Stocks Fore bay/Surge shaft
----
C. Power/Pump House and Rising Main

D. Town Ship (Ha)
22.5
----
E. Submergence (Ha)
-----
F. Main canals (ha))
207.0
G. Distributary canal
H. Approach Road (ha)
I. Green Belt
J. Recreational facility for tourist activities
K. Botanical garden for conservation of rare
and endangered spices of flora
L. Others (Please specify)
Total (Ha)
153.0
20.24
--Nil
Nil
-----
402.74
36
Soil Aspects
IX. Whether any of the following exist within 7 Km. of the project site. If so,
please indicate aerial distance from the periphery of submergence of the
site and the name of the site
Sl.
Particulars
No.
1 National Park
2 Sanctuary/Tiger reserve/Elephant Reserve
Core Zone & Buffer Zone of Biosphere
3
Reserve
4 Habitat for migratory birds
5 Lakes/reservoir/Dams
6 Stream/Rivers
7 Estuary/Sea
8 Mountains/Hills
9 Archaeological sites
Archaeological sites listed in notification
10
Within submergence area
11 Defence Installation
12 Industries/Thermal power Plants
Municipal Corporation/Municipal
13 Council/Nagar panchayat (by whatever
name it is known in the state)
14 Mangroves
15 Airports
16 Railway lines
17
X.
National Highways
Nil
Nil
Aerial Distance
(in Km)
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Name
Description of the vegetation (a) within project site (b) within 7 Km

from the peripheral of project site under following headings
(a) Within project site (b) within 7 Km
A. Agricultural crops
: Jowar, Maize,
B. Commercial crops
: Cotton, Sunflower
Cotton, groundnut
C. Plantation
: Coconut garden
Grapes
D. Natural Vegetation
/Forest Type
: Scrub/ open forest
Wheat & Sugarcane
Scrub/ open forest
37
Soil Aspects
E. Grass lands
-----
F. Endangered species
-----
G. Endemic species
-----
-----
----
----
H. Other (Please specify)
XI.
-----
Description of fauna within 7 km under following headings

A. Rare and endangered species
: Nil
B. Species which require management
: Nil
C. Species of economic significance
: Nil
D. Species of special interest to local population or tourists
: Nil
E. Aquatic fauna of commercial/recreational value and migratory : Nil

fish Species along with their spawning ground:
XII.
Raw materials used during construction
Sl
No.
List of
construction
materials to be
used at all stages
of construction
1
2
3
4
Cement
Stone
Sand
Others (Pl. Specify)
XIII
Quantity
(Tones/months)
Peak
4.0
15000
12000
----
Average
3.5
13000
10000
-----
Source of
material
Gokak and
Muduvalu
By Lorries & Tractors

(Temporary Sheds)
-----
In case of stone quarries details of site & surroundings be provided

Stone quarry
XIV
Means of
transportation
(source to storage
site) with justification
Nil
Meteorological Data (annual average to be obtained from IMD)

(Seasonal ---- Monitored Data)
A.
Temperature (in o C)
1. Maximum: 42oC
2. Minimum: 15o C
B.
Mean Rainfall (in mm):
C.
Wind Speed (Km/Hr)
3. Mean: 25o C
Min: 503 and average 50 rainy days
38
Soil Aspects
1. Maximum: 10
2. Minimum: 0.5
3. Mean: 5.25
D. Humidity less 20% during summer and 85% during monsoon.

E. Cloud Cover
XV
(i) All Clouds
---
(ii) Low Clouds
---
Water Balance
A.
Lean season flow (Cumec)

1. At the dam / Reservoir site
2. At the periphery of sub mergence
(Major streams only)
3. 1 Km Down stream of dam/ reservoir hydel project
B.
NA
NA
Water required (Cumec)

1. Power Generation
2. Irrigation (M)
Nil
62.29
3. Drinking water (cum)
1.0
4. Industrial water
Nil
5. Others (Pl specify)
C.
NA
----
Ground Water potential in command area: Details of Groundwater potential is given in the water quality
report by Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore
University, Bangalore.
D.
Ground Water Quality

Refer Ground water studies report by Department of
Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore.
(Water samples were taken 10 minutes after the starting of
pumping for the tube wells in each of the soil groups).
39
Soil Aspects
40
Soil Aspects
Parameters
1. Electrical conductivity (conductivity meter): 95-3150 mhos/cm
2. pH
--- 6.52 to 8.55
3. Residual Sodium Carbonate (meq/l)
-- (-117) to (-6.8)
4. Heavy metals (only if industrial effluent is discharged in project

area)
- NA
E.
Groundwater withdrawal rate/recharge rate 0.004 to 0.028 m3/s
F.
Provide the average value of the following based on analysis of

pumping test (at least two tests for each of identified litho logical
zone)
1. Transmissivity (Sq. Meter/day) - 56.716
2. Storage coefficient
--
3. Lithology of the testing site: See detailed report

XVI competing water use downstream (Cum /day)
Present
Sl.
Usage
No
consumption
Addition proposed
Total
Surface
Ground
Surface
Ground
Surface
Ground
Irrigation
-----
-----
62.29 M
-----
62.29 M
-----
Industry
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
Drinking
-----
-----
1.0
-----
1.0
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
63.29 M
-----
63.29 M
-----
Others (please
specify)
Total
XVII
Physico Chemical analysis of raw water to be used at project town

ship at intake point
Refer: Detailed report in chapters by Dept. of Environmental Science,
Bangalore University, Bangalore.
41
Soil Aspects
XVIII Physico Chemical analysis of treated water to be used in

project township
--- NA
XIX Waste water management:

A.
Waste water Treatment plan: - Primary Treatment
B.
Composition / Characteristics of discharge before & after

treatment
Items
Units
Composition
Before
1.
Septic tank &

Soak pit
2.
Chlorination
Domestic
wastewater
---
After
Removal efficiency of
Suspended solids will be
50% and small amount of
BOD
Removal of Pathogens
C. Daily discharge (cum/day) from different sources:

1
2
3
Domestic
Other
Total
12.0
2.4
14.4
D. Quantity of Recycled Nil

(In %)
(In Cum/ day)
---------
E. Details of recycling mechanism ---- Nil

F. Mode of Final Discharge / exposal Septic tank and Soak pit
Sl No.
1
2
3
Mode length (in M)

Open channel
Pipe line
Others (pl Specify)
TOTAL
Quantity (in Cum / day)

Nil
Nil
Septic tank and Soak Pit
(2.4 cum/day)
14.40
a. Point of final discharge:

Sl.
No
1.
2.
Final Point
Quantity discharged (in Cum / day)
Agriculture land
Fallow land
----12.0
42
Soil Aspects
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Forest land
River
Lake
Estuary
Sea
Total
--------------------12.0
Lean season flow rate in case of river / stream:

Cum / Sec
NA
b. Down Stream users of water:

1
2
3
4
Human
Gokak
Irrigation
Ramdurg &
Industry
Others (pl. specify)
Soudatti
TOTAL
G. Analysis of river water 100 mts up stream of discharge point and 100
mts downstream of discharge point:
XX
Solid waste:
A. Debris (tonnes) arising out of construction

B. Sewage (tonnes)
C. What are the possibilities of recovery and
recycling of waste
D. Possible uses of solid waste
Quantity
1.50 Lakhs Tonnes Excavated
materials is reused
0.1 tonnes /month
----1.
Excavated earth
is used for casing in
embankment
H. Method of disposal of solid waste:

Quantity (TPM)
------
1.
Landfill
2.
Recovery
------
3.
Downstream users
------
XXI
Noise level during construction

A
B
C
D
Source
Level at source
Level at project boundary (dB)
If the source is within forest area /
sanctuary etc
Jack well site

81.6 dB(A)
71.8 dB(A)
NA
43
Soil Aspects
E
Impact of noise on wild life habitat

Abatement measures
NA
The
workers
at
the
construction site are provided
with ear plugs
F
XXII. Pollution sources
Source
Nil
At a distance of
7 Km from the
periphery of
sub mergence
Zone
Nil
Nil
Within 7 Km
in the stretch
in which the
river is likely
to dry
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Around the
periphery
of sub
mergence
1. Industry
2. Municipal waste/
sewage
3. Mining
4. Beneficiation
plants
5. Tail pond dams
6. Run off from
as ponds
7. Others (please
specify)
In the
catchment
area
XXIII Atmospheric emissions incase of DG sets

A. Flue gas characteristic
Sl. No
1
2
3
Gas
SPM
SO2
Characteristics (in g/m 3)

83.3
2.0
NO2
1.7
CO
----
XXIV Storage (of inflammable / explosive / hazardous/ toxic substances)

Sl
No
Name
No. of
Storage
Ht
Dia
mtr
Physical &
Chemical
composition
Consump
tion (in
TPD)
Maximum
Qty at any
point of
time (TPD)
Source
of
Supply
Means of
Transport
ation
NA
44
Soil Aspects
XXV Occupational Health

A
What are the major occupational health & safety

hazards anticipated
What provisions have been made/ proposed to

be made to conform to health / safety
requirements
Details of personal protective equipment

provided / to be provided to the workers
Is the area prone to diseases like malaria/

Filaria etc
Respiratory
problems,
giddiness
due
to
inhalation of dust and
particulate matter.
Primary health centres
are available in the near
by village. Periodic health
checkup
should
be
conducted and proper
treatment
should
be
given.
Helmets, Gum boots,
Hand gloves, Dust mask,
Dresses etc., should be
provided
NO
XXVI Catchment Area

NA
A.
Total Catchment area (ha):
B.
Monuments in the catchment area
C.
Sites of Cultural importance in the catchment area ---- Nil
D.
Sites of religious importance in the catchment area (Major)

1.
2.
E.
Other river valley projects in the catchment area
F.
Major development projects located in the catchment area

1.
Industry
Nil
2.
Mining
Nil
3.
Roads
Nil
4.
Railways
Nil
5.
Thermal power plant
Nil
6.
Others (Pl Specify)
Nil
------
Nil
45
Soil Aspects
G.
Catchment area treatment plan :Area to be treated (ha)
Sl.
No.
Years
2006
High Erodability Very high Erodability

Direct Indirect
Direct
Indirect
Erodability <8
4.907 (Moderately Erodable)
Outlay
(Rs. Lakh)
96.98
XXVII. Green belt (other than catchment area)

----
A.
Total area of project / township (in ha)
B.
Area already afforested (for existing projects), in ha
C.
Area proposed to be afforested (in ha)
D.
Width of green belt (minimum in mts)

1.
Periphery of the reservoir
2.
Canal Bank
3.
Township
Nil
159
NA
15 m
NA
E. Trees planted & proposed Nos

1.
Planted
Nil
2.
Survival rate
NA
3.
Proposed
4.
List of species
30600
24
XXVIII Construction phase

A.
Estimated duration of construction (in months)
B.
No. of persons to be employed for construction
36
Total
From affected population
Others
1. Peak
250
----
Local people
2. Average
150
----
Local people
46
Soil Aspects
C.
Details of site and area where migrated labourers

will be temporarily settled
Majority of the labourers are local people. For migratory labourers
temporary sheds are build near the construction site.
D.
What provision has been made for the sewage treatment for the
construction workers?
To prevent health hazards due to open disposal of waste, soak pit will be
constructed and DDT is applied to avoid mosquito breeding.
E.
How the fuel (kerosene / wood, etc.,) requirement of

labour force will be met to avoid cutting of trees from the adjoining
areas.
Kerosene is distributed by public ration depots.
F.
Measures of health care with emphasis on protection

from endemic diseases.
Public Health Centers at Koujalgi will be informed and health checkup
camps can be arranged for periodical health checkup of the labourers at
the worksite.
XXIX. Human Settlement

Aerial distance from the periphery of the reservoir
Up to 2000m from
periphery of the
Reservoir
-----
2000m to 5000m from

periphery of the
reservoir
-----
5000m to 10000m
from the periphery
of the reservoir
-----
Number of
Houses
-----
-----
----
Present
occupational
pattern
-----
-----
-----
5000m to
10000m
Population
Rehabilitation & Resettlement Plan
A. Village(s) affected by the project: a) Fully submerged
---- Nil.
47
Soil Aspects
b) Partially submerged ---- ---.
Sl.
No.
Average
Income per
annum
Tribal Mixed Others Tribal Others Tribal Others Tribal Others
15000Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
20
--Farmers
---30000
(BPL)
Villages
Population
Occupation
B. Population to be displaced
Sl.
No.
Name of
Village
Land oustees
only
Tribal
Others
At Pump
House
(Near
Aralimatti)
Nil
Nil
Families
Homestead
oustees only
Tribal Others
Nil
Land and Homestead

only
Tribal
Others
Nil
Nil
3 Families
C. Rehabilitation Plan for oustees:

R & R process is initiated as per resolution of National Policy, 2003
D.
Details of site where the people are proposed to be

resettled:
1
2
3
4
5
6
E.
F.
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikeri
Kuligod
Kowjaligi
No resettlements since
settlements are not going to be
affected
Compensation package with full details:

population (tribals and others, separately)
No tribal
Agency / Authority responsible for their resettlement:

Karnataka Neeravari Nigam Ltd
G.
Whether the cost of Rehabilitation measure is

included in the project cost?
Yes
No
48
Soil Aspects
H.
If not, how the expenditure on rehabilitation measure

is to be met?
I. Expenditure on Environmental Measures

A. Capital cost of the project (as proposed to the funding agency/financial
Institutions)
(Rs. Crores)
226.20 (As per KNNL)
B. Cost of environmental protection measures (in Rs.)

Sl.
No.
Environmental Segments
Recurring Cost
per annum
Capital Cost
(Rs. in Lakhs)
Catchment area treatment
----
100.00
Restoration of project site
----
10.00
Restoration of canal site
----
122.40
Cost of rehabilitation including

land acquisition
Health delivery system
Conservation of flora & fauna
Drainage
Environmental Monitoring (Soil,
Water, Air and Noise)
Solid Waste Management
Compensatory afforestation
Marking of submersion area
boundary
Others (Green belt & Agroforestry management)
R and R package for affected
families
Total
----
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
-------------------------------
1035.20
16.00
15.00
---90.00
27.35
4.60
---168.95
5.00
1594.50
49
Soil Aspects
Chapter II
Executive Summary
2.0 Introduction
Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme is proposed at Aralimatti village in Gokak
taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka state. The Government of Karnataka
proposed the project during 2002, in response to the representations made by
the people of the villages from Ramdurga, Gokak and Saudatti taluks of the
Belgaum district. In order to explore the possibilities of providing protective
irrigation and drinking water to these chronically drought affected villages, the
Government of Karnataka considered recommendations of the Sri B C Angadi
committee for implementation of Sri Rameshwar lift irrigation scheme by
allocating 2.2 TMC of water from the Ghataprabha river, a tributary of Krishna
river basin.
The proposed project is expected to benefit more than 30 villages, spread over
three taluks of Gokak, Ramdurga and Saudatti of Belgaum district. The gross
command area of the project is 18,022.73 hectares, with net irrigated area
accounting for 13,800 hectares, to achieve an 100% cropping intensity during
Khariff season. The total estimated cost of the project is Rs. 226.20 crores.
The proposed irrigation scheme utilizes 2.2 TMC of water, which is inclusive of
0.30 TMC for drinking purposes from the Ghataprabha river to create gross
command area of around 18,000 ha. This command area forms a part of
Ghataprabha sub-catchment in the main Krishna river, above the confluence of
Bhima catchment of Krishna basin.
In General, the area covered under Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme
presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills, running in
almost east-west direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has
gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills.
The irrigation scheme is located at 522 meters above MSL, and the mean rainfall
of the area is around 503 mm with 50 rainy days in a year. The region is
50
Soil Aspects
characterized by general dryness except during monsoon season. The summer
between March and May is driest period of this region, dusty and very hot, with
maximum temperature going up to 42OC, and during winter temperature falls to
18o C. Further, humidity varies from 20% during summer to 85% during
monsoon period.
The project envisages the construction of concrete Jack well along with main
canal, distributaries, besides lateral and field channels.
2.1 Land Use Pattern

Land use pattern has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of runoff
available from it. It plays an important role in determining the various
hydrological phenomena like Infilteration rate, overland flow, evaporation and
interception. There are four different types of land uses in the Ghataprabha river
basin.
Agricultural land covers about 42.8% of the total catchment area. Generally, the
type of land use is governed by social and socio-economic factors besides
characteristics of the soil. In this case, except in the western part of the basin,
other parts are known for agricultural production. A part of the catchment area
remains as barren/fallow land. This is due to the lack of water supply either by
rainfall or irrigation. Fallow lands can be brought under irrigation by providing
small irrigation tanks or by exploring the ground water availability in the region.
Shrubs species such as Canthium parviflorum, Cassia auriculata, Toddalia
aculata, Calotropis gigantia, etc., which are characteristics of scrub forests, are
widely distributed in Belgaum and Gokak taluks of the proposed project. This
class of land is used intensively through establishment of reseeded and high
yielding pastures. Its most important features are relatively shallow nature of soil
with less than 30% gravels and slopes not exceeding 25-30%.
The forest cover of the catchment is 13.8%. The wet deciduous forest occurs in
the west zone of the Kolhapur and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra. The
main tree species observed in the catchment area are Tectona grandis,
Dalburgia latifolia, Artocarpus heterophyllus and many species of Bamboo. Most
51
Soil Aspects
of the notified forests have been degraded partly due to anthropogenic pressure,
irregular rainfall and climate aberrations.
2.2 Water Quality
From the detailed analysis of ground and surface water samples in Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation site, it is concluded that, the water quality of the samples analysed
is exceeding the BIS limits prescribed in some cases. From the results obtained,
it is observed that, the various parameters such as total hardness, Calcium
hardness, Sodium, Fluoride and Sulphates are at higher concentrations than the
BIS permissible limits, which has the potential to affect human health adversely.
The quality of water (surface and ground water) for irrigation is quite suitable.
The ground water quality in the command area varies from place to place and
with depth of water table. In general the ground water of the region is safe for
irrigation purpose. The quality of irrigation water primarily depended on its silt
and salt content.
On the basis of water quality analysis, it can be concluded that both surface
water as well as ground water quality in the command area is generally
satisfactory except in some samples and both the types of water can be used for
irrigation without resulting in any type of adverse impacts on the soil, as well as
on the ground water quality of the area.
The command area lies in Belgaum district around Ghataprabha river covering
parts of Gokak, Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluka. The irrigated patches in the
command area by well irrigation are to be about 3 to 5% covering nearly 100
acres. It may be seen that the ground water potential is limited. The ground
water table is regularly under observation in the command area of Ghataprabha
river, and it is noticed that the water table varies from 6m to 12m.
After extensive studies of flow pattern, quality of water and rainfall pattern of
surrounding area, provision of irrigation facility during Rabi to Gokak Taluka and
Khariff to drought prone Ramdurga and Soudatti Taluka. The present project
appears to be ideally suited to overcome the problem. The Ghataprabha river
52
Soil Aspects
water contains high chloride and sodium. As per the studies and field
investigations the necessity of fertilizers will be less, when the Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation Project is put into use.
2.3 Soil Quality
The major soil groups found in the catchment area are Laterite soils (coarse
shallow soil, 22.3%, and medium deep soil, 21.40%), Coarse shallow black soil,
(10.70%) and Medium black soil (45.80%).
Laterite soils include both coarse shallow soil and medium deep soil. These
deep soils are found on undulating rolling plains to gently sloping topography
occupying areas, in parts of Belgaum district coming under the dry agro-climatic
region. The laterites are found under heavy rainfall and high temperature
conditions, resulting in intensive weathering, leaching of bases and silica. They
are acidic in reaction and low in cation exchange capacity. The rate of infiltration
for this type of soil is found to vary between 9 cm/hr and 12.6 cm/hr, depending
upon the land use pattern. The crops grown in these soils are jowar, groundnut,
pulses, sunflower, linseed and other millets. Under irrigation, the crops grown
are paddy, sugarcane, chilly, turmeric and vegetables.
Coarse Shallow black soils are found on undulating ridges in the Deccan hard
rock region occupying areas in the north and northwest parts of Belgaum and
Kolhapur districts. They are shallow with depths less than 23 cm, dark grayish
brown, and dark brown to dark reddish brown in colour and calcareous, with
gravels, clay loam to clay in texture. This soil is neutral to weakly alkaline and
have moderate to high water holding capacity with high cation exchange
capacity. The infiltration capacity of the soils range from 1.2 cm/hr to 10.8 cm/hr
and they are very susceptible to erosion. The crops grown under rainfed
conditions in these soils are jowar, bajra, millet and pulses. However, crop yield
is poor owing to shallow rooting depths and scanty rainfall.
Medium black soils occur usually on very gently sloping midlands of the Deccan
traps and on the schist, limestone and shale regions of the Belgaum district.
They are moderately well drained with low permeability. The infiltration rate
53
Soil Aspects
observed for this type of soil varies from 0.6 cm/hr to 4.2cm/hr, the composition
of the clayey soils is mainly, montmorillonite. Because of this, indiscriminate use
of water may lead to the development of salinity and water logging problems.
The crops grown in these soils under rain fed conditions are jowar, wheat, millet,
cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, ginger, linseed, chilly, grams and other
pulses.
2.4 Noise and Air Quality

Regular monitoring of ambient levels of air pollutants essentially requires well
designed sampling sites. Besides regular and frequent sampling is also
necessary for realistic and precise measurement, for the evaluation of the air
quality. Regular ambient air quality monitoring helps not only in evaluating status
of air quality in the area but also in evaluating the responses of flora, fauna and
humans to the prevailed levels of pollutants. During the present impact
assessment study, Respirable Dust Sampler was activated in the selected areas
to derive pollutant concentrations encountered at ambient level. Monitoring at
each location was carried out continuously for 8 hours, for estimating the primary
parameters such as Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM),
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx).
The results obtained in the study were compared with the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for both annual and 24 hours sampling. The results
also agree well with those published by the Central Pollution Control Board
under the National Ambient Air Monitoring Programme. In the canal area also,
the level of pollution is not significant. From the study, it can be concluded that
there will be no such adverse effects on the human beings and other living
organisms due to the construction activities at the pumping stations and at canal
site. However, the workers at site should be protected from the source of air
pollution, by undertaking appropriate health and safety measures once the
construction work begins.
54
Soil Aspects
The presence of SPM and RSPM in the water growing point gives an indication
of the prevailing background concentration in this tropical climatic region. The
levels of SO2 and NOx are also within the permissible limits. The results of
analysis clearly indicate that at most of the points sampled, the levels of
pollutants comparatively are not significantly higher except at the Jack well site.
It was noticed that the sound is basically generated due to various construction
activities. In the proposed pumping station and canal areas the values are within
in the limits. In general, the noise levels obtained as of now are less and well
within the stipulated standards.
2.5 Bio-diversity aspects of Flora
There were a total 101 plant species recorded all along the river, project site,
catchment and command area of proposed irrigation project. Of these, 43 were
trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 are climbers. The trees and herbs contribute a
very high percentage to floral density. The survey team has come across more
tree species than other life form such as herbs, shrubs.
The dominant tree species were Azadirictha indica, Acacia nilotica, Chloroxylon
switinia, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia sp., Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica
etc., in the proposed project area. The dominant herb species recorded belong
to Anclographis, Amaranthus, Croton, Tephlrosia, Oxalis, Hemidesmus,
Evolvolus, Tridax, etc. The species richness indicates the deep concern among
farming community to maintain tree species. The sampled area also harbors few
rare and threatened species such as Santalum album and Gloriosa superba.
The observations along the river and catchment area revealed that a number of
factors such as fuel wood and fodder extraction, overgrazing, successive fire
incidences, encroachment of river stretch, are substantially contributing to the
degradation of the ecosystem, leading to endangering native flora and fauna in
the region.
55
Soil Aspects
2.5.1 Biodiversity aspects of Fauna
The population sizes of the faunal species observed is limited in number and
most often only a few individuals belonging to deer, rat, wild dog were seen
during the survey. However, faunal species such as birds were visually observed
and their individuals were counted and recorded during the survey programme,
which were further crosschecked with the available literature for the region.
Although there are no specific studies for the region under survey, we have
scrutinized the Belgaum Forest Division Working Plan for the faunal diversity of
the Reserve Forests of the region.
A
few animals
observed and recorded
commonality in respect of
during
the
survey
work
have
their occurrence in similar ecosystems of the
region. However with the anticipated increase in water spread area following
the commissioning of the project, the existing animals in the forests will not be
tempted to migrate to other areas, but rather tend to congregate around
within the remaining catchment and the newly created command area to make
their lively hood. This is because of the water and food availability. Further it is
evident that the avi-faunal diversity and density will increase with the spread
of the river water at the catchment area. On the whole, the possible loss of
a
few
animals
if any, is
insignificant
because
the size of the wildlife
population residing here is rather small and their mobility is only towards
water source from
the catchment
area.
Probably there is possibility of
increase in population as plenty of water is available. The most commonly found

reptiles are, species of Geckos and garden and monitor lizard. The river stretch
studied presented a freshwater condition, soft and alkaline in nature with poor
nutrient status and is essentially free from pollution.
The damage mitigation measures such as compensatory afforestation plan,
Biodiversity Management plan, Canal bank afforestation Catchment area
treatment plan, Command Area Development Plan and Restoration and
landscaping of Jack well site area have been outlined in the report. For every
issue dealt with, cost estimates and implementing agencies have been
mentioned. Optimal integration of the project can be met by manageable links for
funding, training, operation, and monitoring.
56
Soil Aspects
2.6 Socio-Economic assessment

The population data for selected villages in the project area shows that Koujalgi
is the biggest village with a population of 9227, followed by Kuligod with more
than 5000 population. Other four villages have moderate population ranging from
1123 in Kalliguddi to 1790 in Mannikeri. The demographic pressure in the study
area indicates that all six villages are thinly populated and density of population
varied from 2.95 persons per ha of land in Aralimatti, to almost one person per
ha of land in the rest of villages.
The sex ratio between female and male population among six villages shows
that in each village it is distinctly different e.g., gender composition in Aralimatti
and Kalliguddi indicates that female population is higher than male population
(i.e., there are 1099 female for 1000 males in Kalliguddi and it is 1050 in
Aralimatti). It is also observed that female population in the other four villages is
also quite significant as it ranges from 951 females per 1000 males in Koujalgi,
to 995 in Venkatapura village.
The total extent of land to be acquired for construction of delivery chamber,
pump house and jack well is 5 ha, while for raising main 17.50 ha is required.
For the construction of main canal, 207.0 ha land is required, whereas for
distributaries and laterals, 153.0 ha is required. Together 383 ha of land has to
be acquired. Under the proposed project, the land and households situated in
six villages such as Aralimatti, Venkatapura, Kalliguddi, Mannikere, Kuligod and
Koujalgi are affected on account of construction of rising main, whereas the land
required for other purposes belongs to several villages.
Provision for Rs. 9.50 Crores has been made payment of compensation to land
losers as per the prevailing market value. Also, for the construction of 10 cross
roads that are likely to be affected on account of project work, provision for Rs.
50.0 Lakhs has been made.
Among six villages, the farmers losing dry land vary from 61% in Koujalgi to 42%
in Mannikere. This is followed by extent of wet land affected due to proposed
57
Soil Aspects
project, which varied from 41% in Venkatapura to 30% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi.
The garden lands affected by project accounts for as high as 18% in Mannikere
to 9% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. To conclude, Koujalgi and Aralimatti are the two
villages losing maximum area.
Altogether, about 13 families are going to be affected by the present project and
the extent of houses and sites they lose is 13 and 11 respectively. Provision for
compensation towards the acquisition of houses and sites has been made taking
into consideration the prevailing market value, which works out to around Rs.
36.0 Lakhs. Besides a provision for Rs. 5.0 Lakhs has been made towards R
and R to the 13 affected families.
Therefore, the total amount to be reserved for the purpose of affected land losers
and affected families is around Rs. 10.50 Crores.
The income level of the respondents in project area has been classified into six
groups and the income is generated from four major occupations, such as
farming, wage labour, business and service sector, and various combinations of
these major occupations. The farmers in the project area have been classified
into six income groups such as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (less than Rs.10,000
per year), slightly higher than BPL (between Rs. 10,000 and 25,000); medium
income level (between Rs.25,000 to 50,000); slightly higher than medium income
level (between Rs.50,000 to 1.0 lakh); higher income group (between Rs.1.0
lakh to 2.0 lakhs) and slightly higher income group (more than Rs. 2.0 lakhs).
Based on these six income group farmers have been classified into three class
income level such as, low income level (BPL and slightly higher than BPL),
middle income level (by considering two medium income groups) and high
income level by clubbing higher income groups.
In Aralimatti, 17% of farmers belong to below poverty income, and

farmers in this group are occupied with wage labour, followed by 14%
who are slightly above poverty line of income, and 37% of farmers are in
middle income group and around 16% of farmers in high income group
(Rs. 1 lakh to 2 lakhs, and more than Rs. 2 lakhs of income per annum).
58
Soil Aspects
In Venkatapura, the income pattern among sampled farmers is similar to

Aralimatti, as 34% of farmers belong to low income group, followed by
36% having middle income and 30% farmers belonging to high income
group.
The income level of farmers in Kalliguddi village indicates that more than
75% of the farmers are in the income group of low and middle, with a few
farmers belonging to high income group.
In Mannikere, distribution of farmers across income group is very specific,

as more than 60% are in high income group, followed by 25%, in slightly
middle income group and very few are in low income group.
In Kuligod, more than 40% of farmers are in middle income group, and
more than 30% are in low income group.
In Koujalgi, farmers distribution across six income groups is significant,

and around 30% of farmers belong to low, middle and high income groups
respectively.
The land required for canal network is distributed in a number of villages

and as such exact demarcation of land losers has not been attempted in
this case. However, the necessary compensation to be provided to the
affected land losers in these villages has been worked out.
Most of the farmers in the project area have offered suggestions to speed up
acquisition of land and completion of various works under the project. More than
80% of the farmers in all the six villages have expressed that for those loosing
small extent of land under the proposed project compensation in terms of cash
returns must be given. They do not appear to be satisfied with the status of work
and its progress in the project area, as they are looking for quick completion of
irrigation project, as this was planned, long ago. But, few farmers are however
aware that area taken for drawing pipeline and service road will not be given
back and compensation will be provided for the extent of land affected. Apart
from this, local people have also suggested local leaders to organize a meeting
with Revenue Authorities and Irrigation Department to decide on the
compensation package for loosing agricultural land and a few residential sites.
59
Soil Aspects
It is significant that very few families have opted for political leaders, Panchayat
and private agencies to take up compensatory programme. In Koujalgi, most of
the farmers preferred irrigation department to be involved in implementation of
compensation package.
Various problems expressed amongst sampled farmers in the project area
towards compensatory package implementation, socio-economic and other
problems are of personal nature. Some of the common problems expressed
uniformly across six villages are slow implementation of project, providing
irrigation benefit to all farmers in these six villages, adequate compensation
package for agricultural lands etc. Most of the farmers however, have expressed
their concern over the inadequacy of compensation package for agricultural
lands, and more importantly on the re-investing problems of such amounts
received as compensation. Some of the benefits anticipated by the farmers in
the project area are; effective implementation of compensation programme,
followed by employment generation, income generating activities, infrastructure
facilities, institutional, technical advancement and socio-economic development.
However many farmers have opted for more than one benefit, accruing from the
proposed project.
2.7 Environmental Management Plan
Although agriculture is usually associated with its positive impacts on human life,
irrigation practices may be associated with adverse impacts on environmental
conditions, which may eventually curtail the sustainability of irrigation projects.
For this reason, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been recognized
as an integral part of the early planning studies of irrigation projects in order to
identify any expected negative impacts and suggest the necessary mitigation
plans to curb these impacts. We have prepared mitigation plan for Command
and Catchment area treatment plan, Canal afforestation plan and restoration
plan of water diversion site, etc.
The project area exhibits a varied ecosystem ranging from lakes, semi-arid
agro-ecosystems to scrub forest types. Sufficient field data have been
collected and analyzed to outline the management strategy as a part of
60
Soil Aspects
EMP issues to safeguard the project environs. The management plan of
action includes issues regarding soil, water, air and noise quality, flora and
faunal management and rehabilitation aspects. The action plan for the execution
of environmental management and monitoring plan have also been drawn up.
Generally environment management needs to pursue both short and long
term goals for the recognition of problems and solutions through evaluation
and analysis. The management strategy of the project proposed to be follow
is area specific and small in size and very favorable for paying attention
to the issues connected to canal afforestation, command area and catchment
area treatment, etc. In this regard, enough
prerequisite
data has been
collected and analyzed for the wellbeing of the affected people, and at
the same time to protect the environs of the project area. Important maps
related to the project area have been prepared to organize the collection of
field data and physical parameters of the project area.
2.7.1 Strategies to be adopted for Eco-enhancement of the Project
It is suggested that consultants/experts should be involved in the monitoring of
environmental components, at least once in three months during the construction
stage. The consultants should be drawn from reputed organisations with sound
knowledge of the subject. They should work in co-ordination with the
Government departments such as Forests, Agriculture, Watershed, etc. The
KNNL has been requested to prepare a bar chart indicating the activities
envisaged and provide them to the experts, and concerned Government
agencies to ensure that the habitat disturbed on account of construction activities
is protected from further degradation.
Nursery of native plants for canal bank afforestation should start concurrently
along with the construction activities or even before, for better results.
The
carrying capacity of the catchment area needs to be worked out with due
attention to eco-enhancement and efforts to protect the same from any
natural/man-made disturbances should be undertaken.
61
Soil Aspects
Any Development activity beyond the proposed construction target in the project
environs should be permitted on a moderate scale, with due care to safeguard
the natural beauty of the area. Temporary roads for the movement of vehicle is
to be kept ready only during the construction phase and this must be followed by
asphalted roads with proper drainage facilities before the completion of
construction phase. The aim of the afforestation programme should be to
protect and enhance the biodiversity of the area. Only native plants of the
catchment area should be preferred over exotic plantation, with a view to protect
and propagate the local fauna.
Finally, the various stake holders involved in the entire project involving
Government departments and consultants/experts should work together in
complete coordination to execute plans to improve the aesthetic atmosphere of
the project at every stage of the project development.
Monitoring programmes have been suggested to keep a constant examination
on all the water and soil quality parameters which are well known to have
adverse impact on water and soil quality besides agriculture productivity. Thus,
we have provided detailed monitoring plan for the proposed project.
The overall cost for implementation of project under Environmental Management
and Monitoring Programme as envisaged in this report works out to Rs. 554.30
lakhs.
The total cost towards the compensatory package programme is Rs.
1040.20 lakhs.
62
Soil Aspects
Chapter III
Salient Features of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
3.0 Introduction
In response to the representations made by the people of the villages viz.,
Hulkund, Kalliguddi and Chippalkatti, etc., of Ramdurg taluk in Belgaum district,
the Government of Karnataka decided to explore the possibilities of providing
protective irrigation to these chronically drought affected villages. Later,
Government of Karnataka having realized the felt needs of the people of the
region, planned for the only possible alternative, i.e., irrigation by drawing water
from Ghataprabha river by means of a lift scheme. Accordingly, the Committee
headed by Shri B.C. Angadi considered the necessity and proposed Sri
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme by allocating water of 2.2 TMC as part of
Revised Scheme A Master Plan in 2002. Since it is proposed to pump water
from Jack well, there will be no submergence or displacement of either the
structures of any kind or the habitations of any size and hence, no relocation or
rehabilitation required. Also, the area under consideration is constantly under
drought threat, no other alternative than the proposed scheme exists, land / soil
is very fertile, people are diligent and aware of efficient use of water, the Sri
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation is bound to boost the agricultural scenario and would
add to the State / National economy.
3.1 Location and Accessibility
Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District is the intake
structure, which is located towards north of Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and its
command area has been distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the
Belgaum district. The nearest town and nearest railway station are Gokak and
Ghataprabha respectably which come within reach of residents throughout the
year.
3.2 Topography
The area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme presents a
gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in almost east-west
63
Soil Aspects
direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has gentle easterly slope
forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The river Ghataprabha
flowing in E-W direction forms the major valley flanked on either side by plains
resulting in shallow broad valley. The conspicuous rocky hills near Hulkund form
a chain and the highest point is 723 m above MSL about 1.5 km SSE of
Mannikeri village. This chain of hills is dissected by Hulkund halla about 0.5 km
SW of Hulkund village. The elevation of river bank at Aralimatti is 522 m.
3.3 Drainage
The drainage pattern is parallel to sub-parallel draining into Ghataprabha river.
This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna
above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha river is
originating in Sundergad of Western Ghats. Major tributaries joining it are
Temraparani near Shedihal, Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near
Gokak town.
3.4 Climate and Rainfall
The climatic condition is healthy, agreeable and characterized by general
dryness excepting during monsoon season. The summer season between March
and May is dry, dusty and very hot with humidity of less than 20 %. maximum
temperature falls to 180 C. Generally, humidity is normally higher (up to 85%)
during monsoon period from June to September. Most of the rainfall is received
during southwest monsoon period with August being the wettest month. As per
the records of gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm.
On an average, there are about 50 rainy days in a year.
The winds are generally light with slight increase in the force observed during
late summer and monsoon season. The area comes under northern dry zone of
ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
3.5 Geology and Soils
The geological formations found in the area are the rocks belonging to Kaladgi
series of Pre-cambium age over laid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of
the series, the Quartzite/Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund.
64
Soil Aspects
These form the ridges because of their compaction and resistance to
weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly joined and crumbled mass is
seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession are the
dolomites and variegated limestones with intercalations of shale spread out in
the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally bedded with very low dip
angles, soft, friable and susceptible to weathering and hence have been eroded
away forming the plains. They are overlaid by the basaltic rocks of Deccan
Traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine grained and highly
jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes amygdaloidal with
vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the basalt is massive,
hard, compact and fine-grained.
Major part of the command area is covered by medium black soils popularly
known as Black Cotton soil. They are moderately well drained, low permeable
soils. The lower regions of the hills (i.e., the pediment zones) have red gravelly
soils. They have good drainage as well as permeability. In general, the soils of
the region are suitable for all kinds of crops.
Table 3.1. SRLIS - Gross Command Area Details
Taluk
Gokak
Ramdurg
Saudatti
Under Contour
640
660
640
660
660
Total
Area (in Ha)

6968.11
777.56
2857.14
4816.09
2603.84
18022.73
3.6 Population
The population as per 2001 Census is as follows:
Table 3.2. Population as per 2001 Census
Taluk Name
Gokak (11 villages)
Ramdurga (13 villages0
Saudatti (4 villages)
Total
Total Population
33760
26289
6062
66111
Total SC
4900
2599
362
7861
Total ST
299
555
26
880
65
Soil Aspects
3.7 Land use and Socio-economic Aspects
Major part of the command area is agriculture lands that are cultivated in both seasons
Kharif and Rabi. Apart from the cultivable land, land along the natural stream courses is
covered with weed growth, the slightly elevated mounds have sparse scrub cover and the
land close to the pediment region of the hills is stoney waste, devoid of any vegetative
cover.
3.8 Cropping pattern
The general cropping pattern is growing cereals, oil seeds and fibre crops during
Kharif season and pulses and jowar during Rabi season. The cereal crops
include maize, jowar and bajra. The oil seeds include soyabean and groundnut.
The pulses are red gram and green gram. The fibre crops include jute and
cotton, which extend into rabi season. Recently the farmers have started the
cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by lift irrigation.
3.9 Hydrological aspects
The scheme is proposed to lift 2.20 TMC of water during Khariff period from
Ghataprabha River in Krishna Basin near Aralimatti village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum
District. The catchment area upto the lift point is 6400 sq. km. Since it is a Lift Irrigation
Scheme, only minimum flows has been considered at the CWC Gauge and discharge site
at Gokak falls on Ghataprabha River, which is on the upstream side of the proposed
scheme. The month-wise requirement of the scheme is 5.70 Mcum (2.20 cumecs) during
June, 14.56 Mcum (5.62 cumecs) during July, 20.73 Mcum (8.00 cumecs) during August
10.44 Mcum (4.03 cumecs) during September and 8.13 Mcum (3.14 cumecs) during
October. Water requirement can be available at 75 % dependability during all the months
except during June, where it can fulfill around 50 % dependability.
66
Soil Aspects
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.0
5.0
6.0
Table 3.3. Summarized Salient Features of Sri Rameshwara

Lift Irrigation Scheme
Name of the Project
Type of Project
Irrigation
Near Aralimatti Village, Gokak Taluk,
Location
Belgaum District
a) Name
Ghataprabha
River Basin
b) Basin
----c) Located in
----River
Ghataprabha
Location of
State
District
Taluka
a) Headwork
Karnataka
Belgaum Gokak
b) Command Area
Karnataka
Name of the village near the Aralimatti
Headwork
a) Longitude
750 04 15 E
Location of b) Latitude
160 19 30 N
Head Works c) Lies in Earthquake
2
Zone no.
Project area Degree Sheets
47P/3 and 47P/4
Reference to Index Plan
Enclosed
Approachable by asphalted road (8 km)
Access to the Barrage/Lifting site from Kuligod, Gokak Taluk, Nearest
(Project)
Railway StationGhataprabha and the
Airport Belgaum
a) Downstream Projects
Irrigation Projects under
Nil
construction and existing
b) Minimum proposed flow in the
2.06 cum/sec (average)
river for maintaining ecology
Estimated Life of Project (years)
100
Irrigation
a) Gross Command Area
18022.73 ha
b) Irrigable Command Area
13800 ha
i) Kharif
100 % Kharif
ii) Rabi
----iii)
Gross
13800 ha
Irrigable Area
iv)
District
Belgaum
Benefited
c) Area under
Venkatapura, Radderhatti,
Irrigation
Yadwad,
Koujalgi,
v) Taluks and
Gokak
Timmapur,
Mannikeri,
Villages
(12 Villages: Kalliguddi, Hanamasagar,
(29
villages:
5930.81 ha)
Budni
Buzurg,
13,807.56 ha)
Dhavaleshwar, Yaragudri,
Kulliguddi
67
Soil Aspects
Hulkund, Bhagojikoppa,
Ramdurg
7.0
8.0
9.0
Flood Control
Navigation
Water Supply
Project
a) Irrigation
10.0
Performance
11.0 Hydrology
11.1 Catchment Area at Headwork
Catchment
area
classification
11.2
according to mode of precipitation
11.3 Precipitation (mm)
Annual yield calculated at the
proposed site (Mcft.)
a) Maximum
11.4 b) Minimum
c) Average
i) 50
d) Dependable (%)
ii) 75
11.5 Climate Data (Command)
Name of stations and period of
11.6
record
a) Air Temperature
(0C)
11.7 Data
b) Humidity (%)
c)
Wind
Speed
(Km/hr)
11.8 Utilization within the State
11.9 Share of other States
a)
Upstream
Utilization
Command
b)
Downstream
11.10
Utilization
projects
(under
construction
and
existing)
Proposed
a) Irrigation
11.11
Utilization
11.12 Design flood at Dam (Cumec)
12.0 Reservoir
13.0 Land and Property submerged
Chippalkattti,
Hosalli,
Bijaguppi,
Chikoppa
(13 villages: (K.S.),
Gudagoppa,
5883.02 ha)
Hirekoppa,
Kasba
Chandargi, Komatakoppa,
Murakatnal, Sidnal, Kunnal
Saudatti
Mellikeri, Dasnal, Itnal,
(04 villages: Mugalihal
1993.73 ha)
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
0.30 TMC
----See paragraph 3.9 of current chapter
6400 Km2
Moderate
503 mm
No storage is proposed
---------July, August and September
June and October
Generally Dry except during monsoon
Kulliguddi, 1972-2002
18 420 C
20 -85 %
0.5 - 10 Km/hr
Full
Nil
Not Applicable
Nil
2.2 TMC per year (water allotted)

Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
68
Soil Aspects
14.0
14.1
14.2
14.3
15.0
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
16.0
Head Works
Barrage
Intake Channel
Details of Lift
---Nil
275 m long intake channel
Length of Rising
Main
Delivery RL
Area under Lift
Maximum Discharge
Static Head
Total Head including
losses
Number of rows of
pipes with diameter
17.500 Km
620m, 640 m and 660 m
13800 ha (net irrigable)
8.0 Cumecs
134.50 without losses
158.50 m with losses
Single row with 2.20 m diameter at starting

and 1.50 m diameter at tail end of rising
main.
Type of pump with Vertical Turbine, 2550 HP
HP
Number of pumps
8 Nos.
Canal System
171 Km total canal network
(102 Km distributory and lateral)
Main Canals
69 Km
Purpose of Canal
Irrigation
a) Flow
Yes
b) Lined
Yes
c)
Discharging
Type
Capacity of channel
Above 5 Cusecs
above which lining is
proposed
d) Type of Lining
Concrete
a) Length (Km)
69 Km
b)Full Supply Level
660 m
at head (EI-m)
c)
Fully
Supply
1.44 m maximum
Depth (m)
d) Bed width
3.00 m maximum
e) Side Slope
1.5 H : 1 V
f) Bed Slope
1 in 2500 t o 3000
g)
Maximum
Design Data
discharging capacity 3.80
at Head / (m3/s)
h) Total number of
224
Canal structures
i) Gross Command
18022.73 ha
Area (GCA) ha
j)
Culturable
Command
Area 13800 ha
(CCA)
1.50 without drinking water
Benefit Cost Ratio
1.944 with drinking water
Total cost of the Project
Rs. 226.20 Crores
69
Soil Aspects
(Excluding the EMP cost)
70
Soil Aspects
Chapter IV
SOIL QUALITY ASSESSMENT
4.0 Introduction
The present day agricultural practices with emphasis on higher production yields,
using improved seed strains and large inputs of chemical fertilizers together with
state of the art agricultural technologies, have certainly helped the country, to
attain a degree of self-sufficiency in total food production. However as the major
nutrients needed for agricultural growth are supplied continuously through large
scale application of chemical fertilizers, the soil micronutrients, which have an
equally vital role in agricultural production, continue to get depleted over the
years. The constant deficiency of soil micronutrients, with rather limited
incidental addition by way of agricultural practice, has led eventually to an
imbalanced nutrient status in the soil. The massive application of chemical
fertilizers and the very limited utilization of the wholesome organic manures have
further aggravated the nutrient profile of the soil environment. To sustain,
therefore the yield levels of different crops and maintain the soil nutrient status at
an optimal and healthy level over long periods. It becomes very important to
investigate and understand any emerging nutrient deficiencies in the soil regime
particularly the micro and secondary nutrients which should enable to adopt
suitable ameliorating technologies. This apart, toxicity aspects of some nutrients
either due to continuous submergence or resulting from pollution, could also
pose problems during agricultural operations. Hence, recognition, monitoring and
alleviating the micro- and secondary nutrient deficiencies if any, is a vital
necessity. In view of these, it is imperative to study in depth, the Physicochemical and nutrient status parameters of the soil regime in a given area, and
utilize the data and information thus generated towards evolving a pragmatic
programme of agricultural management for the benefit of the community.
4.1 Soil Water A Dynamic Solution
Two major concepts concerning soil water emphasize the significance of this
component of the soil, especially in relation to plant growth.
71
Soil Aspects
Water is held in the soil pores with varying degrees of tenacity depending
on the amount of water present and the size of the pores.
Together with its soluble constituents, including nutrient elements (e.g.,
calcium, potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorous), soil water makes up the
soil solutions, which is the critical medium for supplying nutrients for
growing plants.
When the soil moisture content is optimum for plant growth the water in the large
and intermediate pores can move in the soil and can be used by plants. The
movement can be in any direction, either downward in response to gravity, or
upward as water moves to the soil surface to replace that lost by evaporation
and also in any direction towards plant roots as they draw and absorb this
important liquid. Although some of the soil moisture is removed by growing
plants, some remain in tiny pores and in thin films around soil particles. The soil
solids strongly attract this soil water and consequently compete for it with plant
roots. Thus, not all soil water is available to plants. Depending on the soil, type
as much as one fourth to two thirds of the moisture may remain in the soil after
the plants have wilted or died for lack of water.
4.2 Soil Management and Micronutrient Needs
Although the characteristics of each micronutrient are quite specific, some
generalizations with respect to management practices are possible. In seeking
the cause of plant abnormalities, one should keep in mind the conditions under
which micronutrient deficiencies or toxicities are likely to occur. Sandy soils,
mucks, and soils having very high or very low pH values are suspect. Areas of
intensive cropping and heavy macronutrient fertilization may be deficient in
micronutrients.
4.3 Changes in Soil Acidity
In very acid soils, one might expect toxicities of iron, manganese and
deficiencies of phosphorous and molybdenum. These can be corrected by liming
and by appropriate fertilizer additions. Calcareous soils may have deficiencies of
iron, manganese, zinc, and copper and, in a few cases, toxic quantities of
molybdenum. No specific statement can be made concerning the pH value most
72
Soil Aspects
suitable for all the elements. However, medium-textured soils generally supply
adequate quantities of micronutrients when the soil pH is held between 6 and 7.
In sandy soils, a somewhat more acid reaction may be justified because the total
quantity of micronutrients is low, and even at pH 6.0, some cation deficiencies
might occur.
4.4 Soil Moisture
Drainage and moisture control can influence micronutrient solubility in soils.
Improving the drainage of acid soils will encourage the formation of the oxidized
forms of iron and manganese. These are less soluble and, under acid conditions,
less toxic than redued forms. Moisture control at high pH values can have
opposite effect. High moisture levels maintained by irrigation may result in the
chemical reduction of high-valence compounds, the oxides of which are
extremely insoluble. Flooding a soil will favor the reduced forms, which are more
available to growing plants. Poor drainage also increases the availability of
molybdenum, in some soils, to the point of producing plants containing toxic
levels of this element.
4.5 Fertilizer Applications
The most common management practice to overcome micronutrient deficiencies
is the application of commercial fertilizers. The materials are most commonly
applied to the soil, although in recent years foliar sprays and even seed
treatments have been used. Foliar sprays of dilute inorganic salts or organic
chelates are more effective than soil treatments where high soil pH or other
factors render the soil-applied nutrients unavailable. Treating seeds with small
dosages (20-40g/ha) of molybdenum, has had satisfactory results on
molybdenum deficient acid soils.
Micronutrients are becoming increasingly important to world agriculture as crop
removal of these essential elements increases. Soil and plant tissue tests
confirm that these elements are limiting crop production over wide areas and
suggest the attention to the importance of micronutrients will likely increase in
the future. In most cases, soil management practices that avoid extremes in soil
pH and optimize the return of plant residues, will minimize the risk of
73
Soil Aspects
micronutrient problems which can be solved only by the application of
micronutrient fertilizers. Such materials are becoming common components of
fertilizers for field and garden use and, are likely to become even more important
in the future.
Chemical fertilizers play a major role in supplementing the soils ability to provide
both macro- and micronutrients for crops. There are a large variety of fertilizers
on the market today to satisfy the demands of the farmers, gardeners and home
owners. The choice of the fertilizer to use in a given situation will be determined
by a number of factors, including the soils ability to provide its nutrients and the
crops need for them. In an increasingly competitive world, the costs of the
fertilizers applied to the land and the value of increased yields that the fertilizers
applied to the land and the value of increased yields that the fertilizers help
produce play a major role, in determining the kind and amount of fertilizers to be
applied. Also, the effects of the fertilizers on soil properties (such as pH) and on
crop quality must be considered.
It is important that excessive use of fertilizer be avoided, not only because of the
potential for waste of the plant nutrients, but also because of the potential to
damage environmental quality.
4.6 Scope of Study
The soil is a primary recipient, intended or otherwise, of many of the waste
products and chemicals used in modern society. Once these materials enter the
soil, they become part of a vibrant intricate cycle that affects all forms of life. At
least a general understanding of the pollutants themselves, their reactions in
soils, and available means of managing, destroying, or inactivating them is
essential. Six general kinds of pollutants commonly reach the soil. Firstly there
are the thousands of pesticides formulations, most of which are used for
agricultural purposes. Secondly there is a group of inorganic pollutants, such as
mercury, cadmium, and lead. Thirdly are the organic wastes, such as those from
concentrated feedlots and food-processing plants as well as municipal and
industrial wastes, some of which may be added to soils.
74
Soil Aspects
A prime reason for studying soils is to obtain a general concept as to what they
are and how they can and should be used. Such a concept is essential for
understanding how soils can serve the farmer. It is also a requisite for
determining how best to conserve soils for future generations.
4.7 Study Area
The intake structure is located near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk,
Belgaum District. It is located towards north to Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the
command area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum
district. The nearest town is Gokak at a distance of 45 Km, which is
approachable throughout the year and Ghataprabha is the nearest railway
station. The details regarding the site chosen for study is provided in Table 1.
The major part of the of the command area is almost a gentle undulating
landscape with a linear string of hills running in almost east- west direction
dividing the region into two halves. The region has gentle easterly slope forming
largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The drainage pattern is
parallel to sub-parallel draining into Ghataprabha River. This area forms a part of
Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna above the confluence of Bhima
catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha River originates in Sundergad of
Western Ghats. Major tributaries joining it are Tamraparani near Shedihal,
Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near Gokak town.
Density of the network varies widely between 0.5km/sq.km to 2.5km/sq.km. It is
observed that the less resistant rocks confined in the western part of the
catchment has the higher drainage density than that of the flat areas in the
central part.
The climatic condition on the whole is healthy, agreeable and is characterized by
a general dryness, excepting monsoon season. The summer between March
and May is dry, dusty and very hot, with maximum temperatures reaching up to
75
Soil Aspects
420 C. December to February is the cold season when the minimum temperature
falls to 180C. Generally humidity varies from less than 20% during summer to
85% during monsoon. June to September is the period during which humidity is
normally higher. Most of the rainfall is received during southwest monsoon
period, with August being the wettest month. As per the records of gauging
station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an average there
are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally mild with slight
increase velocity observed during the late summer and monsoon. The area
comes under northern dry zone of ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
4.7.4 Geology
Geomorphologically the catchment is relatively flat and gently undulating with
isolated hillocks intervened by valleys. The catchment is somewhat oval in
shape. The relief of the basin varies between 682m and 1039m.
series of Precambrian age overlaid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of
the series, the Quartzite/ Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund.
weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly jointed and crumbled mass
which is seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession,
are the dolomites and variegated lime stones with intercalations of shale spread
out in the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally embedded with very
low dip angles, soft, friable and susceptible to weathering and hence have been
severely eroded forming the plains. They are overlaid by the basaltic rocks of
Deccan traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine grained and
highly jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes amygdaloidal with
vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the basalt is massive,
hard, compact and fine grained.
4.7.5 Soil Types
The major soil groups found in the catchment are, Laterite soils (coarse shallow
soil, 22.3% and medium deep soil, 21.40%), Coarse shallow black soil,
(10.70%), Medium black soil (45.80%).
76
Soil Aspects
Laterite soils include both coarse shallow soil and medium deep soil. These
deep soils are found on undulating rolling plains to gently sloping topography
occupying areas in parts of Kolhapur districts coming under the dry agro climatic
region. The laterites are found under heavy rainfall and high temperature
conditions, resulting in intensive weathering, leaching of bases and silica. They
are acidic in reaction and low in cation exchange capacity. The rate of infiltration
for this type of soil is found to vary between 9 cm/hr and 12.6 cm/hr, depending
upon the land use pattern. The crops grown in these soils are jowar, groundnut,
pulses, sunflower, linseed and other millet. Under irrigation, the crops grown are
paddy, sugarcane, chilies, turmeric and vegetables.
Coarse Shallow Black soils are found on undulating ridges in the Deccan hard
rock region occupying areas in the north and northwest parts of Belgaum and
Kolhapur districts. They are shallow with depths less than 23 cm, dark grayish
brown, and dark brown to dark reddish brown in colour and calcareous, with
gravels clay loam to clay in texture. This soil is neutral to weakly alkaline and
have moderate to high water holding capacity with high cation exchange
capacity. The infiltration capacity of the soils range from 1.2 cm/hr to 10.8 cm/hr
and they are very susceptible to erosion. The crops grown under rainfed
conditions in these soils are jowar, bajra, millet and pulses. However, crop yield
is poor owing to shallow rooting depths and scanty rainfall.
Medium Black soils occur usually on very gently sloping midlands of the Deccan
traps and on the schist, limestone and shale regions of the Belgaum districts.
They are moderately well drained with low permeability. The infiltration rate
observed for this type of soil varies from 0.6 cm/hr to 4.2cm/hr, the composition
of the clayey soils is mainly, montmorillonite. Because of this, indiscriminate use
of water may lead to the development of salinity and water logging problems.
The crops grown in these soils under rain fed conditions are jowar, wheat, millet,
cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, ginger, linseed, chilly, gram and other
pulses.
77
Soil Aspects
4.7.6 Land Use Pattern
Land use pattern has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of runoff
available from it. It plays an important role in determining the various
hydrological phenomena like Infilteration rate, overland flow, evaporation and
interception. There are four different types of land uses in the Ghataprabha river
basin.
Agricultural land covers about 42.8% of the total catchment. Generally, the type
of land use is governed by social, and socio-economic and characteristics of the
soil. Here except in the western part of the basin, other parts are known for
agricultural production. A part of the catchment area remains as barren/fallow
land. This is due to the lack of water supply either by rainfall or irrigation. Fallow
lands can be brought under irrigation by providing small irrigation tanks or by
exploring the ground water availability in the region. Shrubs are widely
distributed in Chandgad and Gadhinglaj taluks and covers 33.05% area of the
basin. This class of land is used intensively through establishment of reseeded
and high yielding pastures. Its most important features are relatively shallow
soils with less than 30% gravels and slopes not exceeding 25-30%. The forest
cover of the catchment is 13.8%. The wet deciduous forest occurs in the west
zone of the Kolhapur and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra. The main tree
species in the forest are teak, rose, jackfruit, bamboo etc. most of the notified
forests have been degraded partly due to irregular rainfall and climate
aberrations.
4.7.7 Cropping Pattern
The general cropping pattern consists of growing cereals, oil seeds and fiber
crops in the Khariff season and pulses and jowar during Rabi season. The cereal
crops include maize, jowar and bajra. The oil seed crops are soyabean and
groundnut. The pulses are red gram and green gram. The fiber crops include
jute and cotton, which extend till Rabi season. Recently the farmers have started
the cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by lift irrigation. The
general water quality problems associated with agricultural activities is discussed
below (Table 4.1).
78
Soil Aspects
Table 4.1. Quality Problems Related to Agricultural Activities
Salinity
Sanitary Quality
Nutrient
Enrichment
Toxic Elements
Pesticides
Source
Irrigation and insufficient
drainage, Seawater
intrusion or saline
upcoming saline seeps
Feedlots, Wastes,
Livestock grazing
Feedlots, Land
management, Inorganic
fertilizers
Irrigation and drainage,
Land management
Applied pesticides and
crops, Spills or leaks from
storage facilities
Impact
Increase of dissolved solids
(Chloride, Sodium,
Sulphate, etc.)
Pathogenic microorganisms
(virus, bacteria, protozoa)
Presence of nitrate, Soil
acidification, Diffuse
pollution of nitrates
Presence of Boron,
Selenium, Arsenic,
Molybdenum, Copper,
Nickel, etc.
Diffuse pollution of
pesticides, Point source
pollution
4.8 Objectives
The objectives, under the proposed study are:
To study the soil characteristics, including Physico-chemical and
biological parameters.
To assess the soil fertility status with respect to nutrient index and,
To overview the cropping pattern and, to estimate the soil loss.
4.9 Materials and Methods
Standard techniques of soil survey (Jackson and Black, 1965 & 1982) were used
to obtain qualitative and quantitative data on the soils. Various soil quality
parameters viz., pH, electrical conductivity, chloride, available calcium and
magnesium, phosphorus, exchangeable sodium and potassium, available
nitrogen etc., were determined employing standard methods of analyses
(Jackson and Black 1965, 1968, 1982).
4.10 Soil Analysis
Investigation of the physical and chemical properties of the top layer of soil are
essential to establish the important factors of water retention in the study area.
Standard procedures of National Bureau of Soil Survey, Bangalore and Jackson
and Black (1965, 1968 and 1982) were employed for analysis of soil study
79
Soil Aspects
parameters. The methodology adopted for studying the various soil parameters
are discussed below. (Table 2)
4.10.1 pH and conductivity
The soil samples collected from the field were dried by spreading out on a plastic
tray under a shady area. Coarse aggregates, stones and pieces of roots, leaves
and other un-decomposed organic materials were removed and large lumps of
moist soil were broken by hand. Samples were mixed during drying process to
complete exposure of fresh surfaces. The dried soil samples were crushed
thoroughly using pestle and mortar and finally sieved through a 2 mm sieve.
Crushing was continued, until the soil retained on the sieve contained no
aggregates. Any material larger than 2 mm was discarded; samples were
allowed to dry, and stored in plastic bags. They were graded into stones (>2mm)
and soil (<2mm). Field fresh soils were stirred with distilled water (1:5) and the
pH and conductivity were determined using digital pH meter (model EUTEOH
CYBERSCAN
510)
and
digital
conductivity
meter
(SYSTRONICS
Conductivity/TDS Meter 308).

4.10.2 Soil Colour
The different colored soils collected from the study area were subjected to
analysis and identification, by visual methods and interpreted. Soil colour varies
from region to region. Soil derives its colour from the parent material, and
besides the colour may also vary due to,
i.Soil forming process
ii. Moisture content and drainage capacity and
iii. Nature and amount of organic matter, and mineral content.
Organic matter (OM) in the soil was oxidized with a mixture of potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and concentrated H2SO4, in accordance with the standard
procedure. Excess dichromate was determined by back titration against ferrous
sulphate
(FeSO4.7H2O)
or
ferrous
ammonium
sulphate
(FeSO4.
(NH4)2SO4.6H2O).
80
Soil Aspects
4.10.4 Exchangeable Potassium and Sodium
The term available potassium (K) conventionally refers to exchangeable + water
soluble K. The exchangeable K constitutes the major portion of available K, and
this along with Ca and Mg was determined, using a neutral ammonium acetate
(N NH4Oac) extract of soil. The extraction was carried out by continuous shaking
followed by filtration. The Potassium and Sodium were estimated by flame
photometry.
4.10.5 Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium
Exchangeable Ca and Mg were determined in ammonium acetate extracts of
soils (obtained as above under K), by direct titration with standard EDTA
solution. The amount of organic matter dissolved was usually too small to affect
the colour change of the indicator. This procedure permitted the determination of
calcium and magnesium in the same solution.
The Phosphorus content of soils samples was determined as available
phosphorus, which was extracted from soil using extraction solvent of dilute acid
(0.002N H2SO4) in the ratio of 1 (soil): 200 (H2SO4)]. The sample was thoroughly
mixed by shaking for at least half an hour, and the solution was filtered through
Whatman filter No. 42. The concentration of phosphorus was determined
following the method given for the determination of inorganic phosphorus in
water (Trivedi and Goel, 1987).
4.10.7 Chloride
Mohrs titration method was used to estimate the chloride content of the soil
samples after extracting through suitable solvent. The method depends upon the
formation of a sparingly brick red of silver chromate (AgCrO4) precipitate at the
end point during sample titration against standard silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution
in the presence of potassium chromate (K2CrO4) indicator.
4.10.8 Cation Exchange Capacity
The cation exchange capacity was measured at a standard pH 7.0, which was
done by passing a solution of ammonium acetate (buffered at pH 7) through the
81
Soil Aspects
soil to replace all the exchangeable cations by ammonium ions. The amounts of
displaced cations were determined by standard chemical methods and the sum
total of the same represents the cation exchange capacity of the soil.
Alternatively, the soil was washed out with the surplus ammonium acetate, then
the exchangeable ammonium was displaced by another suitable cation, and it
was measured by standard analytical procedures.
4.10.9 Calcium Carbonate
An aliquot of the soil sample was extracted with 1 N HCl and a rapid titration
method was followed, using bromothymol blue as indicator; and the calcium
carbonate value was determined using the formulae.
4.10.10 Exchangeable Sodium percentage
Exchangeable sodium percentage was estimated by calculation, using Na, Ca
and Mg values.
4.10.11 Particle Size Distribution
Particle size distribution was done using test sieves of different sizes and was
done mechanically by air drying the soil samples and crushing gently in a pestle
and mortar and were sieved in sieves of different size viz., 2mm, 0.2 mm, 0 .02
mm and 0 .002 mm.
Sodium absorption ratio was also estimated by calculation method, using above
obtained Na, Ca and Mg, values.
4.10.13 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
The total Kjeldahl nitrogen was estimated by Kjeldahl digestion method. The soil
samples were digested through Micro Kjeldahl apparatus, and the final volume of
the digest was made up to 250 ml in a volumetric flask, after several
decantations with the portions of the distilled water and was titrated with 0.01 N
HCl.
Simultaneously a blank was run and % N2 was estimated using the
formula:
%N = ((a -b) X N of HCl X 1.4) / S
82
Soil Aspects
Where a = ml of HCl for sample
B = ml of HCl consumed for blank
S = weight of the soil taken.
4.10.14 Salinity
The salinity of the soils samples were estimated using the values of EC,
Chlorides, CaCO3, Ca, and Mg. Saline soils were identified by the presence of
white encrustations of salts on the surface of the land. The chemical nature of
saline soils was mainly determined by the types and amounts of salts present in
them. The amount of soluble salts present controls the osmotic pressure of the
soil solution.
The details of the sampling sites at the study area, analytical methods employed
and the results obtained for the Physico-chemical analysis soil samples were
tabulated in the Table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.
83
Soil Aspects
Table 4.2. Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Location
Venktapura
Kollugodu
Basappa Mallapa Shetar,
Koujalgi
Koujalgi
Redrahatti
Meresab Honnur
Koujalgi, Roadside
Anand Yellapa Adimani,
Koujalgi, Roadside
Sidramaiah, Kalligudi
R.K.Sambal, Kalliguddi
Krishnappa Venkappa
Heregudre, Hulkunda
Ramappa Hanumappa
Hannegeri, Hulkunda
Ramappa Hanumappa,
Chipalkatti
Between Hulkund &
Chipalkatti, Roadside
Mannikeri Manthose
Gurusidappa
Lakshmappa Dalwagi,
Roadside b/w Manikere &
Kuligodi
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
(m)
Soil
Type
Vegetation
E 750 05' 26.1"

E 750 04' 56.2"
GOKAK TALUK
N 160 17' 10.0"
N 160 14' 53.3"
595
619
Grey
Grey
Sugarcane, Jowar
Sugarcane, Jowar, Maize
E 750 04' 32.4"
N 160 13' 37.7"
617
Grey
Sugarcane, Maize, Bananna
E 750 04' 31.0"

E 750 05' 28.8"
E 750 04' 00.3"
E 750 04' 47.3"
N 160
N 160
N 160
N 160
13' 38.5"
12' 24.2"
12' 03.6"
11' 24.2"
605
623
626
641
Grey
Black
Grey
Grey
Sugarcane, Jowar
Jowar
Jowar
Jowar
E 750 05' 37.2"
N 160 10' 46.4"
625
Grey
Grapes, Wheat, Jowar
E 750 06' 21.9"

E 750 06' 03.6"
N 160 11' 21.2"

N 160 10' 08.9"
633
654
Black
Black
Wheat , Maize
Jowar, Sugarcane
E 750 07' 18.9"
N 160 08' 56.8"
628
Grey
Maize, Wheat
E 750 08' 53.5"
N 160 11' 03.3"
610
Black
Cotton, Sunflower, Jowar
E 750 09' 57.5"
N 160 08' 27.7"
617
Grey
Sugarcane, Wheat
E 750 09' 12.7"
N 160 08' 43.9"
638
Grey
Wheat , Maize
E 750 04 08.2
N 160 10 03.5
626
Black
Wheat, Maize, Sunflower
E 750 05 06.4
N 160 10 17.9
644
Black
Grapes, Wheat
SAUDATTI TALUK
17
18
Dasanala Cross, Road

side
Mallikere Thota
E 750 02 43.5
N 160 08 36.2
614
Grey
Maize, Sugarcane
E 750 03' 58.9"
N 160 07' 47.7"
629
Grey
Sugarcane, Wheat
84
Soil Aspects
22
Mallikere Roadside,
BagojiKoppa
Chowraddi, BagojiKoppa
Gurupadappa
Guruningappa Gondhi,
Hirekoppa
Chikoppa, Road side
23
Murkattnal
E 750 06' 55.7"
N 160 04' 54.2"
648
Grey
24
Hosur
E 750 09' 52.5"
N 160 06' 13.9"
620
Grey
19
20
21
E 750 05' 10.7"
N 160 08' 15.2"
666
Grey
Sugarcane, Jowar
E 750 06' 13.3"
N 160 07' 42.7
645
Grey
Sunflower, Maize
E 750 06' 12.8"
N 160 07' 11.6"
668
Grey
Maize, Wheat
N 160 06' 25.3"

674
RAMDURGA TALUK
Black
Maize, Sunflower
E 750 06' 56.8"
Onion, Brinjal, Chilly,

Sunflower
Wheat, Maize, Sunflower
85
Soil Aspects
Table 4.3. Analytical Methods Used for Physico Chemical Analysis of Soil
Sl. No.
Parameter
Method
pH
Electrode method
Conductivity
Electrode method
Organic carbon
Average P2O5
Exchangeable Calcium
EDTA method
Exchangeable Magnesium
EDTA method
Exchangeable sodium
Flame photometer
Exchangeable Potassium
Flame photometer
Exchangeable sodium percentage
By calculation
10
Particle size distribution
Sieve method
11
Textural class
12
Sodium Absorption Ratio
By calculation
13
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Micro Kjeldahl
Walkley & Blacks Method

Spectrophotometer
Pycnometric method
(Source: Jackson and Black 1965 & 1982)
86
Soil Aspects
4.11 Results
Table 4.4. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Soil at Command Area
Sl.
No
1
2
3
PH
EC
Mg
meq/100g
Ca
meq/100g
Total
Alkalinity
meq/100g
% Cl
%Na
meq/100 g
%K
meq/100g
Available
Potassium
%Organic
Carbon
%Organic
Matter
Available
Phos
phorus
SAR
N
Kg/ha
7.06
43.5
6.8
27.8
1.7
0.02
4.51
0.47
436.8
0.15
0.26
8.6
1.08
617.79
0.48
448.8
0.8
1.38
10.5
0.58
639.74
0.37
345.6
0.2
0.34
11.9
0.46
498.62
0.65
1.12
15.4
0.16
520.58
6.95
7.83
332
331
10.8
11.0
36.6
36.8
1.8
0.5
0.04
0.04
2.83
2.23
7.66
276
6.0
23.6
0.7
0.03
0.60
0.32
297.6
7.21
60.5
1.2
45
0.6
0.03
0.53
0.41
386.4
2.1
3.62
10.5
0.11
595.84
7.19
60.6
7.0
28.4
0.5
0.03
0.16
0.53
492
0.45
0.78
7.6
0.04
404.54
7.59
56.8
8.8
36
0.9
0.04
3.58
0.52
484.8
0.6
1.03
22.0
0.76
627.20
7.72
283
8.6
25.6
0.6
0.03
1.53
0.62
583.2
9.85
16.98
20.2
0.37
520.58
7.89
319
16.6
28.2
0.6
0.05
4.43
0.48
448.8
5.7
9.83
12.4
0.93
526.85
10
7.62
108
5.2
26
0.6
0.04
0.84
0.48
448.8
0.05
0.09
32.0
0.21
592.70
11
7.55
95
22.0
16.6
0.8
0.05
1.34
1.55
1449.6
1.15
1.98
183.6
0.31
508.03
12
8.11
219
9.0
22.8
0.9
0.07
6.05
0.53
496.8
0.9
1.55
12.2
1.52
573.89
13
7.74
816
5.2
26
0.9
0.10
6.13
0.46
427.2
0.9
1.55
5.3
1.55
580.16
0.41
384
0.65
1.12
29.7
0.70
633.47
0.29
276
7.85
13.53
188.6
0.13
611.52
0.38
360
0.7
1.21
186.9
0.19
592.70
0.26
244.8
0.00
67.3
0.15
580.16
0.39
364.8
0.35
0.60
12.7
0.04
595.84
0.34
321.6
0.7
1.21
76.3
0.07
580.16
0.7
1.21
34.1
0.11
589.57
14
15
16
17
18
19
7.56
7.32
7.7
6.81
6.85
7.27
456
46.7
74.1
199
37.5
251
6.6
13.4
9.4
7.4
4.8
8.0
38.2
18.8
15.8
22
31.6
37.3
1.1
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.03
3.30
0.51
0.67
0.59
0.19
0.35
20
8.02
73.2
8.6
21.8
0.7
0.05
0.42
0.96
895.2
21
7.82
90
13.5
19.8
0.6
0.05
0.64
0.44
412.8
0.35
0.60
60.5
0.16
460.99
22
7.57
78.1
6.2
23.6
0.6
0.04
0.18
0.31
285.6
0.75
1.29
15.9
0.05
539.39
23
7.85
292
12.8
30.4
0.7
0.04
0.99
1.19
1116
1.45
2.50
11.9
0.21
545.66
24
7.73
71.6
5.4
40.8
0.6
0.03
0.28
0.83
772.8
0.2
0.34
27.3
0.06
595.84
87
Soil Aspects
4.11.1 Soil pH: pH of soil mainly depends on the soil water ratio. From the Table
3, pH of the soil samples in the study area ranged between 6.81 to 8.11. The
lowest pH value of 6.81 was found in Dasanala Cross, Road side and the
maximum pH of 8.11 was found in Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri agricultural
land of Hulkunda village.
4.11.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electrical Conductivity, as the measure of
current carrying capacity, gives a clear picture of the amount of soluble salts
present in the soil. The EC values of the soil samples varied from 37 to 816
mhos/cm. The highest value of EC (816mhos/cm) was observed in Chipalkatti
village which belongs to farmer Ramappa Hanumappa, whereas the lowest EC
value (37mhos/cm) was noticed in the soil of Mallikere Thota.
4.11.3 Salinity: Based on the electrical conductivity of the soil, soil salinity can
be classified into
Water class
Class - I - Low
salinity
Class - II - Medium
salinity
Class - III - High
salinity
Class - IV - Very
High salinity
four classes:
Electrical conductivity
(mhos/cm at 25 C)
Approximate salt
concentration
0 to 250
<0.16
250 to 750
0.16 to 0.50
750 to 2250
0.50 to 1.50
2250 to 5000
1.5 to 3
CI water is considered as safe with without any salinity problems.

CII When used for irrigation, moderate leaching is required.
CIII and CIV cannot be used on soils with inadequate drainage, since salinity
develops.
In the study area, 66% of the soil samples come under the category of Class-I
(Low salinity), 29 % of the samples under Class-II (Medium salinity) and
88
Soil Aspects
remaining 5% of the samples belong to Class-III (High salinity). The high salinity
concentration was found in the Agricultural land that belongs to the farmer
Ramappa Hanumappa, of Chipalkatti village.
4.11.4 Colour of the Soil: Colour of the soil samples ranged from grey to black.
The majority of the soils observed in the study are grey colour.
4.11.5 Exchangeable Calcium: The minimum concentration of exchangeable
Calcium was found to be 15.8 in the soil, coming from the agricultural land of
Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, Roadside between Manikere & Kuligodi,
while the maximum value is 45 (expressed as Ca meq/100g) was found in
Redrahatti village. There was a wide variation in the distribution of exchangeable
Calcium content in the study area.
4.11.6
Exchangeable
Magnesium:
The
minimum
concentration
of
exchangeable Magnesium was found to be 1.2 meq/100g in the sample from

Redrahatti village, and similarly the maximum exchangeable Magnesium value of
22 meq/100g in the sample from Krishnappa Venkappa Heregudres land at of
Hulkunda village. The exchangeable magnesium value found ranged between
1.2 to 22 meq/100g.
4.11.7 Percent Organic Carbon: Percent Organic Carbon was found to be in
the range of 0 to 9.85. The maximum value of 9.85 was found in the agricultural
land that belongs to Anand Yellapa Adimani, Koujalgi, Roadside. The minimum
value of 0.2 was found in the agricultural land, which belongs to Basappa
Mallapa Shetar of Koujalgi and Hosur village.
4.11.8 Exchangeable Sodium: The exchangeable sodium content in the study
area ranged between 0.16 to 6.13
meq/100g as observed in Table 3. The
minimum exchangeable Sodium value 0.16 was observed in the Meresab
89
Soil Aspects
Honnur agricultural land and the maximum value of 6.13 was observed in
Chipalkatti village.
4.11.9 Exchangeable Potassium: The exchangeable K values were found to be
in a narrow range and ranged between 0.26 to 1.55 meq/100g. The minimum
potassium value was noticed in the sample from Dasanala Cross, roadside, while
the maximum value (1.55 meq/100g) was found in the farmers land Krishnappa
Venkappa Heregudre of Hulkunda village.
4.11.10 Percent Chlorides: The Chloride content of the soil is the measure of
salinity of the soil. The Chloride content of the soil ranged between 0.02 to 0.1
mg/100g. The chloride content was taken as major factor for the estimation of
salinity of the soil samples. The maximum chloride content was observed in
Chipalkatti village where as the lowest chloride of 0.02 mg/100g was observed in
Venktapura village.
4.11.11 Available Nitrogen (%N)
The available nitrogen ranged between 404.54 to 639.74 Kg/ha and the minimum
available nitrogen was found in the agricultural land that belongs to Meresab
Honnur. The maximum available nitrogen was found in the Kollugodu village.
4.11.12 Available Phosphorous: Phosphorus is essential for plant growth. It is
a component of Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP), the two compounds involved in most significant energy transformation in
plants. The available phosphorous in the study area varied between 5.3 to 188.6
Kg/ha.
4.11.13 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR): The Sodium Absorption Ratio ranged
between 0.04 to 1.55. A minimum SAR value of 0.04 was found in Sample that
belongs to the farmer Meresab Honnur and the maximum SAR value was found
in sample from Ramappa Hanumappas agricultural land at Chipalkatti village.
90
Soil Aspects
4.12 Discussion
4.12.1 pH
No other single chemical soil characteristic is more important in determining the
chemical environment of higher plants and soil microbes than the pH. There are
few reactions involving any component of the soil or of its biological inhabitants
that are not sensitive to soil pH. This sensitivity must be recognized in any soil
management system. Soil pH is largely controlled by soil colloids and their
associated exchangeable cations. Aluminium and hydrogen enhance soil acidity,
whereas calcium and other base-forming cations (especially sodium) encourage
soil alkalinity. The colloids are also the mechanism for soil buffering, which
resists rapid and violent changes in soil reaction, giving stability to most plant-soil
systems. Knowing how pH is controlled, how it influences the supply and
availability of essential plant nutrients as wells as toxic elements, and also how it
affects higher plants and human beings is truly significant, all of which makes pH
investigations, worthy objective.
pH of soil mainly depends on the soil water ratio. The pH of the soil samples in
the study area ranged between 6.81 to 8.11. The results have shown that there
was neutral range of soils and also slightly inclined towards alkaline in nature in
the study area. All the soil samples shown above pH values of 7.06 are slightly
alkaline in nature, and this may be due to high amount of leaching which has led
to the leach out of exchangeable anions and are considered as slightly alkaline.
4.12.2 Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity, as the measure of current carrying capacity, gives a clear
picture of the amount of soluble salts present in the soil. It plays a major role in
the salinity of soils. There is a relation between electrical conductivity and
salinity, lesser the EC value low will be the salinity value of soil and vice-versa.
91
Soil Aspects
The Electrical Conductivity values of the soil samples vary from 37.5 to 816
mhos/cm, as shown below.
Sl.No
EC values (mhos/cm)
No. of samples
10 to 500
23
501 to 1000
1001 to 1500
1501 to 2000 and above
Electrical conductivity values within 800 mhos/cm are considered as normal

nature of soil, and in the present study about 99 percent of the samples were
observed to be in the normal range. While EC values between 800 and 1600 are
considered critical for tolerant crops, while EC values ranging between 1600 and
2500 are considered critical for salt tolerant crops, and EC values more than
2500 are not considered safe for most of the crops. In the study area no samples
have crossed 1500, and thus almost all the soil samples are found to be suitable
for agriculture.
4.12.3 Soil Colour
Soil colour is one of the visual judgment through which the soil type can be
classified. The soil colour may vary from region to region or spatially. Soil derives
its colour from the source of the material. However, the colour may also vary due
to,
Soil forming process
Moisture content and drainage
Nature and amount of organic matter
Mineral sources
In the study area, the majority of the soil samples are grey in colour. About 30%
of the soil samples in the study area are black and remaining 70% are grey.
92
Soil Aspects
Soil resource is a major anchor to the all life beings, such as plants, animals and
microorganisms in various stages of decomposition process, which gives the end
products in the form of organic matter. The organic substances are a major
determinant of soil structure, moisture content, pH and the soil nutrient status of
the topsoil. The importance of organic matter in the soil is, improved soil structure
and fertility status of the soil, which differentiates the soil and other non-fertile
soils.
The judicious cycling of agricultural wastes is a sound practice that has
characterized successful agricultural systems through the centuries. It is no less
important today in view of the high nutrient demands of the crops increasingly
needed to feed an ever-growing human population. Farm animal wastes should
be recycled to the extent that sound management will permit.
In the study area the amount organic carbon ranged from 0 to 9.85, indicating
variable organic matter content and decomposition rates. The percentage of
organic matter varied spatially and generally has a higher organic content in the
case of thickly vegetated areas as anticipated. The requirement of optimum level
of organic matter required by the plants slightly varies between species, as it is
not a single nutrient source required for all the plants and for all the soils. The
variation is also dependent on soil type, climate, existing plant and animal
species.
Classification of Soil Quality on the Basis of Organic Carbon (%)
Percentage organic carbon
<0.40
Rating
Low
0.4 to 0.75
Medium
>0.75
High
93
Soil Aspects
In the study area it is noticed that about 50% of the samples contained higher
percent organic carbon i.e., more than 0.60 percent organic carbon, which
benefits the farmer to get an higher yield of crops.

The availability of phosphorus to plant roots has a double constraint: the low total
phosphorus level in soils and the small percentage of this level that is present in
available forms. Furthermore, even when soluble phosphates are added to soil,
they are quickly fixed into insoluble forms that in time become quite unavailable
to growing plants. In acid soils, the phosphorus is fixed primarily by iron,
aluminium, and manganese; in alkaline soils, by calcium and magnesium. This
fixation greatly reduces the efficiency of phosphate fertilizers so that little of the
added phosphorus can be taken up by plants. In time, however, this fixed
phosphorus can build up and can serve as a reserve pool for plant absorption.
Phosphorus is the second most important macronutrient available in the soil of
the biological systems, which covers more than 1% of the dry organic weight. It is
a major component of nucleic acids, phospholipids and many phosphorylated
compounds. Similarly, it is also a second most limiting factor often affecting plant
growth. Chemically, phosphorus exists in the soil in the form of both organic and
inorganic forms. Generally plants are dependent on inorganic phosphorus
especially in the form of phosphate ions, whereas organic phosphates are also
important sources of phosphorus in almost all types of soils. Comparatively
however the phosphorus is, required in small quantities; but it may be the most
likely limiting element in productivity of the plant. Therefore ecologically it is very
much significant.
Sl.No
Grade
Concentration
Low phosphorus
Less than 12.4 Kg/ha
Medium phosphorus
12.4 to 22.4 Kg/ha
94
Soil Aspects
3
Adequate phosphorus
More than 22.4 Kg/ha
Abundant phosphorus
Still higher
In the study area it is observed that 41% of the soil sample shows low
phosphorus content, 16% shows medium phosphorus content and remaining
samples contain high phosphorus content. In case of low phosphorus content of
the soil in the study area, which can be supplemented by applying phosphorous
rich fertilizers as required by a specific crop.
The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) identifies the degree to which the
exchange complex is saturated with sodium. The ESP levels of 15 yield pH
values of 8.5 and above. Higher levels may bring the pH to at least 10. It is
important to note that sodium has been found partially to take the place of
potassium in the nutrition of certain plants. Where there is a deficiency of
potassium, native soil sodium or that added in such soil fertilizer as sodium
nitrate, may be useful. The exchangeable sodium values in the study area
ranged between 0.16 to 6.13 meq/100g. The minimum exchangeable Sodium
value (0.16) was observed in the Meresab Honnur agricultural land and the
maximum value (6.13) was observed in Chipalkatti village.
Potassium plays many essential roles in plants. It is an activator of dozens of
enzymes responsible for such plant processes as energy metabolism, starch
synthesis, nitrate reduction, and sugar degradation. Potassium is extremely
mobile within the plant and helps regulate the opening and closing of stomata in
the leaves and uptake of water by root cells.
Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, for protein synthesis, for starch
formation, and for the translocation of sugars. This element is important in grain
formation, and is absolutely necessary for tuber development. All root crops
95
Soil Aspects
generally respond to application of potassium. As with phosphorus, it may be
present in large quantities in the soil and yet exert no harmful effect on the crop.
Potassium increases crop resistance to certain diseases, and by encouraging
strong root and stem systems, helps to prevent the undesirable growth of plants,
that is sometimes caused by excessive nitrogen. Potassium delays maturity,
thereby working against undue ripening influences phosphorous can exert. In
general way, potassium exerts a balancing effect on the effects of both nitrogen
and phosphorous; consequently it is especially important in a multinutrient
fertilizer.
Deficient supply of (K)
Less than 113 Kg/ha
Doubtful supply of (K)
113 to 280 Kg/ha
Adequate supply of (K)
More than 280 Kg/ha
From Table 3, it is observed that the available potassium in the study area is
more than adequate in relation to what the plants may require. The maximum
potassium concentration was found to be 1449.6 Kg/ha.
4.12.8 Available Nitrogen
Nitrogen is one among the four primary elements essential for the plant tissues. It
is the major component of proteins, nucleic acids and chlorophyll. The
atmospheric nitrogen gets trapped in the soil during electro and photo-chemical
fixation and also by the action of microorganisms. Soil nitrogen is made available
through a process of mineralization. The available nitrogen in soil exists in the
form of both organic and inorganic forms. However, relatively most of the
nitrogen content in organic form is at the most about 90 per cent. Organic content
present in the soil decay by microbial activity, during this process all the organic
nitrogen gets converted to ammonium, nitrates and nitrites. Nitrogen is having a
96
Soil Aspects
major role in maintaining the fertility of the soil and nitrogen content in almost all
the soils are observed to be very low and is found as nitrates, nitrite and
ammonium. Plants are more dependent upon nitrate nitrogen, during the aerobic
conditions and ammonia nitrogen during anaerobic conditions.
Concentration of Ammonia Nitrogen in the soil

Sl. No
Quantity of nitrogen
Rating
1
2
3
< 272 Kg/ha

272 to 554 Kg/ha
> 554 Kg/ha
Low
Medium
High
In the study area most of the soil samples were fertile with medium to high
quantity nitrogen content. Soil moisture content is having a major contribution to
vary the process and also one of the important factors affecting nitrification. In
water logged areas soil suppresses the process of nitrification because of
deficient oxygen. However it is totally different in the case of dry soils. As in the
case of present study area in the soils however, there will be enough moisture for
the process of bacterial metabolism and such soils posses higher rate of
biosynthesis of nitrogen which also contribute to fertility of the soil.
4.13 Particle Size Distribution
The soil particle size is a major parameter and a relative proportion of the soil
particles of various sizes are important physical parameters that emphasize the
texture of soil of a particular region. Larger particle size helps in providing the
physical support to the plants, while smaller particles encourage the soil to hold
water and available nutrients. From the study, it is observed that majority of soil
in the command area is coarse sand (0.2 to 2.0mm) in size.
As per the International System of Classification, the range of the particle sizes in
the soil is as under:
97
Soil Aspects
Sl.No
Category
Particle Size
Coarse sand
0.2 to 2.0 mm
Fine sand
0.02 to 0.2 mm
Silt
0.002 to 0.02 mm
Clay
<0.002mm
4
4.14 Textural Class
Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of clay, silt and sand in a sample of
soil. Based on dominancy of the size fraction the soil texture can be classified as
various types, such as clay, sandy clay, silt clay etc, whereas the fine particle
fraction of the soil is used to describe as loam. Soil texture is an indicator
parameter, through which the other soil properties can be studied, but if used
alone, it has limited predictive value; viz., ability of a soil to adsorb cations from
solution depends on the mineralogy of the clay fraction as well as on the
percentage of clay. It also depends on the amount and nature of the organic
matter the soil holds. The permeability of soil to water depends on shape, mineral
particles and organic matter into structural units with pore spaces between them.
Texture does however indicate the ease with which the application of the soil can
be recommended. Higher content of clay in soils are often described, as heavy
and sandy soils are known as light. But clay soils retain more water against
gravity and consequently warm up more slowly in spring. From the study, it is
found out that the soil texture in command area is sandy in nature.
4.15 Water Holding Capacity (WHC)
Water holding capacity is the amount of water that can be retained by the soil
when all the pores in the soil have been filled with water, soil is saturated with
water, accompanied by very poor drainage. The water retained at zero bar
tension, is rarely utilized by plants as it reduces the respiration rate and creates
anaerobic conditions for the roots.
98
Soil Aspects
In the study area the soil samples exhibited a significant correlation between the
clay content and water holding capacity. WHC was more in the surface soil layer
where greater accumulations of organic matter, litter, and root mass etc., existed.
4.16 Salinity
A saline soil contains sufficient soluble salt and exchangeable sodium to interfere
with the growth of most crop plants. Saline soils are formed wherever soil and
hydrological conditions favour the accumulation of soluble salts in the root zone.
Historically it is the man-induced salinity which results from the inadequate
provision or management of irrigation and drainage systems that is of great
concern.
Salts accumulate in some surface soils of arid and semiarid regions, because
there is insufficient rainfall to flush them from the upper soil layers. The salts are
primarily chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
potassium. The source of these soils is the weathering of rocks, and minerals,
rainfall, ground waters, and irrigation. Once deposited or released in the soil, the
salts are brought to or near the surface by upward-moving water, which then
evaporates leaving the salts behind. Unfortunately, high levels of these salts
cannot be tolerated by most crop plants, a fact that severely limits the use of
some salt-affected soils. The results indicate that, about 66% of the soil samples
are having low salinity, 29% medium salinity and 5% shows low salinity. The data
obtained reveals that salinity is not a major problem in the command area.
4.16.1 Salinity Causing Factors
The various natural factors affecting salinity are meteorological, drainage pattern,
agricultural practices and soil characteristics.
Climate: Climate is the most important factor responsible to change and
formation of saline soils in a specific region. They mainly occur in regions
with arid and semi-arid climate, where low rainfall found and transport the
99
Soil Aspects
soluble salts formed during weathering. Arid climate is commonly
characterized by maximum evaporation rates, which leads to more and
more concentration of salt in the soil surface. Whereas in the humid
regions the soluble salts formed due to weathering process are
transported downwards to the ground water regime and, streams finally
reach the oceans. Therefore saline soils are non-existent in humid regions
except when the soil has been subjected to seawater inundation, as in
river deltas and near the sea, whereas in the arid regions, leaching and
transportation of salts will be very poor, unlike in the case of humid
regions.
Controlled Drainage: This is another important contributing factor, during
the formation of saline soils, having a direct connection with the deeper
ground water table or low permeability of soils. The depth of the water
table often depends upon the topography of the land. In the case of arid
regions of low rainfall area, the surface drainage ways are poorly
developed, and this leads to drainage basins without outlets to permanent
streams. The salty drainage waters enter from the higher lands of the
basin leading to increase in the ground water level to the soil surface on
the low lands.
Low Permeability of Soils: Poor drainage impacts on the downward
movement of water. The low permeability of soil is mainly because of
unfavorable soil texture (very fine) or it could be also due to the presence
of hard layers in the form of clay pans, caliches layer or a silica hard pan,
as a result of ploughing with heavy tillage equipments.
Irrigation Practices: This is another important factor which has a bearing
on salinity of the region. Expansion of irrigation activities has become one
of the key strategies to achieving higher food production. In India the net
irrigated area has increased from 20 million hectares (1950) to more than
100
Soil Aspects
45 million hectares, at present. This extended irrigation activities have
been achieved through transported water. Irrigation practice also improves
the ground water table and when the ground water table is within 2 m of
the surface, it contributes significantly to increase the salinity of the soil
due to capillary rise of water and its evaporation from the soil surface. In
most of the canal irrigated areas, the problems of salt accumulation is a
matter of serious dimension.
From the analysis of the soil samples, it is inferred that the salinity problem does
not seem to exist in the present area as only one sample showed marginally
higher salinity value.
4.17 Fertility Status of the Soils
Based on the results and nutrient indices, it is possible to classify nutrient status
of the particular area and classify each nutrient level i.e., low, medium or high
based on a rating chart, which was made use of while rating the soil analysis
results, as follows:
Rating Chart for Soil Test Values and their Nutrient Indices
1. Soil pH
Range
Soil Reaction Index
Acidity
Neutral
Alkaline
Below 6.0
6.0-8.0
Above 8.0
II
III
Normal
Critical
Injurious
Below 1000
1000-2000
Above 2000
II
III
Low
Medium
High
Below 0.5
0.5-0.75
Above 0.75
II
III
2. Electrical Conductivity
Range (mhos/cm)
Salt index
3. Organic Carbon
Range (%)
Nutrient index
4. Available Phosphorus (By Brays method)
101
Soil Aspects
Low
Medium
High
Below 22
22-54
Above 54
II
III
Low
Medium
High
Below 123
123-296
Above 296
Range (Kg/ha)
Nutrient index
5. Available Potash
Range (Kg/ha)
Nutrient index
Range
Remarks (OC, P, K)
Below 1.67
Low
II
1.67-2.33
Medium
III
Above 2.33
High
Nutrient index
II
III
OC organic carbon; P - Available phosphorus; K - Available potash

The nutrient index values were evaluated for the soil samples analyzed using the
following formula:
4.18 Nutrient index = [(1x No. of samples in low category) + (2 x No. Samples in
medium category) + (3 x No. of samples in high category)] / Total number of
samples. The values are:
Characteristics
Organic carbon
Nutrient index Remarks
(OC)
2.08
Medium
Available Phosphorus (p)
2.125
Medium
Available potash (K)
2.91
High
From the overall results of physico-chemical analysis of the soil samples, it is

noticed that the soil pH values range between 6.81 and 8.11 and most of the
values belong to soil reaction index I and II, which shows that the soils of the
study area are under the neutral range. The electrical conductivity of the soil
102
Soil Aspects
samples were observed to be in the range between 37and 816 mhos/cm. Based
on the rating chart of soil tests, all the soil samples belong to normal i.e., salt
index I, where-as organic carbon content of
soil samples were observed to
range from 0 to 9.85 percent. As per the nutrient index, the organic carbon in soil
samples is at higher level. However, the available phosphorus values are in low
range.
The rate of infiltration of soils for different Land use pattern in the study area is
given below.
Table 4.5. Rate of Infiltration under different land use pattern in the
Ghataprabha River Basin
Rate of infiltration cm/hr
Time in
minutes
Barren
Agriculture
Shrubs
Forest
10
6.3
6.8
9.6
10.3
20
4.4
5.9
8.0
30
1.6
3.3
4.5
6.9
40
0.9
2.7
4.0
6.1
50
0.5
2.4
3.7
5.6
60
0.5
2.3
3.4
5.3
4.19 Estimation of Soil Loss

A number of methods for assessing soil loss have been developed. They range
from simple, qualitative models to elaborate watershed simulations. Qualitative
models rely on subjective evaluation of a series of criteria. Watershed simulation
models are often very theoretical. Several empirical models also are available
and most models are best suited for estimating erosion from very large areas
(more than 1 sq mile) and lack the precision for use on small sites such as
construction sites. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is given by,
A = R x K x LS x C x P --------- Eqn (1)
103
Soil Aspects
Where,
A = Soil loss (tons /ha)
R = Rainfall and runoff erosivity index
K = Soil erodibility factor
LS = Slope-Length factor
C = Cover management factor
P = Conservation practice factor.
4.19.1 Erosion Index (EI30) Values on Storm Basis
The rainfall erosion index (R) is a measure of the erosive force and intensity of
rain in a normal year. The two components of the factor are the total energy E
and the maximum 30-minutes intensity (I30) for all the storms in an area during an
average year. Values of R have been computed for the various regions in India
and abroad from rainfall records and probability statistics, and hence R should
not be considered as a precise factor for any given year or location.
The energy of the rainstorm is a function of the amount of rain and all the storms
component intensities. Median raindrop size increases with the rain intensity and
terminal velocities of free falling water drops increases with increased drop size.
Since the energy of the given mass in motion is proportional to velocity-squared,
the rainfall energy is directly related to rain intensity. The relationship in metric
units is expressed by the equation, where KE is the kinetic energy in metre tones
/ ha-cm and the rainfall intensity in cm /hr.
KE = 210.3 + 89 log I ---------- Eqn (2)
The index values (EI30), for each storm was determined. The product term EI was
expressed as:
EI30 = (KE x I30) / 100 ----------- Eqn (3)
Where,
EI30 is the erosion index
104
Soil Aspects
KE is the total storm kinetic energy in tonnes m/ha
I30 is the maximum 30 minutes intensity of rainstorm.
The monthly, seasonal and yearly EI values will be determined by adding the
storm EI values for that length of period.
4.19.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soil erodibility factor K is a measure of the susceptibility of soil particle
detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. Texture is the principal factor
affecting K, but structure, organic matter and permeability also contribute to K
values ranging from 0.45 to 0.59. The value of K for different watersheds coming
under Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme (RLIS) is given in Table 5.
4.19.3 Nomograph Method
The United States Department of Agriculture (1978) has suggested a Nomograph
and the following equation for the determination of soil erodibility for soils
containing less than 70% silt and very fine sand:
100K = 2.1M1.14 x 10-4 (12-a) +3.25 (b-2) +2.5(c-3) -------- Eqn (4)
Where, K is the soil erodibility factor,
M is the particle size parameter which is equal to percent silt + very fine sand
(100% clay),
a is the percentage of organic matter content,
b is the soil structure and
c is the profile permeability class.
The preferred method for determining K values is the nomograph method. Use of
the nomograph requires a particle size. The soil samples collected from the field
were characterized carefully for estimating, the K values.
105
Soil Aspects
4.19.4 Determination of LS
Since the LS factor has a considerable effect on predicted erosion, care in
figuring values for the factor, is warranted. In particular, results of the soil loss
calculation will be more accurate if the USLE is individually applied to portions of
a site with similar slopes (similar gradient and length) and summing the individual
soil loss estimates. Slope gradient is the field or segment slopes, usually
expressed as percentage. The topographic component, LS, was evaluated by
using the contour length method for large watersheds.
LS was calculated base on the following equation
LS = (L)m / 22.1(0.065 + 0.0454S + 0.0065 S2) --------- Eqn (5)
Where,
LS = Average length slope component
L = Slope length in meters
S = Average watershed slope in percent and
m = Exponent (m= 0.2 if slope < 1%)
4.19.5 Evaluation of Cropping Management Factor (C)
The cover factor C is defined as the ratio of soil loss from land under specified
crop or mulch conditions to the corresponding loss from tilled, bare soil. In the
USLE, the C factor reduces the soil loss estimate according to the effectiveness
of vegetation and mulch, at preventing detachment and transport of soil particles.
On activity sites, recommended control practices include the seeding of grasses
and the use of mulches. These measures are often considered temporary -they
are designed to control erosion primarily during the activity period. Permanent
landscaping may be added later, or temporary erosion control plants may be left
as a permanent cover. Any product that reduces the amount of soil exposed to
raindrop impact will reduce erosion.
The cropping management factor, C is computed as follows:
106
Soil Aspects
C= n Ci Ai / A ------- Eqn (6)
Where,
C is the cropping management factor for the watershed
Ci is the cropping management factor for crop i,
Ai is the drainage basin area growing crop i with a particular management level,
n is the number of land use areas in the watershed, and
A is total watershed area.
4.19.6 Evaluation of Support Practice Factor (P)
The erosion control practice factor P is defined as the ratio of soil loss with a
given surface condition to soil loss with up and down hill plowing. Practices that
reduce the velocity of runoff and the tendency of runoff to flow directly down
slope reduce the P factor. In agricultural uses of the USLE, P is used to describe
plowing and tillage practices. In activity site applications, P reflects the
roughening of the soil surface by tractor treads or by rough grading.
In computing the P factor, land cover conditions are considered depending upon
the cultivated and uncultivated area of the watershed. In addition, slope is also
considered as a key factor in assigning the value. For the study area, a P factor
considered is 0.6 for terraced agricultural land having slope lass than 2% and for
the rest of the land having a slope more than 2%, a value of 0.5 is assigned.
The soil loss estimated for the watershed covering under Sri Rameshwara Lift
Irrigation Scheme is tabulated in the Table 4.6.
Table 4.6. Estimation of Soil Loss in Watersheds of the RLIS
Watershed
LS
A(Tons/ha)
4D7C5A
1.57
0.58
0.2
0.22
0.6
2.40 x 10-3
4D7C5A
2.18
0.58
0.592
0.13
0.5
0.0486
4D7C7A
2.46
0.58
0.447
0.065
0.5
0.0207
4D4C7A
2.46
0.58
0.133
0.065
0.6
7.40 x 10-3
4D7C7G
5.82
0.59
0.135
0.028
0.5
6.40 x 10-3
107
Soil Aspects
4D7C7G
5.82
0.59
0.117
0.028
0.6
6.74 x10-3
4D7C8A
5.24
0.45
0.024
0.085
0.6
2.88 x 10-3
4D7C8A
1.5
0.5
0.034
0.22
0.6
3.52 x 10-3
4D7C8C
1.59
0.5
0.538
0.22
0.5
0.0464
Table 4.7. Erodibility Index

Erodibility Index
( R x K x LS) / T
3.99
6.21
4.86
4.2
5.23
4.95
Average 4.907
Estimated potential soil erodibility is 4.907 (Table 4.7), which is less than 8.
Therefore it is inferred that this is a moderately erodable land.
4.19.7 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of surface material by wind or water. When raindrop
falls on a soil surface the soil particles are splashed, and higher is the velocity of
impact, greater is the amount of soil splashed. Drop impact is more effective
when a thin film of water covers the soil surface and the maximum dispersion of
soil particles occur when the depth of water is about the same as diameter of
raindrop. The detached soil particles are then carried further either by runoff or
wind. The whole process is known as erosion. For effective soil conservation
practices the following baseline information is needed;
108
Soil Aspects
Assessment of the extent of the soil and nutrient losses and sediment
transports in various environments.
Land use planning details as they can provide important information on
the effects of changes in land use and implementation of different soil
conservation measures on soil losses and sediment yields.
A better understanding of the soil erosion processes the dynamic and
relative importance of the single processes and their interactions.
4.19.8 Soil Conservation Practices
The actual art of soil conservation is concerned with keeping the soil intact and
maintaining the soil nutrients at a certain desired level. This includes the
following basic principles:
Protection of soil from the impact of rainfall.
Increase the infiltration of rainwater.
Prevention of water from concentrating.
To increase the size of soil particle.
By reducing wind erosion of soil by growing vegetation cover.
By growing strips of stubble or other plants. For example, some plants
which yield hydrocarbons grow well in arid regions. These include
Jatropha, a plant which produces sap like diesel oil and is a milky weed.
The Central Arid Zone Research (CAZRI) Institute at Jodhpur is
conducting experiments with such varieties.
In over-grazed land fodder trees should be grown like Su-babul, which in
irrigated land yield enough green fodder per acre to nourish six cows.
Grazing animals should be kept in enclosures.
By stubble mulching or trash farming, in which chopped crop residue is
spread and ploughed into the soil to produce improved tilth in the surface
soil.
By growing intermittent vegetal shelter belts. Surface soil erosion and
sand storms leading to sand casting of crop lands can be controlled by
109
Soil Aspects
creating shelter belts which tend to break the wind and form barriers to
check sand movement.
By stabilizing sand dunes i.e., to stabilize the soil in arid regions, land
should be fairly levelled.
4.19.9 Soil Conservation Practices for Catchment Area Treatment
Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation practices is considered to be
the only way of conserving and improving our resources and environment. Large
scale soil and water conservation activity in India began in 1951. Till the end of
the sixth five year plan, nearly Rs. 22,000 million was spent on improvement of
about 29.3 m ha of the land with various soil and water conservation measures.
The suggested erosion reduction percentages for various mitigation measures is
given the Table 4.8.
Table 4.8. Suggested Erosion Reduction Percentages for Various Mitigation
Measures
Mitigation measures
Percent reduction in
erosion (percent)
Vegetative measures
Seed and fertilizer application
25
Jatropha & other Legume plants
28
Wood chip mulch, seed, & fertilize
37
Straw mulch, seed & fertilize
43
Netting in aspen blanket, seed &

fertilize
56
Asphalt & mulch
57
Mulch and net, seed & fertilize
58
Sod
60
Physical measures
Road tread surfaced
20-25
110
Soil Aspects
Road grade 5% or less
Rip rap fill
50
Road partially closed (no maintenance)
75
Road permanently closed (obliterated)
95
Buffer strips along water course
10-15
Filter windrows (slash or baled straw)
35-40
at bottom of fill slope
4.20 Soil and Water Conservation Measures for Rameshwara Catchment

Area
Some of the methods suggested for soil conservation for Rameshwara
catchment area and other details are provided below.
4.20.1 Gully plugging

This prevents the eroding and down-cutting of gully beds while they encourage
the deposition of silt load and create a micro-environment for the establishment
of vegetative covers. Gully plugs act as grade stabilization structures. The
specification for gully plug are as follows (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9. Specifications for Gully Plugs
Slope of
gully bed
(off)
Width of
gully bed (m)
Upto 4.5
4.5 10.5
0-5%
7.5 to 15.0
Upto 4.5
Location
Gully bed
Gully bed &
ride branch
At the
confluence of
two gullies
Gully bed
Type of
gully plug
Vertical
interval (m)
Brush wood
Upto 3
Earthen
2.25 to 3.0
Sand bags
2.25 to 3.0
Brush wood
Upto 3.0
111
Soil Aspects
10-20%
4.5 to 6.0
Gully bed
Earthen and
side branch
Bet 1.5 to 3.0
The gullies would be treated with engineering/mechanical as well as vegetative

methods. Check dams are recommended for some areas to promote growth of
vegetation that will consequently lead to the stabilization of the slopes area and
prevent further deepening of gullies and consequent erosion. For controlling the
gullies, the erosive velocities are reduced by flattening out the steep gradient of
the gully. This is achieved by constructing a series of check dams which
transform the longitudinal gradient into a series of steps with low risers and long
flat treads. Different types of check dams would be required for different
conditions comprising different materials, depending upon the site conditions and
by using the locally available materials. This is often the most acceptable soil
conservation measures that can easily established and should form a dense
thicket near the ground level when planted in close vicinity. The following
materials are recommended for the purpose.
Brushwood check dam
Dry rubble stone masonry (DRSM)
Check dams with stones available at the site
Combination DRSM and crate works for moderate to deep gullies with
stones available at sites.
The advantage of brushwood check dam is that they are quick and easy to
construct and are inexpensive as they are constructed by using readily available
materials at the site. In addition to the vegetative measures used for stabilization
of gullies, temporary or permanent mechanical measures are used as
supplementary measures to prevent the washing away of young plantations by
large volume of run offs. The gullies get stabilized over a period of time with the
establishment of vegetative cover. With passage of time mechanical structures
weaken and vegetative measures get strengthened.
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Soil Aspects
The drainage basin of the river, usually referred to as catchment area needs
some kind of treatment in the overall interest of the development of the area
extending along the river with a view to improve land management through
biological and engineering measures, with the objective to arrest erosion of soil
and improve its vegetation, and control overgrazing by cattle.
The catchment area treatment involves intensive and highly technical operations,
which requires the expertise of technical nature. The watershed committees at
the district level have to be formed with the objective of an integrated approach
involving experts dealing with forest, agriculture, horticulture, watershed, rural
development department, besides local panchayat members.
4.21 Soil Conservation Practices for the Ghataprabha River at Rameshwara
Catchment Area
For the hilly regions, the following soil conservation practices can be employed.
The most important practice among those mentioned below, are bench terracing
and stone bunding (Table 4.10).
Table 4.10. Soil conservation Measures and Practices Recommended

for the Ghataprabha River at Rameshwara Catchment Area
Sl.
No.
2
3
4
5
Type of soil
conservation
Bench terracing on
steep slopes (5070%)
Riser (earthen or
stone)
Earthen shoulder
bund
Stone bunding or
fencing when stone
is easily available.
Land leveling
Practices recommended

Outward cross slope of 10%

Longitudinal slope of 8%
Length of terrace, 20-35 m
Width of terrace, 3 to 5.5 m
Steep batters of, 0.25:1
0.5 m base, 0.3 m height,01 m top

0.3 m base, 0.2 m height, 0.1 m top

Followed by earthen bund of 0.1 m top

Low (bottom) flat deep areas leveled.

Bench terraces are also leveled by cut
113
Soil Aspects

Land slide control
Gools
Khatta/khala

and fill.
Vegetative means
Water channels conveying water from
natural springs as well as rainwater.
Same design delivers 5-50 liters/min in
winter and 100-500 liters/min during
rainy season.
Need improvement in regulation.
Earthen ponds collecting discharge
water of & seepage water.
The area under each watershed has been planned on the basis of Land use /
Land cover and topographic conditions. The total area proposed for treatment is
37558 ha, in the Rameshwara project basin (Table 4.11).
114
Soil Aspects
Table 4.11. Micro-Watershed of Rameshwara Catchment Area and Treatment Plan

Micro
Watershed
No.
Micro
watershed
1
2
3
4
Udapudi
Hunachigidal Halla
Salapur Halla
Hanamapur
Chinnatti Halla
6
7
8
9
Kempmaddi Halla
Shivapet Halla
Gaddi Halla
Soul Halla
10
Revadikoppa
11
Channapur
12
13
14
Dadibhavi
katakol
Katla Halla
15
Kadampur
16
17
Batakurki
Halpi Halla
Area coming under

Villages
watershed &
covered
Proposed for
Treatment (ha)
RAMDURG TALUK
Udapudi
244
Bidaki
264
Salapur
510
Hanamapur
511
Chinnatti
120
Gudakatti
96
Budnur
60
Bannur
249
Bannur
545
Avaradi
504
Umtar
510
Hulkund
525
Revadikoppa
419
Manihal
28
Hampiholi
36
Channapur
462
Aneguddi
50
Dadibhavi
518
Katakol
582
Hulkund
518
Kadampur
274.10
Budanur
126.05
Kullur
140.05
Batakurki
608
Shidnal
502
Contour
bunding/Bench
terracing (ha)
No. of. Check

dams
(ha)
Plantations
(ha)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
115
Soil Aspects
18
Tondikatti
19
Matolli
20
Itnal
21
Rudrapura
22
Mugali Halla
23
24
25
27
Kori Halla
Chulki
Sirasangi
Ningarani Kacheri
Halla
Bhavi Halla
28
Dodda Halla
29
Basavana Halla
30
Kagi Halla
31
Hoovina Halla
32
33
34
35
Kurubagatti Halla
Kodiwad Halla
Ramapur
Rudrapura Thanda
26
Tondikatti
508
SAUNDATTI TALUK
Matolli
530
Yeraganavi
429
Sattigere
114
Gudumakeri
57
Rudrapur
650.12
jalikatti
528
Hirebudnur
568.40
Itnal
764
Mugalihal
580
Sattigeri
110
Chikumbi
584
Sattigeri
600
Chulki
600
Sirasangi
560
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Markumbi
522
Harlakatti
Gudumkeri
Yeragatti
Yeragamavi
Tallur
Haralkatti
Gudamkeri
Sattigeri
Gudamkeri
Kurubagatti
Kodiwad
Ramapur
Rudrapura
570
200
144
258
650
400
140
725
30
520.10
529.59
625
260.10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
116
Soil Aspects
Murgod
36
37
38
39
Koujalagi
Warisiddappana Halla
Kare Halla
Saudatti Halla
40
Hire Halla
41
42
43
44
45
Hooveenkeri Halla
Maladinni
Chikkanandi
Kumbara Halla
Desana Halla
46
Shigiholi
47
48
49
50
Melamatti
Talakatnal
Tumbu Halla
Kulgod Halla
51
Venktapura Halla
52
Meera Halla
53
Hona Kuppi
54
55
56
Huchchankoppa Halla
Yellamma Jali Halla
Ankalagi
Koujalagi
Kemmanakol
Kaitnal
Khanagoan
Thimapur
Yeragudri
Hooveenkeri
Maladinni
Chikkanandi
Gosabal
Belakundri
Shigiholi
Benchamadri
Melamatti
Talakatnal
Bagarnal
Kulgod
Venktapur
Yeragudri
Kulagod
Koujalagi
Honukoppa
Honakuppi
Siddapur
Hatti
Tigadi
Yadawad
Mannikeri
Ankalagi
255.20
GOKAK TALUK
614
626
520
620
340
443
500.46
510
514
528
526
328
184
504
520
586
532
420
60
40
652
132
380
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
132
20
565
540
1850
1
1
2
117
Soil Aspects
57
58
59
Tavag
Betageri
Yadawad
Total
Tavag
Betageri
Yadawad
2129
450
380
37558
65
33
33
118
Water Quality
Table 4.12. Cost Estimates as per Soil Treatment Methods
Area to
Treated
37558
No. of
Check
dams
(ha)
33
Cost
Contour
Cost
Plantations
(Rs.
bunding/Bench
(Rs.
(ha)
Lakhs)* terracing (ha) Lakhs)**
49.5
65
Total
29.25
Cost
(Rs. lakhs)***
33
21.252
100.0 Lakhs
*Cost of each check dam being Rs.1.50 Lakhs

**Cost of bench terrace construction is Rs. 45,000/ha
***Cost for plantation establishment is Rs. 55249/ha
Total cost for catchment area treatment is = 100.0 Lakhs
Table 4.13. Area and Cost Estimate for Catchment Area Treatment
Year
Physical (ha)
Financial outlay (Rs. In Lakhs)
2007-08
7511.6
20.0
2008-09
7511.6
20.0
2009-10
7511.6
20.0
2010-11
7511.6
20.0
2011-12
7511.6
20.0
Total
37558
100.0
The total cost required for the catchment area treatment at the study area has
been worked out and represented in the Table 4.12. The different stages at
which the treatment should be conducted are mentioned and correspondingly
the cost requirement for each stage is also given in the Table 4.13. The total cost
required for the treatment was worked out to be 100.0 Lakhs.
56
Water Quality
Chapter V
WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT
5.0 Introduction
The rapid pace of urbanization, industrialization as well as expanding agricultural
activities have made environmental pollution a growing concern globally. Among
the various receptor/environment systems exposed to the contaminants, ground
water has received comparatively less attention in the past because of the
common belief that ground water belongs to a pristine domain.
Ground Water Pollution is normally traced back to four main origins namely
industrial, domestic, agricultural and over exploitation; the last category mainly
accounting for seawater intrusion. Studies carried out in India reveal, that one of
the most important causes of ground water pollution is unplanned urban
development without adequate attention to sewage and waste disposal.
Industrialization without provision of proper treatment and disposal of wastes and
effluents is another source of ground water pollution. Excessive applications of
fertilizers for agricultural development, coupled with over-irrigation, intrusion due
to excessive pumping of fresh water in coastal aquifers etc., are also responsible
for ground water pollution. Unsystematic use of synthetic fertilizers along with
improper water management practices have resulted in deterioration of ground
water quality in many parts of the country.
The principal threat to groundwater comes from inadequately controlled landfills
where leachate generated from the fill material is allowed to escape to the
surrounding and underlying ground. The chemical composition of such leachate
depends on the nature and age of the landfill and the leach rate. Most leachates
emanating from municipal wastes are not only high in organic content but also
contain some toxic materials. Leachates from solid wastes of industrial origin,
however, often contain a much higher proportion of toxic constituents, such as
metals and organic pollutants. Similarly a range of groundwater pollution
problems may be associated with mining activities. The nature of the pollution
depends on the materials being excavated and extracted. Both surface and
57
Water Quality
underground mines usually extend below the water table and often dewatering is
required to allow mining to proceed. The water pumped either directly from the
mine or from specially constructed bore holes, may be highly mineralized and its
usual characteristics include low pH (down to pH 3) and high levels of iron,
aluminium and sulphate. Disposal of this mine drainage effluent to surface water
or ground water system can cause serious impacts on water quality for all uses
especially for irrigation purposes. Pollution of groundwater can also result from
the leaching of mine tailings and from settling ponds, which can therefore, be
associated with both present and past mining activity in a specific area.
The following pathways, in addition to the ones mentioned above, assume
special significance in the case of lakes and reservoir pollution,
Riverine sources: pollutants in solution in the inflow or adsorbed onto

particulate matter, or both. The cumulative input is the sum of
contaminants from all the rivers draining the watershed into a lake, or
surface water body.
Groundwater sources: groundwater systems polluted from
waste
discharges of point and diffuse sources flowing into rivers, and directly
into lakebeds.
Atmospheric sources: direct wet and dry atmospheric deposition of

contaminants on to the lake surface and wash off of similar pollutants
from the land. This latter process is defined as secondary cycling.
In addition to the above, lakes serve as perennial traps for pollutants carried
down by rivers, and groundwater draining the watershed. The pollutant
concentration levels in the lake usually build up due to evaporation of water from
the lakes surface during certain perish unless there is a natural flushing with
good quality water.
5.1 Water Requirement for Irrigation
Each crop requires a certain quantity of water, input between certain fixed
intervals throughout the crop growth period. If the natural rainfall is sufficient and
timely so as to satisfy both the requirements, no additional supply of irrigation
water is required. For example in England, the natural rainfall satisfies both
58
Water Quality
quantity and temporal requirements, practically for all crops and therefore
additional irrigation water is not significantly needed. But in tropical countries like
India, the natural rainfall is insufficient and hence the water supply is not met in
fixed intervals, as required by the crops. Therefore, water has to be supplied
synthetically through other sources by defined irrigation methods. The total
quantity of water required by the crop for its full-fledged growth (when expressed
as centimeter depth of water standing over the irrigated area) is known as delta.
This total quantity of water must be supplied to the crop during the growth period
at suitable fixed intervals as per the requirements of the particular crop.
However irrigation demands are generally seasonal, and also depending on the
season, the water quantum required may be less or more. However, yearly
demands for irrigation are practically constant, and do not vary greatly, except in
the case of dry or wet years. Since irrigation storage is an insurance against
drought, it is better to build up as much reservoir storage as possible for future
irrigation needs consistent with current requirement. Irrigation projects are
basically flow irrigation schemes. Major river water can be stored by constructing
a dam against a river channel and such stored water is eventually distributed
through a system of canals to the farmers fields for irrigation purposes. Even the
cropping pattern is designed for the command area of irrigation projects with the
objective of making the best use of water. The sheet of water that flows out of
canals to the fields also enriches the soil with sufficient water. Like rain water,
the irrigation water also percolates into deeper layers of the soil. Such water
contributes to the ground water in the command area. In those strata, where
there are no provisions for free flow of ground water, the percolated water moves
to other areas and there are chances of such moving underground water
leaching the salts in to soil medium. The dissolved salts as a result, eventually
render the ground water acidic or alkaline, which may not be fit for domestic or
irrigation purposes. This apart if the lithology of the area does not support free
movement of water, it can lead to problem of water logging, and also alkalinity,
depending on the soil features of a particular area. Hence water management in
the command area of an irrigation project has to be carefully planned so as to
prevent the problems and consequences arising out of excessive accumulation
of water. It is not enough if the water usage in the command area of irrigation
59
Water Quality
projects is merely planned but one should ensure that such plans are actually
working compatibly in nature. The irrigation activities following, must not lead to
degradation in the quality of water and soil in the command area. Such
environmentally compatible irrigation interventions are possible only with
continuous monitoring of ground water and quality.
5.2 Surface Irrigation
Tank irrigation system has deteriorated over time, and hence modernization of
rivers and tanks could provide support for crops. The irrigation efficiency can be
improved if the losses in the system such as loss during conveyance and
distribution occurs due to seepage, evaporation, leakages, evapo-transporation
by non-agricultural crops are minimized. Loss in field occurs due to inadequate
land leveling, land shaping, deep percolation, evaporation, etc.; The water use
efficiency also varies with the method of application of water like border, strip,
basin furrow, flooding etc. To improve the irrigation efficiency rehabilitation of the
existing irrigation projects, canal systems, anicuts and tanks and measures like
lining the canal, provision of control structures, prevention of leakages, rotational
supply on-farm development and training of farmers can be adopted. Proper
maintenance of irrigation source, desilting of tanks, massive adoption of water
harvesting technologies, rejuvenation of old wells, system to control irrigation
and drainage, introduce river basin planning, assess water balance of the river
basins, prevent surface run-off to the sea, promote construction of structures for
surface storage and ground water recharge, prioritize and establish rules for
water allocation from the basin, develop computer aided system operation
models and manuals, and improve dependability and equitability of irrigation
releases. To assist this approach, river valley authority would play a vital role
and all O&M operations could be done through the water users organizations.
5.3 Ground Water Management
There is need for caution in regard to ground water development and
exploitation; withdrawal of ground water is more than recharge in many areas.
Water users organization and on-farm development, help in judicious water
allocation and management. Thus some of the measures necessary are listed
below:
60
Water Quality
Improvement of the water use efficiency by progressive reduction in
conveyance and application losses
Adoption of better water management practices/ techniques through
farmers organizations
Promotion of adaptive research and development to ensure more cost
effective and efficient execution and management of irrigation systems
through better water management practices.
Conjunctive use of ground and surface water aiming at optimal utilization
of water resources and to have its development, environmentally
sustainable as well. The ground water should be utilized during the post
monsoon period and surface water can be used when the water level
goes beyond certain limits, below ground level (non-monsoon period).
5.4 Management Measures for Irrigation Water
Effective irrigation management reduces runoff and leachate losses, controls
deep percolation, and along with cropland sediment control, reduces erosion and
sediment delivery to waterways. The goal of this management measure is to
reduce movement of pollutants from land into ground or surface water,
consequent to the practice of irrigation. This goal is accomplished through
consideration of the following aspects of an irrigation system, namely
Irrigation scheduling
Efficient application of irrigation water
Efficient transport of irrigation water
Use of runoff or tail water
Management of drainage water
A well designed and managed irrigation system reduces water loss to
evaporation, deep percolation and runoff and minimizes erosion from applied
water. Application of these management measures will reduce the misuse of
irrigation water, improve water use efficiency, and reduce the total pollutant
discharge from an irrigation system. It focuses on components to manage the
timing, amount and location of water applied to match crop water needs, and
special precautions (i.e., backflow preventers, prevent runoff, and control deep
percolation).
61
Water Quality
5.5 Pollutant Transport from Irrigated Lands
Return flows, and leachate from irrigated lands may transport the following types
of pollutants to surface or ground water:
Sediment and particulate organic solids,
Particulate-bound nutrients, chemicals, and metals, such as phosphorus,
organic nitrogen, a portion of applied pesticides, and a portion of the
metal applied with some organic wastes,
If soils or drainage in the irrigated area contain toxic substances that may
concentrate in the drainage or reuse system, this factor must be
considered in any decision about use of the water and design of the reuse
system.
The movement of pollutants from irrigated lands is affected by the timing and
amount of applied water and precipitation; physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the irrigated land, the type and efficiency of the irrigation
system used, crop type, the degree to which erosion and sediment control,
nutrient management, and pesticide management are employed; and the overall
management of the irrigation system.
Transport of irrigation water from the source of supply to the irrigated field via
open canals and laterals can be a source of water loss if the canals and laterals
are not lined. Water is also transported through the lower ends of canals and
laterals as part of flow-through requirements to maintain water levels. In many
soils, unlined canals and laterals lose water via evaporation and seepage in
bottom and side walls. Seepage water either moves into the ground water
through percolation or forms wet areas near the canal or lateral. This water will
carry with it any soluble pollutants in the soil, thereby creating the potential for
pollution of ground or surface water.
5.6 Fertilizer Contamination of Water
Fertilizer applications that supply nutrients in quantities far in excess of those
taken up by plants can result in contamination of both surface and drainage
waters. Nitrates and phosphates are the chemical constituents most often
involved. Nitrates contamination can occur in both surface runoff and drainage
62
Water Quality
waters, while excessive levels of phosphates generally occur only in surface
runoff. The loss of nitrogen and phosphorous from the soil has adverse effects
on soil fertility, but the effect on water quality is even more serious. Nitrate levels
in drinking water, above 10 mg/l, are considered a human health hazard. In
some heavily fertilized areas, the drainage waters are sufficiently high in nitrates
to be a problem. Some rural wells have been found to contain nitrates
significantly above the safe limit.
A second problem stemming from high nutrient-bearing waters coming from soils
is the over fertilization of lakes. Nitrogen and phosphorus in lake water
stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic plants in the lakes. Algal growth
depletes the water of dissolved oxygen, which is essential for fish and other
living forms. Other aquatic plants (weeds) growths are stimulated and produce
heavy mats near the shoreline interfering with recreational uses of the lakes.
Applications of fertilizers far in excess of plant uptake should be discouraged,
and the timing of fertilizer applications should coincide with plant needs. The
fertilizer should be mixed with at least some soil, especially where conservation
tillage practices are employed, to reduce surface runoff of the fertilizer
compounds.
5.7 Irrigation Methods and System Designs
An irrigation system consists of two basic elements i.e., the transport of water
from its source to the field, and the distribution of transported water to the crops
in the field. A number of soil properties and qualities are important to the design,
operation, and management of irrigation systems, including water holding
capacity, soil intake characteristics, permeability, soil condition, organic matter,
slope, water table depth, soil erodibility, chemical properties, salinity, sodicity,
and pH. Some soils cannot be irrigated due to various physical problems, such
as low infiltration rates and poor internal drainage which may cause salt buildup.
The chemical characteristics of the soil and the quantity and quality of the
irrigation water will determine whether irrigation is a suitable management
practice that can be sustained without degrading the soil or water resources
(Franzen et al., 1996; Scherer et al., 1996; and Seelig and Richardson, 1991).
63
Water Quality
5.8 Changes in River Hydrology
Many human activities, directly or indirectly, lead to modifications of river
channels, which can, in turn, induce changes to the aquatic environment. Major
modifications to river systems include the following,
Changes in depth and width for navigation creation of flood control ponds
Creation of reservoirs for drinking water supply
Construction of dams for hydroelectric power generation, and
Diversion river paths for irrigation purposes.
All of the above affect the hydrology and related uses of the river system and so
have a great potential to affect water quality. It must be remembered, however,
that not all such water quality changes are necessarily deleterious.
5.9 Water Application and Drainage
Depending on the method used, water application - in other words the actual
process of irrigation can affect the soil to varying degrees. It is also likely to have
impacts on water, species and the microclimate. The main problem encountered
with many irrigation methods is that of soil salinization, particularly if the system
is poorly managed and there is no drainage. In simplified terms, salinization can
be defined as an extreme nutrient imbalance (excess of salts) and damage to
the soil structure (puddling, crusting, and compaction).
Traditional irrigation methods often involve water dosage problems (e.g. flood,
basin, border-strip and furrow irrigation). The possibility of erosion cannot be
ruled out where such techniques are used. Sprinkling and in particular drip
irrigation may also lead to salinisation if not carried out properly. All irrigation
methods can have adverse effects on the soil microflora and microfauna. When
geared to local conditions and properly managed, however, irrigation can also
contribute to the nutrient balance and benefit microflora and microfauna. All
water application methods are likely to have an influence on flora. The natural
balance of species will generally be disturbed, while the number of species may
either increase or decrease.
64
Water Quality
5.10 Objectives
The general objectives of the study at the Rameshwara command area includes
the following aspects
Assessment of ground and surface water quality in the catchment and
command area.
Evaluation of impact of various water quality parameters on the ground
water quality in the command area.
Assessment of the effects of various water quality parameters on
biophysical and socio-economic activities.
To identify the major sources for ground and surface water pollution.
5.11 Scope of the Study
Knowledge of land management activities and water quality conditions is
important in many ways to hard work involving implementation of management
measures and practices. The watershed planning process includes an
understanding of the hydrologic resources, an assessment of environmental
problems, goal setting, and priority setting. The development of action plans and
implementation follow, with evaluation of effectiveness and revisions of plans as
needed. Good water quality data are essential to problem identification and
characterization, goal setting, priority setting, development of implementation
plans, and evaluation. In order to have an understanding of what have to be met,
a baseline must be established. With good data regarding land management
activities, including the control of point sources, accurate interpretation of the
causes for water quality problems and improvements is possible.
Ground water management is the key to combat the emerging problems of water
scarcity. Ground water being a hidden resource is often developed without
proper understanding of its occurrence in time and space and threatened by
overexploitation and contamination. There is an inherent linkage between
development and management of ground water resources.
For an effective supply side management, it is essential to have full knowledge
of hydrogeological controls which govern the yields and behaviour of ground
water levels under abstraction stress. The effects of ground water development
65
Water Quality
can be short term and reversible or long term and quasi-reversible which require
a strong monitoring mechanism for scientific management. There is need for
scientific
planning
in
development
of
ground
water
under
different
hydrogeological situations and to evolve effective management practices.

Demand driven development of ground water resources by different user groups
without any scientific planning and proper understanding of local ground water
regime behavior, leads to sharp depletion of the resources and quality
degradation. Signals of misused management of ground water resources are
seen in areas where ground water extraction rate has exceeded the natural
recharge. It has been strongly felt that ground water management is the
foremost challenge being faced by the Organizations dealing with ground water
in India. The activities of the organizations and policies affecting ground water
need to reflect the priority issues with the overall objective to provide water
security through ground water management in major parts of the country.
Experience over the last four to five decades of irrigation in India, has shown that
starting of massive irrigation projects without understanding the inherent
potential of the command area in matters like soil character, ground water,
natural drainage characteristics, prevailing cropping systems etc., has led to
either severe under-utilization of the project potential or has spelt disaster by
way of salinization, environmental hazards, destruction of natural ecosystem and
in some extreme cases leading to total barrenness of land among others. On the
other hand, instead of ushering prosperity in the region, such scientifically
unplanned projects have resulted in spelling ruin to the population in the
command area. Hence the crucial need for a detailed study of the existing
conditions in the project area and utilization of the knowledge in harnessing the
benefit for sustained irrigation, and the type of study in progress here serves a
very vital objective.
5.12 Study Area
The intake structure is located near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk,
Belgaum District. It is located towards north to Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the
command area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum
66
Water Quality
district. The nearest town is Gokak with a distance of 45 Km, which is
approachable throughout the year and Ghataprabha is the nearest railway
station.
The major part of the command area is almost a gentle undulating landscape
with a linear strap of hills running in almost east- west direction dividing the
region into equal halves. The region has a gentle easterly slope forming largely a
plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The drainage pattern is parallel to subparallel draining into Ghataprabha River. This area forms a part of the
Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna above the confluence of Bhima
catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha River originates in Sundergad of
Western Ghats and major tributaries joining it are Tamraparani near Shedihal,
Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near Gokak town.
The climate of the whole is healthy, agreable and is characterized by a general
dryness, excepting during monsoon season. The summer season between
March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with maximum temperature reaching
up to 420 C. December to February is the cold season when the minimum
temperature falls to 180C. Generally humidity varies from less than 20% during
summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to September is the period during
which humidity is normally higher and most of the rainfall is received during
southwest monsoon period with August being the wettest month. As per the
records of rain gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm.
On an average there are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally
mild in nature with slightly increased velocity, as observed during the late
summer and monsoon season. The area comes under the northern dry zone of
the ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
5.12.4 Geology
series of Precambrian age overlaid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of
the series, the Quartzite/ Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund.
67
Water Quality
weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly jointed and crumbled mass
which is seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession
are the dolomites and variegated lime stones with intercalations of shale
spreadout in the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally bedded with
very low dip angles, besides being soft, friable and susceptible to weathering,
and hence have been eroded away forming the plains. They are overlaid by the
basaltic rocks of Deccan traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine
grained and highly jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes
amygdaloidal with vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the
basalt is massive, hard, compact and fine grained.
The oldest rock formations exposed in the area are the granite gneisses and
migmatites belonging to the Peninsular Gneissic complex of Archaean age. They
are exposed near Gokak Town and as inliers near Kanasgeri, Midkanahatti and
Benchinamadri villages in Gokak taluk. The trend of foliation in the gneisses vary
from N-S to NW-SE. The schistose rocks belong to the Dharwar Supergroup and
are exposed near Betageri in Gokak taluk. The schists show two sets of
foliations/ schistosity in ENE-WSW and NNE-SSW directions. The younger
granites are exposed in parts of Bilgi taluk around Girisagar. They are pink in
colour and are coarse-grained. The schists, gneisses and granites have been
intruded by pegmatites, quartz vein and basic dyes. The dykes are prominently
seen around Benchinamadri and Upparhatti villages in Gokak taluk and in parts
of Bilgi and Hungund taluks.
Water has the unique ability to dissolve a great range of substances than any
other liquid precipitation reaching the earth, but contains only small amounts of
dissolved mineral matter. Once it reaches the earth, and during infiltration, it
reacts with minerals of the soil and rock in contact with it. The quality and type of
mineral matter dissolved, depends on the chemical composition and physical
structure of the rocks as well as the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and the
redox potential (Eh) of the water. The ability of water to dissolve minerals,
determines the chemical nature of the ground water. A constant monitoring of
68
Water Quality
chemical parameters throughout the year in all seasons is therefore required for
any regional hydrochemical studies, for which a set of observation wells has to
be selected and sampling has to be done at regular intervals. Accordingly in the
study area of Sri Rameshwara lift Irrigation Scheme, about 24 locations have
been selected for sampling, covering various sectors such as domestic and
irrigation wells.
Various water quality constituents viz., pH, Turbidity, Electrical conductivity,
TDS, Alkalinity, Chlorides, Total hardness, Calcium hardness, Magnesium
hardness, Nitrate, Sulphate, Fluoride, Sodium, and Potassium, etc were
determined employing Standard Methods. (APHA, 1995)
5.13.1 pH: pH of the samples were determined by using pH meter (EUTEOH
CYBERSCAN 510). The pH meter was calibrated using pH 4.01 and pH 9.20
buffer solutions, and the reading for the samples was recorded.
5.13.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The
electrical conductivity was determined using conductivity meter (SYSTRONICS
Conductivity-TDS METER 308). The temperature compensation knob of the
conductivity meter was adjusted to the prevailing temperature of the sample and
calibrated to CAL mark with the cell dipped into the distilled water. Then the cell
was dipped into the sample and reading was noted. The reading was recorded
from the scale and was expressed as mhos/cm.
5.13.3 Turbidity: Turbidity of the sample was determined using Colorimeter
(HACH DR/890 Colorimeter). The samples were shaken well and appropriate
quantity poured into cuvettes. The cuvette was placed inside the cell
compartment and turbidity was read directly from the instant scale in NTU.
5.13.4 Alkalinity: The alkalinity of sample was determined by titration method.
Ten ml of sample was titrated against 0.02 N Sulphuric acid using Methyl
Orange as indicator.
Formula: Total alkalinity = (ml of titrant /ml of sample x 1000 mg/L) as CaCO3 .
69
Water Quality
5.13.5 Total Hardness: Total Hardness of sample was determined by titrimetric
method. Ten ml of the sample was titrated against 0.01M EDTA (Disodium salt)
by adding 1 ml of ammonia buffer and Eriochrome Black T indicator.
Formula: T.H = (ml of titrant / ml of sample) x 1000 mg/L as CaCO3
5.13.6 Calcium Hardness: Calcium hardness of sample was estimated by
titrating the sample against 0.01 M EDTA (Disodium salt), with addition of 1 ml of
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and murexide indicator.
Formula: Calcium hardness = (ml of titrant / ml of sample) x 1000 mg/L as
CaCO3
5.13.7 Magnesium Hardness: Magnesium hardness was calculated from the
difference in Calcium hardness and Total hardness values obtained as below.
Formula: Magnesium hardness = (Total hardness- Calcium hardness) x 0.243
mg/L
5.13.8 Chloride: The procedure adopted for the estimation of chlorides was
titrimetric method, which involves titration with standard silver nitrate.
Ten ml of sample was titrated against 0.02N silver nitrate solution using
potassium chromate as indicator.
Formula: Chloride = (VxN) of AgNO3 x 35.45 x 1000 /volume of sample mg/L
5.13.9 Sulphate: Sulphate was estimated by turbidimetric method. To a sample
aliquot of 100 ml, 10 ml of conditioning reagent and 0.5g of Barium Chloride was
added. Sample taken was kept aside for turbidity development for 15 minutes
and absorbance of solution was noted at 420 nm by using, a Uv-Vis
spectrophotometer (JENWAY 6400 Spectrophotometer).
5.13.10 Phosphate: Phosphate in the samples was determined by the
Molybdenum blue method using stannous chloride (as orthophosphates). To a
sample of 100ml, 4 ml ammonium molybdate and 0.5ml of stannous chloride
solution was added. After 10 minutes the colour developed was measured as
absorbance, using, a Uv-Vis spectrophotometer at 690nm (JENWAY 6400
Spectrophotometer).
70
Water Quality
5.13.11 Nitrate: Nitrate estimation was done by Phenol-di-sulphonic acid method
(PDA method). An aliquot of sample was taken and silver chloride was added to
remove chlorides. The filtrate obtained after removing chlorides was fully
evaporated. The residue obtained was dissolved by adding 2ml of phenol-disulphonic acid and made up to 50 ml with distilled water, 6 ml of 30% liquid
ammonia was added for colour development and absorbance noted at 410nm
using Uv-Vis spectrophotometer (JENWAY 6400 Spectrophotometer).
5.13.12 Fluoride: Fluoride estimation was done by Colorimeter using SPADNS
reagent. Water samples were mixed well and fed into the cuvettes and readings
were noted.
5.13.13 Sodium and Potassium: Sodium and Potassium were estimated using
Flame Photometer. Samples were fed into the instrument through the capillary
tube and readings were noted.
5.13.14 SAR, RSC and Percent Sodium: Sodium absorption ratio, residual
sodium carbonate and percent sodium were estimated by calculation. In
agricultural practice, sodium concentration is expressed in terms of percent
sodium, which can be defined as the percentage of the sodium concentration of
water to the total cationic concentration. The percentage of sodium which is
equal to (Na x 100) /(Na+Ca+Mg+K) was found out keeping in mind that percent
sodium also has a bearing on the quality of water for irrigation.
Table 5.1. Analytical Methods Used For Physico-Chemical Analysis of
Ground and Surface Water Samples
Serial. No.
Parameter
Method
pH
Electrode method
Conductivity
Electrode method
Alkalinity
Titrimetric method
4
5
Turbidity
Total dissolved solids
Nephelometric/HACH Colorimeter
Electrode method
71
Water Quality
Total hardness
EDTA method
Calcium
EDTA method
Magnesium
EDTA method
Chlorides
Titrimetric method
10
Nitrates
Spectrophotometer
11
Sulphates
Spectrophotometer
12
Phosphates
Spectrophotometer
13
Sodium
Flame photometer
14
Potassium
Flame photometer
15
Fluoride
SPADNS method
The details of the sampling sites at command area with respect to ground water
and surface water are shown in the Table 5.2 and 5.3 respectively. The samples
from these stations will be monitored during pre and post operational process of
the project.
72
Water Quality
Table 5.2. Details of Ground Water Sampling Sites at Command Area
Tube/open
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Well/surface
water
Depth of
water
(ft)
Yield
(inch)
Water table
level
(ft)
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Basappa Mallapa Shetar, Koujalgi

Redrahatti
Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony,
Koujalgi
Kalliguddi, Roadside
Kalliguddi, inside village
Hulkund, Roadside
Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri,
Chenal
Ramappa Hanumappa, Chipalkatti
Gurusidappa Lakshmappa
Dalwagi, Roadside b/w Manikere &
Kuligodi
E 750 04' 32.4"

E 750 05' 40.1"
GOKAK TALUK
N 160 13' 37.7"
N 160 12' 25.2"
T
HP
170
200
6.0
1.0
140
160
E 750 04' 00.3"
N 160 12' 03.6"
300
2.0
240
E 750 05' 36.3"

E 750 06' 03.6"
E 750 06' 09.3"
E 750 07' 34.5"
N 160
N 160
N 160
N 160
HP
T
T
T
180
400
300
---
2.0
5.0
2.0
---
160
350
140
---
E 750 08' 53.5"
N 160 11' 03.3"
Dasanala Cross, Road side

Mugalihaal
Mallikere Thota
HPS near temple, inside Mallikere
village
Bagochikoppa, infront of
yogeshwara matt
Hirekoppa, Near temple
Chikoppa, Road side, Opp to Bus
stop
10' 48.3"
10' 08.9"
09' 11.3"
08' 57.0"
Elevation
(m)
619
623
626
625
654
650
614
610
210
5.0
170
E 75 09 57.5
"
N 16 08' 27.7
400
3.5
210
617
E 750 05' 06.4"
N 160 10' 17.9"
425
3.0
340
532
E 750 02' 43.5"

E 750 02' 43.5"
E 750 03' 58.9"
SAUNDATTI TALUK
N 160 08' 36.2"
N 160 08' 36.2"
N 160 07' 47.7"
HP
PWS
T
150
450
500
2.0
3.0
3.0
50
300
400
614
614
629
E 750 04' 51.8"
N 160 08' 16.9
MWS
500
3.0
90
654
E 750 06' 22.6"
N 160 07' 39.8"
HP
80
1.0
60
641
E 750 06' 12.9"
N 160 07' 05.3"
MWS
---
---
---
656
E 750 06' 26.4"
N 160 07' 07.8"
HP
500
2.0
300
657
'
"
RAMDURGA TALUK
18
19
Balappa Yavanappa Parakanatti,

Murukattnal
Hosur
E 750 06' 55.7"
N 160 04' 54.2"
160
1.0
100
648
E 750 09' 52.5"
N 160 06' 13.9"
HP
300
2.0
100
620
73
Water Quality
Table 5.3. Details of Surface Water Sampling Sites at Command Area

Tube/open
20
Dhavaleshwar Barrage
E 750 04' 24.5"
N 160 19' 50.0"
RW
---
---
Water
table
level
(ft)
---
21
Aralimatti
E 750 05' 43.7"
N 160 19' 26.7"
RW
---
---
---
523
22
Venktapura
E 750 05' 26.1"
N 160 17' 10.0"
RW
---
---
---
589
23
Siddramaiaha, Kalliguddi
E 750 06' 21.9"
N 160 11' 21.2"
OW
40
---
5.0
633
24
Mannikeri Manthose
E 750 04' 08.2"
N 160 10' 03.5"
OW
45
---
18
626
Sl.
No
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Well/surface
water
Depth of
water
(ft)
Yield
(inch)
Elevation
(m)
505
74
Water Quality
5.14 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 5.4. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Ground Water at Command Area
EC
Sl.
No
PH
(mhos/
cm)
TDS
Cl
T.H
Ca
Mg
Alkalinity
6.74
650
370
259.7
1.14
800
365
435
7.31
1400
803
716.7
2.0
1030
220
7.40
95
53
72.7
0.53
300
6.83
145
81
103.9
0.83
7.98
145
81
197.4
7.88
135
75
8.55
560
6.87
Colour
Turbidity
(Hazen)
(NTU)
302.1
810
527.8
110
190
490
210
0.69
350
218.1
0.77
323
218.1
751
7.88
10
Na
NO3
SO4
PO4
0.05
24.7
1.1
2.36
357.9
0.05
0.05
594
0.8
13.42
280.2
0.03
241.2
0.05
25.4
1.4
0.81
17.1
0.02
280
304.9
0.05
60.9
0.8
13.04
77.8
0.08
160
190
232.1
0.05
90.5
2.9
0.00
81.4
0.03
340
160
180
204.8
0.05
94.5
2.7
0.00
68.2
0.02
1.29
350
50
300
277.6
0.1
315
42.1
9.06
299.8
0.06
417
1184.1 2.30
1540
420
1120
435.9
0.05
1070
2.0
0.00
447.8
0.01
454
252
571.3
1.73
860
250
610
391.3
0.05
481
2.4
2.40
388.8
0.04
7.01
109
61
83.1
0.80
430
175
255
304.9
0.05
39.1
2.4
1.72
34.2
0.05
11
6.87
151
85
155.8
0.94
480
240
240
259.4
0.1
52.5
0.4
9.75
51.2
0.03
12
8.08
149
84
135.0
0.81
410
125
285
345.8
0.05
105.5
1.2
5.49
129.3
0.05
13
6.85
175
97
155.8
0.84
520
190
330
318.5
0.05
103.7
0.3
9.84
84.0
0.04
14
6.87
148
83
155.8
0.27
540
425
115
277.6
0.05
33.7
0.2
5.48
90.6
0.03
15
6.52
267
149
290.8
0.56
900
465
435
414.1
0.05
89.6
1.1
10.77
111.8
0.02
16
7.36
371
215
176.6
0.74
960
430
530
300.3
0.05
55.1
0.8
10.48
78.9
0.04
17
6.72
571
335
259.7
0.78
570
305
265
364.0
0.1
65.3
0.9
10.09
130.1
0.07
18
7.39
198
110
218.1
0.90
990
265
725
312.1
0.05
73.5
0.9
13.01
170.7
0.02
75
Water Quality
19
7.85
873
482
872.5
1.89
1760
620
1140
232.1
886
0.05
1.8
768.6
6.35
0.01
Table 5.5. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Water at Command Area

EC
Sl.
No
PH
(mhos/
cm)
TDS
Cl
T.H
Ca
Mg
Alkalinity
20
7.51
115
63
103.9
0.40
340
105
235
142.9
21
7.38
111
61
114.3
0.43
280
110
170
154.7
22
7.48
113
63
41.5
0.21
140
65
75
23
7.15
3150
1820
425.9
2.12
1240
480
24
7.42
105
56
72.7
0.97
350
155
Colour Turbidity
(Hazen)
(NTU)
Na
NO3
SO4
PO4
D.O
55.6
2.0
0.29
108.3
0.08
8.0
20
55.9
2.2
0.18
113.0
0.48
9.4
77.4
10
11.1
4.3
0.12
1.3
0.03
7.5
760
432.3
0.05
360
1.4
0.00
470.4
0.07
6.5
195
195.7
0.05
26.9
0.8
2.65
26.7
0.03
8.5
Note: 1) All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and Conductivity
2) Values in bold indicate parametric values exceeding the prescribed standard limits.
76
Water Quality
Table 5.6. Standards for Physical and Chemical Parameters in Drinking Water
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Characteristics
pH
Conductivity
(micro mhos/cm)
Alkalinity as
CaCO3
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS)
Total hardness
as CaCo3
Calcium as
CaCO3
Permissible limit
in the absence of
alternate source
(BIS-10500: 1991)
Guideline
value
(WHO)
Maximum
contamination level
(USEPA)
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
3000
NA
NA
600
200
NA
10
NA
NA
2000
1000
500
600
500
NA
200
NA
NA
1000
250
250
Chlorides
Nitrates
45
NA
10
10
Sulphates
400
400
250
11
Phosphates
0.3
NA
NA
12
Sodium
200
200
20
13
Potassium
10
10
NA
14
Fluoride
1.5
NA
15
Colour
25
NA
NA
Note: All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and Conductivity.
NA: Not available.
The results obtained for the analysis of ground water and surface water samples
collected from the study area are shown in Tables 5.4 & 5.5. The significance of the
various water quality parameters are discussed below in the light of the study data.
77
Water Quality
5.15 Ground Water
5.15.1 pH: A direct relationship between human health and the pH of drinking water is
impossible to ascertain because pH is so closely associated with other aspects of
drinking water quality. However neutral pH is favorable for the growth of any plants
species and the recommended pH for drinking water is 7.5-8.5. Most microorganisms
usually tolerate the pH range commonly found in water sources. The microbiological
integrity of water is dependent upon the pH level, which influences the effectiveness of
chlorine disinfection.
The pH of the samples analyzed varied from 6.52-8.55. The recommended guideline
value for pH is 6.5-8.5. From Table 5.4, it is clear that the pH value of all the samples is
within the limit. The pH of water is adversely affected if it is low or higher than the
prescribed limit. If the pH is less than 5.0 it is termed as acidic condition and the plants
may not be able to survive in this condition and if the pH is more than 9.0 then it is
termed as alkaline condition, and certain crops may not able to withstand this condition.
The alkalinity is due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates.
5.15.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electrical conductivity is a measure of waters
capacity to convey electric current. Electrical conductivity of water is directly
proportional to its dissolved mineral content, and electrical conductivity varies directly
with the temperature of the sample. Electrical conductivity determination is very rapid,
consequently the quantity of dissolved salts in a water can ascertained once. Where
waters from the same source are periodically examined, the variation in the dissolved
solids content is indicated by conductivity measurements. In mixing of waters from two
or more sources, the proportion of each water can be determined using conductivity
data.
From the Table 5.4, it is observed that the electrical conductivity of all the ground water
samples is with in the permissible limit.
78
Water Quality
Classification of Irrigation Water Based on Salt Concentration
Sl.No
Type of Water
Low salinity water (C1)
Suitability for Irrigation

Suitable for all types crops and all kinds of soil.
conductivity between 100 to
Permissible under normal irrigation practices
250 mhos/cm
except in soils of extremely low permeability.
Medium salinity water (C2)
Can be used, if a moderate amount of leaching
occurs. Normal salt tolerant plants can be grown
750 mhos/cm
High salinity water (C3)
3
without much salinity control.

Unsuitable for soil with restricted drainage. Only
2250 mhos/cm
high-salt tolerant plants can be grown.
Very high salinity ( C4)

4
conductivity more than 2250
Unsuitable for irrigation
mhos/cm
5.15.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
The dissolved solids consist mainly of
bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates and possibly phosphates of

calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. The amount of dissolved solids present in
water is a consideration for its suitability for domestic use. In general, water with a total
dissolved content, less than 500mg/L are the most desirable. Waters with high
dissolved solids content may also be used for human consumption, without harmful
physiological effects. There is no evidence of deleterious physiological reactions
occouring in persons consuming drinking water supplies that have TDS levels in excess
of 1000mg/l. The results of certain epidemiological studies appear to suggest that TDS
in drinking water might even have beneficial health effects.
The amount of dissolved solids present in water is a consideration in the waters
suitability for the domestic use. A high total dissolved content imparts taste to the water
and often has a laxative and sometimes the reverse effect upon people whose bodies
are not used to higher levels.
79
Water Quality
From the analysis, it is inferred that all ground water samples are having TDS values
with in the limits (<2000 mg/l). The TDS value of ground water samples with in the
command area is ranged between 53 to 803 mhos/cm.
5.15.4 Total Hardness: The principal natural sources of hardness in water are
sedimentary rocks, seepage, and runoff from solids. Hard water normally originates in
areas with thick topsoil and limestone formations. Ground water is generally harder than
surface-water. The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of
its equivalent CaCO3 concentration as shown in below,
Classification of water depending upon the hardness
Soft
0-75 mg/L
Medium hard
75-150 mg/L
Hard
150-300 mg/L
Very Hard
Above 300mg/L
(Source: World Health Organization, 1984)

The principal hardness causing cations are the divalent calcium, magnesium, ferrous
iron, and manganous ions. The hardness in water is derived largely from contact with
soil and rock formations. Rainwater as it falls upon the earth is incapable of dissolving
the tremendous amounts of solids found in many natural waters.
In general, hard waters originate in areas where the topsoil is thick and limestone
formations are present. Soft waters originate in areas where the topsoil is quite thin and
limestone formations are sparse or absent. Hard waters are satisfactory for human
consumption as soft waters. There is some evidence that Ca2+ and Mg2+ are protective
against heart ailments.
The total hardness of the ground water samples analysed is shown in Table 4. From the
Table it is clear that 42% of the samples are having high total hardness (>600mg/L).
The areas having very high total hardness are Redrahatti and the sample that belongs
80
Water Quality
to the farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri of Chenal village (>1000mg/L). The
hardness of water is an important consideration in determining the suitability of water for
domestic and industrial uses. Determinations of hardness serve as a basis for routine
control of softening processes.
5.15.5 Calcium Hardness: The part of the total hardness that is chemically equivalent
to the bicarbonate plus carbonate alkalinities present in water is considered to be
carbonate hardness. It may also be considered as the part of the total hardness that
originates from the action of carbonic acid on limestone. Carbonate hardness was
formerly called temporary hardness because it can be caused because of precipitation
by prolonged boiling. Calcium and magnesium cause by far, the greatest portion of the
hardness occouring in natural waters.
From the Table 5.4, it is observed that about 63% of the ground water samples are
having high calcium hardness (>200mg/L). The permissible limit for the calcium
hardness is 200mg/L. The high calcium hardness in the samples was observed in the
areas such as Bagochikoppa, infront of yogeshwara matt, Hirekoppa, near temple and
Hosur. The lowest hardness was found in the Hulkund, Roadside (50mg/L).
5.15.6 Fluorides: Fluoride is the other important parameter, because of the public
health significance of fluoride in water supplies intended for human use, determination
of fluoride assumes significance. The maximum permissible limit for fluoride in drinking
water is 1.5mg/L. In situations where fluoride is added to provide an optimum level for
the control of dental caries, it is necessary to know the amount of natural fluoride
present so that the proper amounts of supplemental fluoride can be added. In some
areas, industrial contamination of the atmosphere and vegetation by fluoride has been a
serious problem. Control methods have had to be employed to protect cattle and other
herbivours animals from damage to bones and teeth.
As a result of the great interest focused on the fluoride content of public water supplies
in relation to the dental fluorosis problem, much information became available on
81
Water Quality
fluoride. It was natural that the dental profession would use this information to determine
whether fluoride was correlated with other diseases.
The Table 5.4 clearly indicates that 79% of the ground water samples are having the
fluoride concentration within the limit (<1.5mg/L). The remaining 21% of samples are
having high fluoride content. The highest fluoride concentration was found to be in the
Redrahatti and the sample that belongs to the farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri
of Chenal village, i.e., 2.0 and 2.3 mg/l respectively.
5.15.7 Chlorides: The chloride content of waters used for irrigation of agricultural crops
is generally controlled along with the total salinity of the water. Evapotransportation
tends to increase the chloride and salinity at the root zone of irrigated plants, making it
difficult for crops to take up water due to osmotic pressure differences between the
water outside the plants and within the plant cell. For this reason, chloride and total
salinity concentration at or below the drinking water standards are normally specified for
waters used to irrigate salt-sensitive crops.
The presence of chloride in natural waters can be attributed to dissolution of salt
deposits, discharges of effluents from chemical industries, sewage discharges, irrigation
drainage, and contamination from refuse leachates. Each of these sources may result in
local contamination of both surface and ground water. The chloride ion is highly mobile,
however, and is eventually transported to closed basin. Most of the waters used for
irrigation are lost to the atmosphere through evapotransporation, leaving the salts
originally present in the irrigation water behind in the soil. These salts must be removed
to prevent destruction of the soils crop-growing potential, and the resulting highly saline
irrigation return water tend to increase the chloride content of surface waters into which
they are discharged.
Chloride in reasonable concentrations is not harmful to humans. The acceptable
permissible limit for the chloride for drinking is 1000mg/L, when there are no
82
Water Quality
alternatives. Sources containing as much as 2000mg/L are also used for the domestic
purposes, without the development of serious adverse effects.
The place where the chloride concentration exceeded the permissible limit (1000mg/L)
is shown in Table 5.4. The high chloride concentration was found to be in the sample
that belongs to farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri of Chenal village i.e., 1184.1
mg/l. Similarly, the low concentration of chloride was found to be in the sample that
belongs to farmer Pattan shetty , Janatha Colony, Koujalgi that is around 72.7 mg/l.
However 94% of the samples are with in the limit (<1000mg/L).
5.15.8 Sodium: Sodium has important considerations with regard to irrigation waters,
but for drinking and industrial purposes it is of minor importance only. However
excessive amounts of sodium in drinking water is harmful to persons suffering from
cardiac, renal, and circulatory diseases. The ratio of sodium to total cations (percent
sodium) is important in agriculture and human pathology. When the percent sodium
exceeds 60, the water is considered to be unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Soil
permeability has also been found to be affected by high sodium ratio. Sodium
concentrations vary considerably, depending on regional and hydrological and
geological conditions, the time of year, and salt utilization patterns. Sodium levels in
groundwater vary widely but normally range between 6-130 mg/l. In surface water the
sodium concentration may be less than 1mg/l or exceed 300mg/l, depending upon the
geographical area.
The permissible limit for sodium is 200mg/L. Around 26% of the samples were found to
have high sodium content i.e. >200mg/L. The high concentration of sodium was found
to be in samples from Redrahatti, Chenal, Hulkund, Chipalkatti and Hosur villages.
5.15.9 Potassium: Potassium is an essential element, but in excessive amounts it acts
as a cathartic. Though potassium in irrigation water is essential for plant nutrition, it
must be maintained in proper balance with other nutrients for good plant development.
The permissible limit for potassium is 10mg/L. From the Table 5.4, it is observed that all
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Water Quality
the ground water samples are having potassium concentration with in the limit, except
one sample from Hulkund village. The higher potassium concentration was found to be
42.1mg/L in Hulkund and the lowest was found to be in Mallikere village i.e. 0.2 mg/L.
5.15.10 Sulphates: Sulphates occur naturally in water as result of leaching from
gypsum and other common minerals. In addition, sulphate may be added to water
systems in several treatment processes. Sulphates contribute to the total solids content.
Sulphate ions are relatively abundant in natural water ranging from few to several
thousands mg/L. Higher amount of sulphate imparts a bitter taste to water. Sulphates as
magnesium sulphate cause laxative effects to children particularly in hot weather or
climates.
For irrigation purposes the water should have sulphate concentration less than
200mg/L. Sulphate is poorly absorbed from human intestine, and it slowly penetrates
the cellular membranes of mammals and rapidly eliminated through the kidneys. The
high sulphate concentration in ground water can hinder the natural anaerobic
biodegradation of chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethane.
The permissible standard for sulphates in drinking water is 400mg/L. About 90% of the
ground water sample is having sulphate concentration with in the limit. Higher
concentration sulphates were found in the villages such as Chenal and Hosur i.e., 447.8
and 768.6 mg/l respectively. The lowest concentration of sulphate was found in the
sample that belongs to Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony, Koujalgi (17.1mg/l).
5.15.11 Phosphates: All surface water supplies support growth of minute aquatic
organisms. The free swimming and floating organisms are called plankton and are of
great interest because of their influence on water quality. Where both nitrogen and
phosphates are plentiful, algal blooms occur which may produce a variety of disturbing
conditions in the ecosystem. High concentration of phosphorus in ground water samples
was found to be, 0.07mg/L in Chikoppa village (Table 5.4).
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Water Quality
5.15.12 Nitrates: Nitrates are widely present in substantial quantities in soil, in most
waters, and in plants. Nitrates are products of oxidation of organic nitrogen by the
bacteria present in soils and in water where sufficient oxygen is present. Because
nitrates and nitrites are widespread in the environment, they are found in most foods, in
the atmosphere, and in many water sources. Some nitrates in the environment are
produced by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Application of fertilizers to lands and
leaching from cesspools contribute nitrate to ground waters.
The permissible limit for nitrate concentration is 45mg/L. From the Table 5.4, it is clear
that, the nitrate concentration of all the samples are within the limit.
5.15.13 Turbidity: The presence of turbidity can have a significant effect on the
microbial quality of drinking water. The detection of bacteria and viruses in drinking
water may become complicated by the presence of turbidity. The turbidity may be
caused by a wide variety of suspended materials that range in size from colloidal to
coarse dispersion, depending on the degree of turbulence. Consumers of public water
supplies expect and have right demand for turbidity free water. Most people are aware
that domestic wastewater is highly turbid. Any turbidity in the drinking water is
automatically associated with possible wastewater pollution and health hazards
occasioned by it. Removal of turbidity may be achieved by simple filtration or more
effectively, by a combination of coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration. Filtration
through sand beds or other single medium filters consistently produce water with
turbidity of 1 NTU or less. Continuous monitoring of turbidity throughout the treatment
stages is valuable aid in attaining such a performance.
The permissible limit for the turbidity is 10 NTU. From the Table 5.4, it is clear that all
the samples are within the limit.
5.15.14 Colour: Many surface waters, particularly those emanating from swampy
areas, are often colored to the extent, that they are not acceptable for domestic or some
industrial uses without treatment to remove the color. The determination of colour is
85
Water Quality
rapid one and is useful in detecting a change in the character of the water. When waters
from the same source as from river, are being regularly examined, the variations in
colour often serve as indices of quality. Generally yellow colour indicates the presence
of appreciable amounts of organic matter and sometimes chromium.
The coloring materials, many of which are humic substances, result from contact of
water with organic debris, such as leaves, needles of conifers, and wood, in all various
stages of decomposition. Natural colour exists in water primarily as negatively charged
colloidal particles. Because of this fact, its removal can be usually be readily
accomplished by coagulation with a salt having a trivalent metallic ion, such as
aluminum or iron.
For the colour, the desirable limit is 5, but maximum permissible limit is 25. The colour
of all the ground water samples analysed in the present case are all within the limits
(<20 Hazen unit).
5.15.15 Alkalinity: The estimation of alkalinity provides an idea of the nature of salts
present. If the alkalinity is equal to hardness, calcium and magnesium salts are only
present. If the alkalinity is less than equivalent hardness, neutral salts of calcium or
magnesium must be present, that are not carbonates, but usually sulphates.
Although many materials contribute to the alkalinity of water, the major portion of the
alkalinity in natural waters is caused by three major classes of materials, which may be
ranked in order of their association with high pH values as follows, hydroxides,
carbonates, and bicarbonates.
The maximum permissible limit for the alkalinity is 600mg/L. The entire ground water
samples analysed in the study area is having Alkalinity value with in the limit. The
lowest concentration of alkalinity was found to be 204.8 mg/l in Kalliguddi village.
86
Water Quality
5.15.16 Salinity: Increasing salinity resulting from the effects of irrigated agriculture is
one or the oldest and most widespread forms of groundwater pollution. It is caused by
the dissolved salts in irrigation water being deposited following evaporation of the water.
The addition of further excess irrigation water merely leaches salts from the soil and
transfers the problem to the underlying groundwater.
Ground water is one of the earths most important and widely distributed natural
resources; it represents the largest available source of fresh water in hydrological cycle.
Salinity of Ground water can be through natural process and man made activities like
addition of excess fertilizers and unplanned agricultural activities. Among 19 samples,
53% of the samples shows low salinity, 37% samples having medium salinity, and 10%
samples shows high salinity.
Table 5.7. Salinity in Ground Water
No. of sampling sites
19
Total no. of saline

samples
Low saline
10
Saline samples
per cent)
53
Medium saline
07
37
High saline
02
10
Extremely saline
---
---
(in
5.15.17 Percent Sodium: It has been widely recommended that the percentage of
sodium in irrigation water should not exceed 50 to 60, in order to avoid deleterious
effects on soil. It is considered, that water is of I class quality if the % sodium is less
than 30%, II class quality if the % sodium is between 30 and 75, and of III class quality if
it is more than 75. In the study area percent sodium values for ground water varied in
the range of 1.9 and 32.7 is shown in Table 5.8.
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Water Quality
Classification of Irrigation Water Based on Sodium
Sl.No
1
Types of water
Suitability for Irrigation
Low sodium water (S1)
Suitable for all types of crops and all types of soils,
SAR : 0 to 10
except for those crops which are sensitive to sodium.
Medium sodium water

(S2) SAR : 10 to 18
Suitable for coarse textured or organic soil with good

permeability. Relatively unsuitable in fine textured
soils.
High sodium water (S3)
Harmful for almost all types of soil; Requires good
SAR : 18 to 26
drainage, high leaching gypsum addition.
Very high sodium water

(S4) SAR : Above 26
Unsuitable for irrigation
5.15.18 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR): The Sodium absorption ratio was calculated
for the ground water quality of the study area, which showed values between 1.24 to
38.56 is shown in Table 8. The results indicate the presence of four distinct zones in the
study area, which are:
Excellent, where the SAR ratio is <10
Good, where it is 10 to 18
Fair, where it is 18 to 26
Poor where the SAR ratio is greater than 26.
5.15.19 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC): Residual sodium carbonate values have
ranged from -117.0 to -13.1meq/l in the study area. The sodium hazard also increases if
the water contains a high concentration of bicarbonate ions, for as the soil solution
becomes more concentrated there is a tendency for calcium and magnesium to
precipitate as carbonates and for the relative proportion of sodium to be increased as a
consequence. The bicarbonate values are conveniently expressed as Residual Sodium
Carbonate. Water containing less than 1.25 meq/L of RSC is probably safe for
agricultural purposes, while those containing 1.25 to 2.5 meq/L are marginal; and those
with more than 2.5 meq/L are not suitable. All the ground water samples of the study
area lies within the prescribed limit and is considered safe for agriculture (Table 5.8).
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Water Quality
Table 5.8. Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Ground Water
Sample No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
SAR
RSC
(meq/l)
Percent Sodium
(meq/l)
1.24
26.17
2.07
3.89
6.84
7.25
23.81
38.56
23.20
-43.9
-60.0
-13.1
-23.4
-15.9
-16.0
-17.9
-98.6
-49.6
1.9
25.0
5.0
7.3
14.2
15.2
32.7
29.1
25.0
2.67
3.39
-19.6
-23.1
5.4
6.7
7.37
6.43
2.05
4.22
2.51
-18.2
-26.0
-21.4
-45.2
-55.1
13.4
11.0
4.6
6.2
3.6
3.87
3.30
29.87
-24.9
-62.5
-117.0
7.1
4.2
23.6
5.16 Surface Water

5.16.1 pH: The pH of the samples analyzed varied from 7.15 - 7.51. The
recommended guideline value for pH is 6.5-8.5.From the Table 5.5, it is clear that
the pH value of the surface samples is within the limit.
5.16.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): From the Table 5.5, it is clear that except
one sample from Kalliguddi, the electrical conductivity of all the samples is
appears to be within the limit indicating that the samples may contain less
dissolved solids. The electrical conductivity of the sample from Kalliguddi which
belongs to the farmer Sidramaiaha was found to be 3150 mhos/cm.
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Water Quality
5.16.3 Total dissolved solids (TDS): The amount of dissolved solids present in
water is a consideration for its suitability for domestic use. In general water with a
total dissolved content of less than 500mg/L are the most desirable. Waters with
high dissolved solids content may also be used for human consumption without
harmful physiological effects. All the surface water samples showed dissolved
solids concentration within the limit except, a one sample from Kalliguddi i.e.
1820mg/L (Table 5.5).
5.16.4 Hardness: The total hardness of the surface water samples analysed is
shown in Table 5.5. From the Table it is clear that except one sample, the
remaining all samples are having both total and calcium hardness within the
limits. A high total and calcium hardness was found to be in the Kalliguddi village
i.e. 1240mg/L and 480mg/L respectively.
5.16.5 Fluorides: Fluoride occurs in almost all natural water supplies. Fluorides
in high concentrations are not a common constituent of surface water, but they
may occur in detrimental concentrations in ground water. The permissible
standard for the fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 mg/L. From the Table 5.5, it is
found that, the high concentration of fluoride was in Kalliguddi village i.e., 2.12
mg/L.
5.16.6 Chlorides: Chloride in reasonable concentration is not harmful to
humans. The accepted permissible limit for the chloride for drinking was
1000mg/L, when there is no alternative. Sources containing as much as
2000mg/L are used for domestic purposes without the development of serious
adverse effects.
The concentration of chlorides in all surface water samples was found to be
within the limit. The high concentration of chloride was found in Kalliguddi village
i.e., 425.9 mg/L.
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Water Quality
5.16.7 Sodium: The permissible limit for sodium is 200mg/L. From the Table 5.5,
it is observed that, the high concentration of sodium was found in Kalliguddi
village (360mg/L). The remaining surface water samples are having sodium
concentration with in the prescribed limits.
5.16.8 Potassium: Potassium is an essential nutrient, but in excessive amounts
it acts as a cathartic. Though potassium in irrigation water is essential for plant
nutrition, it must be maintained in proper balance with other nutrients for good
plant development. The permissible limit for potassium is 10mg/L, and from the
Table 5.5, it is found that all the samples are within the limits. The high
concentration of potassium was found in Venktapura i.e., 4.3 mg/L.
5.16.9 Sulphates: For irrigation, the water should have sulphate concentration of
less than 200mg/l. Sulphate ions are relatively abundant in natural waters
ranging from a few to several thousands mg/L.
The permissible standard for sulphates in drinking water is 400mg/l. The
concentration of sulphates in the surface samples analysed are within the limits
as prescribed, except one sample from Kalliguddi village (470.4 mg/L).
5.16.10 Phosphates: Surface waters seldom contain higher concentration of
phosphates, since they are utilized by plants where as ground water usually
contains appreciable amounts of phosphates. Where phosphorus is plentiful,
algal blooms occur, which may produce a variety of nuisance conditions.
All surface water supplies support growth of minute aquatic organisms. The free
swimming and floating organisms are called plankton and are of great interest
because of their effects on water quality. Where both nitrogen and phosphorus
are plentiful, algal blooms occur, which may produce a variety of nuisance
conditions. Among surface water samples the higher concentration of
phosphates was found to be 0.48 mg/L in Arlimatti village.
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Water Quality
5.16.11 Nitrates: Increases in the level of nitrates in water is associated with the
application of nitrogen fertilizers. The permissible limit for nitrate concentration is
45mg/L. From the Table 5.5, it is clear that, the nitrate concentrations of all the
surface water samples are within the limit.
5.16.12 Turbidity: The presence of turbidity can have a significant impact on the
microbial quality of drinking water. The detection of bacteria and viruses in
drinking water may be complicated by the presence of turbidity. Higher turbidity
was found in surface water than in ground water.
The permissible limit for turbidity is 10 NTU. From the Table 5.5, it is observed
that, the turbidity of all the surface water samples are with in the prescribed
standard limits. Among surface water samples the higher concentration of
turbidity was found in Arlimatti village i.e., 5 NTU.
5.16.13 Colour: Many surface waters, particularly those emanating from swampy
areas, are often colored to the extent that they are not acceptable for domestic or
some industrial uses without treatment to remove the color.
For the colour the desirable limit is 5, but maximum permissible limit is 25. The
colour of the surface water samples analyzed is within the limit (<20 Hazen
units).
5.16.14 Alkalinity: The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize acids. The alkalinity of natural waters is primarily due to the salts of
weak acids, although weak or strong bases may also contribute. Alkalinity is thus
a measure of the buffer capacity. The alkalinity of water has little public health
significance. Highly alkaline waters are usually unpalatable, and consumers tend
to seek other supplies.
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Water Quality
The maximum permissible limit for the alkalinity is 600mg/L. From Table 5.5, it is
clear that all the surface water samples are having alkalinity within the
permissible limit. The higher concentration of Alkalinity was found in Kalliguddi
village (432.3 mg/L).
5.16.15 Dissolved oxygen (DO): All the gases of the atmosphere are soluble in
water to some degree. Both nitrogen and oxygen are classed as poorly soluble,
since they do not react with water chemically; their solubility is directly
proportional to their partial pressure. Hence, Henrys law may be used to
calculate the amounts present at saturation at any given temperature. The
amount of oxygen found dissolved at a given temperature and pressure is known
as the D.O value. The dissolved oxygen is dissolved in most water body in
varying concentration, as solubility of oxygen depends on temperature, pressure
and salinity of water. D.O test is an indicator of the purity of water body. The
dissolved oxygen values in this case ranged between 6.5 to 9.4 mg/L. From
Table 5.5, minimum dissolved oxygen of 6.5 mg/L was noticed in the sample
from Kalliguddi and maximum dissolved oxygen of 9.4 mg/L was in the sample
from Arlimatti village.
5.16.16 Percent Sodium SAR and RSC: In the study area percent sodium
values for surface water varied in the range between 4.7 to 15.3 meq/l and the
SAR values varied in the range between 1.33 to 14.46. Both percent sodium and
SAR values are with in limit and it is suitable for irrigation. Where as in the case
of RSC the value is ranged between -72.1 to -6.8 meq/l (Table 5.9).
Table 5.9. Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Surface Water
Sample No.
SAR
RSC (meq/l)
Percent Sodium (meq/l)
20
21
22
23
24
4.26
4.72
1.33
14.46
2.03
-19.8
-14.3
-6.8
-72.1
-17.3
8.9
11.1
4.8
15.3
4.7
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Water Quality
5.16.17 Salinity: Salinity is due to the accumulation of soluble inorganic salts
such as chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates, etc., and cations of Na, Ca, Mg, K,
etc. Salinity of water increases due to various reasons viz., use of bad quality of
water, poor permeability of soil, topographic position of the land, over irrigation,
excessive application of fertilizers, soil texture, inadequate drainage, type of crop,
depth of irrigation water, soil management practices and climatic conditions.
Salinity of soils can also be recognized by electrical measurements by
determination of electrical conductivity of soils.
Table 5.10. Classification of Salinity of Water
Class
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Description
Low salinity water can be used for
most crops on most soils, with all
methods of water application. Some
leaching is required but this occurs
under normal irrigation practice,
except in soils of extremely low
permeability.
Medium salinity water can be used if
a moderate amount of leaching
occurs. Plants with medium salt
tolerance can be grown, usually
without special practices for salinity
control. Sprinkler irrigation with the
more saline waters in this group may
cause leaf scorch on salt-sensitive
crops, especially at high temperatures
in the day time and with low water
application rates.
High salinity water cannot be used on
soils with restricted drainage. Even
with adequate drainage, special
management for salinity control may
be required, and the salt tolerance of
the plants to be irrigated must be
considered.
Very high salinity water is not suitable
for
irrigation
under
ordinary
conditions. For use, soils must be
Electrical
conductivity
(mhos / cm)
Total soluble
salts (mg/L)
0-250
0-160
250-750
160-480
750-2250
480-1440
2250-4000
1440-2560
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Water Quality
permeable, drainage adequate, water
must be applied in excess to provide
considerable leaching and salttolerant crops should be selected.
Extremely high saline water may be
used only on permeable, well-drained
soils under good management,
Class V
especially in relation to leaching and
for salt-tolerant crops, or for
occasional emergency use.
(Source: Mahajan, 1989)
>4000
>2560
Table 5.11. Salinity in Surface Water

No. of sampling sites
Total no. of saline samples
Saline sample
(in per cent)
Low saline
80
Medium saline
---
High saline
20
Extremely saline
---
The salinity of water has been classified on the basis of EC and total soluble
measurements and the same is provided in the Table 5.10. The Table also gives
information about the degree of salinity. In the present case the salinity values of
most surface water samples was low and only one case very high (Table 5.11).
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Water Quality
Table 5.12. Comparative Assessment with Standards Prescribed by

BIS for Drinking Water
No. of sampling locations above
Maximum
maximum permissible limit
Parameters
Permissible limits
prescribed by (BIS-10500:1991)
(BIS-10500: 1991)
Number
Percent
pH
6.5-8.5
0
0
EC (mhos/cm)
3000
Turbidity (NTU)
10
TDS
2000
TH as CaCO3
600
42
Ca as CaCO3
200
12
63
Chlorides
1000
Sodium
200
32
Potassium
10
Fluoride
1.5
16
Sulphates
400
16
Nitrates
45
Phosphates
0.3
Colour (Hazen unit)
25
Note: All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and
Conductivity
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Water Quality
5.17 Conclusion
Ground water is a precious resource among the most widely distributed
resources of earth. Basically ground water is an integral part of the environment,
and hence it is a major life-sustaining resource for all the living beings. In India,
as also in certain parts of the world, water crisis is becoming a regular
phenomenon, more perhaps due to improper or lack of scientific management of
water resources and continuing environmental degradation. It is always a social
and economic necessity to exploit the ground water potential, supplementing the
irrigation water provided by the canals, and meeting the manifold requirements of
the community, which thus play a positive role in fully mobilizing the available
resources for extending the benefit of irrigation to larger areas. Secondly,
pumping out of the ground water ensures lowering of depth of water table beyond
root zone in water logged areas. Thirdly, such conjunctive irrigation (surface and
ground water) will not permit salinization and alkalinization of water sources.
However, this needs a sound planning for utilizing the ground water in the
command area. The quantum of ground water available for use should be
studied in depth and equally important is to assess the quality of ground water.
The small-scale irrigation projects discussed here are bound to have fewer
impacts than measures which involve large-scale hydraulic engineering
schemes. The potential technological solutions are often interchangeable; in
other words, a number of different options may produce the same result, making
it possible to choose the soundest alternative from the environmental viewpoint.
It should be remembered that traditional irrigation technologies may well be
geared to the natural environment, but can cause environmental problems if used
in combination with "modern" technologies. Where appropriate combinations of
old and new technologies are used, however, they can help to prevent negative
impacts on both the natural and social environment.
From the detailed analysis of ground and surface water samples in Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation site, it may be concluded that, the water quality of the samples
analysed is exceeding the limits prescribed in some cases. From the results
97
Water Quality
obtained, it is observed that, the various parameters such as Total hardness,
Calcium hardness, Sodium, Fluoride and sulphates are at higher concentrations
than the permissible limits, which has the potential to affect human health
adversely. (Table 5.12)
Keeping in mind, the health aspects of the consuming public it is better to take
precautionary measures in order to overcome the problems caused by various
water quality parameters. Among the various parameters, sodium and hardness
were found in higher concentration in more than 41% samples. The fluoride
concentration was found to exceed the limits in 16% of the samples (Table 5.12).
Regarding irrigation waters, chloride is the most important anion. Chlorides are
generally more toxic than sulphates to most plants. The samples from areas
showing excess fluoride levels should be defluoridated to reduce the fluoride
concentration to acceptable level. This is ensured for irrigation water because of
dilution. From the analysis it is also clear that the quality of surface water is
relatively better than the ground water in the command area.
It is likely that the ground water quality may improve following excessive
recharge by irrigated water. To ensure this the quantum of fertilizer/pesticide
used must be as per standards. Also periodic monitoring of the ground and
surface water should be undertaken in order to contain this problem and
corrective actions should be initiated in order to provide safe drinking and
irrigation water as when required.
5.18 Hydrogeological Conditions
5.18.1 Granites, Gneisses and Schists: These formations form the basement
in the area. Ground water occurs under water table to semi confined
conditions in the weathered zone and fractured rock formations. In the
shallow zone, which is generally the weathered zone, extending upto 20
mbgl (metre below ground level), ground water is developed by open dug
wells and often by shallow bore wells. The yield of open wells varied from
98
Water Quality
20 to 150 m3/day for pumping periods of 2 to 6 hours. Bore wells drilled by
the State Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), from 22 to 91m
deep, have reported yields varying from 1.0 Lps to 10 Lps. Only one
exploratory well has been drilled by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
in this area (89m, deep) which has yielded 0.4Lps.
5.18.2 Deccan Traps: Deccan traps occupy part of the study area. They
overlie the kaladgi formations, but in some parts of the area, they overlie
the crystalline basement. Zeolitic and Vescicular horizons occur at
elevations of 520m, 560m, 590m, and 620m above MSL which act as good
depositories of ground water. Ground water occurs under water table
conditions in weathered and jointed traps and semi confined conditions in
the zeolitic and vescicular horizons. Ground water occur under confined
conditions wherever they are overlaid by hard massive traps. Confined
conditions are also encountered at the contact of traps and the underlying
Kaladgi formations or basement. The depth of weathering varies from 2 to
20m. The yield of dug wells vary from 20 to 110 Lps. Rural water supply
have yields less than 1.0 Lps to 14.0 Lps. 20 exploratory wells drilled by
CGWB had yields varying between 1.0 Lps to 7.6 Lps.
5.18.3 Laterites and Alluvium: Laterites occupying the area are not important
from the point of view of ground water as they are generally from cappings
over the hillocks and table lands, except in the area around and north of
Belgaum Town where ground water occurs under water table conditions.
The yield of open wells range from 25 to 300 m3/day and the yield of
shallow bore wells varied from less than 1Lps to 2.5 Lps. Alluvium, mainly
of fluvial origin, occur along the courses of major rivers and streams such
as Krishna, Ghataprabha, Markandeya and Hiranyakeshi. Their thickness
often exceeds 5m, but their aerial extent is very much limited. Their
development potential, thus, is very much limited.
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Water Quality
5.19 Ground Water Resource Status
Karnataka is one of the southern states in peninsular India covering an area of
1,91,791 Sq. Kms, lying between North latitude 11 0' 13'' and 19 0' 00'' and East
longitude 74 00' and 79 00'. Geologically it forms part of the Precambrian shield
and is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks which are generally
unsuitable for storage and transmission of groundwater. The state is divided into
27 districts and 175 taluks. There are 27,066 inhabited villages, 2127 uninhabited villages and 254 towns and urban agglomerations. As per 2001
census, the state has a total population of 4.50 Crores.
5.19.1 Groundwater Condition
Primary porosity is almost absent in granite, gneiss and schist. The weathering
and secondary fractures are only the water bearing properties found in these
rocks. In limestones, solution cavities are an additional property. Alluvial
formation along the major river and tributaries although limited in thickness and
extent, serve as important ground water reservoirs.
Ground water levels are essentially controlled by rock type, fracture patterns,
physiographic features and rainfall distribution, spatially and temporally. The
observation wells over several years located in different formations have
generally recorded that in April-May and the shallowest ground water level in
October-November, with a decreasing trend from November onwards till the
onset of monsoon.
The erratic distribution of rainfall coupled with indiscriminate sinking of irrigation
bore wells is considered to be the cause of the depletion of water levels. Of late
the development of ground water through bore wells to a depth more than 200m
is a common feature for both irrigation and drinking needs. Inspite of deep
drilling the yield is considerably less comparatively and the, yield will be between
800 to 2000 gallons per hour and, in exceptional cases the yield may exceed
3000 gallons per hour.
100
Water Quality
5.19.2 Ground Water Estimation

The secondary data or information gathered by Department of Mines and
Geology such as transitivity, permeability, specific yield etc., determined by
conducting long duration pump tests on open wells, slug tests in bore walls etc.,
has been utilized in this chapter. For this purpose a network of observation wells
were selected in different formations for periodical monitoring of the fluctuation of
ground water levels.
5.19.3 Ground Water Resource Estimation Methodology-1997
Keeping in view the norms prescribed and methodology recommended, the
estimation of ground water in the present programme is as follows (DMG 2002):
Based on the Alpha Numerical coding system evolved by All India Soil
and Land Use Surveys, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,
Government of India for preparing the watershed atlas of Karnataka, the
state was divided into 380 watersheds.
The irrigation command areas, if any, in the respective watersheds were
delineated and estimation of areas for command and non-command
areas were computed separately.
The net area available for recharge was arrived at by deleting the hilly
areas with a slope of more than 20% and poor/ saline ground water areas
from the gross area.
5.19.4 Assessment of Non-Command Area
The assessment of non command area was attempted for monsoon and non
monsoon seasons separately. The rainfall recharge during monsoon was
assessed by fluctuation method and rainfall recharge during non-monsoon was
done by rainfall infiltration factor method.
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Water Quality
For computation of recharge by other sources, the recharge component from

water harvesting structures was considered apart from the return from ground
water irrigation, seepage and return recharge from tank irrigation and lift irrigation
components (DMG report, 2002)
Rainfall recharge during non-monsoon season was considered as nil in cases
where the non-monsoon rainfall component was less than 10% of the annual
rainfall. Five to ten percent of the total recharge depending on the terrain was
earmarked as natural discharge during non-monsoon. The balance recharge
available was considered as net annual ground water availability.
In addition to draft from irrigation structures, draft for domestic and industrial
need was also computed. This was done by considering the population in the
watersheds for the assessment year separately, for command and non-command
areas. Per capita consumption was taken as 160 liters per day and this value has
been projected to year 2025 based on the population growth rate in each
watershed. The stage of ground water development was arrived at by dividing
the existing ground water draft for all uses by the net annual ground water
availability. The balance potential was arrived at by deducting draft for irrigation
during 2007 and average draft for domestic usage for 2032 from net ground
water potential for next 25 years is 4491.12 ham.
5.20 Assessment of Command Area
Assessment in command areas was done on the same lines as in non-command
areas, except that two important additional components of recharge viz. recharge
due to seepage from canals and recharge due to return flow from surface water
irrigation were considered. For unlined canals, a seepage factor of 15ha-m per
day per million Sq mtr. of wetted area was considered in normal soils with clay
content. For sandy soils with silt content, the value considered was 25ham per
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day per million Sq mtr. of wetted area. For lined canals and the canals in hard
rocks, 20% of the values obtained for unlined canals was considered.
5.21 Categorization of Watersheds

For categorization of watersheds as Safe, Semi critical, Critical, and Over
exploited, the long term trend of ground water levels in the watersheds was also
considered in addition to obtaining an assessment of net annual ground water
availability and stage of ground water development. Hydrograph depicting the
variation of pre- and post - monsoon water levels, at least for a minimum period
of 10 years prepared. (DMG report 2002)
Safe: Percentage development of ground water is between 70 and
90% and there is no significant long term decline of pre- and postmansoon ground water levels.
Semi Critical: Percentage development of ground water is between
70 and 90% .Either pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels show a
significant long term decline.
Critical: The stage of ground water development is more than 90%
but less than 100%.Either pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels
show a significant long term decline.
Over Exploited: The stage of ground water development is more
than 100%. Both pre- and post-monsoon ground water levels show a
significant long term decline.
5.22 Assessment of Ground Water Potential
The river basins and sub-basins of the State were demarcated on maps of
1:2,50,000 scales into watersheds for resource estimation. Each watershed is
numbered on a five digit alpha numerical code. Wherever possible, the extent of
watershed has been maintained to its minimum by adding one or two more digits
to the five digit code, thus making them as six or seven digitized watersheds. The
area of the watershed was determined using planimeter. (DMG report, 2002)
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Water Quality
5.22.1 Ground Water Potential

Groundwater levels are essentially controlled by rock type, fracture patterns,
physiographic features and rainfall distribution in space and time. The long term
trend of groundwater levels in the watershed was also considered in addition to
obtaining an assessment of net annual groundwater availability and stage of
groundwater development.
The taluk wise ground water potential and its utilization in Belgaum district are
given in Table 18. Data on total annual ground water recharge and net annual
ground water development are also provided in the Table.
5.22.2 Ground Water Recharge
The recharge to ground water is computed separately for monsoon and nonmonsoon months for command and non-command area, as well as that of poor
quality area. The recharge was computed based on water table fluctuation
method and rainfall, infiltration method. The percentage difference was
calculated and normalization of rainfall recharge was also done.
5.22.3 Water Table Fluctuation Method (WTF)
Recharge was computed separately by Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) method.
This method is based on ground water balance equation, which is as follows:
Input Output = Change in ground water storage
The input factors vary for command and non-command areas and these are:
Rainfall
Subsurface inflow, which is zero in case of watersheds
Return seepage from irrigation
Canal seepage
Seepage from other sources
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Seepage from surface water bodies
Thus the recharge was computed from the equation

R = h*Sy * A + Dg ---- (1)
Where R = Possible recharge
H = Rise in water level due to monsoon rainfall
Sy = Specific Yield
A = Area of the aquifer
Dg = Gross ground water draft during the season
The above equation gives the total recharge in the area during the season and it
may include recharge from rainfall as well as recharge from ground water
irrigation, from water conservation structures, and from tanks and ponds. Hence
recharge from rainfall can be computed as below:
Rrf
= R- Rgw R wc - Rt------(2)
Rrf = Recharge due to rainfall

Rgw = Recharge due to ground water irrigation
R wc = Recharge due to water conservation structures
Rt
= Recharge due to tanks, ponds and canals
The recharge due to rainfall (Rrf) is normalized and the same is adopted for
computation of resources.
5.22.4 Water Level Fluctuation
In equation (1) i.e., R = h*Sy * A + Dg, h represents the water level fluctuation
between pre and post monsoon. If the value is negative then water table
fluctuation method cannot be adopted. The data on water level fluctuation
between pre- and post-monsoon was obtained from the observation wells
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Water Quality
maintained by CGWB and DMG as the records maintained and published by
them. Only dug well monitoring stations are considered and data from bore wells
and dug-cum-borewells are not considered. The average water level from all the
available stations of both the departments within the water shed was considered
for arriving at the average value.
5.22.5 Specific Yield
The specific yield value as available from various studies conducted by CGWB in
the state was used wherever available. In places where such values are not
available the values from similar hydrogeological set ups was used and in other
areas the values recommended by GEM-97 were used. The general specific
yield values ranged from different formations are as below.
Formation
Specific Yield (%)
Alluvium
5-8
Laterites
1-2
Basalts
1-2
Lime stones
Granite/ Schists/Gneisses
1-1.5
1-3
5.22.6 Aquifer Area

The aquifer area is obtained from the watershed area by subtracting hilly area
and poor quality area. Recharge for non-monsoon season is computed by rainfall
infiltration method in a similar way as that of monsoon recharge provided, the
non-monsoon rainfall is more than 10% of average annual rainfall.
5.22.7 Normalization of Monsoon Rainfall Recharge
The recharge calculated as above is for a particular monsoon season for
corresponding rainfall and is normalized for normal monsoon rainfall. For
normalization the procedure as given in GEM-97 has been adopted which is as
follows,
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Water Quality
During normalization process those data pairs in which Rrf is negative or near
zero are avoided. If all the data pairs fall in the group then water level fluctuation
method is avoided and rainfall infiltration method is adopted.
5.22.8 Recharge Assessment based on Rainfall Infiltration (RIF) Method
The recharge computed based on Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) method should
be in agreement with RIF method, since the source for both these are the same.
Hence the recharge is computed separately by rainfall infiltration method also. It
is done using following formula
Rrf = f x A x rfn
Where Rrf = Rainfall recharge
F = Rainfall infiltration factor
rfn = Normal monsoon/non-monsoon rainfall
A = Area of watershed / unit
5.22.9 Rainfall Infiltration Factor
The rainfall infiltration depends upon formation, soil type, slope, vegetative
covers etc. It also depends on compactness, clay content, degree of weathering
& fracturing of the formation. The infiltration rate obtained from infiltration tests
conducted by various field offices of CGWB, SWR since 1982 under different
litho-units were also considered for arriving at the infiltration factor for these
computations. They are as follows:
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Water Quality
Formation
Alluvium
Laterites
Basalts
Rainfall Infiltration factor

6-11
6-7
6-7
Lime stones
6-7
Granite/ Schists/Gneisses
3-9
Rainfall infiltration method is used for computing recharge during non-monsoon

season on the same lines as of monsoon recharge, provided the rainfall is more
than 10% of annual rainfall. Otherwise it is presumed that the rainfall is not
sufficient to affect any recharge during non-monsoon season.
5.22.10 Recharge from other sources
In addition to recharge from rainfall, the recharge from other sources are also
computed and added to ground water resource, which are:
Return flow from ground water irrigation
Return flow from surface water irrigation
Seepage from canal
Seepage from tank / pond / water bodies
Seepage from water conservations structure.
5.22.11 Return flow from Ground Water Irrigation
Amount of ground water used for irrigation is computed by crop water
requirement as well as by unit draft method. Return flow has been computed
taking the same factors as given in GEM-97, based on depth to water level.
Return flow computed by unit draft method is more realistic and the same has
been adopted.
5.22.12 Return Flow from Surface Water Irrigation
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Water Quality
Volume of water used for surface water irrigation has been computed by cropped
area and crop water requirement method. Return flow has been determined by
taking factors as given by GEM-97 based on depth to water level.
5.22.13 Seepage from Canal
Canal seepage has been computed using canal length, its wetted perimeter and
number of days of canal flow and canal seepage factor as recommended by
GEM-97.
5.22.14 Seepage from Tank/ Pond/ Reservoirs
Seepage from tanks / reservoirs has been computed by taking average water
spread area, days of water availability during monsoon and non-monsoon period
and recharge factor as recommended by GEM-97.
5.22.15 Seepage from Water Conservations Structure
Seepage from water conservation structures is negligible as the number of such
structures is very limited. The seepage is computed by taking average length of
water conservation structures as 11m, average height of water column as 0.9m
and average length of water spread as 17m, the volume of water storage in one
filling is computed as 84m3, This has been multiplied by a recharge factor of 0.50
(as per Gem-97) to compute recharge in one fillings as 0.0042 ham. This in turn
has been multiplied by number of filling and number of structures to compute the
total recharge from water conservation structures.
5.22.16 Allocation for Domestic & Industrial Purposes
Allocation of ground water for Domestic and Industrial purposes have been
computed based on population density and fractional load or dependence on
ground water. The fractional load in cities and canal command areas where
surface water supply there taken as 0.5 and in the rest of the areas it is taken as
one.
5.22.17 Computation of Unaccounted Natural Discharge
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Water Quality
Natural discharge like base flow and evaporation from groundwater is accounted
as 5% of annual ground water recharge in case the recharge is calculated by
Water Table Fluctuation method. The same has been taken 10% of annual
recharge by rainfall infiltration factor method as recommended by GEM-97.
5.23 Ground Water Resource Categorization
5.23.1Belgaum District: Ramdurg, Saudatti and Gokak are the three taluks
which come under Rameshwara lift irrigation project. From all the three taluks
about 138 villages were surveyed and about 65% of villages are having ground
water development between 70 and 90% (semi critical). The remaining 35% of
the villages are having groundwater development more than 100% (over
exploited). A both pre- or post- monsoon ground water levels show a significant
long term decline. (Table 5.13)
Table 5.13. Number of Villages / Watershed Code
Semi
Over
Total No. of over
Critical
Critical
Exploited
developed villages
59
NIL
NIL
59
4D7C7A
Ramdurg
--4D7C8A
----4D7C7G
32
47
NIL
79
Saudatti
4D7C7G
4D7C8C
----4D7C5A
Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
Taluk
The type of rock formation in command and non-command area of the villages
coming under Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme includes GNEISS, SCHIST and
LMST types (Table 5.14).
The total annual ground water recharge was computed as follows,
Total annual ground water recharge = Recharge from rainfall during monsoon
season + Recharge from other sources during monsoon season + Recharge
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Water Quality
from rainfall during non-monsoon season + Recharge from other sources during
non- monsoon season.
From Table 5.15, the total annual ground water recharge in Belgaum district is
given as 23132.42 + 5585.74 + 3873.07 + 3507.32 = 36098.55 ham.
Natural discharge during non-monsoon season = 1804.93 ham.
The net ground water availability = Total annual ground water recharge Natural discharge during non-monsoon season.
Therefore the net annual ground water availability in the watersheds in Belgaum
district during 2004 is 36098.55 - 1804.93 = 34293.62 ham.
The categorization of watersheds in Belgaum district as per Ground Water
Estimation Committee (GWEC) of 31.12.99, indicating that around 50% of the
watersheds in the command and non-command area fall under safe condition
i.e., percentage development of ground water is between 70 and 90% and there
is no significant long term decline in pre- and post-mansoon ground water levels.
Around 40% of the watersheds fall under semi critical stage i.e., percentage
development of ground water is between 70 and 90% .The pre- or post-monsoon
ground water levels showed a significant long term decline. In the remaining 10%
of the watershed is in over exploited stage i.e., the stage of ground water
development is more than 100%. Both pre- and post-monsoon ground water
levels also showed a significant long term decline. (Table 5.19)
The watersheds that come under Rameshwara lift irrigation project (including
command and non command area) are represented in Table 16. It is clear that
the average net ground water availability in Rameshwara command area during
2004, is about 5715.60 ham, and it is also observed that 50% of the watersheds
which come under Rameshwara command area are in exploited stage. The
111
Water Quality
average crop water requirement varied from 0.57 to 0.86. The net annual ground
water availability in these watersheds varied from 1730.34 ham to 12425.81 ham.
Table 5.17, clearly indicates the stage of ground water development in Belgaum
district during 2004. Among 6 watersheds which come under Rameshwara lift
irrigation project, the ground water development in 2 watersheds are in safe
condition, 1 semi critical and remaining 3 are in over exploited stage. It is also
observed that the ground water level in over exploited stage is far less in post
monsoon season.
The taluk wise ground water recharge in Rameshwara lift irrigation project is
represented in Table 5.18, the Gokak, Ramdurg and Saudatti are the three taluks
which come under Belgaum district with an average crop water requirement of
0.68 hams. The average balance ground water irrigation potential available is
3906.48 hams.
112
Water Quality
Table 5.14. General Description of Ground Water Assessment Units of Belgaum District
Sl No Code No. of Water Shed Command / Non Command Type of Rock Formation Aerial Extent (Hectares)
165
4D7C5
Non Command
GNEISS, SCHIST
161961
165A
4D7C5
Command
GNEISS, SCHIST
24539
167
4D7C7
Non Command
GNEISS, LMST
57220
167A
4D7C7
Command
GNEISS, LMST
84780
168
4D7C8
Non Command
LMST, SCHIST,GNEISS
114321
168A
4D7C8
Command
LMST, SCHIST,GNEISS
56879
Table 5.15. Groundwater Resource Potential of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
Sl.
No
Code
No Of
Water
Shed
165
4D7C5
165A
4D7C5
167
4D7C7
167A
4D7C7
168
4D7C8
168A
4D7C8
Command
/Non
Command
Recharge
From Rainfall
During
Monsoon
Season
Recharge
From Rainfall
During NonMonsoon
Season
(Ham)
Recharge
From other
Sources
During
Monsoon
Season
(Ham)
Total
Annual
Ground
Water
Recharge
Natural
Discharge
During NonMonsoon
Season
Net Ground
Water
Availability
(Ham)
Recharge
From Other
Sources
During NonMonsoon
Season
(Ham)
(Ham)
(Ham)
(Ham)
10362.36
536.45
1721.70
459.29
13079.80
653.99
12425.81
764.53
578.31
209.13
269.44
1821.41
91.07
1730.34
2384.71
499.48
351.57
754.66
3990.43
199.52
3790.90
307.59
1018.61
474.78
352.12
2153.10
107.66
2045.45
7318.13
1319.10
707.49
1364.75
10709.47
535.47
10173.99
1995.10
1633.79
408.40
307.06
4344.34
217.22
4127.13
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
113
Water Quality
Table 5.16. Stage of Ground Water Development of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
Sl
No
Code
No Of
Water
Shed
Comma
nd /Non
Comma
nd
Net
Annual
Ground
Water
Availabilit
y
ha-m
Existing
Gross
Ground
Water
draft For
Irrigation
ha-m
Existin
g Gross
Ground
Water
Draft
For
Domest
ic And
Industri
al
Water
Supply
Existing
Gross
Ground
Water
Draft For
All Uses
ha-m
ha-m
Net
Ground
Water
Availabil
ity For
Future
Irrigatio
n
Develop
ment
Allocatio
n For
Domestic
And
Industrial
Uses For
Next 25
Yrs
Existing
Stage Of
Ground
Water
Developm
ent
%
ha-m
ha-m
165
4D7C5
165A
4D7C5
167
4D7C7
167A
4D7C7
168
4D7C8
168A
4D7C8
Non
Comm
and
Comm
and
Non
Comm
and
Comm
and
Non
Comm
and
Comm
and
Is
There
Any
Signific
ant
Decline
Of
PreMonso
on
Water
Levels
Is There
Any
Significan
t Decline
Of Post
Monsoon
Water
Levels
Category
Avg
Crop
Water
Requir
ement
Balance
Ground
Water
Irrigation
Potential
Available
(m)
ha
12425.81
5172.60
570.50
5743.10
830.08
6423.13
46.22
NO
NO
SAFE
0.57
11194.99
1730.34
732.23
312.16
1044.39
454.20
543.91
60.36
NO
NO
SAFE
0.57
948.00
3790.90
8043.57
565.08
8608.65
785.46
0.00
227.09
YES
YES
OE
0.76
0.00
2045.45
2661.87
526.83
3188.70
732.30
0.0
155.89
NO
YES
OE
0.86
0.00
10173.99
15131.26
837.95
15969.20
1164.75
0.00
156.96
YES
YES
OE
0.82
0.00
4127.13
3347.36
342.12
3689.49
475.55
304.21
89.40
NO
YES
SEMI
CRITICL
0.68
447.37
114
Water Quality
Table 5.17. Categorization for Ground Water Development of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
Sl. No
Code No 0f
Watershed
165
4D7C5
165A
4D7C5
167
4D7C7
167A
4D7C7
168
4D7C8
168A
4D7C8
Command /
Non
Command
Stage of Ground
Water
Development (%)
Is There Assignment
Decline of Pre
Monsoon Water
Levels
Is There
Assignment Decline
of Post Monsoon
Water Levels
Categorization For
Future Ground Water
Development
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
46
NO
NO
SAFE
60
NO
NO
SAFE
227
YES
YES
OE
156
NO
YES
OE
157
YES
YES
OE
89
NO
YES
SEMI CRITICAL
Table 5.18. Taluk Wise Ground Water Resources Categorization of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04
District
Belgaum
Total
Annual
Ground
Water
Recharge
Net Annual
Ground
Water
Availability
ha-m
ha-m
ha-m
Taluk
Existing
Gross
Ground
Water
draft For
Irrigation
Existing
Gross
Ground
Water
Draft For
Domestic
And
Industrial
Water
Supply
Existing
Gross
Ground
Water
Draft
For All
Uses
Allocation
For
Domestic
And
Industrial
Use For
Next 25
Yrs
Net Ground
Water
Availability
For Future
Irrigation
Development
Avg Crop
Water
Requirement
Balance
Ground
Water
Irrigation
Potential
Available
ha-m
ha-m
ha-m
ha-m
ha-m
ha-m
Safe
Area
(%)
Semi
Critical
Area
(%)
Critical
Area
(%)
OE
Area
(%)
10
11
12
13
14
Gokak
16462.68
15951.83
15079.57
759.71
15839.28
1214.04
1224.66
0.79
1555.86
16
---
---
84
Ramdurg
7531.70
7155.12
10584.36
745.92
11330.28
1053.97
60.84
0.68
89.47
---
---
---
OE
Saudatti
12051.82
11449.23
12366.11
933.94
13300.06
1327.35
1318.25
0.58
2261.15
20
---
---
80
115
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Table 5.19. Status of Ground water in Belgaum District as on 31.12.1999 as Per GWEC Methodology, 1997
Existing
gross
ground
water
draft for
irrigation
Existing
gross
ground
water
draft for
all uses
Allocation
for
domestic
and
industrial
use for
next 25
years
Existing
Net ground
irrigation
water
draft
availability
domestic
for future
draft for
irrigation
next 25
development
years
Existing
stage of
ground
water
development
Categorization
10
11
12
678.95
1504.12
28.87
283.75
1806.45
495.82
75.01
1374.02
216.17
1434.67
1731.35
43.40
1908.70
2138.48
319.40
2228.10
534.51
77.41
3220.88
2016.40
2357.89
474.68
2491.08
729.81
73.21
559.88
531.89
427.40
463.36
49.98
477.38
54.51
87.12
5764.10
5475.90
3369.20
3636.56
371.62
3740.82
1735.07
66.41
3054.60
2901.87
1932.50
2079.82
204.77
2137.27
764.60
71.67
2184.88
2075.64
1003.20
1178.64
243.86
1247.06
828.58
56.78
SAFE
SEMI
CRITICAL
SAFE
SEMI
CRITICAL
SAFE
SEMI
CRITICAL
SAFE
SEMI
CRITICAL
SAFE
6308.49
5993.07
5215.20
5557.61
475.95
5691.15
301.91
92.73
CRITICAL
Sl.
no
Code no
of water
shed
Type of
water
shed
Total
Recharge
Net annual
ground
water
availability
286
4D7C5A
2297.96
2183.07
505.50
630.28
173.45
286A
4D7C5A
2423.45
2302.27
1522.70
1726.84
291
4D7C7A
3332.65
3166.02
1218.50
291A
4D4C7A
2908.00
2762.60
292
4D7C7G
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
Command
Non
Command
3390.40
292A 4D7C7G
293
4D7C8A
293A
4D7C8A
295
4D7C8C
295A
4D7C8C
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Water Quality
5.24 Categorization of Areas based on the level of Ground Water
Development
The level of ground water development in an area is to be taken as the ratio of
net yearly draft to total utilizable ground water resource for irrigation. It can be
expressed as:
If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is less than 65% of the total
utilizable ground water resource for irrigation, it is categorized as white or safe
area. If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is between 65% and 85%
of total utilizable ground water resources for irrigation, the taluk is categorized as
Grey or semi critical area. If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is in
excess of 85% of the utilizable ground water resource for irrigation, the taluk is
categorized as Dark or critical area.
There are 10 taluks in the district out of which 2 taluks namely, Chikodi and
Hukkeri have been categorized as Dark and 2 taluks, Athani and Bailahongal
with ground water utilization level at 75% and 83% have been categorized as
Grey. Raibagh taluk, earlier under DARK category, has been categorized as
White due the fact that area canal irrigation has increased and water logged
conditions are prevailing in about 40-50% area of the taluk. In most part of the
year, the wells in the atchkat of the command area are not in use, and the
effective net draft from ground water irrigation is substantially decreased.
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Water Quality
Table 5.20. Categorization for Ground Water Development of Belgaum District (as on 1999)
Recharge
Sl.
Name of
No
Taluk
No. of Wells
(ham)
Draft (ham)
Balance
Gross
Net
BW
DCB
DUG
OTHS
TOTAL
BW
DCB
DUG
OTHS
TOTAL
NET
DRAFT
Recharge
(ham)
% of
Utiliza
Stage
Cate
tion @
@ 99
gory
94
Athani
14665
12465
968
84
10775
498
12325
1646
118
9698
100
11562
8093
4372
65
75
Bailahongal
9214
7832
3747
26
1925
81
5779
6370
36
1732
16
8154
5708
2124
73
83
Belgaum
11092
9428
1806
---
4139
220
6165
3070
---
3725
44
6839
4787
4641
51
61
Chikodi
10570
8984
1500
---
8672
1087
11259
2550
---
7805
217
10572
7400
1584
82
92
Gokak
12747
10835
975
209
5612
95
6891
1658
292
5050
19
7019
4913
5922
45
55
Hukkeri
5966
5071
842
143
6649
568
8202
1431
200
5984
114
7729
5410
-339
107
>100
Khanapura
16065
13655
1452
11
960
31
2454
2468
15
864
3353
2347
11308
17
20
Ramdurg
9826
8352
1800
11
1179
153
3743
3060
15
1601
30
4706
3294
5058
39
49
Raibagh
11416
9704
1124
10162
71
11360
1911
9146
14
11075
5116
4588
53
63
10
Saudatti
10575
8989
1996
15
2062
174
4247
4247
21
1856
35
5305
3714
5275
41
51
Note: D- Dark, G-Grey, W= White
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Water Quality
5.25 Hydrological Characteristics
The hydrological or aquifer characteristic parameters may be used for solving a
general problem of assessment of ground water potential from installation of well
field for irrigation or domestic water supply in a certain locality. The parameters
such as Transmissivity, Permeability, Specific yield and Storage capacity are
used in the determination of porosity of aquifer to recharge the water to ground
water table, rate and quantity of water discharged.
5.25.1 Transmissivity (T)
The transmissivity or transmissibility is the product of the average hydraulic
conductivity (or permeability) and the thickness of the aquifer. Consequently,
transmissivity is the rate of flow under a hydraulic gradient equal to unity through
a cross section of unit width over the whole thickness of the aquifer. It is
designated by the symbol T and is expressed in m2 / day.
The transmissivity is the flow capacity of an aquifer, at which water will flow
through a unit width of aquifer under unit hydraulic gradient and it can be
determined by Jacobs modified method as follows:
Where T = transmissivity in m2 /day
264
T = ---------- Q
S
Q = pumping rate (m3 / min) which is derived by product of specific

capacity (c) x total draw down (S1)
S = is the slope of line as change in drawdown as recovery over one log
cycle of time.
The transmissivity values varied between 9.0 to 223.6 m2/day in the command
area of Rameshwara lift irrigation project. (Table 5.21)
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Water Quality
Table 5.21. Aquifer Parameters for different wells in Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
Area
Well No.
1
4
7
8
9
11
14
16
18
19
Specific
capacity
C (m2/s)
0.017
1.023
0.018
0.665
1.526
0.088
0.912
2.566
0.021
0.851
Transmissivity Permeability
T (m2/day)
K (m/day)
9.00
102.5
27.0
42.6
25.2
17.2
18.0
223.6
88.56
13.5
15.66
57.62
39.88
40.02
32.08
21.06
25.03
158.3
0.335
35.15
Specific
yield
Sy (%)
1.96
4.28
3.20
1.90
1.02
0.99
2.65
5.64
1.69
2.32
Discharge
Q
(m3/s)
0.002
0.014
0.008
0.007
0.018
0.006
0.012
0.035
0.022
0.020
5.25.2 Specific Yield (Sy)

The volume of ground water extracted by gravity- drainage from a saturated
water bearing material is known as the yield, and when it is expressed as ratio of
the volume of the material drained, then it is known as the specific yield. Specific
yield of a geological formation is the ratio of the volume of water, which the
formation will yield by gravity after being saturated to the volume of the rock,
expressed in percentage.
In reality, the specific yield varies due to the heterogeneity of the hydrological
events. The field determination requires a pumping test with an observation well
in the vicinity. This sort of a set up is seldom met with under field conditions. The
following formula of Ramsohoye and Lang (1961) as modified by Adhaylkar and
Mani (1974) can be used for determining the specific yield with the pumping test
data of a single pumping well.
Sy = 4Tt/R2
Where Sy = specific yield
T=transmissivity in 1pd/m
t=time in days since pumping began,
R=radius in meters of the area of influence.
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Water Quality
The percent yield of aquifers in the command area varied between 0.99 to 5.64%
(Table 5.20). The results obtained for specific yield signifies that maximum rate of
0.99% to 5.64% pumping that can be allowed while ensuring those water level
declines are kept within acceptable limits.
5.25.3 Specific capacity (C)
It is a measure of both the effectiveness of a well and also of the aquifer
characteristics (T & S). It is defined as the ratio of the pumping rate and the
drawdown and, is usually expressed in litres per minute per metre of drawdown
for a specific period of pumping.
From Darcys law, the coefficient of permeability may be defined as the rate of
flow of water through unit cross sectional area of the water- bearing material
under a unit hydraulic gradient, and at a temperature of 200 C. Permeability is
also explained as the ability of formation to transmit water through its pores and it
can be computed from the formula,
P= T/ h
Where P= permeability
T=transmissivity in m2/day
h= total saturated thickness of the aquifer tapped in metres.
The permeability values for the different wells in the Rameshwara lift irrigation
scheme is tabulated in Table 20. The permeability values varied in the range
between 0.335 to 158.3 m/day.
5.25.4 Infiltration Rate and Hydraulic Conductivity
Infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivity of two areas, (i.e., one area salt
affected and other unaffected by salt accumulation) were determined to evaluate
the long term impact of irrigation. Infiltration rates were determined by Disc
permeameter and also by using Guelph permeameter. It is observed that the salt
affected soils show reduced rate of infiltration and hydraulic conductivity,
121
Water Quality
whereas the regions unaffected by salinity are showing considerably high rate of
infiltration and hydraulic conductivity.
In many soils, the hydraulic conductivity does not in fact remain constant.
Because of various chemical, physical and biological processes, the hydraulic
conductivity may change as water permeates and flows deep into soil. Changes
occurring in the composition of the exchangeable-ion complex, as and when the
water enters the soil, alters the composition or concentration of solutes than the
original soil solution that can generally contribute to change in the hydraulic
conductivity.
During the field study it is observed that due to excessive soil salinity a thick layer
(crust) is formed due to accumulation of salts. These crusts formed on the soil
layer, when exposed to rain, two mechanism acts on the soil particles,
A physical dispersion caused by the impact of raindrops, and
A chemical dispersion which depends on the exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) of the soil and the electrolyte concentration in the
applied water.
The physical mechanism alone operates in soils with no sodium in the exchange
complex or when high electrolytes are present in applied water. Therefore, based
on the present results it is noticed that the permeability of a soil to water depends
both on the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the soil and on the salt
concentration of the percolating solution. Soil hydraulic conductivity (HC) can be
maintained at a high ESP provided that the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
infiltrating water is above critical water.
5.25.5 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity
To measure the conductivity in the field, the following formula is used.
K = a / [b + (
-
a)n]
122
Water Quality
Where k= hydraulic conductivity (cm/hr)
= Section head (cm H2O)
a = air entry section
a, b, n are constants
Table 5.22. Hydraulic Properties of Soils in selected locations of the study area
SI. No
Location
Texture
Infiltration
Rate
Cm/hr
Hydraulic
Conductivity
m/day
Kalliguddi
Clay Loam
1.45
0.0451
Chipalkatti
Clay
0.72
0.0073
Hirekoppa
Clay
0.80
0.0321
Bagochikoppa
Sandy Loam
1.92
0.2543
Hosur
Clay loam
1.52
0.0521
The hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate of the five villages viz., Kalliguddi,
Chipalkatti, Hirekoppa, Bagochikoppa and Hosur village are tabulated in the
Table 5.22. From the estimation it is observed that, the high infiltration rate and
hydraulic conductivity is found to be in Bagochikoppa village. The infiltration rate
indicates the maximum rate at which the water recharged into the ground water
table. The lowest infiltration rate of 0.72 cm/hr is observed in Chipalkatti village.
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil represents its average water transmitting
properties, which depends mainly on the number and diameter of the pores
present. If these are uniformly distributed the soil is classified to be homogenous.
A maximum hydraulic conductivity of 0.2543 m/day is observed in Hosur village.
123
Water Quality
Table 5.23. Preliminary Yield Test (PYT) and Aquifer Performance Test (APT) Results
Sl
no
Location,coordinate/Toposheet, no
and R.L of G.L (m.s.l)
Depth
drilled
(m.b.g.l)
casing
(m)
4
Lithology
Fracture
Zones
encountered
(mbgl)
PYT Test
results
Discharge
(lps)
SWL
Drow
down
(m)
APT
results
T (m2/
day)
SWL
(mbgl)
10
17-20, 24-35
44-63
5.30
11.30
234
8.250
27-40
Negligible
----
----
8.150
20-22, 33-35
41-43, 63-65
4.70
23.630
25
2.227
25-35, 40-42
5.10
12.700
17
2.110
26-27, 32-44
47-50
4.50
1.520
222
4.250
20-26, 30-37
44-49
4.40
2.090
348
16.970
----
Negligible
---
----
1.100
GOKAK TALUK
1
Ankalgi
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 41 26 N 16 01' 19
80.00
Ankalgi
OW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 41 26 N 16 01' 19
40.00
Arabhavi
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 49 03 N 16 13' 45
76.20
Arabhavi
OW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 49 03 N 16 13' 33 45
42.00
Betgeri
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 58 45 N 16 08' 36
Betgeri
OW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 58 45 N 16 08' 36
Yadwad
"
0
"
E 75 11 00 N 16 14' 10
0
'
50.00
49.00
80.00
DCAN
TRAP
BAST
KLDGI
SRIES
SNDS
KLDGI
SRIES
QRTZ
SNDS
BAST
GRNT
KLDGI
SRIES
QRTZ
SNDS
BAST
GRNT
KLDGI
SRIES
QRTZ
KLDGI
SRIES
QRTZ
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
124
Water Quality
SAUDATTI TALUK
8
9
10
Hosur
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 57 25 N 15 49' 55 15
Inamhongal
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 04 38 N 15 35' 05
Kitturnahalli
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 52 14 N 15 52' 30
Mallur
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 59 15 N 15 50' 55
61.00
200.00
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
ACRN
GRGN
31-32, 44-45,
58-59
0.50
10.250
15.660
19-22, 50-51
160-161
0.80
2.990
10
6.720
82.00
SCST
---
Negligible
---
---
6.310
67.00
ACRN
GRNT
17-27
0.66
10.930
7.500
12
Manoli
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 06 30 N 15 51' 36
68.25
KLDGI
SRIES
SHILE
SLAT
SNDN
18-23, 28-38,
57-68
4.00
5.210
58
9.650
13
Murgod
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 55 35 N 15 53' 31
60.00
QRTZ
39-41, 50-52
0.40
1.000
25
17.000
14
Shivapuri
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 74 57 27 N 16 00' 20
82.00
----
Negligible
---
---
4.470
15
Sirangi
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 15 15 N 15 25' 00
200.00
40-41, 48-49,
60-61
0.70
12.280
10.340
16
Athani
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 04 10 N 16 43' 40
123.40
44-47,69-77,
78-84, 120-126
4.08
0.277
340
6.000
Negligible
---
---
---
11
KLDGI
SRIES
SNDN
SHILE
KLDGI
SRIES
SNDN
SHILE
DCAN
TRAP
BAST
RAMDURG TALUK
17
Batkurki
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 17 05 N 16 04' 45
200.00
KLDGI
SRIES
PQTZ
GRCK
30-31, 68-69,
102-103
125
Water Quality
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Chipalkatti
EW
0
'
"
0
E 75 11 36 N 16
Chuchanur
EW
0
'
"
0
E 75 07 10 N 15
Chuchanur
OW-I
0
'
"
0
E 75 07 10 N 15
Chuchanur
OW-II
0
'
"
0
E 75 07 10 N 15
"
26.60
08' 20
"
82.50
55' 20
"
62.00
55' 20
"
37.90
55' 20
Godchi
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 11 36 N 16 00' 45
Kittur
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 21 17 N 15 50' 40
Kittur
OW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 21 17 N 15 50' 40
Murkatnal
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 07 00 N 16 04' 00
Suriban
EW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 23 48 N 15 53' 34
Suriban
OW
0
'
"
0
"
E 75 23 48 N 15 53' 34
94.45
KLDGI
SRIES
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
KLDGI
SRIES
LMSN
QRTZ
21-36
Negligible
12.580
---
2.540
15-20, 25-35,
41-44, 54-56,
80-81
6.05
0.120
2000
8.300
17-18, 29-36
5.50
0.068
200
8.590
----
3.00
6.470
---
8.850
49-44, 50-51,
61-62
1.00
12.580
2.540
57.60
ACRN
GNSS
30-31
4.40
7.840
54
7.740
62.00
ACRN
GNSS
34-35
0.60
13.720
7.950
15-16
0.60
11.240
6.720
200.00
DCAN
TRAP
BAST
LMSN
82.00
ARCN
GRGN
11-18, 21-28
31-34, 49-51
4.80
6.390
155
5.940
77.00
GRNT,
AMBL
MBST
23-24, 40-41
74-75
2.00
11.458
57
5.790
Source: Central Ground Water Board
126
Water Quality
Chapter VI
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY AND NOISE LEVELS ASSESSMENT
6.0 Introduction
The atmosphere, which makes up the largest fraction of the biosphere, is a
dynamic system that continuously absorbs a wide range of solids, liquids, and
gases from both natural and man-made sources. These substances travel
through air, disperse, and react with one another and with other substances both
physically and chemically. Most of these constituents, eventually find their way
into a depository such as the ocean, or to a receptor such as man. Some
substances such as helium, however, escape from the biosphere. Others such
as carbon-dioxide may enter the atmosphere faster than they enter a reservoir
and thus gradually accumulate in the air.
It has been found that a significantly increasing volume of particulate matter
entering the atmosphere scatters the incoming sunlight. This reduces the
amount of heat that reaches the earth and tends to reduce its temperature. The
decreasing mean global temperature of recent years has been attributed to the
rising concentration of air-borne particles in the atmosphere. A counter acting
phenomenon commonly referred to as the green-house effect is caused by the
increasing amounts of carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere generated in
combustion processes, if continues to increase at the present rate, the mean
global temperature could rise by 40 C in the next five decades. There has been
conjecture that this might become a matter of great importance because small
temperatures increase could cause a partial melting of the ice caps of the earth
causing continental flooding and overwhelming effects on man.
Air pollution can cause death, impair health, reduce visibility, bring about vast
economic losses and contribute to the general deterioration of both our cites and
country-side. It is therefore, a matter of great importance that engineers of all
disciplines consciously incorporate in their designs sufficient constraints and safe
127
Water Quality
guards to ensure that they do not contribute to atmospheric pollution. In addition,
they must apply their ingerruity and problem-solving abilities to eliminate air
pollution where it exists to help restoring the natural environment.
There are three methods of identifying air pollution:
Sensory recognition
Physical measurement of pollutants
Observing the impact on plants, animals, and buildings.
6.1 Sensory Recognition
Usually the first awareness of an air pollution problem is through some effects on
the individual. These are:
Strong or unusual odours
Reduction in visibility
Eye irritation
Acid taste in the mouth
Feel of grit under foot
These are highly subjective phenomena and vary from individual to individual.
6.2 Physical Measurement
While sensory perception may provide the first indication of the presence of most
of the contaminants in the air, it is often not possible to detect trace quantities of
many air-borne toxic substances or the presence of radioactive matter through
the senses. Their identification requires physical measurement by standard
methods of sampling and analysis.
6.3 Impact on Plants, Animals and Buildings
Effects of air pollution can be observed on the growth of plants and health of
animals. Similarly, its deleterious effects on buildings can also be observed.
Thus plants, animals, and buildings act to some extent as indicators of certain
atmospheric impurities.
128
Water Quality
An inventory of air contamination is a necessary first step towards control of air
pollution. Air pollution can be either natural or may be the result of various
anthropogenic activities of man like industrial operations etc. The industrial
contaminants can be either by-products of external combustion like smoke, dust,
and sulphur oxides or by-products of internal combustion like the reactions in
petrol and diesel engines. Further, the emissions can be either primary pollutants
or secondary pollutants. The various sources of pollutants can also be broadly
grouped under either stationary sources or mobile sources.
Plants are affected by gaseous pollutants and deposition of particulates on soil.
On the other hand, particulates such as dust and soot, deposited on plant
leaves, block the stomata of plants. This in turn affects the plants by restricting
the absorption of CO2 and reducing the rate of photosynthesis as well as rate of
transpiration. The net result is retarded growth of plants and decreased yield of
crops. Furthermore deposition of toxic metals on soil, renders the soil unsuitable
for growth of plants. Some plants are very sensitive to traces of toxic metals as
the latter inhibit the action of some plant enzymes.
6.4 Natural Contaminants
Among natural contaminants pollen is important because of its peculiar
properties irritating to some individuals. Pollen grains are the male gametophytes
of gymnosperms angiosperms and they are discharged into the atmosphere from
weeds, grasses and trees. Because of wind pollination, thousands of pollen
grains are liberated. While air transported pollen grains range chiefly between 10
to 50 in size, some have been found to be as small as 5 and as large as 100
in diameter.
6.4.1 Aerosols: Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solids or liquid particles of
microscopic size in gaseous media, such as dust, smoke, or mist. An aerosol
can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is a
gas and the dispersed phase is solid or liquid.
6.4.2 Dust: Dust is made up of solid particles predominantly larger than those
found in colloids and capable of temporary suspension in air or other gases.
129
Water Quality
They do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces, they also do not
diffuse but settle under the influence of gravity.
6.4.3 Smoke: Smoke consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete
combustion. It consists predominantly of carbon particles and other combustible
materials. Generally the size of the particles is less than 1. The size of coal
small particles range from 0.2-0.01 and oil smoke particles from 1.0-0.03.
6.4.4 Mists: This refers to a low concentration dispersion of liquid particles of
large size. In meteorology, it means a light dispersion of minute water droplets
suspended in the atmosphere. Natural mist particles formed from water vapour
in the atmosphere are rather large, ranging from 500-40 in size.
6.4.5 Fog: Fog refers to visible aerosol in which the dispersed phase is liquid.
Formation by condensation is usually implied. In meteorology, it refers to
dispersion of water or ice in the atmosphere near the earths surface reducing
visibility to less than Km. In natural fog the size of the particles range from 1.040.
6.4.6 Fumes: These are the solid particles generated by condensation from the
gaseous state, generally after volatilization from melted substances, and often
accompanied by chemical reaction such as oxidation.
Table 6.1. Sources of Atmospheric Dust

Sl.
No
Sources
Examples
Fuel
Combustion
Burning
(Coal,
wood,
fuel,
oil),
Incineration (House and municipal garbage),

Others (open fires, forest fires, tobacco
smoking)
Materials handling
Loading and unloading (sand, gravel, coal,
and processing
ores, lime, cement)
130
Water Quality
Earth-moving
Construction (road, buildings, construction
operations
sites, site clearance), Mining (blasting)
Miscellaneous
Crop spraying, Poultry feeding , Engine

exhaust, Mud road cleaning
Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental evils. The air we breathe has
not only life-supporting properties but also life-damaging properties. Under ideal
conditions the air we inhale has a qualitative and quantitative balance that
maintains the well-being of man. But when the balance among the air
components is disturbed, or in other words, if it is polluted, it affects human
health.
All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. Depending
upon the chemical nature of the pollutants, some may be harmful when present
in the air in small concentrations and others, only when present in higher
concentrations. The duration of exposure of the body to polluted air is also an
important factor. Therefore prime factors affecting human health are,
Nature of the pollutants
Concentration of the pollutants
Duration of exposure
State of health of the receptor
Age group of the receptor
6.5.1 Criteria Used For Selection of Ambient Air Quality Stations
The ambient air quality stations were selected based on the projected impact of
the project on the human settlements, flora and fauna of the study area. The
Respirable Dust Sampler was used for the selected stations at a suitable level,
for monitoring the primary pollutants [IS: 5182 (part14) 1985]. The primary
pollutants were monitored at each monitoring station continuously for 8 hours
were:
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter, (RSPM) or (PM10)
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
6.6 Ambient Air Quality Studies

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6.6.1 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is the particulate having diameter less than
100 m/greater than 10m that tend to remain suspended in the atmosphere for
relatively longer periods. Soil dust, volcanic particles and smoke generally the
natural sources of total suspended particulates. Anthropogenic emissions of the
total suspended particulates are due to fossil fuel burning, industrial processes
and vehicular exhausts. Secondary sources of total suspended particulates
include conversion of various gaseous substances in the atmosphere, like H2S,
SO2, NOx, NH3 and hydrocarbons to particulate matters. Hydrocarbons react to
form products that condense to produce particles. The suspended particulates
present in the atmospheric affect the surroundings by lowering the visibility,
producing hazy conditions, participating in secondary reactions in atmosphere,
finally affecting biomes either directly or indirectly (CPCB/NAAQMS/14/19992000).
Sampling and analysis of SPM is based on gravimetric principle (James Lodge
1989). Air is drawn through an improved cyclone design close to 10 m size, at a
flow rate, which is typically around 1132 L/m. The suspended particulate matters
are collected and get separated due to the centrifugal force and cyclonic activity
falling through the cyclones conical hopper and finally collects in the dust
collection cups. The dust particles of size less than 10 m are trapped on the
filter paper (8x10). The flow rate is recorded at intervals of one hour to
determine the average flow rate for 8-hourly sampling. The SPM concentration is
calculated from the difference between the final and initial weights of dust
collection cups and dividing the net weight, by the volume of air sampled. The
total SPM concentration was further determined and reported as SPM by adding
the SPM results and PM10 results obtained from the difference in weight of filter
paper (CPCB. DOC: CB/CL/TM/9/C-3 & Operation Manual RDS). The instrument
used was Respirable Dust Sampler, APM 460/451 (M/s Envirotech Instruments
(P) Ltd).
6.6.2 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) or (PM10)

Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter or PM10 are the particulates having
diameter less than 10 m and they are small enough to be inhaled and may
enter deep into respiratory track and pulmonary system of human beings. These
particles are responsible for most of the air borne particulate threat to human
health because of their small size and pose health hazard due to their inhalation
followed by deep penetration in the respiratory system during breathing. The fine
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particulates generally arise due to agglomeration of aerosols, gas particles,
conversion from gas to particulates and these are mostly combustion originated.
The sources of PM10 include road dust, vehicular exhaust, and wind blown dust
arising from agriculture, construction and fireplaces. PM10 may also originate
from incomplete combustion of fuel and from other pollutants viz. NOx, SO2
organics etc., (CPCB/NAAQMS/14/1999-2000).
Measurement of RSPM or PM10 in ambient air is based on Cyclonic Flow
Technique method. The instrument used is Respirable Dust Sampler, APM
460/451, (M/s Envirotech Instruments (P) Ltd). Air is drawn through a size
selective inlet onto a 20.3 x 25.4 cm filter at a flow rate which is typically around
1132 L/min. Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than the cut-off point (10
m) of the inlet are collected by the filter and above 10 m size in the dust
collection cups. The mass of the particles is determined by the difference in filter
weights before and after sampling. The concentration of PM10 in the designated
size range is calculated by dividing the weight gain of the filter paper by the
volume of air sampled. The lower range of the method is about 5 g/m3 and the
upper limit is in the range of 400 to 1000 g/m3 and the exact value depends on
the nature of the aerosol sampled (CPCB. DOC: CB/CL/TM/9/C-4).
6.6.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

This is one the principal constituents of air pollutants. The main source of
sulphur dioxide is the combustion of fuels, especially coal. Therefore, its
concentration in the atmosphere depends upon the sulphur content of fuel used.
SO2 is a colorless, pungent, irritating, water-soluble and reactive gas. In ambient
air, oxides of sulphur occur as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3),
which arise mainly from combustion of fossil fuel, and ores. SO2 is both a
primary and secondary pollutant. Significant SO2 emissions are generated from
mobile sources depending on sulphur content of fuel combusted. The residence
time of SO2 in atmosphere is about 4 days (Murali Krishnan, 1995).
Concentrations of SO2 in ambient air in cities of developed countries have mostly
decreased in the last decade due to improved emission control, increased use of
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low sulphur fuels. Since SO2 is highly reactive; it has a highly non-uniform dose
distribution and most of the gas inhaled via the nose is absorbed by nasal
mucus, with a small proportion reaching the lower portion of the respiratory track.
The acidic aerosol formed due to the presence of SO2 can cause acute effects
on pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms, and persons having asthma
complaints can be about ten times more sensitive than the healthy.
The Modified West and Gaeke (1956), West and Ordiveza (1962) method were
employed for sampling and analysis of sulphur dioxide by scrubbing air at the
rate of one litre per minute for 4 hrs in a solution of 0.04 M Sodium Tetra ChloroMercurate (TCM). The sampled solution was then reacted with sulphamic acid
(0.6 %), formaldehyde (0.2 %) and pararosaniline (0.2 % PRA). The absorbency
of the product (pararosaniline methylsulphonic acid) red- violet dye formed, was
measured using a spectrophotometer at 560-nm (Spectronic 20-D+). Multiplying
the absorbency of the sample with the calibration factor of the method and
dividing by the volume of air sampled, concentrations of SO2 were calculated.
Concentration of SO2 in g/m3 in the sample is calculated as:
C (SO2 g/m3) = (A-A o) 1000 (B) / V
Where
A
- Sample absorbance
Ao
- Reagent blank absorbance
1000 - Conversion factor from litres to cubic meters

B
- Calibration factor
- Volume of air sampled in litres
6.6.4 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

It is probable that oxides of nitrogen are the second most abundant atmospheric
contaminants in many cites, ranking next to sulphur dioxide. Out of seven oxides
of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4,N2O5), only nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide arise from many human activities and are classified as
pollutants. In atmospheric analyses they are usually reported as total oxides of
nitrogen. The important oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere are Nitric oxide
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(NO), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and salts of Nitrate (NO3-),
Nitrite (NO2-) and Ammonium (NH4+).
Nitric oxide usually emitted from the
automobile exhaust is oxidized to Nitrogen dioxide by reaction with oxidants

such as Ozone present in ambient air. The other major sources are fossil fuel
combustion, biomass burning, lightning, soil emissions and ammonia oxidations.
The Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) is the important component of photochemical
smog formed from the secondary reactions. The resident time of NOx in the
atmosphere is about 5 days (Murali Krishnan, 1995).
The Jacob and Hochheiser (1958) method was adopted for sampling and
analysis of NOx. The NOx was collected by bubbling air through a solution of
sodium hydroxide- sodium arsenite (4g Sodium hydroxide and 1.0 g Sodium
arsenite in 1000 ml distilled water) in a glass impinger at a flow rate of 1 litre per
minute. The absorbency of the violet colored product (azo dye) obtained by
reacting the sampled solution with sulfanilamide (20 g in 700 ml distilled water
and 50 ml of 85 % phosphoric acid and dilute to 1000ml), 1 % aqueous solution
of N- (1-naphthyl)- ethylenediamine di-hydrochloride (NEDA) was measured in a
spectrophotometer (Spectronic 20-D+) at 540 nm. Concentration of NO2 was
calculated by using the equation as described under the SO2 measurement.
Table 6.2. Sampling Stations for Air and Noise Quality Studies
S.No
Name of Stations
Arlimatti (At the end of
1
village close to pumping
station)
2
Koujalagi (Near bus
stand)
3
Kulgod (Near bus stand)
4
Mallikeri (Near bus stop)
Bhagojikoppa (Near bus
5
stop)
Note: All values are in g/m3
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
N 16o 19'15.0"
E 75o 05' 37.2"
532
N 16o 12' 02.9"
E 75o 03' 38.9"
560
N 16o 21'12.0"
N 16o 08'16.1"
E 75o 07' 52.3"

E 75o 04' 58.4"
590
659
N 16o 07'40.6"
E 75o 06' 23.5"
635
6.7 Noise and its Measurements

Noise has become part of our environment. With progress in industrial growth,
the level of noise has been increasing continuously. In the nineteenth century the
development of the steam engine, petrol engine and technological machineries
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in industry resulted in increasingly noisy environment. In the twentieth century
this has been further accelerated by the introduction of diesel engine, high tech
machineries, construction site machineries and road traffic. Noise is considered
to be one of the dimensions of pollution which leads to degradation of the
environment and also poses health and communication hazards.
6.7.1 Noise Pollution Hazards
Noise is air-borne mechanical energy striking the human eardrum. While 65 dB
(A) is the noise level for conversation heard at a distance of one metre, 125 dB
(A) gives the sensation of pain ear and 150 dB (A) might kill a human being. The
most commonly occurring ear damage is brought about by continuous periods of
high intensity noise. If a noise level exceeding 90 dB in the mid-frequency range
reaches the ear for more than a few minutes, then the sensitivity of the ear is
reduced.
In addition to progressive hearing loss there may be instantaneous damage to
aquatic trauma. This arises from very high intensity impulse type noise due to
explosion or sudden excessive noise of about 150dB or more. Sonic booms or
over-pressure from supersonic air liners are impulse type noise, which can have
hazardous effects on the ears.
Noise pollution can also cause pathological or psychological disorders.
Pathological effects are produced by particular noise frequencies causing
vibration or resonance in materials or human bodies. High frequencies or
ultrasonic sound above the normal audible range can affect the semi-circular
canals of the inner ear and make one suffer from nausea and dizziness. Again
very low frequency noise can produce resonance in the body organs giving the
effects of reduced heart beat, variations in blood pressure and breathing
difficulties. Mid-audible band frequencies can generate resonance in the skull
and hence affect the brain and nervous system having impact on thinking and
co-ordination of the limbs. Moderate vibration can lead to pain, numbness and
cyanosis (blue colouration) of fingers while severe vibration results in damage to
bones and joints in the hands with swelling and stiffness.
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It is difficult to assess non-pathological or psychological noise effects on man.
The mildest impact is generally physical and mental fatigue. However, this effect
is significant in industrial and other establishments, where the end results are
lower efficiency, reduced work rate, increased absenteeism and a higher
potential for accidents and injuries. Selye (1995) observed one of the following
three stress reactions resulting from exposure to noise:
Atrophy of the thymus gland,
Development of duodenal ulcers, and
Swelling and discoloration of the adrenal glands, most of the experimental
animals even were seem to manifest all of the above three reactions.
6.7.2 Noise Pollution Rules 2000
In India, ambient noise levels have increased in public places from various
sources. The ministry of Environment and Forests considered it necessary to
regulate and control noise producing and generating sources with the objective
of maintaining the ambient air quality standards. This notification is to be
considered as The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. The
salient features of the notification are as under:
The state government should categorize the area into industrial,
commercial, residential or silence area/ zones for the purpose of
implementing noise standards.
The state government should take measures for abatement of noise
including noise emanating from vehicular movements and ensure that the
existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air quality standards.
All development authorities, local bodies or other concerned authorities
while planning developmental activities should take into account the
impact of noise pollution. Loud speakers or public address systems
should not be used without the written permission from the concerned
authorities.
A stiff penalty would be charged from people who violate the noise
pollution rules 2000.
6.7.3 Decibel
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The two important parameters of sound/ noise are sound pressure and sound
intensity. They are measured in different units giving varying scale of magnitude.
The common scientific acoustic unit is decibel (dB). It is not an absolute physical
unit but is a ration expressed as logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound
pressure level.
Decibel (dB) is a ratio expressed as the logarithmic scale relative to a reference
sound pressure level. dB is thus expressed as
Intensity Measured (I)
Sound Intensity Level = 10log ---------------------------------Reference Intensity (I0)
dB = 10 log (I/ I0)
The level of noise is usually expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
in dB. The SPL is expressed as
SPL = 20 log (P/P0)
Where,
p = Pressure variation measured (N/m2)

P0 = Standard reference pressure 2 X 10-5 N/m2
6.7.4 Sound Pressure level

Sound pressure level can be expressed as 10 log10 (P/Po) 2
Which when simplified becomes, 20log10 (P/Po)
Where, P = Measured sound pressure
Po = Reference sound pressure
The logarithmic scale takes care of wide range of sound pressure and
intensities. The reference intensity used is the threshold of hearing which means
sound which can be heard at sound pressure of 2 x 10-5 Newton m-2. The db
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scale is limited in the sense that it is not related to the human ear frequency
response and environmental circumstances in which noise is produced. This has
necessitated design of noise measuring meters which reduce the response to
low and very high frequencies, characteristic of human ear capacity. These
meters record the dB (A) scale which is commonly used for measurement of
general noise levels. However, even the dB (A) scale is not refined enough to
take care of peak noise levels, duration of noise exposure and quantity and
quality of noise which are aspects of specific environmental noise situations.
6.7.5 Weighted Decibels
The human ear can detect sound within a particular frequency range from 20 to
20,000 Hz. However, within this range the ear is particularly sensitive to sound at
frequencies between 1000 to 6000 Hz. These frequency characteristics of the
ear are incorporated in the approach to measure and estimate noise levels by
using a frequency weighting (weighted) which weights the sound pressure level
in such a manner that it closely approximates to the situation when
we hear
sound. Thus it emphasizes frequencies between 1000 & 6000 Hz and deemphasizes higher and lower frequencies. Once a sound has been measured in
weighted decibels, it is now known as sound or noise level and expressed as
dB (A).
6.7.6 Measurement of Noise Levels
Sound level meter (Quest Make USA), was used for monitoring noise levels. The
sound level meter having a microphone fitted with wind screen was placed
around 1 meter above ground level with the help of a tripod stand. The noise
levels were recorded every 10 seconds and integrated for different parameters.
Few measurements were also carried out at the same places during the night,
for comparison and data interpretation. The instrument used measures the
sound in terms of decibel unit.
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Sl. No
Areas
Day dB (A)
Night dB (A)
Industrial
75
65
Commercial
65
55
Residential
Sensitive area
(hospitals)
50
45
50
40
6.8 Results and Discussion

6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Status
Regular monitoring of ambient levels of air pollutants is essentially requires a
well designed sampling sites and frequency of sampling is also necessary for
realistic and precise measurement during the evaluation of the air quality.
Regular ambient air quality monitoring helps not only in evaluating status of air
quality but also for the evaluation of flora, fauna and human responses to the
ambient levels of pollutants. During the present impact assessment study,
Respirable Dust Sampler was activated in the selected areas to derive pollutants
concentrations encountered at ambient level. Monitoring at each location was
carried out continuously for 8 Hrs for estimating the primary parameters such as
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter, (RSPM) or (PM10)
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
The results obtained in the study are tabulated in Table 6.3 and is compared with
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Table 6.4). From the results it is
observed that, the values obtained for RSPM and SPM in Koujalagi and
Bhagojikoppa are high. The high concentration of RSPM and SPM is due to the
wind blowing at the time of sampling, and other stations are showing
concentration with normal range. The concentration of particulate matter may
increase during the construction activities at pumping station and canal site. The
workers should be protected from these sources of air pollution which may cause
adverse effects on respiratory system. This may be overcome by providing
suitable masks during construction activities.
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The levels of SO2 and NOx are within the permissible limits. A comparatively
higher concentration of NOx may be the indication of construction activities and
DG set running in the construction area. However the presence of SPM and
PM10 indicates that these are due to the background concentration prevailing in
this tropical climatic region. The results also agree with those published by the
Central Pollution Control Board in the National Ambient Air Monitoring
Programme. In the canal work area also, the level of pollution is not significant. A
maximum of 10g/m3 of NOx concentration was found in Bhagojikoppa which is
because of location of sampling station near the bus stop, as contribution is from
the emission from vehicles and other activities.
From the study it can be concluded that there will be no such adverse effects on
the human beings and other living organisms due to the construction activities at
the pumping stations and at canal site because the human settlement is far from
this site, provided the workers should be protected from the source of air
pollution. To control the effect of higher RSPM on labourers and staff working in
the canal site area. However it is necessary to provide safety devices to workers
while executing the work. The cost of the same should be borne by the
contractor. The results are given in Table 3 and the corresponding standards in
Table 6.4.
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Table 6.3. Results of Ambient Air Quality Studies
Sl. No
Name of Stations
SPM
RSPM
(PM10)
SO2
NOX
Aralimatti (At the end of

village close to pumping
station)
83.3
255.5
2.0
1.7
Koujalgi (Near bus stand)
144.4
1473.3
10.1
1.5
96.29
437.7
2.8
77.7
585.5
10.1
1.4
6.8
222.2
1801.1
8.5
10.2
Bhagojikoppa (Near bus

stop)
Note: All values are in g/m3
5
Table 6.4. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and WHO
Recommendations
Parameter
Sulphur
Dioxide
(gm/m3)
Concentration in Ambient Air
WHO
RecommenSensitive
-dations
Area
Time
Weighted
Average
Residential
Area
Industrial
Area
10 Minutes
1 Hour
24 Hours
Annual
80
60
120
80
30
15
500
350
100-150
40-60
Nitrogen
Oxide
(gm/m3)
RSPM
(gm/m3)
1 Hour
24 Hours
Annual
80
60
120
80
30
15
400
150
-
24 Hours
Annual
100
60
150
120
75
50
70
-
SPM
(gm/m3)
24 Hours
Annual
200
500
100
150-230
140
360
70
60-90
6.8.2 Noise Level Survey

During the survey it is observed that the sound is basically generated due to
construction activities. During construction activities, at canal site where large
scale crushing of stones and other activities are going on, the level of noise
generated is marginally high. In the village and canal areas the values are within
in the limits. However it is beyond doubt that during the construction activity the
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values are bound to reach higher levels. However this activity is not going to
pose a major threat to the human settlements. Nonetheless, necessary
precaution must be taken to curb any possible impact on working force during
construction activity. Monitoring of noise levels during the construction is
recommended to ensure that the neighborhood of forests and human
settlements are protected.
To control the effect of high levels of noise prevailing in the pumping station and
at canal site area and rock drilling area, the work force including labourers and
other staff should be provided with earplugs / ear muffs during working hours.
The noise levels obtained were very less and well within the standards.
Table 6.5. Noise levels (dB) at Pumping Station and Canal site
Sl.
NO
Name of stations
Distance from source

0
50m
100m 250m
2
3
Aralimatti (At the end of village

close to pumping station)
76.8
72.1
70.1
Low
Bhagojikoppa (Near bus stop)
76.8
72.1
70.8
Low
81.6
75.4
71.8
Low
78.2
79.1
72.1
73.2
70.3
70.8
Low
Low
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6.9 Recommendations
During construction the standard practices may be followed so that the
noise and air pollution is maintained at minimum. This should be
supplemented by regular monitoring of the air quality and noise levels
during the construction period.
More important is protecting the health of workers. As the level of dust at
some places exceeds the limit, they should be provided with respirators or
other device to prevent the impact of dust. Secondly whenever the noise
levels exceed the limit or nearer to it, the workers must be provided with
ear muffs.
Besides the already identified sites of air pollution and noise additional
sites suggested by the monitoring team during the project should also be
considered for the above purpose.
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Chapter VII
Biodiversity & Ecological Assessment
7.0 Background
7.1 The Ghataprabha River
The River Ghataprabha takes its origin in Sundergad of the Western Ghats at an
altitude of 858 m and flows eastwards for 59 km through Maharashtra state and
forms the border between Maharashtra State and forms the border between
Maharashtra and Karnataka for a length of about 10 km, it enters the district near
the village Shedihal and here it receives the Tamraparni from the south and runs
about 40 km in a northeasterly direction through Chikodi taluk before it is joined
from the west by the Hiranyakeshi river. It then enters the Gokak taluk near the
village Sultanpur and from this point it takes a sharp turn towards north, running
along the boundary of the taluk. The total catchment area of the river from the
source and its tributaries is 8,829 sq km but their principal source of supply is
about 64 km length of the Western Ghats and about 64 km width on the east of
these hills. In this area, the annual rainfall drops from about 300 to 100 cm.
7.2 Location and land use
The intake structure of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme is located near
Aralimatti village, Gokak taluk, Belgaum district and the command area for the
project is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti taluks of the Belgaum districts.
The nearest town is Gokak which is approachable throughout the year.
Ghataprabha is the nearest railway station.
Major part of the command area is covered by agriculture lands that are
cultivated in both seasons Khariff and Rabi. Apart from the cultivable land, rest
of the land area along the natural stream courses is covered with weed growth,
while the slightly elevated mounds have sparse scrub cover and the land close
to the pediment region of the hills is stoney waste devoid of any vegetative
cover. During Khariff season cereals, oil seeds and fibre crops are grown and
during Rabi season pulses and Jowar are grown. The cereal crops include
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Maize, Jowar and Bajra and the oil seeds include Soya bean and groundnut. The
pulses are red gram and green gram. The fibre crops include jute and cotton,
which extend to Rabi season. Recently the farmers have also started the
cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by using irrigation.
7.3 Climate
The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with
maximum temperature reaching up to 42o C. December to February is the cold
season when minimum temperature falls to 18o C. Generally humidity varies
from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to
September is the period during which humidity is normally higher. Most of the
rainfall is received during South West monsoon period with August being the
wettest month. The average annual rainfall is 503 mm. the winds are generally
light with slight increase in the force observed during late summer and monsoon
season. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold agro-climatic zone
of Karnataka.
7.4 Topography
In general, the area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme
presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in
almost east-west direction dividing the region into two halves. The region has
The river Ghataprabha flowing in E-W direction forms the major valley flanked on
hills near Hulkund, forming form a chain and the highest point is 723 m above
MSL about 1.5 km of Mannekeri village. This chain of hills is dissected by
Hulkund halla about 0.5 km of Hulkund village. The elevation range recorded in
the region is between 522 m on the riverbank at Aralimatti and 702 m about a km
of Sattigeri village.
7.5 Flora
The vegetation of Belgaum district is of two distinct types. The first-the moist
type-occurs in the south-western portion where the district touches the crest line
of the Western Ghats. The second-the dry forest type found to the east of
Belgaum city stretches from the northern areas around Gokak, Saundatti,
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Water Quality
Chikkodi in the south. The proposed Rameshwar lift irrigation project area falls
into second category of forest, i.e., dry type.
The dry forest is made up of small trees mostly slow-growing, with either broad
or reduced leaves. The first climax broad-leaved type is the TerminaliaAnogeissus-Tectona series. Depending on the rainfall which may vary from 300
to 900 mm during the year canopy is more or less open and the height of the
trees may go upto 20 m the second climax broad -leaved type is the AnogeissusHardwickia series. The trees which are scarcely 12 m tall are scattered. A further
association is the Anogeissus-Chloroxylon-Albizzia series with a mixture of
broad-leaved and small-leaved trees.
The small-leaved trees are often forming a dry evergreen type with AcaciaAlbizzia dominants. Common trees in these dry tracts are Acacia nilotica (Kari
jail), Albizia odoratissima (Bilwara), A. procera (Bellate), Boswellia serrata
(Guggala), Buchanania lanzan (Kolegeru), Chloroxylon swietenia (Hurihuli),
Diospyros melanoxylon (Abanashi), Lannea coromandelica (Udimara) and
Sterculia urens (Bili matti). Strychnos potatorum (Chilla beeja) and Wrightia
tinctoria are economically useful trees that occur as an understorey when the
forest is well preserved. However they are more often seen as stunted and
scattered shrubs due to biotic interference.
Shrubs and herbaceous climbers are frequent. The red and black seeds of Abrus
precatorius (gulaganji) and accrescent calyces of Calycopteris floribunda
(marasada)
are
prominent
after the monsoon. Ichnocarpus
frutescens
(Karihambu) and Decalepis hailtonii (Megaliberu) are protected from browsing by

their latex. Gmelina asiatica (Shivani) and Canthium parviflorum (Kare) have a
decided advantage in the struggle for survival because of their forbidding thorns.
Cassia auriculata (Avarike) and Ziziphus oenoplia (Surimullu) are perhaps the
commonest shrubs in these dry regions. There are patches of xerophytes
especially on the exposed rocky flats as at Gokak. The succulent Euphorbia
shrubs stand up like candelabra encrusted with the red of numerous cyathia.
Caralluma with its malodorus flowers is admirably adapted for survival on these
arid flats because of its captive water holding, poisonous sap and pollination
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Water Quality
strategy. Sesamum laciniatum with its dissected leaves and large red flowers is
a pleasing oddity in an otherwise bleak setting.
There are characteristic trees near human habitations. Ziziphus mauritiana (Bore
hannu), Azdirachta indica (Bevu) are favorite trees in the drier regions, one for its
edible fruits, the other for its oil-yielding fruits and medicinal leaves. Pongamia
pinnata (Honge) is another useful tree especially present along streams, rivers
and tanks. The white flowers of Plumeria (Kadu sampige) appearing when the
tree is leafless make a striking picture against the backdrop of many a dusty
village. The district thus has a wide range of vegetation types ranging from the
moist tropical evergreens to the xerophytes of arid, exposed, inhospitable rocky
soil. Many of the plants are of economic value for their timber, fruits, fibers and
oils.
7.6 Trees found in Agricultural and Horticultural gardens
The major trees found in agricultural fields and horticultural gardens are
Azaridictha indica, Musa sapientum; Citrus indica; Anacardium occidentale;
Artocarpus integrifolia; Tamarindus indica; Eugenia jamboolina; Mangifera
indica; Citrus bergamia; Psidium pomiferum; Annona reticulata; Annona
squmosa; Cocus nucifera and Areca catechu. The chief fiber yielding plants are
Bambusa arundinacea, Saccharam officinarium, Alove vulgaris, Caryota urens,
and Helicicteres isora. The common hedge plants are Adathooda vasica,
Opuntia dillenia, Jatropa curcas, Moringa pterygosperma, Erythrina indica,
Acacia concinna and Pithicolobium dulce. The aquatic plants, some of which
have magnificent blossoms are lotuses, Nymphoea robra with large brilliant red
flowers and Nelumbium speciosum, are common in the region.
The chief climbing shrubs and weeds growing on waste lands and hills are
Dattura, thorn apple, (Datura alba); Balli (Capparis horrida), a thorny shrub with
large white flowers. There are three kinds of Dattura plant; Kakkigida, (Solanum
indicum); Indian nightshade (Solanum jacquini); and Solanum trilobatum. Other
plants are Utrani (Achyranthes aspera); the yellow thistle or Mexican poppy
(Argemone mexicana); Bundurgi (Dodonaea viscosa) and Chadarangi (Lantana
camera).
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Water Quality
Among the wild climbing plants in the forests are the Memodica charantia,
Coculus cordifolius and Cissu discolor. Many Convolvulus family members yield
exquisite flowers, and among them are the Bryonia collosa, Argyreia malabarica
and the elephant creeper Argyreia speciosa.
7.7 Exotic Flora
The chief exotic trees and plants which have been introduced into the area are
the rain tree (Pithecolobium saman), a native of Jamaica, the Dividivi tree
(Caesalpinia coriaria), which grows in black and red soil and the pod of which
yields valuable tannin; the Mahogany (Swietenia mahogany); the Suru
(Casuarina equisetifolia); the Nilgiri (Eucalyptus oblique); the Silver oak
(Grewilia robasta) and the Chikku (Achorus sapota).
The ornamental shrubs and plants which thrive well are Acalyphas, Achemenes,
Aralias arums, Bignonia, Caladiums, Coleus, Crotons, Dahlias, Gladiolus, Hoya,
Jasminum and Plumbago. Most of these are exotic varieties, but have
acclimatized to the region.
The chief varieties of flowers are the Amaranthus antirrhinum, aster, balsam,
calliopsis, candy tuft, cockscomb, convolvulus, dianthus or pink geranium,
mignonette, portulaca, rose sweet pea, sunflower, and verbena etc., among
others.
The chief vegetables are Brinjal (Badanekayi) Capsicum (Menasinakayi), Carrots
(Gajjari), Cauliflower, Cucumber (Savtekayi), French Beans (Tingalvari),
Knolkhol, Lettuce, Mustard (Sasavi), Onion (Ullagadde), Peas, Radish (Mulangi),
Spinach, Tomato, Turnip, Fenugreek (mente) and Potato.
7.8 Fauna
7.8.1 Domestic animals
The domestic animals cows and buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, monkeys,
donkeys, dogs and fowls are prominent. Cows are found all over the region.
Krishna valley, Khillari, Amrit mahal and local breeds of cows are noticed in the
district. Cows are reared for milk and draught purposes, while bullocks are used
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in ploughing and transport. She-buffaloes are reared for milk, while he-buffaloes
are used for ploughing and draught. Surti, Gavli, Pandharapur and local breeds
of buffaloes are noticed in the region. Donkeys and horses are used for
transporting clothes and building materials. Dogs are kept by owners to guard
their premises and also to hunt boars, sambar. Goats are reared for mutton and
some goats yield milk. Sheep are reared mainly for wool and mutton. Fowls are
reared for eggs and chicken.
7.8.2 Wild animals
Among the wild animals, the common langur Presbytis entellus is found all over
the region inhabiting groves, rivers banks and woodlands. Rhesus macaque
Macaca mulatto and bonnet macaque Mucaca radiata are generally distributed
in the region. Rhesus macaque are terrestrial in habit, preferring the open plains
to the forest clad country while bonnet macaque inhabits forested areas, rocky
cliffs and wanders about in parties. The sloth bear Melursis ursinus is nocturnal
in habit and is found in rocky hills, dry deciduous and xerophytic forests in the
plains but near fresh water. The diet of sloth bear often varies with the seasonal
flowering and fruiting of different trees and shrubs.
There are also reports of jungle cat Felis chaus, and the toddy cat is nocturnal,
tree dwelling civet cat, frequenting forest and hill ranges of the region. The Indian
civet Viverricula indica occurs in forest areas. The striped Hyaena hyaena is
common all over the region. The small Indian mangoose Herpestes
airppunctatus is also common in the region. The common Indian jackal Canis
aureus abounds everywhere. The Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis is common in
the eastern parts of the study area. The wild dog Cuon alpinus is more common
in the forest than in the plains. The common porcupine Hystrix indica is rare. The
giant flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista, the Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa
bicolor, the wild pig Sus scrofa are common in all forest area. The wild pig is a
dirty feeder and will even eat carrion and cows which have died of disease.
The blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis is common in open area and scrub forest
than heavy forests. The sambar, Cervus unicolor is a rare occurring in forests.
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The spotted deer is diurnal unlike the sambar which is nocturnal in habit. The
barking deer Muntiacus muntjac haunts hill forests with its echoing rattling call.
The Indian mouse deer Tragulus meminna is common in forest area and is
nocturnal. It is quite a pretty, shy cud-chewing deer let. Elephant, Elephas
maximus frequents the forests in small groups. The pangolin, Manis
crassicaudata is a favorite prey of tiger and panther. The bat Pteropus edwardsii
is common all over the region wherever there are Tamarinds, Figs or other trees
with edible fruit.
Bats squeak while at rest and in flight they emit ultrasonic pulses of sound. Great
musk shrews, is often seen in the forest. The bandicoot, Mus bandicota is
common in houses and granaries. The migratory rat, Mus decumannis is the
common house rat found in the region. The field rat Golunda meltada is found in
the plains and is said to do much damage to the crops, especially during
famines. Among honey bees, Naraj jenu (Melipona sp.,) and Sanna nonajenu
(Trigona sp.) are about the size of gnats and they build their nests around small
twigs in bushes and also in the ground. Nonajenu and Kadujenu build nests in
trees and rocks. Aphis sp. is domesticated and reared in the region.
Among birds, black vulture, Otogyps calvus is common everywhere and more in
forest areas. The Brahminy kite Haliaster Indus is found near all the water
bodies. The common Paraiah kite Milvuis migrans, is very common in fair
weather and occurs in small numbers during rainy season. The Indian screech
owl, Strix javanica is common in forest areas and the rock horned owl, Bubo
bengalensis is common in plains. The common swallow, Hirundo rustica is a cold
weather visitant found everywhere. The wire-tailed swallow, Hirundo filifera is
common in plains. The Indian swift, Cypsellus affinis is common in plains and the
crested swift Dendrochelidon coronata is very common in forest areas. The
jungle nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus is common in forest area, and common
Indian nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus is common in plains.
The common Indian bee eater, Merops viridis occurs everywhere in the region.
The white breasted kingfisher, Halcyon myrnensis is common everywhere and is
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resident of the region. The grey hornbill Tockus birostris and the golden beaked
wood pecker Crysocolaptes delesserti are common in forest areas. The roseringed parakeet Palaeornis torquatus, the Indian lorikeet Loriculus vernalis, the
blue throated barbet, Magalaima asiatica and the green barbet, Magalaima
zeylanica, a resident are common in the region. The koel Eudynamys
scolopaceus is seen mostly in plains. The common crow pheasant Centrococcyx
rufipennis hovers round in scrub forests and gardens all over the region. The
honey pecker, Dicaeum concolor is common in forest areas. The Indian grey
shrike, Lanius schach, a resident, is found in plains and the ashy swallow shrike,
Artamus fuscus is common in the region and so is the scarlet minivet,
Pericrocotus flammeus. The small minivet, Ptericrocotus perigrinus is seen
everywhere. The Malabar racket-tailed drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus a
resident is seen in forest areas and so is the paradise fly catcher, Terpsiphone
paradise.
The white spotted fantail, Leucocerca leucogaster and the yellow-eyed Babler,
Pictoris sinensis both residents are common throughout the region and the white
headed babbler, Malacocercus grisens, a resident frequents the plains. The red
whiskered bulbul, Pycnotus cafer and the white cheeked bulbul, Pycnonotus
leucogenys are also common in the region. The golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus is
seen in plains and the black-headed orilie, Oriolus melanocephalus in forest
areas. The shama, Cercotrichas macrura frequents thick forests. The magpie
robin, Copsychus saularis is common in the region. The Indian tailor bird,
Orthotomus sutorius, a resident, is common everywhere. The common magpie,
Dendrocitta rufa, a resident, lives in forest areas. The carrion crow, Corvus
macrorhynchus, a resident is common everywhere.
The common myna, Acridotheres tristis a resident is found in plains and the
jungle mynah, Acridotheres fuscus, a resident in forest areas. The frequent baya
weaver bird, Ploceus philippinus frequent plains, while the white-backed munia
Lonchura striata the forest areas. The common sparrow, Passer domesticus a
resident, is common everywhere in nearby villages. The blue rock pigeon,
Columba livia hovers round plains and hilly regions. The spotted dove
Streptopelia chinensis belongs to all forests and the painted Sandgrouse,
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Pterocles fasciatus is confined to scrub forest. The common sandgrouse
Pterocles exustus a resident, is seen in plains, mostly in open grass lands. The
peocock Pavo cristatus, is very common in scrub forest and grey jungle fowl
Gallus sonerati is common in forest areas. The painted patridge, Francolinus
pictus a resident, is seen on most black soil tracts and is seldom found far from
trees.
The common grey partridge, Grancolinus pictus a resident, is very common in
scrub forests. The jungle bush quail, Perdicula asiatica belongs to forests. The
Indian bustard, Eupodotis edwardsii occurs around Saudatti. The lesser florkin,
Sypheotides aurita is seen in fields and grass lands. The common ring plover,
Aegialitis dubia hovers round ponds and grasslands. Near water source is seen
the red wattled lapwing, Venellis indicus, and the yellow wattled lapwing,
Lobipluvia malabarica, a resident, chooses drier ground. The painted snipe,
Rhynchaea bengalensis seems to require much thicker cover and is never found
in bare rice-fields.
The spotted sand piper, Rhyacophila glareola is fond of ponds and rice fields.
The bronze winged jacana, Metopidius indicus, a resident is seen mostly in
Khanapur area. The stilt, Himantopus candidus lingers near ponds. The green
shank, Totanus glottis appears in the cold season. The pheasant-tailed jacana,
Hydrophasianus chirurgus is a bird of the plains. The purple coot, Porphyrio
porphyrio is locally distributed, mostly near reedy ponds. The white breasted
water hen, Amaurornis phoenicura likes ponds and river banks. The adjutant
stork, Leptopiles dubius and the white necked stork, Ciconia episcopus are
found all round in the district and so are the little egret, Egretta garzetta and the
large egret, Egretta alba. The cattle egret Bubulcus ibis, revolves round forest
tracts. The white ibis, Threskiorins melanocephalus is found on all the larger
streams and river banks. The little cormorant, Palacrocorax pygmaeus and the
purple sun bird Nectarinia asiatica are also seen all over.
Among amphibians, the common toad Bufo melanosticus, the wrinkled from
Rana curtipes, chanum frog, Rhacophorus macullatus, green frog Hyla arborea
are common. They have keen sense of hearing and smell. They feed on insects
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and worms and breed at the onset of monsoon rains. They are preyed by snakes
and carnivorous birds. Among reptiles, Indian chameleon, chameleon calcaratus,
garden lizard Calotes varicolor, the blood sucker Calotes versicolor, starred
tortoise Testudo elegans, cobra Naja naja, viper Echis carinata, rat snake and
semi aquatic snake Natrix stolatus are prominent. Lizards are insectivorous and
snakes are carnivorous and feed on rats, mice, frogs, toads, lizards, worms,
insects and eggs.
Large tanks and rivers in the region present a number of different ecological
habitats and accordingly more diverse species of fresh water fish and others live
in them. During the rainy season, many fishes migrate upstream before
spawning or move into shallow water as the level rises during rains. The
Malaprabha and the Ghataprabha rivers are the main fresh water fishing
grounds in the region.
7.9 Approach and Methodology
7.10 Approach
A participatory and consultative approach was followed for executing the
assignment on Biodiversity and Ecological Assessment of the Ramasheswra Lift
irrigation project at Gokak taluk of Belgaum district. A team of experts from
Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University visited the project
area and conducted the ecological survey. Meetings were also held during the
ecological survey with forest officials, Revenue Department and local
community. Literature survey included review of forest working plan, census
handbook, gazetteer and other records related to ecology of the region was
collected.
7.11 Methodology
7.12 Phyto-sociological Survey of the Study Area
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7.12.1 Qualitative observations
A complete inventory has been carried out to record the plant and animal
species existing in the proposed water drawing point at Aralimatti village (12 ha
area) and all along the canal area of the project site. For this survey, the state
Engineering Department deputed Sri. Vijay Krishna, who has been involved in
survey. The ecology team has been able to identify and record the species and
prevailing in different land use patterns, such as agro-ecosystems, house
backyards, along the streams, which has been cross-checked with Gokak forest
division Working Plan of the Forest Department. The team has also recorded the
entire life forms category thriving in the field, consisting of trees, shrubs, herbs,
climbers etc.
7.12.2 Quantitative survey

In order to have representative ecological status for the study area, the whole
study area was divided into three division i.e., project site (water diversion and
pump house area), Riparian vegetation around 5-km stretch of downstream and
upstream from the water drawing point and command area or the project. Each
sites was examined for representative flora on randomly sampled quadrates for
trees/shrubs/herbs and grasses depending upon prevailing geographical
conditions, forest types and bio-diversity aspects. Quadrate method has decided
for vegetation studies to capture the heterogeneity in the division. Quadrates
were laid on the field, keeping in view of the heterogeneity in the particular area,
such as tank bed and bund, trees in agricultural bunds, farm forestry plantations,
avenue plantations, house backyards etc. In each sample plot all the individuals
were recorded separately, and species were identified on the field and
unidentified specimens were confirmed by cross checking with the Herbarium
available at the Center for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Sciences,
Bangalore.
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Phyto-sociological parameters, viz., frequency, density and diversity were
measured to determine the distribution and ecological aspects of the species.
Frequency is expressed in percentage and is a reflection of the probability of
encountering the species within the sampled area. Density is a measure of how
dense is the distribution of an individual species within a given area. It is
calculated by dividing the number of individuals of a species by the total number
of quadrants taken. Basal area is the area occupied by the base of a tree and it
is considered as a good indicator of the size, volume of a tree in a given
ecosystem.
Species diversity was calculated by using the formula of Shannon and Wiener
(1963) as:
H = 3.3219 (log10N-1/N ni log10 ni)

Where H is Shannon index of general diversity; ni and N are the IVI of the
species and community respectively.
7.12.3 Screening literature for species status
Besides measuring these parameters, other biodiversity aspects in the form of
endemic status, conservation status and life form have been collected from the
literature. For all the species found in the area during ecological survey, IUCN,
Red Data Books of the Botanical Survey of India have been screened to verify
their conservation status and also Wildlife Schedule, 1 and 2, were consulted
extensively, to verify their present conservation status
7.12.4 Faunal diversity in the region
For faunal diversity, consultations were held with forest department, NGOs and
other records of the region, followed by discussions with knowledgeable persons
of the villages and also frontline forest officials to validate the information cited in
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the literature. To know endemic or conservation status of the fauna Schedule 1
of the Wildlife Preservation Act (1972) has been screened.
7.13 Observation and discussion
7.13.1 Overview of Forests resource of the Study Area
Observations in the field combined with the study of past history of the region
indicate that the forests were originally of thorn and scrub forest type. Systematic
conservation of forest, in Belgaum district, dates back to the time of the passing
of the Bombay Presidency forest Act. Attempts have been made from the
earliest periods of the East India Companys rule to earn a revenue out of timber
and later on, the receipts derived by the Jungle Conservancy Fund from dead
wood, and firewood removed for sale, which were later expanded on the planting
and maintenance of scattered thopes (area having group of trees), but nothing
was done systematically to protect the natural forest growth of the region. The
forests of the region like its crops naturally differ with the soil in which they grow
and the rainfall they receive. In the dry black cotton soil areas, the growth
consists chiefly of babul which rapidly sows itself in tank beds or wherever land
of any depth is left waste. Many of the fields which remained untilled after the
great famine of 1877 speedily became covered with a thick growth of it. The
areas of shallower soil produce Prosopis and Balanites. On the granite hills there
is usually little soil cover, except in scattered pockets, where tamarind, custard
apple, babul and acacia trees grow with little effort.
The details of forest types and areas are given below (Champion & Seth, 1967,
in A revised survey of the forest types of India).
The thorn forest formation, consisting mainly of bundurgi (Dodonaea viscosa)

and Acacias and Cassias, is typical of the dry black soil region, but is now
extremely restricted by agricultural land, and only the banks of the major river
Ghataprabha river
and its tributary streams now show remnants of such
formation. Many species of Acacia genus and other species of scrub and open
forest and, grasses contribute to a typical landscape of this formation.
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The forests are managed under regular working plans, the objective of which is
the supply of fuel to the public and small timber, for the purpose of house
construction and agricultural implements. The scrub forests are usually open to
grazing, and therefore no improvement can be effected from the silviculatural
point of view.
The thorn forest formation, consisting mainly of Dodonia viscosa and Acacias is
typical of the dry black soil region, but is now extremely restricted by agricultural
land, and only the banks of the major river Malaprabha and its tributary streams
now show a remnant of such formation. Acacias and other species of thorn scrub
and grasses contribute to a typical landscape of this formation.
7.13.2 Composition and the condition of the forest
Forest of the region can be classified as Southern Tropical Thorn Forests
(6A/C1) and (6A/DS1) as per classification of Indias forest by Champion and
Seth (1968), previously these were described as Scrub jungle.
The principal species are Anjan (Hardwickia binata), tugli (Albizzia amara),
Mashwal (Chloroxylon swietenia) and Halagatti (Wrightia tinctoria). Other
species found are dindal (Anogeissus latifolia), tumri (Diospyros melonoxylon),
Kakke
(Cassia
fistula),
Hirajali
(Acacia
latronum),
Seethapal
(Annona
squamosa), Bandurgi (Dodonia viscosa) etc.

On the blanks of the rivers and streams and in well-drained black soils, species
like Hulgal (Pongamia pinnata), Babul (Acacia nilotica), Naineral (Syzygium
corymbosa), Holematti (Terminalia arjuna) are seen. Sandal (Santalum album)
once a native of these forests has almost disappeared from the region but lies
scattered along nalas, on forests borders and in malki lands along with other
common species like hunse (Tamarindus indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica),
Mango (Mangifera indica), Dodda mara (Ailanthus execlsa).
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Three most obnoxious kinds of species were observed in the region are prickly
pear (Opuntia sp.), Lantana camara and Loranthus. There had been attempts to
eradicate these in the past.
7.13.3 Natural regeneration of the forest of the region
Natural regeneration is in general inadequate. It is mostly of coppice origin or
through root suckers and very seldom though seedlings. In areas near about
Gokak falls the vegetation consists mostly of Euphorbias and within a cluster of
these very often the neem (Azadiractha indica) makes its appearance and
establishes itself. Given adequate protection this species will certainly thrive. In
many areas the growth of vegetation is greatly depleted due to heavy biotic
pressure. The growth where it occurs in places which are far away from away
from human habitation is also stunted.
7.14 Key features of the study area
The key features observed for three locations were summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. Key feature of sampled locations of the project area
Sl.
No
Location of
the project
Area
Project site
water
diversion
point
12 acre
Command
area
18,000 ha
Features
Two houses and 12 acres agricultural
area dominated by sugarcane and
paddy. The location is on right side of
the Ghataprabha river bank, which is
adjacent to the Aralimati village which is
5 km below the Aralimatti. The trees
observed are Acacia nilotica, Pongamia,
Terminalia along the bank and Tectona
grandis in the agriculture land.
This command area forms a part of
Ghataprabha sub catchments in main
Krishna river, above the confluence of
Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. The
region is gently undulating landscape
with a linear belt of hills running in
almost east-west direction dividing the
region into two parts. The region has
gentle easterly slope forming largely a
plain interspersed with isolated low hills.
As many as 34 villages land is going to
get irrigation benefits. The vegetation
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Riparian
vegetation
observed is of scrub type dominated by

many species of Acacias and Prosopis
julifera.
The area adjacent to the diversion point
is agricultural fields, it doesnt have
much vegetation on both side. However
few tree species such as Terminalia,
Acacia, Pongamia are the common
species observed.
5-km
stretch
from the water
diversion point
on
both
upstream and
down stream
7.15 Bio-diversity Aspects of Flora in the Study Area

7.15.1 Plant species richness
There were a total 101 plant species recorded in proposed irrigation project area.
Of these were 43 trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 climbers respectively. The
species names, family were given in Annexure II. The trees and herbs contribute
a very high percentage to floral density. The survey team has come across more
number of tree species than other life form. Location wise species density and
diversity details were given in Annexure I.
Table 7.2. Tree species density and diversity in proposed project area
Sl.
No.
Land categories
Number of
Density/ha
Diversity
46
1.85
species
Project site water

1
diversion point and

pump house station
Command area
26
154
3.13
Riparian vegetation
26
168
2.95
43
358
3.55
Overall
Note: Location wise species density and diversity were given in Annexure I.
7.15.2 Overall Species density and diversity

The dominant species were the Azadirictha indica, Acacia nilotica, Chloroxylon
switinia, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia sp., Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica
etc., recorded in the proposed project area.
The species diversity values

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indicate that that farmers maintained tree resources. The sampled area also
harbors few rare and threatened species category, such as Santalum album and
Gloriosa superba.
7.15.3 Shrubs, Herbs and climbers
The total of 43 trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 climbers were recorded in the
proposed project area respectively. The Shrubs, herb and climbers species
name and family were given in Annexure II. Among the 42 herbs and 10 climbers
species, Evolulus alsinoidis, a herb belonging to rare category and one climber
i.e, Gloriosa suparba which come under endangered category.
7.15.4 Conservation status of plants
Among 101 plant species recorded in the proposed project, three species belong
to rare, endangered and threatened species (RET) category (Table 7.3). Among
these one climber, one herb and remaining two species belong to trees. These
species were recorded all along the Ghataprabha river stretch. The local
community and our observations reveals that a number of factors such as
fuelwood and fodder extraction, overgrazing, successive fire incidences,
encroachment of river stretch are contribute for degradation of the ecosystem,
leading to endangering native flora and fauna in the region.
Table 7.3. List of plant species as under IUCN/Red Data Book category in the
study area
Sl.
No
1
2
Species
Family
RLF*
Conservation Status
Gloriosa superba
Liliaceae
Climber
Endangered
Evolulus alsinoidis
Convoluaceae
Herb
Locally threatened
Santalaceae
Tree
Endangered
3
Santalum album
*RLF Raunkiers Life Form i.e. T: Tree; S: Shrub; H: Herb; C: Climber

Source: IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972:
Karnataka Forest Department and Botanical survey of India.
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7.16 Biodiversity Aspects of Fauna in the Study Area
The population sizes of the faunal species observed were limited in number and
most often only a few individuals were seen during the survey. However, faunal
species such as birds were visually observed and their individuals were counted
and recorded during survey programme, which were crosschecked with the
available literature for the region. Although there are no specific studies for the
region under survey, however we have scrutinized the Belgaum Division Working
Plan for the faunal diversity of the Reserve Forest of the region.
The mammalian wildlife is characteristic of the thorn and scrub forest and open
forest. Though the greater cat (Tiger) and Leopard are not resident of the study
area sampled, but the village people were of the view that these were sighted in
the region almost ten years back. The wild boar, wild dog, fox and rat are the
common mammals reported from the reserve forest of the proposed project area.
The local people claim that the spotted deer and the sambar were found earlier
and now their population is under threat, because of forest degradation and also
due to hunting. The checklist of mammals reported from the region are given in
Table 7.4.
Table 7.4. Mammals species recorded for the proposed project area
Sl.
No.
Common name
Scientific name
Conservation
Status
Sloth bear
Melursus ursinus
Locally Rare
Sambhar
Cervus unicolor
Common
Spotted deer
Axis axis
Common
Jackal
Canis aureus
Common
Mouse deer
Tragulus meminna
Common
Three striped palm squirrel
Funanbulus palmarum
Common
Wild Boar
Sus scrofa
Common
Wild dog
Cyon alpinus
Common
Bonnet macaque
Macaca radiata
Rare
10
Fruit bat
Cynopterus sphinx
Common
11
Jungle sheep
Muntiacus muntjak
Locally Rare
12
Common mangoose
Herpestes edwardsi
Common
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Sl.
Common name
No.
13
Rat
Scientific name
Rattus rattus
Conservation
Status
Common
Source: IUCN/Red Data Books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972:

Karnataka Forest Department and Zoological survey of India.
The checklist of birds reported from the region by various authors was given in
Table 7.5. Common myna, Black vulture, Brahminy kite are commonly found in
the region.
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Water Quality
Table 7.5. Birds species recorded for the proposed project region
Sl.
Common name
No.
Scientific name
Conservation
Status
Crested Hawk-Eagle
Spizaetus cirrhatus
Common
Black Drongo
Dicrurus adsimilis
Common
King Vulture
Sarcogyps calvus
Rare
Common Indian night gar
Caprimulgus asiaticus
Rare
Golden backed woodpecker
Dinopium benghalense
Common
Grey Jungle fowl
Gallus sonneratii
Common
Blue rock pigeon
Columbia livia
Common
Common Hawk
Cuculus varius
Common
Koel
Eudynamys scolopacea
Common
10
Indian great horned owl
Bubo bubo
Common
11
Indian robin
Saxicoloides fulicata
Common
12
Pale Harrier
Circs macrourus
Common
13
Red vented bulbul
Pycronatus cafer
Common
14
Pied kingfisher
Ceryle rudis
Common
15
Scarlet minivet
Pericrocotus flammeus
Common
16
Spotted dove
Streptopelia chnensis
Common
17
Redwhiskered Bulbul
Pycnonotus jocosus
Common
18
Weaver bird
Ploceus philippinus
Common
19
Tree pie
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Common
20
Jungle Babler
Turdoidus straiatus
Common
21
Crested serpent eagle
Spiloris cheela
Rare
22
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
Common
Source: IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka
Forest Department and Zoological Survey of India.
The list of Butterflies observed by different authors in the region are given in
Table 7.6. Among the ten butterflies reported from the region two species are
rare.
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Water Quality
Table 7.6. Butterflies recorded for the project area
Sl.
No.
Common name
Scientific name
Status
Common Castor
Ariadne merione
Common
Common Crow
Euploea core
Common
Common evening brown
Melanitis leda
Common
Common Lime
Papilio demoleus
Common
Crimson Rose
Pachliopta hector
Rare
Indian Sunbeam
Curetis thetis
Common
Painted Lady
Vanessa cardui
Rare
Striped Tiger
Danais genutia
Common
Yellow Pansy
Junonia hierta
Common

Karnataka forest Department Zoological survey of India
The reptiles and amphibians and fishes recorded from the region are given in
Table 7.7. The most common found reptiles are species of Geckos and garden
and monitor lizard. The members of the Wild life aware nature club have sighted
the Indian Chameleon. Local people feel that rocky area harbors python and
cobra.
Table 7.7. Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes recorded for the region
Sl.
No.
Common name
Scientific name
Conservation
Status *
REPTILES
1
Rock Gecko
Hemidactylus maculates Common
Common garden lizard
Calotes versicolor
Common
Indian Chamaeleon
Chamaeleon zeylanicus
Rare
Monitor Lizard
Varanus bengalensis
Common
Spectacled cobra
Naja naja
Rare
Russelss viper
Vipera russeli
Common
Peninsular rock agama
Psammophilus dorsalis
Common
AMPHIBIANS
8
Southern Hill toad
Bufo microtympanum
Common
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Water Quality
Sl.
No.
Common name
Conservation
Scientific name
Status *
Common Indian toad
Bufo melanosticus
Common
10
Marbled Baloon frog
Uperodon systoma
Common
FISHES
11
Mallemeenu
Nemachilus denisuni
Common
12
Korava
Channa punctatus
Common
13
Godhle meenu
Esomus danriens
Common

Karnataka Forest Department and Zoological survey of India.
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Water Quality
Chapter VIII
Land Use/Land Cover (Remote Sensing) Assessment
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Remote sensing has proved to be an extremely valuable tool in resources
mapping,
resources
targeting,
resources
management,
environmental
monitoring, weather forecasting and disaster location and monitoring. The most
important
applications
include
geological,
geomorphological,
mineral,
groundwater, snow melt runoff, soil, land use/land cover, land degradation
mapping and monitoring, forest mapping, management of water and agriculture
resources. The availability of multitemporal remote sensing data enables earth
resource scientists to monitor, at periodic intervals the location of zones affected
by disaster such as floods, drought, cyclones, landslides, forest fires, pests and
diseases of crops, and environmental degradations due to soil erosion, shoreline
erosion, deforestation, shifting cultivation, soil salinity/alkalinity, desertification
and pollution.
8.1 Location and Extent
The site is situated near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum
district. It is located towards north of Kaujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the command
area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum district. The
nearest town is Gokak which is approachable throughout the year. Ghataprabha
is the nearest railway station. The climatic condition of the whole year is healthy,
agreeable and is characterized by general dryness excepting monsoon season.
The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with
maximum temperature reaching up to 420 C. December to February is the cold
season when minimum temperature falls to 180 C. Generally, humidity varies
from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to
September is the period with August being the wettest month. As per the recurs
of gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an
average there are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally light
with slight increase in the force observed during late summer and monsoon
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Water Quality
season. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold Agro-climatic zone
of Karnataka.
8.2 Land Use / Land Cover
Land use / land cover of the catchment area has been classified into six major
classes and twenty four sub classes according to the SNRIS norms. The main
classes of Land use are
Built up land It includes Towns / Cities, villages and industrial areas
Agriculture Land This class includes all agriculture lands under
different seasonal crops, agricultural plantations and fallow land.
Forest - This class includes degraded forest and Forest Plantations.
Wastelands This class includes Mining and Industrial wastelands and
Salt affected lands.
Water bodies This class includes Lake / Tanks and Reservoirs
Others Includes mainly Habitation with Vegetation, Tree groves,
Aquaculture ponds and mixed vegetation. Some of these classes show
negligible extent in the district.
The main classes of Land cover are
Forest - This class includes Moist and Dry Deciduous open forests
and Scrub forests.
Wastelands This class includes Barren rocky / stony waste /

sheet rock area, Gullied / Ravenous Land, Land with scrub and Land
without scrub and Sandy area.
Water bodies This class includes Rivers / Streams / Nalas and

River islands
Others This class includes vegetation dominated by Prosophys

juliflora
The details of each sub class and their extent and proportion with respect to the
total geographical area of the district are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1. Land use / Land cover of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
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Water Quality
Sl. No
Land Use / Land Cover
Total Area
(in ha)
Percent
Area
4.98
0.03
Agricultural Plantation
Barren Rocky / Stony Waste /

Sheet Rock Area
210.44
1.18
Fallow land
230.64
1.29
Kharif + Rabi (Double Crop)
878.77
4.92
Kharif crop
2132.20
11.95
Lake / Tanks
140.09
0.79
Land with scrub
4548.84
25.49
Land without scrub
368.01
2.06
Rabi crop
8135.09
45.59
10
River / Stream
1071.18
6.00
11
River Island
6.16
0.03
12
Village
118.09
0.66
17844.48
100.00
Total
The command area of Sri Rameshwara project was demarcated from the
toposheets on 1:50000 scale procured from Survey of India. The base maps of
the study area showing roads, railways, settlements, rivers/tanks were prepared
on 1:50000 scale.
8.3 Description of different land use / land cover classes
8.3.1 Built-up Land
Built-up land comprises all types of structures, houses, playgrounds,
recreational, institutional etc. The major urban settlements are identified and
mapped as towns and cities.
It has been further classified as residential,
Commercial, Recreational, Industrial, etc. Other smaller settlements are

identified and mapped as villages. The total area identified as Built-up land
comes to about 118.09 hectares which is 0.66% to total command area.
8.3.2 Agriculture Land
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Water Quality
Cropping activity is seen throughout the year, mainly in the valley regions of the
study area. There are three cropping seasons viz., Kharif from June to
September/October, Rabi from October to February and Summer from March to
May. Different categories of croplands identified in the area are described below.
a. Kharif crop
The kharif season falls from June to September. The main crops are
paddy, groundnut, ragi, etc. They can be rainfed or irrigated areas. The
total area identified as crop land comes to about 2132.20 hectares which
is 11.95% to total command area.
b. Rabi crop
The cropping seasons falls from October to February. The main crops are
jowar, maize, cotton, sunflower, etc. They can be rainfed or irrigated
areas. The total area identified as crop land comes to about 81395.09
hectares which is 45.59% to total command area.
c. Double Cropped Land (Kharif + Rabi)/ (Kharif + Summer)
From the two seasons satellite imagery the double-cropped areas were
marked, where we can see the cropping during Kharif + Rabi or Kharif +
Summer crops such as paddy, sugarcane, mulberry, etc. The total area
identified as crop land comes to about 878.77 hectares which is 4.92% to
total command area.
e. Agricultural Plantation
It is an area under agriculture crops planted adopting certain agricultural
management technique. Coffee, Cashewnut, Cardamom, Coconut, Tea
and Rubber plantations are predominant plantations in the study area.
The total area identified as agricultural plantation comes to about 4.98
hectares which is 0.03% to total command area.
f. Fallow Land
Fallow land is an agriculture land left uncultivated during both Kharif and
Rabi seasons. If the land is kept fallow up to one year it is current fallow
and if the land is kept fallow for more than five years it is permanent fallow.
The total area identified as Fallow land comes to about 230.64 hectares
which is 1.29% to total command area.
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Water Quality
8.3.3 Wasteland
Wasteland refers to degraded land, which can be brought under vegetation
cover with reasonable effort. These lands are not productive currently due to
various problems. The different categories of wastelands that are identified and
delineated in the present study area are as follows:
a. Land with scrub
This is a land, which is generally prone to deterioration and may have scrub
cover. The land under this category is confined to the mounds and upland
areas and also along the fringes of the notified forest boundary. The total
area identified as Land with scrub comes to about 4548.8 hectares which is
25.49% to total command area.
b. Land without scrub
These lands are generally prone to degradation or erosion and may not
have scrub cover. This category is found on the mounds and plain areas.
The total area identified as Land without scrub comes to about
368.01hectares which is 2.06% to total command area.
c. Barren Rocky / Stony Waste / Sheet Rock
These are the rock exposures of varying lithology often bare and devoid of
soil cover and vegetation. This category is observed mainly on the hilltops
and upper slopes of the hillocks within the forest area. The total area
identified as Barren Rocky / Stony Waste / Sheet Rock comes to about
210.44 hectares which is 1.18% to total command area.
8.3.4 Water Bodies
It is an area of impounded water, aerial extent and often with a regulated flow of
water. It includes man-made reservoir/ tanks/ canal, besides natural lake, rivers/
streams.
a. River Island
River Island area identified and mapped. The total area identified as River
island comes to about 6.16 hectares which is 0.03% to total command
area.
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Water Quality
8.4 Slope Characteristics
Slope plays an important role in Land irrigability and land capability assessment.
Slope map represents the inclination of the terrain over a distance i.e. changes
in elevation over a distance. Slope maps were derived from 20 m contour
interval obtained from Survey of India toposheets of 1:50,000 scale by standard
procedure (Table 8.2). Topographical maps alone do not provide information in a
form suitable for most of the planning problems. Hence, derived slope maps with
classes of slopes help in planning. Based on the guidelines of All India Soil and
Landuse survey (AIS & LUS), following slope categories are classified for
geographic area of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area.
Table 8.2. Categories of slopes and corresponding contour spacing on
1:50,000 scale
SL.
NO.
1
CONTOUR
DISTANCE
> 4 cm
Nearly Level
01
1.33 4 cm
Very Gentle
13
0.88 1.33 cm
Gentle Slope
35
0.4 0.88 cm
Moderate Slope
5 10
0.26 0.4 cm
Strong Slope
10 15
0.11 0.26 cm
Moderately Steep
15 35
< 0.11 cm
Very Steep
SLOPE CLASSES
PERCENT SLOPE
> 35
8.5 Hydrogeomorphology
The ground water regime is a dynamic system wherein water is absorbed at the
surface of the earth and eventually recycled back to the surface. The ground
water regime is controlled by various parameters like slope, depth and nature of
weathering, drainage pattern, irrigation precipitation, lithology, soil, geologic
structure, geomorphology, etc., therefore it is important in understanding the
groundwater condition of an area.
The synoptic view of satellite imagery facilitates better appreciation of
geomorphology and helps in mapping of different landforms and their
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Water Quality
assemblages. The Survey of India topomaps provide information required to
interpret the geomorphology from the satellite imagery.
Initially, any area is mapped in the first level, considering physiography and
relief,
into 4 major zones, viz., Hills/Plateaus, Piedmont zones and Plains and
Valleys. Each unit is further classified and mapped into different geomorphic
units based on the landform characteristics, their aerial extent, depth of
weathering and thickness of deposition.
The geomorphological units of the Sri Rameshwara Project command area
mainly covers Linear Ridge, Pediment, Valley, Pediplain shallow weathered,
Plateau moderately dissected, Plateau Slightly dissected and Channel Island,
Reservoir Island, Plateau weathered, River/ Stream, Tank, and Valley Fill. The
Hydrogeomorphology of Sri Rameshwara Irrigation project is given in Table 3.
8.5.1 Linear Ridge

Linear to arcuate hills showing definite trendlines, consisting of hard compact
rocks with or without soil cover. This unit covers to 161.70hectares which is
0.91% of the total command area. This zone acts as a run off zone.
8.5.2 Pediment
Gently undulating plain dotted with rock outcrops with or without thin veneer of
soil cover. This unit covers 78.11 hectares which is 0.44% of the total command
area. The zone acts as a runoff zone with limited groundwater prospect.
Table 8.3. Hydrogeomorphological units of Sri Rameshwara Project
Command Area
Sl.
No
1
2
Hydrogeomorphology
Channel island
Linear Ridge
Total Area (in ha)
Percent Area
6.16
0.03
161.70
0.91
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Water Quality
3
Pediment
78.11
0.44
4
5
Pediplain Shallow weathered

Plateau moderately dissected
1551.59
4593.06
8.70
25.74
6
7
Plateau slightly dissected

Plateau weathered
5669.60
3447.34
31.77
19.32
8
9
10
11
River/Stream
Tank
Valley
Valley Fill
Total
1071.18
140.49
269.73
855.50
17844.48
6.00
0.79
1.51
4.79
100.00
8.5.3 Valley
Low lying depressions and negative landforms of varying size and shape
occurring within the hills associated with stream / nala courses. This unit covers
269.73 hectares which is 1.51% of the total command area. The groundwater
prospect is moderate.
8.5.4 Pediplain Shallow Weathered
Gently undulating plains, large aerial extent, plains formed by the coalescence of
several pediments. Thickness of weathered material varies from 0 to10 Mts. This
unit covers 1551.59 hectares which is 8.70% of the total command area. The
groundwater prospect is moderate to poor.
8.5.5 Pediplain Moderate Dissected
Gently undulating plains formed due to process of pedeplaination and
weathering, normally occurring along valleys. The weathering thickness varies
from 10 to 20 Mts. This unit covers 4593.06 hectares which is 25.74% of the total
command area. The groundwater prospect is good to moderate.
8.5.6 Channel Island
An island amidst the river/stream/channels with exposure of bedrock normally
gneissic/granitic terrain and exposed with soil cover. Channel Island is mainly
composed of gravels, sand and silt of river borne deposits. This unit covers 6.16
hectares which is 0.03% of the total command area. The groundwater prospect
is good to moderate.
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Water Quality
8.5.7 Plateau Slightly Dissected

Plateau with slightly dissection forming mostly gently undulating terrain with fairly
thick weathered mantle and valley floors area. This unit covers 5669.60 hectares
which is 31.77% of the total command area.
8.5.8 Valley Fill
The valley fill comprises sand, silt, clay and rock fragments with limited lateral
spread. These are the depression zones and are represented by the area along
drainage. Intense land use practices are seen along the Valley Fills. This unit
covers 855.50 hectares which is 4.79% of the total command area.
8.6 Ground Water Prospects
The occurrence and movement of groundwater in hard rock terrains are
controlled by number of factors such as lithology, structure, landforms, thickness
of weathered mantle, soil type, land cover and land use, recharge through
rainfall etc. Except rainfall data other aspects have been generated by using
satellite data, qualitatively on regional scale. Such information derived from
satellite data when integrated with adequate hydrological and collateral data, will
be use full in the delineation of groundwater prospects zones.
It is suggested that though the Hydrogeomorphology map itself gives a
reasonable idea on groundwater prospects of the region, extensive, highly
localized surface geophysical surveys in the target areas are required, to
establish the thickness of weathered zone, behavior of saturated fractures at
depth etc., before drilling is taken up. After drilling the wells systematic pumping
tests are to be conducted, so that based on the aquifer characteristics, suitable
measures could be taken up for the management of groundwater resources over
a long period. The Ground Water prospects of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
Scheme are given in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4. Ground Water Prospects of Sri Rameshwara
Project Command Area
175
Water Quality
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ground Water Prospects

Very Good to Good
Good
Total Area (in ha)

6.16
2762.75
Percent Area
0.03
15.48
11981.14
2358.18
461.70
274.54
17844.48
67.14
13.22
2.59
1.54
100.00
Moderate
Moderate to Poor
Poor to Nil
Water Body Mask
Total
8.7 Lithology
The operation and interaction of natural agencies of weathering and erosion on
the bedrock produce soil. The physical nature of soil therefore depends on the
bedrock material and agencies of weathering.
Soils are classified as residual, transported or organic, depending upon their
origin. On the basis of composition and physical characteristics, soil can be
designated as clayey, loamy, silty, sandy, gravelly or combinations thereof.
Broadly, they are called fine-texture, medium-textured or coarse-textured. Soils
have characteristic hydrological properties, namely soil permeability and
porosity, which govern the surface run-off vis--vis subsurface infiltration. Soils
can be grouped as poorly drained, moderately drained, well drained and
excessively drained. The coarse-textured soils, owing to their larger grain size,
are invariably better drained than the fine-textured soils, in which infiltration of
water is inhibited.
These properties underlie the response of soils on
photographs and images. The Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Project is given in

Table 8.5.
Table 8.5. Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Rock Type
Argillite, Quarzite and Conglomerate
Conglomerate, Arenite and Shale
Dolomite, Argillite and Chert-breccia
Dolomite, Limestone,Argillite
Dolomite, Limestone, Argillite (Yendigeri)
Undifferentiated flows
Total Area
(in ha)
521.99
3718.50
1659.58
2127.40
4597.46
5219.55
Percent Area
02.93
20.84
9.30
11.92
25.76
29.25
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Water Quality
Total
17844.48
100.00
8.8 Drainage and Watershed

The drainage map shows different types of drainage patterns. The collective
pattern of streams and their course constitutes drainage pattern. Factors like
slope, geological features, and topography are reflected in the drainage patterns
of an area.
Drainage density is dependent on factors like relief, rainfall intensity, and
infiltration capacity of the soil and vegetation cover. Drainage density in this
area is high because of more undulations.
Drainage system of the Sri
Rameshwara Project command area falls under Krishna basin drained by one
major catchment. The catchment forms drainage systems to river Krishna. This
catchment mainly contributes to river Malaprabha by taking water through big
streams.
The watershed details up to micro-watershed level are given in the following
Table 8.8. The Sri Rameshwara Project command area falls under the water
resource region of the Bay of Bengal (Region 4) drained by Krishna basin (4D). It
is further delineated into 1 catchment, 2 sub-catchments and 3 watersheds.
These 3 watersheds have been further delineated into 12 sub-watersheds, 19
mini-watersheds and 65 micro-watersheds. The details are given in Table 8.10.
The Krishna basin (4D) includes two catchments viz., Main Krishna above
confluence with Bhima (4D7). In Sri Rameshwara Project command area, the
biggest sub-watershed is Chippalkatti with an area of 3561.42 hectares.
Table 8.6. Watershed Details (up to Watershed) of Sri Rameshwara

Project Command Area
Hydrological Units Total Nos.
Name
Region
1
Bay of Bengal (4)
Basin
1
Krishna (4D)
Main Krishna above confluence with Bhima
Catchment
1
(4D7)
Malaprabha
Sub-Catchment
2
Ghataprabha (4D7D)
(4D7C)
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Water Quality
Watershed
Tas, Hirehalla
(4D7C8)
Doddahalla,
(Ghataprabha)
(4D4D3)
Hirehalla 4
(4D7D5)
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Water Quality
Table 8.7. Watershed code of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
Sl.
No.
1
Watershed
Tas, Hirehalla
Watershed
code
4D7C8
No. of Microwatersheds
1
Doddahalla (Ghataprabha)
4D4D3
51
Hirehalla 4
4D4A3
59
Total
Table 8.8. Sub-watersheds of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area

Sl.
No
1
2
Sub-Watershed
Watershed
Akkisagar
Bagarmal
Chipalkatti
Hulkund
Hunshval
Kuligod
Mallapur
Manami
Timmapur
10
Totgatti
11
Virupakshahalla
12
Yadawad
Hirehalla4
Hirehalla4
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Tas,
Hirehalla
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
Doddahalla,
Ghataprabha
No. of MicroWatershed
3
4
Total Area
(in ha)
1062.65
1113.97
12
3561.42
19.96
2097.22
11.75
264.01
1.48
10
2386.65
13.37
563.25
3.16
1216.59
6.82
2271.36
12.73
416.94
2.34
1569.77
8.80
1320.66
7.40
59
17844.48
100.00
Total
Percent Area
5.96
6.24
179
Water Quality
Chapter IX
Socio-Economic appraisal and perception on Rehabilitation
and Resettlement (R & R) policy
9.0 The Settings

Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme is located at Aralimatti village in Gokak
taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka state. The Government of Karnataka
proposed the project during 2002, in response to the representations made by
the people of the villages from Ramdurg, Gokak and Soudatti taluks of the
Belgaum district. In order to explore the possibilities of providing protective
irrigation and drinking water to these chronically drought affected villages, the
Government of Karnataka considered recommendations of the Sri B C Angadi
committee for implementation of Sri Rameshwar lift irrigation scheme by
allocating 2.2 TMC of water from the Ghataprabha river, a tributary of Krishna
river basin.
The proposed project is expected to benefit more than 30 villages, spread over
three taluks of Gokak, Ramdurg and Soudatti belonging to Belgaum district. The
gross command area of the project is 18,022.73 hectares, with net irrigated area
accounting for 13,800 hectares, to achieve 100% cropping intensity during
Khariff season. The total estimated cost of the project is Rs 226.20 lakhs
towards creating irrigation and drinking water facility in the proposed command
area.
In this context, the Government of Karnataka has proposed the Sri Rameshwar
Lift Irrigation Project, which would be drawing water from the Ghataprabha river
by means of a lift irrigation. It is proposed to pump water from Jack well.
Construction of intake channel, pump house chamber, canal network for the
project involves, inevitably submersion of land and few residential sites.
Therefore, prior to commencement of such projects, it is necessary for the
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Water Quality
government to assess the extent of loss of properties and infrastructure in the
project area. It is also necessary to implement effective Rehabilitation and
Resettlement (R & R) programmes for villages and people affected from the
project. In this regard, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the proposed
Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Project has been undertaken. In this section the
assessment of socio-economic conditions of the project area and perception of
the local people on the R & R programme is assessed and presented.
The EIA conducted at the Sri Rameshwar Irrigation Project, describes the socioeconomic features of the project area, extent of land and number of residential
sites directly and indirectly affected due to the establishment of water pipe line
and canal network. The report provides a general profile of the project area, and
in particular the existing socio-economic features of the villages. Further, study
conducted in six villages, provides extent of land affected under proposed project
and a few residential sites coming under the project. The study has attempted to
collect household level information on various personal and socio-economic
components, and besides the perceptions of the resident households have also
been collected, on the nature of R and R policy and its implementation.
9.1The study location
The proposed lift irrigation scheme involves construction of the intake point with
powerhouse and delivery chamber at Aralimatti village, located at 40 km from
Gokak town. This is followed by drawing pipeline and creation of canal network.
The geographic coordination of the location is at longitude of 75o 04 15 East
and latitude of 16o 19 30 north.
9.2 Salient features of the site
The proposed irrigation scheme is to utilize 2.2 TMC of water, which is inclusive
of 0.30 TMC for drinking purpose from the Ghataprabha river to create gross
command area of 18,000 ha. This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha
sub-catchment in the main Krishna river, above the confluence of Bhima
catchment of Krishna basin.
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Water Quality
In General, the area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme
presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in
almost east-west direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has
The irrigation scheme is located at 522 meters above MSL, and the mean rainfall
of the area is about 503 mm with 50 rainy days in a year. The region is
characterized by general dryness except during monsoon season. The summer
season between March and May is driest period of this region, dusty and very
hot, with maximum temperature going up to 42O C, and during winter
temperature falls to 18o C. Further humidity varies from 20% during summer to
85% during monsoon period.
9.3 Submersion details of the project
The proposed project requires only acquisition of land for drawing pipeline and
creation of canal network in the command area. Also, residential sites at one
village will be acquired and it does not affect any village habitation/population as
a whole. The salient features of the proposed project are provided in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1. Salient features of the Shri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Scheme
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
Particulars
Gross command of the Scheme
Net cultivated area
Area under Khariff Hybrid Jowar
Area under Ground nut
Number of villages benefited
Estimated cost of the scheme
Gross command area in Gokak taluk
Gross command area in Ramdurg taluk
Gross command area in Soudatti taluk
Features
18022.73 ha
13800 ha
10000 ha
3800 ha
29 villages in Ramdurg,
Gokak and Soudatti taluks
226.20 Crores
7745.67 ha spread over 12
villages
villages
villages
The proposed project is expected to create irrigation potential for 29 villages, 12

villages in Gokak taluk, 13 villages in Ramdurg taluk and 4 villages in Soudatti
taluk. The project will benefit a population of more than 60,000 by providing
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Water Quality
irrigation to 10,000 ha of area belonging to Khariff hybrid Jowar, and 8000 ha of
groundnut area. Besides providing 0.30 TMC drinking water to four villages
namely Koujalgi, Hulkunda, Bagojikoppa and Venkatapura. Table 9.2 describes
the number of villages benefited from the proposed project; it provides estimated
area which will be covered under irrigation facility and total population in the
village likely to be benefited from the scheme.
Table 9.2. Villages benefited from the scheme: estimated area and population
Sl
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Budhi Buzurg
Dhavaleshwar
Hanamsagar
Kalliguddi
Koujalgi
Kuligod
Mannikeri
8
9
10
11
12
Raddratti
Timmapur
Venkatapur
Yadwad
Yaragudari
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Area benefited from

scheme (in ha)
GOKAK TALUK
619.2
48.03
92.66
1192
1610.3
1398.9
666.26
Name of the village
453.22
125.01
234.9
1282.4
22.74
7745.7
Total for Gokak taluk
RAMDURG TALUK
Bhagojikop
431.48
Bichaguppi
5.72
Chikkop K S
47.8
Chippalkatti
496.37
Hulkund
2293.5
Kunnal
417.97
Gudgoppa
389.21
Hirekoppa K S
184.08
Hosahalli
1820.1
Kasba Chandragi
312.62
Komankoppa
402.54
Land of bhogajikoppa
366.08
Murkutnal
285.06
Sidhnal
220.72
Population
benefited
NA
2095
NA
1123
9227
5390
1790
1355
1262
1586
8809
1123
1781
1593
1979
3130
4703
1821
1470
2639
NA
2139
2082
NA
992
1960
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Water Quality
7673.2
Total for Ramdurg taluk
SOUDATTI TALUK
27 Dasanal
400.3
28 Itanal
57.71
29 Mellikeri
1374.4
30 Mugalihall
771.84
Total for Soudatti Taluk
2603.8
Grand total for the project
18023
746
1027
845
3444
The details of land and residential sites affected due to construction of intake
point with delivery chamber, drawing pipeline with service road all along pipeline
and creation of irrigation canal network are provided in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3. Land and residential sites affected under Sri Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation Scheme
Name of
The village
Kalligudi
Mannikare
Koujalgi
Kulgoda
Venkatapur
Aralimatti
Total
Land and residential

sites affected under
proposed scheme
Land
Land
Land
Land
Land
Extent of area
or number of
houses
1.32 acres
0.39 acres
17.15 acres
9.38 acres
4.65 acres
Residential sites
Land
Land
15.31 acres
48.2 acres
Sites and houses
Legal status of
acquisition
Notice 4 (1) issued
Notice 4 (1) issued
Notice 4 (1) issued
Notice 4 (1) issued
Notice 4 (1) issued
Noticed during socioeconomic survey
Notice 4 (1) issued
Notice 4 (1) issued
Noticed during socioeconomic survey
Note: Refer Appendix 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6
The area affected in these six villages for establishment of intake point with
delivery chamber and power house at Aralimatti and drawing the pipeline, which
passes through villages namely Venkatapur, Kulgoda, Koujalgi, Kalliguddi and
Mannikere. Further it is required to identify and estimate the area required for
creation of irrigation canal network in the command area. The following table
9.3.1, provides details of canal net work in the command area and its estimated
length.
Table 9.3.1. Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km)
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Water Quality
Sl. No
Name of the canal network
Length (in km)
Hulund main canal
Radderahatti main canal
4.53
Kulgod main canal
2.26
Venkatapur main canal
5.0
Mannikere branch canal
2.70
Kalliguddi main canal
5.40
Mugulihala branch canal
8.28
Bagajikoppa main canal
27.17
Total
13.40
69.05
9.4 Socio-Economic appraisal of the project area

The socio-economic appraisal of the Sri Rameshwara lift irrigation project was
carried out during May and June 2006, which included survey of six villages in
the project area. The objectives of the study are presented below.
1. To construct a general profile of the villages in the project area: this
includes socio-economic development, existing infra-structure facilities
and agricultural pattern in the villages.
2. To document and assess the family conditions and assets possessed by
the households in the project area.
3. To ascertain the perceptions of the families towards R and R policy and
its implementation, for which stratified random sampling technique at
farmers level is adopted.
4. To conduct group discussions with local people, to elicit response on R
and R policy and to document problems if any, as expressed by local
people.
5. To estimate R and R cost for the six villages in the project area.
9.5 General profile of the villages
In this section, general profile of six villages to be affected under the proposed
project has been assessed. Some of the key issues attempted to assess in the
present study are geo-political features, demographic and household details,
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Water Quality
basic facilities available such as education, health and transportation, land use
pattern and cropping patterns, trade and commerce, livestock possession and
natural resources present in the study area.
9.5.1 Geo-political features of the villages
The geographical identity of six villages in Gokak taluk of Belgaum district are
presented below.
9.5.1a Aralimatti
As already stated, Aralimatti village is located at Gokak taluk of Belgaum district,
and in the vicinity of this village the intake point, delivery chamber, power house
and pipeline will be installed by acquiring of total land area of 15.31 acres. Apart
from these two houses (mostly non-residential) located near delivery chamber
will also be affected adversely, as noticed during socio-economic study.
Therefore, the Irrigation Department was requested to collect details and
conduct survey of these two residential sites. The village is located 40 km away
from Gokak town and the village comes under Gokak Assembly constituency
and Belgaum Parliamentary constituency.
9.5.1b Venkatapur
The Venkatapur village is located 38 km away from Gokak town. The pipeline of
the proposed project will pass through this village and the total area affected for
the purpose is 4.36 acres. It was also noticed during the socio-economic study,
that the pine line and the connecting service road will pass through six
residential sites within the village. However the village will be benefited from the
proposed irrigation scheme, since an estimated area covered under irrigation is
234.90 ha and the total population benefited will be 1586, amongst which around
6% of the population belongs to SC/ST community. It is also proposed to provide
drinking water for Venkatapur village under this proposed project.
9.5.1c Kuligod
Kuligod is comparatively a big village with a total population of 5390 with 15%
belonging to SC/ST. The village is located 39 km away from the Gokak town.
The total land affected due to proposed project is 9.38 acres. The village is found
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Water Quality
to benefit from the project, by providing irrigation facility to 1398.93 acres and
most of the agricultural area in the village will be covered under irrigation and
farmers can cultivate more than one crop in a year.
9.5.1d Koujalgi
The Koujalgi village belongs to Gokak taluk, located 35 km away from the Gokak
town. This village has population of 9227, with 14% SC population and five
families belonging to ST. Being a very big revenue village in the project area, it
has better infrastructure facilities than the other five villages, such as Panchayat
office, bank, bus facilities, education, trade and commerce. The extent of land
affected under proposed lift irrigation project is 17.15 acres, comparatively higher
area among the other five affected villages in the project area. However area
covered under irrigation is also much larger, among all six villages of the project
area, and around 1610.30 acres will be irrigated under the proposed project and
it is also planned to provide drinking water to this village.
9.5.1e Kulguddi
The Kulguddi village is located 34 km away from the Gokak town. The village
has a population of 1123 with 13% belonging to SC category.
The total extent
of area affected under the proposed project is 9.38 acres. The area covered
under irrigation is 853.44 acres and most of the farmers will stand to benefit from
the proposed lift irrigation project.
9.5.1f Mannekeri
The Mannekeri village is located 37 km away from the Gokak town. The village
has a population of 1790 with 9% of population belonging to SC and 9%
belonging to ST category. A very minimum extent of land (0.39 acres) will be
affected under the proposed project and 227.29 acres will benefit from the
irrigation facility under the proposed project.
9.5.2 Demographic and household composition
The population details and household composition of the villages are presented
in Table 9.3. Some of the indicators assessed to understand the demographic
pressure in the project area are mentioned below:
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Water Quality
Population in the villages; total, male and female population,
Density of population expressed in persons per unit area (ha).
Sex ratio expressed as number of females per 1000 males.
Number of total households in the villages
The population data for selected villages in the project area shows that Koujalgi
is the biggest village with a population of 9227, followed by Kuligod with more
than 5000 population. Other four villages have moderate population ranging from
1123 in Kalliguddi to 1790 in Mannekeri (Table 9.4). The demographic pressure
in the study area indicates that all six villages are thinly populated and density of
population among study villages varies from 2.95 persons per ha of land in
Aralimatti, to almost one person per ha of land in the rest of villages.
The sex ratio between female and male population among six villages shows
that, each village is distinctly different e.g., gender composition in Aralimatti and
Kalliguddi indicates that female population is higher than male population: i.e.,
there are 1099 female for 1000 males in Kalliguddi and it is 1050 in Aralimatti. It
is also observed that female population in the other four villages is also quite
significant as it ranges from 951 females per 1000 males in Koujalgi, to 995 in
Venkatapura village. The graphical representation of the gender composition of
the six project villages is given in the Fig 9.1.
Table 9.4. Population and Housing composition in the villages of project area
Particulars
Population
(total)
Male
population
Female
population
Sex ratio
(number of
female per
1000 male)
Number of
households
Mean family
size (number
of members in
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikeri
Kuligod
Koujalgi
1706
1586
1123
1790
5390
9227
832
795
535
902
2715
4729
874
791
588
888
2675
4498
1050
995
1099
984
985
951
294
273
231
308
1071
1729
5.80
5.80
4.86
5.81
5.03
5.33
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Water Quality
the family)
Female per 1000 male
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikeri
Kuligod
Kowjaligi
Fig. 9.1. Gender Composition in project villages
The households composition data in the six villages provides that Koujalgi has
1729 households with a mean family size of 5.33 members per family. The
mean family size in the other villages in the project area indicates that in
Aralimatti, Venkatapura and Mannikeri, there are 5.8 members per family; it is
more than the state and national average. The family size in Kalliguddi is low
among all other villages in the project area.
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Water Quality
Mean family size (number of members in the family)
6
5.6
5.2
4.8
4.4
4
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikeri
Kuligod
Kowjaligi
Fig 9.2. Average family size among project village
The household details for the six villages are presented in Table 9.4. The
number of households relate to the number of families present in the village as
recorded by the Panchayat office. Further SC/ST composition in each village is
given in the Table 9.4.1. The summary of the household composition in the study
area is given below:
Aralimatti has 294 families; the SC population in the village accounting

for 17% of the total population and less than one person out of 100
belongs to ST.
Venkatapura village has 273 families with SC population accounting

for 6%, no ST population found in the village and it is dominated by
backward class families.
Kalliguddi is a small village amongst the six villages in the project

area. It has 231 families and 13% of population belong to SC.
Mannikeri has 308 families with 9% of SC population, and it is also

observed that there is significant ST population in the village, as it
accounts for 9% of the total population.
Kulgod with more than 1000 families, has 14% of population belonging
to SC and less than one person out of 100 belonging to ST.
Koujalgi has 1729 families with an SC population of 17% and very few
belong to ST. The village is dominated by backward class families.
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Water Quality
Table 9.4.1. SC/ST Population in the villages of project area

Particulars
SC population
(total)
Male
population
Female
population
Percentage SC
population
ST population
(total)
Male
population
Female
population
Percentage ST
population
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
284
92
141
169
751
1550
136
37
68
84
381
784
148
55
73
85
370
766
17%
6%
13%
9%
14%
17%
13
161
47
25
77
22
14
84
25
11
0.76%
9%
0.87%
0.27%
9.5.3 Transportation facilities existing in the project area

Transportation facilities existing in the project area have been assessed and
presented in Table 9.5. The indicators/parameters selected for the assessment
of transportation facilities are given below:
Road, Railway and Air network: Existing road, railway and air network in
the villages are documented, and in case of absence of such a facility in
the village, nearest facility is indicated by distance.
Bus facilities: bus facilities available at the village are assessed with
reference to connected and most connected places from the village and
frequency of buses and presence/absence of bus shelter etc.
The survey relating to transportation facilities existing in the project villages

provide that, primary road networks are present in most of the villages. Zilla
Panchayat roads are present in all the five villages except in Mannekere. Some
of the salient observations emanating from the survey are as follows:
Panchayat road network is present in all the villages.
Better road networks such as district, state and national highways are
located much away from the project area. Villagers have to reach Gokak
road leading to Soudatti, to avail of these facilities
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Water Quality
The nearest national highway for all the six villages is available at
Soudatti Town
The railway network is at Ghataprabha station.
The nearest airport connecting to the villages of project area is Belgaum

city.
In all the six villages surveyed, bus facilities have been provided to limited
places with less frequency. All the villages are connected to Gokak, which
is the Taluk Headquarters.
Table 9.5. Transportation facilities existing in the villages of project area

Particulars
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
ZP roads
Panchayat
roads
District highway
and state
highway
Nearest
highways
National high
way (nearest)
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Soudatti
Soudatti
Soudatti
Soudatti
Soudatti
Railway station
Ghatapra
bha
Ghataprabha
Ghataprab
ha
Ghataprabh
a
Ghatapra
bha
Airport
Belgaum
Belgaum
Belgaum
Belgaum
Bus facilities
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Connected to
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Gokak
Frequency
Two trips
per day
Every three
hours
Bus shelter
No
no
Ghatapr
abha
Belgau
m
Yes
Gokak,
Koujalgi
Every
three
hours
Yes
Soudatti
Every
three
hours
yes
Every two
hours
No
Belgaum
Yes
Gokak,
Soudatti
Every
one hour
Yes
9.5.4 Educational facilities in the project area

The educational facilities present in the project area are examined and
presented in the Table 9.6. The issues documented to assess education status
in the project villages are given below:
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Water Quality
Literacy rates: This is expressed in percentage to total population and
percentage of male and female literacy is also calculated.
Number of schools: various schools available in the project villages.
Welfare centers: data related to child centers and social welfare hostels
have been examined (assessed only for villages directly affected).
The educational profile of the villages in the project area indicates that Koujalgi
and Kalliguddi villages have better educational facilities with different type of
schools available in the village. The different types of schools available in the
project area are primary, higher secondary and high school. A summary of the
educational facilities available in the selected villages of the project area are
given in the Table 9.6. For higher education they have to travel to Gokak and
Belgaum towns.
The literacy level among six villages indicates that except in Kuligod, literacy
level of all the five villages is very low and it ranged from 41.3% in Aralimatti to
48.8% in Koujalgi. However literacy rate in Kuligod is around 61.3% with 75%
male literates and 47.6% female literates. It is observed that among the six
villages, female literacy rate is very low as it varied from 23.9% in Aralimatti to
47.6% in Kuligod. The male literates among sampled villages varied from 59.4%
in Aralimatti to 75.0% in the Kuligod, and average 60% of males and 30%
females are literates in the project area. The literacy level among population in
six project villages is represented in Fig 9.3 and Table 9.6.
Table 9.6. Educational facilities existing in the villages of project area

Particulars
Total
Literacy
(%)
Male (%)
Female (%)
Child care
centers
Primary
Schools
High
schools
Aralimatti
Venkatapura Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
41.3
47.3
45.65
44.7
61.3
48.8
59.4
23.9
62.9
31.9
62.1
30.9
64.0
24.9
75.0
47.6
62.1
35.3
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
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Water Quality
Public
library
Colleges
Higher
education
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
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Water Quality
Total Literacy (%)

Male(%)
80
Female(%)
60
40
20
0
Arlimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Kowjaligi
Fig. 9.3. Literacy Level - Total, Male and Female poulation

among Project village
9.5.5 Health facilities in the villages of the project area

The status of health facilities in the project villages is presented in Table 9.7, and
the indicators selected to measure health facilities for six villages are given
below. However, in the absence of such health facilities in the project affected
villages, health facilities available at the nearest village has been assessed and
reported in this section.
Primary health centers and other health centers available in the village,
distance indicated in the case of those villages dependent on other places
for such facilities.
Assessment of extent of facilities available in PCH and its sub-centers.
Existence of veterinary facilities in the study villages
The health scenario surveyed in the selected villages indicates that out of six
villages only three villages namely Koujalgi, Kulgod and Kalliguddi have Primary
Health Center; the other three villages have sub-centers of the respective PHC.
Family planning centers are also operating in these villages. Further public have
to travel to Gokak and Soudatti for higher and better medicinal facilities.
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Water Quality
The PHC at Koujalgi has better facilities in terms of full time doctor available with
two beds for internal patients. More than 55 out patients are treated per day, as
many villages around this area depend on this PHC. The PHC at Kalliguddi and
Kulgod are not active, as they depend upon an in-charge doctor who visits PHC
twice a week. Similarly sub centers are also inactive in all the three villages and
people have to visit nearby PHC, for treatment.
Veterinary hospitals also exist in the three villages in the project area; however
veterinary hospital in Koujalgi is active with a full time doctor and various
facilities. Th other two hospitals in Kullgod and Kalliguddi are visited by outside
doctors and operate two days in a week.
Table 9.7. Health facilities existing in the villages of project area
Particulars
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
Primary health
center
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No of doctors
1 doctor
No of beds
No of out
patients
PHC sub
center
Yes
Yes
Yes
In charge
doctor
In charge
doctor
In charge
doctor
25 per day
20 per day
15 per day
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No of doctors
No of out
patients
Family planning
center
Veterinary
hospital
40 per day
1 in
charge
doctor
50 per
day
1 doctor
2
55 per
day
9.5.6 Basic amenities in the villages of project area

The basic facilities available in the five villages of the project area have been
documented and presented in Table 9.8. The indicators considered for the
assessment of basic amenities in the selected villages are given below:
Electricity connections: number of domestic connections and IP set

connections at individual family level.
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Water Quality
Drinking water facilities provided in villages; number of households

connected with public tap, use of ground water and open well from few
households are also assessed.
Sanitation programmes implemented in the villages and number of

households connected with toilets and community toilets in the villages
have been documented.
Sanitation facilities have been recently provided under various state government
schemes in all the five villages. Community toilets have been constructed and
few families posses built-in toilets as part of their dwelling units.
Table 9.8. Basic amenities existing in the villages of project area
Particulars
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
Electricity
No of domestic
connections
IP set
connections
Drinking water
Water supply
scheme
Sanitation
facilities
Household with
Toilet facility
Community
toilets
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
56%
73%
78%
70%
81%
80%
28%
36%
15%
22%
20%
23%
Yes
Panchaya
t
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Panchayat
ZP
Yes
No
schemes
ZP
ZP
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
12
20
25
36
9.5.7 Communication facilities in the villages of project area

Some of the communication facilities available at selected villages of the project
area have been assessed and reported in Table 9.8. The facilities existing at the
villages are mentioned below:
9.5.7a Post and telegraph facilities: Two villages namely, Koujalgi and Kuligod
have full post office and the other four villages are served by other post offices,
which are situated at nearby villages. Koujalgi also has telegraph facilities and
converge for insurance programmes.
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Water Quality
9.5.7b Telephone connections: These facilities have been extended to all the
six villages in the project area, and Koujalgi and Kuligod have exchange centers.
Number of households with telephone connection apart from Koujalgi and
Kuligod are very few; it ranges from 10 households in Kulliguddi to 18
households in Mannekeri. In the case of Koujalgi, more than 125 households are
connected, while in Kuligod 76 households are connected with telephones.
9.5.8 Trade and commerce scenario in the villages of the project area
Trade and commerce situation in the six villages in project area has been
assessed. The indicators assessed to generate trade and commerce in the study
area is mentioned below:
9.5.8a Existence of commercial banks: In the project area, Koujalgi has better
banking facilities, two banks operates in the village namely Karanataka Grama
Vikas Bank and Co-operative Urban Bank. In Kuligod, Canara Bank is in
operation. The other villages are depending on these banks, as there are no
formal financial institutions operating within the villages.
The agricultural markets are available only at respective taluk headquarters, for
all the six villages in the project area. Few small-scale industries operate in the
project villages; crushing mills for sunflower and groundnut, Rice mills and
Electric service shops are located in some villages.
9.5.9 Land use pattern and cropping pattern in the villages of project area
Land use pattern of the five villages in project area is recorded. The broad
pattern of land use surveyed in the project area revealed that more than 40% of
area is under cultivation in five villages except Koujalgi village. The other land
use categories in the villages are: area under Forest, Current Fallow, Common
Lands and Gramthana (village habitation). Currently irrigation facilities have
been extended by open well and bore wells. The cropping pattern in the project
area shows that major crops cultivated are sunflower, maize, jowar, paddy,
cotton and groundnut beside some other crops are grown in small area.
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9.5.10 Livestock possession in villages of project area
The livestock owned among the families in the project area has been assessed.
The most common animals reared among the families of the project villages are
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and poultry. These have been maintained for
commercial and subsistence purposes by the farming and non-farming families
in the villages. It is noticed that significant number of sheep and goat have been
maintained by families belonging to wage labour and non-farming groups. The
livestock details in terms of number of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat for all the
six villages are given in Table 9.9.
Table 9.9. Livestock possession existing in the villages of project area
Particulars
Cattle
Buffalo
Sheep
Goat
Aralimat
ti
200
110
380
170
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
216
89
410
210
185
120
290
110
160
90
280
95
325
185
510
235
610
210
825
310
9.6 Farmer profile and perception on Rehabilitation and Resettlement

programme in the Project area
In this section farmers profile is presented based on the stratified random
sampling method and besides, peoples perception of R and R programme is
presented. The sample population followed for collection of household level
information and their perception of R and R Policy is presented in Table 1.10.
The samples were drawn from all the six villages, where agriculture land will be
impacted under proposed lift irrigation project. All the six householders in
Venkatapura village were contacted, as their residential sites are likely to be
acquired. The sampling details for the six villages is provided in Table 9.10
The sampling was structured in a manner that would represent the ethnic and
socio-economic conditions of the farmers in the villages. In the study, 50 % of
the general farmers were covered, followed by 30 % of SC/ST farmer and 30 %
of the farmer belonging to backward castes. The survey group undertaking the
programme
was trained beforehand to collect information from farmers on
relevant information such as land holding pattern, cropping pattern, livestock
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possession and importantly on the perception of individual farmer on the
proposed Rehabilitation and Resettlement policy in the project area.
The population structure of the Kathedhars (farmers holding land are called
Kathedhars) in the six villages indicated that more number of Kowjalagi
Kathedars loose their land under proposed irrigation project in Koujalgi. Table
9.10 indicates, that total number of Kathedars indetified in the proposed project
area are 574 and out of this 50% of them belong to Koujalgi village. The spread
of Kathedars among six villages is highly uneven as it varies from 1% in
Mannikere to 50% in Kaujaligi. This is because of the extent of the pipeline and
the service road passing through the village.
In the study, proper sampling was ensured as more than 20% of Kathedars in all
the six villages, depending on number of farmers available for personal interview
during the visit to a particular village. However percentage of sampling in six
villages varied and Table 9.10 describes, that 43% of Kathedars have been
covered in Mannikere village, and 21% of Kathedars have been covered in
Koujalgi.
Table 9.10. Population and sample farmers covered in the project area
Religion/caste
Number of
Kathedar/s
Percentage of
Kathedar/s to total
kathedars in the
project area
Number of
residential sites
Sample covred
among Kathedars
Sample covered
among residential
sites
Percentage
Kathadars
covered
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
40
96
19
126
286
7%
17%
3%
1%
Nil
Nil
Nil
14
30
Nil
Nil
Nil
22%
Nil
40
50%
Nil
60
Nil
Nil
35%
31%
42%
43%
General houses*
50%
50%
25%
35%
BC
SC/ST
25%
25%
25%
25%
50%
25%
40%
25%
32%
30%
40%
30%
21%
50%
25%
25%
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9.6.1 Farmers profile of the project area: classified by religion and caste
The sample farmers covered in six villages have been classified into different
religion and caste groups. The data from Table 9.11 provides that there are two
major religions in the project area; predominantly a Hindu dominated society with
a few Muslim farmers in Kalliguddi (16% of the farmers), and Koujalgi (9%)
among the sampled households
The ethnic composition of the six villages indicates more farmers covred under
the sample, belonging to general and backward class. In some villages there are
no ST farmers and very few SC farmers among Kathedars, covered under
sampling programme. However the study has ensured to cover all ethnic groups
in the village to provide the best possible representation of the population.
The composition of SC farmers in the study area varied from 17% in Koujalgi to
4% in Venkatapura, and it is observed that very few ST farmers e.g. 9% in
Mannikere to 1% in Aralimatti are part of the study. The farmers belonging to
Backward class varied from 53% in Venkatapura to 38% in Mannikere. However
rest of the farmers in the study area belong to general category, ranging from
50% in Aralimatti to 35% in Koujalgi.
Table 9.11. Farmers classified by religion and caste in villages of project area
Ethnic
composition
Aralima
tti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
Hindu
Muslim
100%
-
100%
-
84%
16%
100%
-
100%
-
91%
9%
SC
ST
BC
General
8%
1%
41%
50%
4%
53%
43%
11%
47%
42%
12%
9%
38%
41%
15%
5%
41%
39%
17%
3%
45%
35%
9.6.2 Farmers profile in the project area: Occupation Pattern

The profile built on occupation pattern in the project area is presented in Table
9.12, which indicates that along with farming which is a major occupation, few
farmers are also occupied with other income generating activities, such as wage
labour, small business and service sector.
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It is observed that a few farmers in all the six villages in the study area are
engaged in more than one occupation. The most common occupation along with
cultivation is wage labour, since 52% of the farmers in Kalliguddi are working as
wage labour during dry season.
Very few farmers are engaged in business, and the percentage of farmers in
business sector varied from 11% in Koujalgi to 2% in Kalliguddi, and the nature
of business practiced by the farmers among sampled villages is operating petty
shops, vegetable marketing and running of floor mill, etc.
It is also observed that few farmers are engaged in service sectors, i.e. 6% of
farmers in Koujalgi and 4% in Kulgod, some of them are teachers, while a few
work in panchayat office etc.
Table 9.12. Occupation Profile of farmers in the project area
Occupation
Agriculture
Wage
labour
Business
Service
Aralimatt
i
100%
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
100%
100%
100%
100%
32%
29%
52%
25%
100%
48%
3%
-
5%
2%
2%
-
8%
4%
11%
6%
47%
9.6.3 Farmers profile of the villages in the project area: income level
The income level of the respondents in project area has been classified into six
groups and the income is generated from four major occupations, such as
farming, wage labour, business and service sector, and various combinations of
these major occupations. The income level of farmers in the six villages is
presented in Table 9.13. The farmers in the project area have been classified
into five income groups such as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (less than Rs.10,000
per year), slightly higher than BPL (between Rs.10,000 and 25,000), medium
income level (between 25,000 to 50,000), slightly higher than medium income
level (between Rs.50,000 to 1.0 lakh), higher income group (between Rs.1.0
lakh to 2.0 lakhs) and slightly higher income group (more than Rs. 2.0 lakhs).
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Based on these six income group, farmers have been classified into three class
income level such as, low income level (BPL and slightly higher than BPL),
middle income level (by considering two medium income groups) and high
income level by clubbing higher income groups.
In Aralimathi, 17% of farmers belong to below poverty income, and

farmers in this group are occupied with wage labour, followed by 14%
who are slightly above poverty line of income, and 37% of farmers are in
middle income group and around 16% of farmers in high income group
(Rs. 1 lakh to 2 lakh and more than Rs. 2 lakh of income per annum).
In Venkatapura, the income pattern among sampled farmers is similar to

Aralimatti, as 34% of farmers belong low income group, followed by 36%
having middle income and 30% farmers belonging to high income group.
The income level of farmers in Kalliguddi village indicates that more than
75% of the farmers are in the income group of low and middle, with a few
farmers belonging to high income group.
In Mannikere, distribution of farmers across income group is very specific,

as more than 60% are in high income group, followed by 25%, in slightly
middle income group and very few are in low income group.
In Kulgod, more than 40% of farmers are in middle income group, and
more than 30% are in low income group.
In Koujalgi, farmers distribution across six income groups is significant,

and around 30% of farmers belong to low, middle and high income groups
respectively.
Table 9.13. Farmers classified by income groups in the villages of project area
Annual income
(in Rs.)
Less than
10,000
10,000 to
25,000
25,000 to
50,000
50,000 to 1 lakh
1 lack to 2 lakh
More than 2
lakh
Aralimat
ti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
17%
15%
19%
8%
14%
19%
25%
6%
22%
25%
22%
15%
16%
11%
16%
10%
13%
25%
55%
16%
14%
11%
6%
Kulgod
13%
18%
28%
14%
9%
18%
Koujalgi
14%
22%
16%
21%
12%
15%
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9.6.4 Farmers having access to PDS facilities in the Project area
The sampled farmers in the villages of project area have been assessed for
access to Public Distribution System (PDS) and presented in Table 9.14. It is
evident from the study, that majority of farmers in the six villages have access to
PDS: i.e., in Aralimatti 72% of farmers have access to PDS, amongst which 58%
framers have Above Poverty (APL) card and 42% have BPL card. In Koujalgi
and Kulgod, more than 90% farmers have either BPL or APL cards. However in
Mannikere 69% of farmers have access to PDS in which 84% of farmers have
APL cards.
Table 9.14. Farmers having access to PDS
Public
services
Number of
families
having
ration card
BPL
APL
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
72%
86%
85%
69%
92%
90%
42%
58%
39%
61%
48%
52%
16%
84%
51%
49%
55%
45%
9.6.5 Farmers in the Project Area: Type of family and Age pattern
The study attempted to document type of family existing among sampled farmers
in the project area and classified into nuclear family (with five persons in a
family), big family (five to ten members) and joint family (more than ten members
in a family). Table 9.15 shows that in all the six villages of the project area,
around 10% of the farmers belong to nuclear family, and the rest account for
joint and big families.
The age pattern of the farmers has been examined and presented in Table 9.15.
The study shows that the trend of distribution of farmers across the age groups
in all the six villages is almost similar. Around 40% of the farmers are in the
middle age group of 45 to 60 years and 35% are in high age group of more than
60 years and around 25% are in low age group of 25-45 years.
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Table 9.15. Farmers in the project area: type of family and age pattern
Particulars
Aralimatti
Nuclear family
Big family
Joint family
10%
58%
32%
Low age group

(25 to 45
years)
Middle age
group (45 to
60 years)
High age
group (more
than 60 years)
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Type of family
9%
12%
55%
61%
36%
27%
Age pattern of the farmers
13%
65%
22%
Kulgod
Koujalgi
10%
59%
31%
11%
63%
26%
25%
20%
21%
20%
26%
45%
39%
48%
46%
35%
40%
32%
28%
25%
40%
42%
35%
33%
9.6.6 Farmers in the project area: Gender composition

In this section, farmers belonging to different gender among sampled farmers is
reported and is presented in Table 9.16.1. The gender composition among the
sampled farmers in the six villages indicated that most of the farmers are male
and very few farmers belong to female category.
In the study area most of the farmers belong to male category, and this varies
from 98% in Venkatapura to 72% in Mannikere. However the study has taken
care to cover more than 90% of the female farmers in all six villages to record
their perception on R and R in the project area.
Table 9.16.1. Farmers in the Project area - Gender composition
Gender
composition
Male
Female
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
85%
15%
98%
2%
89%
11%
72%
28%
87%
13%
88%
12%
9.6.7 Farmers in the project area: Education status

Table 9.16.2 provides details of farmers education status in the project area.
The education status of the farmers in six villages indicates that, the literacy level
varies considerably.
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Water Quality
The number of farmers belonging to non-literate groups among six villages
varied from 14% in Kalliguddi to 10% in Venkatapura, however non-literate
farmers were not found in Mannikere village.
The education status of the farmers in the project area indicates that majority of
farmers in the five villages expect Mannikere possessed just literacy status (read
and write) followed by primary and higher primary education. Very few farmers
have higher education status of high school and college education. In the case of
Mannikere more than 35 % of farmers possess higher education.
Table 9.16.2. Farmers in project area: Education status
Education
status
Non-literate
Literate
Primary
Higher
Primary
High School
College and
Higher
education
Aralimat
ti
12%
36%
26%
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
10%
39%
21%
14%
41%
16%
20%
25%
13%
42%
13%
11%
36%
15%
13%
15%
14%
20%
18%
21%
10%
9%
8%
25%
9%
6%
3%
6%
7%
10%
5%
11%
9.6.8 Land holding details of farmers in the project area

The land holding details of farmers in the six villages of the project area is given
in Table 9.17 which indicates that most of farmers have dry land, followed by wet
and garden lands, while some farmers possess various combinations of all these
different land category.
It is observed in the project area that majority of the farmers in all the six villages
have dry lands, which varies from 56% of farmers in Koujalgi to 39% in
Venkatapura. Some of the farmers have wet land, as irrigation is provided
through bore well and open well. The farmers having wet land among sampled
villages, varied from 38% in Venkatapura to 21% in Koujalgi. Further farmers,
who have garden land are very few, i.e. 15% of the farmers have garden land in
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Water Quality
Venkatapura and Mannikere, and just 6% of farmers in Kulgod have garden
lands.
In the project area few farmers have both dry land and wet land, it varied from
18% of farmers in Kalliguddi 4% of farmers in Venkatapura. However very less
number of farmers (6% in Mannikere to 1% in Kalliguddi) have all the three types
of land holding.
Table 9.17. Land holding details of the families in the project area
Type of
land
Dry land
Wet land
Garden
More than
one
More than
two
Aralimatt
i
46%
35%
10%
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
39%
38%
15%
51%
22%
8%
32%
31%
15%
56%
21%
9%
5%
4%
18%
16%
53%
28%
6%
10%
4%
4%
1%
6%
3%
12%
2%
9.6.9 Land submersion details of the farmers in the project area

The submersion details of lands in the six villages such as Aralimatti,
Venkatapura, Kalliguddi, Mannikere, Kulgod and Koujalgi coming under the
proposed project have been assessed and presented in Table 9.18. The Table
shows that, farmers lose their dry land among six villages which varies from 61%
in Koujalgi to 42% in Mannikere. This is followed by extent of wet land affected
due to proposed project, which varied from 41% in Venkatapura to 30% in
Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. The garden lands affected by project accounts for as
high as 18% in Mannikere to 9% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. The total extent of
land proposed as per, 4 (1) Notification for construction of delivery chamber,
power house, drawing pipe line and service road is 383 ha. The Table 9.18
provides that comparatively Koujalgi and Aralimatti are the two villages, losing
maximum area, than the other four villages.
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Water Quality
Table 9.18. Land submersion details of the farmers in the project area
Type of
land
Dry land
Wet land
Garden
Total extent
of land (in
acres)
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
51%
38%
11%
43%
41%
16%
61%
30%
9%
42%
40%
18%
60%
33%
7%
61%
30%
9%
15.31
4.65
1.32
0.39
9.38
17.15
9.6.10 Livestock owned by the farmers in the project area

The livestock in possession of the farmers in the project area has been assessed
and presented in Table 9.19, which indicates that, most of the farmers own cattle
(big ruminants) either for cultivation purpose or for milk production. It is also
observed that considerable number of farmers have small ruminants such as
sheep and goat.
Table 9.19. Live Stock possession among farmers in the project area
Type of land
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Just 1
1 to 2
2 to 5
More
than 5
v) no cattle
13%
56%
15%
15%
45%
22%
4%
10%
10%
i) Up to 10
ii) 10 to 25
iii) 25 to 50
iv) 50 to 100
v) More than
100
42%
16%
7%
-
8%
12%
SHEEP AND GOAT
50%
46%
15%
14%
8%
3%
1%
-
35%
26%
37%
55%
i) Up to 10
ii) 10 to 25
iii) 25 to 50
iv) 50 to 100
v) More than
100
40%
5%
25%
10%
POULTRY
30%
3%
10%
6%
55%
65%
67%
84%
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
CATTLE
18%
48%
17%
10%
55%
12%
18%
46%
11%
5%
12%
16%
59%
10%
6%
11%
9%
10%
25%
15%
5%
-
55%
12%
4%
29%
49%
10%
7%
3%
50%
5%
45%
5%
31%
45%
5%
50%
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Water Quality
9.7 Perception of the farmers towards Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R
and R) policy in the project area
This study has been attempted to assess perception of the farmers on R and R
policy among six villages in the project area and the findings have been
presented in the following section.
9.7.1 Sources of information of awareness about proposed project among
households
The awareness about the proposed project and sources of information available
to the sampled farmers in the project area is assessed and presented in Table
9.20. Different sources of information available to the farmers in the project area
are; Irrigation Department, Panchayat Office, Village Level Leaders, Political
Leaders and Revenue Officials. Most prominent sources of information used by
farmers is irrigation department followed by revenue officials, whereas in
Aralimatti and Koujalgi, most commonly used sources of information are revenue
officials followed by irrigation department. However political leaders have played
a vital role in spreading information about proposed project followed by
Panchayat office are the source of information for 5% of farmers in Koujalgi and
6% in Kalliguddi.
Table 9.20. Sources of information about project awareness among farmers
Type of
land
Irrigation
Department
Panchayat
Local
leaders
Political
leaders
Revenue
officials
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
50
72
69
81
73
61
46
28
25
19
27
33
9.7.2 Extent of information among the farmers towards land affected under
proposed project
Extent of correct information on submersion of agricultural lands among sampled
farmers has been assessed and presented in Table 9.21.1. Farmers having
information relating to the proposed project have been classified into three
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Water Quality
categories, i.e., complete, partial and incomplete information; farmers who have
correct information about the project and the extent of land (acres) acquired
under project and information about various legal issues connected with
submersion are considered fully informed; those farmers having information
about extent of loss of properties but do not have any knowledge about legal
processes are considered as partially informed, and finally farmers who do not
know much about both issues are considered under incomplete category. It is
noticed that in project area, most farmers have partial information; this varies
from 75% of farmers in Venkatapura to 55% of farmers in Koujalgi village.
However, some farmers do posses complete information as 30% of farmers in
Mannikere know about legal aspects also. Further it is noticed that 25% of
farmers in Koujalgi have incomplete information and likewise very less number of
farmers in the other villages have incomplete information about land submersion
under proposed project.
Table 9.21.1. Extent of information among the farmers in the project area
Type of
land
Complete
Partial
Incomplete
Aralimat
ti
18%
72%
10%
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
15%
75%
10%
16%
76%
8%
30%
60%
10%
26%
61%
13%
20%
55%
25%
The study also documented some ambiguity (rumors) about proposed project,
which is presented in Table 9.21.2. Many farmers have received information, that
the proposed project is very small and land affected due to project is also small,
so there will be no effective R and R package for the farmers. Another belief
encountered by public is that the project will be cancelled because of insufficient
funds, or otherwise drawing pipe line will be delayed for another 10 years. The
Table 9.25.2 indicates that the majority of farmers do not have any ambiguity
about project, which varies from 45% in Aralimatti to 63% in Kalliguddi village.
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Table 9.21.2. Nature of ambiguity about proposed project among the farmers in
the project area
Type of
land
Project
cancelled.
Project
delayed for
10 years
Limited R
and R
provided
No
ambiguity
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
24%
25%
15%
30%
18%
22%
6%
7%
12%
25%
20%
15%
22%
45%
55%
63%
46%
10%
8%
20%
22%
52%
48%
9.8 Nature of complaints forwarded by the farmers in the project area

Some of the farmers also put forth certain grievance and complaints relating to
the project and its implementation. The nature of complaints forwarded to
different agencies by farmers in project area have been assessed and presented
in Table 9.22, which shows that very few farmers have submitted complaints to
different authorities for necessary action. The complaints have been passed on
to Revenue authorities, Irrigation Department, and Panchayat office. Most of the
complaints relate to irregularities in survey and extent of land affected under the
proposed project. These complaints have been passed on to Irrigation
Department during the Engineers visits to villages.
Table 9.22. Nature of complaints forwarded from the families in the project area
Type of
land
Revenue
authority
Irrigation
Department
Panchayat
No
complaints
Aralimat
ti
2%
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
3%
5%
3%
2%
13%
10%
11%
10%
3%
82%
90%
86%
85%
8%
4%
85%
10%
3%
85%
9.8.1 Response from the agencies towards complaints received from

farmers
Table 9.23.1 presents necessary action initiated by different agencies in
response to complaints submitted by farmers in the project area. Most of the
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Water Quality
complaints relate to irregularities in survey of lands, which have been rectified by
the Irrigation Department, by conducting a re-survey.
However complaints
submitted to Revenue authorities and Panchayat Office on R and R

implementation have not been responded to by the concerned agencies.
Table 9.23.1. Response from the agencies towards household complaints
Type of
land
Application
received and
filed
Discussion
held
Action taken
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
5%
8%
7%
5%
6%
4%
2%
3%
2%
2%
-
2%
1%
9.8.2 Apprehensions of farmers towards proposed project

The different apprehensions expressed by sampled farmers regarding the
proposed project are assessed and presented in Table 9.23.2. Most of the
families in the project area have serious apprehensions about the nature of R
and R policy, and besides families in the fully affected villages are more
concerned about R and R policy on agricultural lands as most farmers do not
possess any information on compensation package offered and its adequacy to
meet their realistic needs. Six families in Venkatapura have expressed lack of
clarity about submersion of their housing sites and compensation package,
available to them.
Table 9.23.2. Apprehension of the farmers in the project area
Type of
land
Nature of R
and R
package
R and R for
lands
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
82%
86%
79%
81%
85%
86%
75%
80%
72%
75%
80%
80%
9.8.3 Area proposed for R and R programme in the project area

It was noticed during the present survey that no initiatives have been taken by
Irrigation and Revenue Departments. To address the local concern the farmers
do not have information about the R and R programme. Most of the farmers are
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Water Quality
under perception that after completion of laying under ground pipe line, the
affected land will be given back to farmers for cultivation. However few farmers
are aware that area taken for drawing pipeline and service road will not be given
back and compensation will be provided only, for the extent of land affected.
However six families in Venkatapura wanted to know about R and R package for
their residential sites.
9.8.4 Awareness about legal acquisition of properties among farmers in the
project area
The process of legal acquisition of land is generally as follows; identification of
extent of land, conducting survey, issue of notification under section 4 (1) for
proposed land to receive any legal clarification from farmers, finally issue of
notification under section 6 (1) acquisition of land from the farmers. In the study
area land identification for construction of delivery chamber, powerhouse and
drawing pipe line and service road is completed. Survey of the identified land is
also completed by the Irrigation Department. However, legal notice 4 (1) has
been served only to few farmers, and majority of farmers have not received
notification. The extent of awareness about these legal processes among
sampled households is surveyed, which brings out that most of the farmers do
not have complete awareness about these legal steps. Further, in the project
area for the establishment of canal net work, land identification survey is under
progress.
9.8.5 Satisfaction of families towards R and R policy implementation in the
project area
Majority of the farmers amongst six villages do not possess any idea about R
and R policy and its implementation. More than 80% of farmers in all the six
villages have expressed that for those losing small extent of land under the
proposed project must be given compensation in terms of cash. They are not
satisfied with the status of work and its progress in the project area, as they are
looking for quick completion of irrigation project, as this was planned long ago.
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Water Quality
9.8.6 Some suggestive measures expressed by farmers in the project area
Most of the farmers in the project area have offered suggestions to speed up
acquisition of land and completion of various works under project. The farmers
have no idea about irrigation canal net work and the extent of area benefited
among these six villages. The six households in Venkatapura have expressed
lack of knowledge about submersion of their residential sites. Out of six, only one
family is paying tax to Panchayat office towards residential site. It is noticed from
the villagers that area coming under six residential sites is originally a Gomal
area (grazing land) and quite sometime back (15 years) they have encroached
this land. The families requested for alternative sites in case these are required
for the project. They also need clarity on the schedule for completion of canal
network and land acquisition. Apart from this, local people have also suggested
to local leaders to organize a meeting with Revenue Authorities and Irrigation
Department to decide on the R and R policy for agricultural land and a few
residential sites.
9.8.7 Agency preferred for implementation of R and R policy
The families in the six villages in the project area were asked to choose
appropriate agency for the implementation of R and R programme.
Creditworthiness of different agencies was evaluated among sampled farmers,
and the data are presented in Table 9.24. Most of the farmers in the five villages
except
in
Koujalgi
agreed
that
Revenue
Authority
(District
Commissioner/Assistant Commissioner) should take the responsibility of R and

R implementation while some families preferred Irrigation Department to handle
this task. However, it is significant that very few families have opted for political
leaders, Panchayat and private agencies to take up such R & R work
programme. In Koujalgi most of the farmers preferred irrigation department to be
involved in implementation of R and R work.
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Water Quality
Table 9.24. Agencies opted for R and R implementation among the
families in project area
Type of
land
Revenue
authority
(DC/AC)
Irrigation
Department
Political
leaders
Panchayat
Private
Agency
Aralimatti Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
82
89
85
90
79
32
18
11
13
10
16
60
9.8.8 Benefits expected and problems expressed by families in the project

area
Various problems expressed amongst sampled farmers in the project area
towards R and R implementation, socio-economic and problems of personal
nature have been documented and presented in Table 9.25. Inspite of several
pressing problems they are facing, more than 60% of farmers in Venkatapur,
Kalliguddi and Mannikere have extended their unconditional support to project in
the interest of regional development and anticipated benefits to farmers of the
project villages, in a bigger way. In this context they also expected some direct
and indirect benefits from the proposed project, which has been presented in
Table 9.25.
Some of the benefits anticipated by the farmers in the project area are; effective
implementation of R and R programme, followed by employment generation,
income generating activities, infrastructure facilities, institutional, technical
advancement and socio-economic development. However many farmers have
opted for more than one benefit, accruing from the proposed project.
Various problems expressed by sampled farmers have been listed in Table 9.25.
Some of the common problems expressed uniformly across six villages are slow
implementation of project, providing irrigation benefit to all farmers in these six
villages, adequate compensation package for agricultural lands etc. Many
families expressed their psychological fear that no compensation will be given to
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Water Quality
agricultural lands lost under the project. Most common problem expressed by the
farmers is that though a small central portion of land is acquired for the project,
piece of land is left over along both sides of the pipe line. As such they need
clarification from the revenue department about having same survey number for
the left over two piece land, while giving the new survey number. In such case
revenue department should consider this problem and provide necessary help to
farmers. They need clarification on utilizing this piece of land for irrigation pipe.
The farmers have also express varied opinion about the public relationship within
and outside villages. Most of the farmers however, have expressed their concern
over the adequacy of compensation package for agricultural lands, and more
importantly on the re-investing problems of such amounts received as
compensation. They are also very much on the look out for alternates
opportunities for income generation besides employment avenues for their family
members.
Table 9.25. Perceptions and problems expressed by the farmers in project area
Type of land
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
Do you support
to the project
53%
72%
75%
79%
49%
43%
Benefits expected
Employment
generation
Income
generation
Infrastructure
Institutional
Technical
advancement
Socioeconomic
development
36%
28%
45%
41%
28%
31%
35%
26%
12%
2%
14%
-
10%
1%
11%
-
1%
1%
21
32
36
25%
52%
22%
9%
3
2%
35%
32%
12%
4%
4%
20%
16%
Problems expressed
Effective R and
R
Public
relationship
Compensation
for land
Livelihood
activities
Irrigation
facilities to dry
land
61%
66%
63%
71%
26%
28%
30%
19%
68%
71%
75%
61%
22%
25%
19%
16%
81%
86%
75%
79%
65%
22%
56%
21%
70%
25%
55%
18%
88%
86%
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Water Quality
9.9 Issues emerging from the perception of the farmers during survey
Most of the farmers in six villages have expressed awareness about the
proposed project and anticipated better compensation for their agricultural lands
in the project. They are in general agreement that proposed project will promote
regional development as this will provide irrigation facility for all the six villages
besides many other villages in Gokak, Soudatti and Ramdurg taluks. However
few farmers have expressed apprehension that are project will not benefit their
village, as most of the dry lands in the village will not be covered under irrigation
facility. The farmers in Aralimatti have requested that upper lands in their village
must be brought under the network of irrigation by planning special canal net
work to pump water to their upper lands. Six families in Venkatapura village are
looking for intervention of Panchayat to approach government for providing
alternate sites in place of residential sites they are losing.
Most farmers in six villages agree that, this project could bring technological
advancement in the region and create better infrastructural facilities. Socioeconomic conditions of the farmers in the region is also expected to improve by
assured irrigation facilities. The villagers of Koujalgi have expressed the firm
opinion that farmers in this village, should receive much better facilities following
implementation of projects.
Some of the common problems expressed by all the six villagers are:
effective R and R policy, valuation of land and its compensation package.
It is noticed that uncertainty, ambiguity and lack of clarity persist among
most of farmers in the project area particularly about the nature of
compensation for their small pieces of agricultural land affected under
proposed project.
It is noticed from the land survey that, area affected in each village is very
small, as maximum area affected is 17.15 acres in Koujalgi and minimum
of 0.39 acres, in Mannikere.
However this small area covers several
survey number and Kathedars (farmers holding land certification), It is

observed that, in most cases land is owned jointly, viz., a small pieces of
land is owned by more than five Kathedars. This is one of the emerging
issues while planning compensation package to group of Kathedars.
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Water Quality
In all the six villages, local communities have identified and suggested
cash compensation for their land, but it is observed that there is no
consensus among villagers to decide upon this issue as some farmers
would like to opt for alternate land.
Provision of better facilities at R and R place, including transportation,

education, health, institutional and infrastructural facilities, are some of the
common demands put forth by the community.
Many families belonging to farming groups in Koujalgi have demanded

compensation by way of provision of alternate lands instead of cash
compensation for their agricultural lands lost, as they felt that monetary
compensation will be rather low and not sufficient to re-invest on purchase
of lands at the new place. Since their livelihood is wholly dependent on
farming, they have to compulsorily re-invest this money on land only, but
they fear about un-healthy competition and escalation in the land market
price. Especially women are worried that cash compensation given for
agricultural land will be invested in other areas such as petty business,
trade, meeting debts etc., and not excluding irregular activities by men
folk, which might in reality lead to frittering away the valuable
compensation package received from the Government towards their
rehabilitation.
Most of the people also expressed concern about delay in R and R work
and rumours about cancellation of project. They have therefore
demanded that the authorities should prepare a schedule of activities for
all the stages of R and R work.
In Venkatapura, all the six households do not have clarity on the nature of
R and R policy relating to their residential sites and are worried about
delay in the re-settlement. Thus they are not in a position to plan any
developmental activities, neither in the existing place nor at the new
place. They have asked for sufficient time to shift over to the new place,
as they have to shift their entire belongings, including livestock animals
and agricultural equipments.
Some people needed clarification regarding 4 (1) notification issued by

Assistant Commissioner (AC), as there are some problems relating to the
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Water Quality
extent of land and survey numbers mentioned in the notice. Many of them
have complained that the submersion notice issued by AC covers only
part of their agricultural lands with the remaining part in the same survey
number left at the discretion of the farmers. In such cases they have
demanded a compensation for whole land coming under a particular
survey number, as it is very difficult to manage a small piece of land left
out from submersion plan. This type of problem was common among
families in all the six villages in the project area.
9.10 Socio-economic analysis of R and R policy
The socio-economic analysis of R and R policy for the six villages affected under
proposed lift irrigation project has been worked out and presented in this section.
It covers cost of R and R implementation, compensation package for agricultural
lands and creation of village infrastructure, among others.
The idea proposed for R and R in the six villages are as follows; most of the
farmers in the six villages suffer from lack of knowledge related to nature of R
and R for agricultural lands. Suggestions have been put forward by the farmers
on allocation of new land. Some sections of farmers in each village have opted
for cash compensation, while majority of farmers have demanded allocation of
alternate land for agriculture in the village, which presently is available in the
form of wasteland, gomal (grazing lands) and government lands.
The prevailing market rates for lands and residential sites in the project area has
been assessed and presented in Table 9.26. These valuations have been
expressed by the local people, which were also verified at neighboring villages.
The prices reported from the villagers in the proposed project area appear to be
tending towards slightly higher side, than the prevailing market prices in the
adjacent villages, according to available information from the Sub Registrars
office in the vicinity. However the average price is calculated by considering both
the category of lands i.e. residential sites and agricultural lands, while estimating
the R and R costs for the proposed project.
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Water Quality
Table 9.26. Prevailing market prices for land and house in
the project area (in rupees)
Type of
land
Dry land
Wet land
Garden
Residential
sites
Aralimatti
Venkatapura
Kalliguddi
Mannikere
Kulgod
Koujalgi
35,000
75,000 to
1 lakh
27,000
25,000
28,000
30,000
80,000
90,000
36,000
90,000 to
1,10,000
75,000
85,000
1,20,000
95,000
1,10,000
1,30,000
1,00,00
0
90,000
-----
15,000
----
----
---
---
The total cost of land required for rising main in the project area and land
required for pump house and canal network is around Rs. 10.50 Crores (Tables
9.27 and 9.27a). The pipe line is crossing over ten roads in the project area, it is
required to construct cross bridges and the cost estimated is Rs 1.0 lakhs per
acre.
Table 9.27. Estimation of area and cost for rising main in the project area
Land and
Unit cost per
residential sites
Name of
Extent of area or
acre or per
affected under
Amount
The village
number of houses
cross road
proposed
(in Lakhs)
scheme
Land
1.32 acres
1.00
132000
Kalligudi
House
1 house
5.0
500000
Mannikare
Land
0.39 acres
1.00
39000
Koujalgi
Land
17.15 acres
1.00
1715000
Kulgoda
Land
9.38 acres
1.00
938000
Land
4.65 acres
1.00
465000
Venkatapur
2.0 lakhs/house
House and sites 9 houses and 11 sites
2350000
Rs. 0.5 Lakh/site
Land
15.31 acres
1.00
1531000
Rs. 2.0
Aralimatti
3 houses
House and sites
lakhs/house
750000
And 3 sites
Rs. 0.5 Lakh/site
Land, House
48.2 acres 13 houses
Total
1.00
84,20,000
and sites
14 sites
Table 9.27a. Estimation of area and cost for Pump house and
Canal Network in the project area
Land and
Unit cost
Extent of
residential sites
per acre or
Name of
area or
affected under
per cross
The village
number of
proposed
road
houses
scheme
(in Lakhs)
Land required for pump
Land
12 acres
Rs 1.00
Amount
(in Rs.)
1200000
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Water Quality
house
Land required for main
canal
Land required for
distributory and laterals
Construction of 10 cross
roads
Land
511 acres
Rs 1.00
51100000
Land
378 acres
Rs 1.00
37800000
------
50 acres
Rs. 1.0
5000000
Total
Grand Total (Table 9.27 and 9.27a)
9,51,00,000
10,35,20,000
9.11 The broad contours of the proposed rehabilitation scheme - The

concept
In the previous chapter an account of the interview of land and residential site
losers has been given. However, as a general principle it is necessary to ensure
certain measures already stipulated by either the Government or such other
enforcement agencies, which shall be introduced with the objective of confirming
proper settlement of project affected people.
A general account of such
measures to be introduced during the project implementation stage is given in

the following paragraphs.
The basic Tenet of Rehabilitation is to resettle the disturbed population in
a new settlement with all facilities and amenities which could be even better
than their old habitation. The rehabilitated community should also feel that
new environ is good and congenial to continue their age old traditional or
even new occupations. Following the guideline of the Government of India,
Ministry of Environment and Forests, the objectives of rehabilitation should
aim at making the affected families attain a standard of living which might be
even better than what they had in their traditional villages and certainty not
less than the general standard of living of the people in and around the
project area. Sufficient care should also be taken to ensure that their
social
and
cultural
identity
are
not
disturbed, and which should be
encouraged to continue as before, wherever possible.
9.11.1 The problems
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Water Quality
As a general policy the resettlement authorities should attempt to solve the
problems of compensation to the affected families amicably in order to
avoid litigations and delay in the implementation of rehabilitation scheme.
In addition to paying full compensation, the affected families may be permitted to
carry their salvaged building materials through the provision of free transport
facility provided by the Irrigation Division. The intention of providing this facility is
to facilitate the affected families to transfer their materials and complete
the
construction
of
new
houses
as
early
as
possible
at
the
new
rehabilitation centers. One should realize the fact that since the structures
are too old, compensation paid to these families would be very small and
would not be possible for them to build at least similar houses, if not
better ones. Even this little compensation may be diverted to other
purposes like purchase of food articles, performing religious functions,
clearing of debts and such other non productive expenditures. It may also be
relevant to point out, that the whole purpose of rehabilitation will be
defeated,
if
the
debts (if any)
are
deducted
at the time
of
paying
compensation to the affected families.

The rehabilitation center proposed may be developed in non forest region
preferably nearer to the present location, if possible. Each affected family may
be allotted one site or one constructed house free of cost. The sites
allotted may be big enough to accommodate the livestock within the area
offered to the families. A positive outcome of the rehabilitation plan will
be the provision of basic social amenities in the new center or at the
proposed colony.
9.11.2 The strategy
The strategy suggested in this context is to persuade the affected families
to invest their compensation package in income generating productive
enterprises like fisheries, cottage industries, purchase of land etc. It is
preferable to give land rather than land compensation, subject to availability
of agricultural land instead of monetary / cash compensation. In case land
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Water Quality
to land
compensation
is
not
feasible,
provision
for
liberal
cash
compensation should be made.

In the
light
of
the experience
gained from
other projects
already
implemented,
the Irrigation Department, should adopt such measures
which mitigate
the
sufferings of the affected people
under
the
current
Irrigation Project.
9.11.3 Resettlement Centres
The total number of houses/families displaced are 13 and the total number
of people affected could be around 65. For the purpose of transporting the
displaced families, grant-in-aid for constructing houses, grant-in-aid for
maintenance and rehabilitation grant-in-aid, a sum of Rs. 5.0 lakhs may be
earmarked.
The
Irrigation
Department in consultation with the other Government
departments shall be the nodal agency for implementing the resettlement

programme
of the
displaced
persons.
The guidelines issued from the
Government, either central or state from time to time should be followed while
undertaking rehabilitation measures.
One
separate
rehabilitation
and
resettlement division with adequate staff has to be created exclusively to

attend to this work. One of the project engineers, preferably the concerned
Executive Engineer of Irrigation Department shall be the Member-Secretary
of
the
rehabilitation
committee
which
will
co-ordinate
the
process of
rehabilitation programme.
9.11.4 Pattern of settlement
In the traditional settlement of the present Irrigation Project, we find more
than
one
community.
As such, villages / houses are not technically
homogenous groups. In view of the varied opinion expressed by the Villagers, it
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Water Quality
would be desirable to plan a settlement on the proposed rehabilitation
guidelines; the rehabilitation settlement can be developed for house site with
approved dimensions for each house, after earmarking necessary areas for
drainage, market, schools, hospitals and other infrastructure facilities.
Government should build all weather roads connecting the settlement
with the main road, as provided in the resettlement guidelines. It
should also develop other infrastructural facilities like schools and
protected water supply in the resettlement township. The infrastructural
facilities should be provided along with the development of the site,
before the households are shifted.
Three villages are going to be fully affected at FRL and therefore, it is

socially desirable and economically feasible to establish a full fledged
independent rehabilitation center independently, for all the villagers. It may
be advisable to find a place nearer to existing resettlement center.
Further, this would help maintaining age old social milieu and traditions
and customs, so dear to the village community.
On the basis of the above socio economic philosophy, resettlement of the
affected households may be undertaken on the basis of the following
parameters :
9.11.5 Civic amenities
Civic amenities should be provided or strengthened in the new settlements
with emphasis on the following:.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Drinking water facility

Electricity supply
School Building
Play ground / childrens park
Cattle shed / common cattle shed
Hospital, Veterinary clinics
Religious places of worship
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Water Quality
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Village Panchayat / Auditorium for cultural activities

Cremation ground
Pond Gokatte, Wherever feasible
Grazing ground, if available
Proper sanitation facilities
Any other facility which were existing earlier in the affected villages.
Thus, it is difficult to estimate precisely the nature and cost of the task
ahead. However, the task before us is to provide compensation for the
land and / or structure. The magnitude of this will be known only when
the project reaches the actual submersion stage. However, it may not be
appropriate to wait till that time in the context of a majority of households
being dependent on agriculture and where landless people are going to be
uprooted from their traditional occupations.
9.11.6 Other facilities
1.
The affected families, falling in the acquired area may be given

priority in employment in the project.
2.
In order to ensure that the displaced persons are gainfully

employed additional training facilities may be provided.
3.
All religious places coming under submergence may be reconstructed.

Articles of archaeological importance may be preserved in museums
existing in the vicinity.
4.
In order to ensure consistent involvement of the affected families

in the resettlement and rehabilitation scheme, Advisory Committees
may be constituted covering Villagers, Tahsil and District Level
Officers.
5.
Full exemption of registration fees and stamp duty may be given

to the affected families for purchase of land in the area.
6.
Preference may be given to displaced persons in the allotment

of shops at the project site.
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Water Quality
7.
Free transport facilities may be provided to ensure safe shifting

of displaced persons and their livestock, and household goods.
9.11.7 Transport Assistance

The Irrigation Department or the Resettlement and Rehabilitation Project
shall be responsible for the free transportation of households from the
affected area, according to detailed movement plan, to the relocation sites
/ houses. Transportation includes transport of families, livestock, personal
effects, salvaged / dismantled building materials, agriculture produce and
equipments.
9.11.8 Concession of stamp duty
No stamp duty is required for taking possession of lands, according
to legal process of rehabilitation. Cement, tin sheets, and such other
materials may be provided to the affected persons. To each affected
family, 50 cement bags may be provided free of cost in the new
rehabilitation center for constructing houses. The proposed plan may
suggest alternative schemes to the landless workers. Farmers may be
encouraged to start their own enterprises by providing loans with
subsidy. The interested persons may be given vocational training in
a chosen craft, apart form providing employment to one person per
each affected family in the Project. It is proposed to maintain a
register for those who require employment.
The following quantum of rehabilitation grant is proposed to be adopted

for land losing households as prescribed by the Government of Karnataka,
vide its Government Order No. RD 118 REH 91, Bangalore, dated 18-121992 and RD 21 REH 94 (P) Bangalore, dated 15-5-1995.
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Water Quality
1. Families losing more than 5 acres of Wet land or Rs. 40,000/equivalent extent of Other categories of land
2. Families losing between 3 to 5 acres
Rs. 30,000/-
Of wet land
3. Families losing up to 1 acre of wet land
Rs. 25,000/-
4. Families losing up to 1 acre of dry land
Rs.20,000/-
5. Landless agriculture labors / artisan & others
Rs.15,000/-
The actual rehabilitation grant to be paid could be decided by the

rehabilitation committee. The purpose should be, to focus on the needs of
oustees which calls for strengthening infrastructure, especially in the field
of animal husbandry training, to assist affected families etc. It is obvious
that
an
organization
will
have
to
be
established
to
execute
these
programmes, in an efficient manner

9.11.9 Construction of houses
Even
though
compensation
is
given
for
the
loss
of
houses,
the
Government should extend all possible facilities such as loans through cooperatives, free water supply for construction, provision for construction of
the houses under Government sponsored schemes such as Ashraya, low
cost housing, etc., for the displaced families.
9.11.10 Rehabilitation
The rehabilitation planning should be at two levels
1)
Short Term Plan and
2)
Perspective or Long Term Plan
There are two stages in the organizational pattern as in the case of

planning. The job at the first stage, is to oversee the acquisition of land,
houses, paying compensation, shifting and resettlement of the population
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Water Quality
in the new centers etc This is the short term plan of Resettlement and
Rehabilitation.
In the second stage, viz a long term plan, an organization should take
care of the development of basic infrastructures and amenities of the
region in general, both in economic and social terms, generation of
employment and other long term activities concerning the organization.
The oustees should be involved, especially the weaker sections, both in
the decision making and implementation processes. This would not only
ensure active participation of the affected but also help translating the
planning into reality, thereby assuring a good success of
rehabilitation
programme. The stage of organization may have four cells each dealing
with one specific activity. They are:
Land and House Estimation Cell: This would be assisted by grievances,
legal and reconciliation units. The purpose of these units would be to
resolve the grievances of the affected families amicably and thus, quicken
the process of smooth rehabilitation besides providing legal assistance. The
cell should educate the aggrieved regarding the laws pertaining to land
acquisition etc., and consequence of resorting to courts of law. This would
be especially useful for the weaker sections. This would also eliminate the
middlemen who would like to make use of the opportunity, for their ulterior
ends.
Acquisition and Compensation Cells: For taking follow up actions - this
unit will have to be assisted by the accessory bodies spread over different
villages in the affected region.
Area / location Identification Cell: Their job is to find out suitable site for
rehabilitation with the help of officials, experts and the local population
and,
Resettlement cell: This deals with the shifting of population to new
rehabilitation centers by providing free transportation etc. This should be
228
Water Quality
assisted by grievances and problems solving unit. Once the affected families
are shifted and resettled in the new area, the task is to oversee that the
affected are properly resettled in the new center. It is also the job of
Stage I organization to provide alternative house sites and land to the
affected families, apart from the compensation.
The second stage has broadly three cells, one looking after infrastructure
development assisted by various levels of officials inclusive of the local
community.
Second, takes care of land development assisted by officials,
experts etc.
Finally,
the
last unit
will
have
to
provide
basic
social
amenities, employment and take care of other development activities.

In addition to most seriously affected households, assistance should also
be provided for artisan families. Preference should be given to members
of project affected families in the matter of employment while making
appointment in any sector / department located in and around this region.
Here, the co-operation of different governmental agencies, industrialists,
philanthropists, voluntary organizations, etc. would be highly desirable for
the all round development of the region and the affected families.
Besides, the first and the second stage organization, a planning cell is
also necessary to plan out the entire rehabilitation scheme and for overall
regional development. Similarly, a monitoring cell is also essential to
review the activities of the first and second stage organizations at regular
intervals and help the planning cell. This, in turn, will sharpen the
planning process and its actual operationalisation to achieve better results.
The entire activity will have to be coordinated by a rehabilitation cocoordinating cell. Thus, organization pattern should be well knit and it
should work, hard - in - glove with affected population and the planning
experts, officials etc. The whole process should by dynamic, inspiring and
imaginative.
The following action plan may be considered for achieving better results,
to minimize the gap between the rich and the poor and usher in general
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prosperity of the region. The emphasis is on reducing the conflict and to
encourage co-operation between the displaced and the locals and with
themselves.
9.11.11 Action plan
The action plan is designed to serve not only purpose of rehabilitation,
but also the long term interests of the region. It is envisaged that the
action plan should not only initiate the physical rehabilitation of the
population, but also provide for an in - built mechanism that could sustain
the vigor of the plan and pace of development, irrespective of monitoring.
i.e.
the
need
is
to
create
a kind
of
an organizational
pattern
and
perspective plan, that could invigorate the entire process of development.

The concerned officials should consult the affected families for the final
selection of their settlements in the proposed rehabilitation center. There
should not be an alternative choice to the oustees. This kind of approach
should be avoided in the interest of the project itself. Any large scale
discontentment that emerge due to lapses on the part of officials may lead
to unrest which will be exploited by the vested interests. This negates the
whole purpose of rehabilitation and the developmental activity. The Project
authorities and concerned officials in the Government should see to it that
the displaced families are properly rehabilitated and comfortably settled in
the new center. It is always necessary to optimize distance between the
affected villages and the rehabilitation centers. Once it is established, the
affected villages could be shifted to the nearest rehabilitation centers. This
would benefit especially those who are affected partially, either losing
lands or houses. It is important to note that the population ratio of the
rehabilitation centers will have to be maintained in consonance with other
areas or villages in the region to avoid any impale or conflicts.
This does not imply that it fulfils the other aspects of rehabilitation. For
instance, the non availability of surplus agricultural land that could be
made available to the affected families imposing restrictions (Constraints)
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on developing agriculture as an avocation. It should be left to individual
affected
families
themselves
under
these
circumstances,
and it
is
necessary to adopt land-to-land compensation policy. However, there is no

alternative for creating non agricultural employment avenues, whether one
appreciates (likes) it or not. Even if labour intensive, profit oriented,
agricultural crops are introduced, it may help largely the local land owners
and landless labors rather than the displaced families. This may come in
conflict with the aspirations of the affected families.
Majority of the displaced families preferred agriculture to other occupation. This
may be because of the possibility of irrigation facility, following project
commissioning which
has
triggered
their
aspirations,
as
it
would
be
profitable. Besides, the hope of acquiring a piece of agricultural lad as an

asset is too strong. This may also be because of the agricultural
background of the displaced community and their attachment to land.
9.11.12 House sites and proposed land layout

House sites have to be allotted to the oustees on the basis of household
size and also taking into consideration livestock and other agricultural
implements like bullock cart owned by each family. For the landless, the
house sites could be of smaller size, but the non farm occupation will
have to be provided. Efforts should be made to provide adequate number
of drinking water wells with the norm of, one well to serve at least 100
households.
The house sites to provided should be such that the building could be
oriented in any direction, respecting the beliefs and customs. After house
construction, occupants may develop the inbuilt area for poultry, dairy,
cultivation of vegetables etc.
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9.11.13 The basis
In order to plan for the employment generation and economic needs of
the oustees, it is necessary to know the locally existing occupational
structure,
skills,
cropping
pattern
etc.
It
may
be
difficult
for
the
Government to find out and acquire surplus land, especially nearer to the
submersible village, for distribution among the displaced. In the event of
Governments inability to provide agricultural land to all the affected
families, some employment avenues have to be planned. The oustees
have
to
be
convinced
and motivated
to
accept
non agricultural
occupations, also those willing could be provided with suitable jobs in

different Government Departments.
Apart from this, some basic agro-based industries could be started. This would
not only provide employment to the displaced, but also would create
market.
Encouragement
has
to
be
given
to
the
entrepreneurs
or
industrialists by way of subsidy or incentives in this regard. In order to

impart skills, oustees who have aptitude, should be given training through
industrial training institutes etc. Liberal financial assistance and advice
have to be provided to the displaced as well as local residents who wish
to
start
their
own
enterprises.
programmes like IRDP,
RLEGP,
Employment
NREP
should
oriented
developmental
be implemented
with
greater vigor. Apart from this, other developmental programmes have to

be undertaken to help the displaced in getting productive assets. The
programmes pertaining to the rehabilitation activity, aimed specifically to
help the weaker sections among the displaced.
In other words, there should be a committed emphasis on amelioration of
the
lot
of
weaker
sections.
Further,
activities
like
dairying,
animal
husbandry etc., have also to be encouraged.

It is suggested that the villages which have to be shifted to the new
rehabilitation centers should be arranged in a cluster, so as to retain their
independent identity. Further, it is easier to provide basic physical and
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Water Quality
social amenities, communication and
other
facilities,
to these cluster
villages. Market centers have to be located in the midst of a few cluster

villages. That is, the cluster of villages will have to be linked with other
nearby markets, in order to develop not only the villages around, but also
the entire region. Thus, these rehabilitation centers will have to be
developed as model villages or towns.
Physical plan has to be drawn for these rehabilitation centers (Cluster
villages) by taking into consideration the cultural and sociological factors.
As far as possible, the earlier settlement patterns should be retained to
avoid any conflicts between the displaced and
the local community. The
rehabilitation centers will have to be provided with all the basic physical
and social amenities like drinking water, public lavatories, drainage, roads,
medical
transport
facilities,
system,
educational
co-operative
institutions, marketing, burial
institutions,
societies,
electricity,
banking
postal
and
services,
other
credit
grounds and all such other facilities. In all,
the rehabilitation centers should act as catalysts of development, prosperity

and change, and certainly not, as centers of conflict, leading to misery,
retrogression; and despondency.
Note:
1.
The national policy on Rehabilitation and Resettlement for project affected

families vides resolution no. Aeg.1401.1/04/2003-LRD dated 17th February
2004 is applicable to those projects which displace 250 families in hilly
areas and 500 families in plain area.
2.
Though the national guideline are not applicable to some of the already
approved projects like Varahi Irrigation project, Markandeya Irrigation
Project, etc., the Government of Karnataka has already agreed to follow the
guidelines in good spirit. Besides similar commitment has been made in
respect of other to be approved projects like Singatalur lift irrigation project,
Bellary nala irrigation project etc., where the number of affected families are
less than 500 and the project does not fall under the national policy on R &
R, the same has been suggested by the Government of Karnataka.
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Water Quality
3.
It is estimated that a total of 383 ha of land is likely to be acquired on

account of the project of which 5 ha is for pump house and project site and
the remaining 378 ha of agricultural land is for canal network, needs to be
acquired from farmers.
4.
The Government of Karnataka vide order No. RD46/REH/05 dated

21.05.2005 as established an R & R Committee and a meeting of the
committee was held on 06.09.2005 under the Chairmanship of the Revenue
Minister, in the Irrigation Department, in respect of the Singatalur irrigation
project to be executed by the Karnataka Neeravari Nigam. The committee
is therefore requested to prepare a similar draft plan, take it to the affected
people, get their opinion and preferences and finally prepare an acceptable
plan.
It is better to issue final acquisition notice once these plans are
finalized.
5.
A preliminary enquiry has revealed that the displaced families prefer to

settle down in the nearby village. As such the district authorities are
requested to identify land for Rehabilitation programme in consultation with
the project affected persons although it is a small number (Thirteen
households). As no resettlement area has been identified so for efforts
must be made immediately to identify the same. The rehabilitation
committee (headed by a Minister of Cabinet rank), the irrigation department
shall make genuine efforts to ensure that it identifies and provides the
required land and other facilities before the commencement of the project
enabling smooth resettlement.
6.
The budget provision for providing infrastructure facilities like health care
centre, etc., suggested as per the R & R policy must be made. Such
allocations and the actions taken thereon must be people friendly as for as
possible.
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Water Quality
Chapter X
Environmental Management Plan and
Occupational Health Hazards
10.0 Safeguarding Health of the Labour groups in the Construction Site
The proposed Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme envisages the intake
structure near Aralimatti village, Gokak taluk, Belgaum district and the command
area for the project is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti taluks of the Belgaum
districts. With respect to the construction of the barrage, significant aspects of
the project need to be explained towards a holistic appraisal of its benefits to the
local community. A detailed study of existing ground water and surface water
regimes is considered, because the water sources mainly constitute the major
drinking water needs of the future and in addition be supportive to the
agricultural needs. The detailed ground and surface water sources in the area
are given below:
10.1 Ground Water Sources
Preliminary observation of the region was carried out followed by selection of
groundwater sampling locations for the collection of ground water samples. The
parameters selected were based on soil condition, agricultural and nonagricultural lands, approach availability of water, power etc. Existing hygienic
conditions of the environment in the entire command area were assessed in the
selected sampling locations. Groundwater samples were collected mainly from
hand pumps as they are the main drinking sources in addition to some surface
waters, municipal water supply, etc. It was noticed that hygienic condition around
the hand pumps was poorly maintained due to (a) household activities such as
washing of utensils used in day-to-day food preparation, washing of clothes,
leading to the formation cesspools around the sources. This is the major source
for spreading epidemic diseases, in addition to its percolation to groundwater
sources; (b) the dumping of solid waste and other domestic wastes around the
water sources generated mainly from agricultural activities consequently led to
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Water Quality
adverse effects on health and a root cause of infectious diseases among the
community.
10.2 Estimated cost for medical facilities
The inhabitants of the project area as well as the inhabitants of the villages in the
project vicinity, in addition to labourers, are prone to general diseases like
diarrhoea, malaria, dysentery, jaundice, etc, which may lead to decline in
immunity among the community, particularly children.
Therefore, it is the
responsibility of the Project Authorities to set up a Primary Health Center to

overcome the problems as a part of R & R programme (see Table 10.1 for cost
estimates).
Table 10.1. Estimated cost for setting up medical facilities
Sl.
No.
1
3
4
Particulars
Non recurring
cost
i) Building
ii) Cost of ambulance (1No)
iii) Equipment, laboratory facility,
furniture etc.
Total 1
Recurring cost
ii) Medicine and other
(3 years)
miscellaneous expenditure
iii) Maintenance of ambulance @
Rs. 5,000/- per month
Total 2
Lump sum grant for strengthening of 1dispensaries @
Rs. 1.5 lakhs per PHC
Public Health Engineering Works
Grand Total (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)
Amount
(Rs. in lakhs)
2.50
1.75
1.75
6.00
4.50
1.80
6.30
2.00
1.70
16.0
Note: Salary and wages components are not shown, as Health Department will
be requested to transfer/depute the personnel.
The poor or lack of maintenance of hygienic conditions around the ground water
sources have often led to outbreak of common diseases, such as malarial fever,
cholera and digestive system problems, which routinely could be observed in the
study area.
236
Water Quality
The formation of cesspools around the ground water source appeared to be the
major threat to the ground water quality, i.e., the entry of some of the hazardous
constituents leading to the contamination of ground water. For instance, the
ground water quality data of study area covering a number of samples, showed
that the concentration levels of number of water quality parameters useful for a
healthy community exceeded very often the prescribed acceptable standards of
the drinking water quality.
The dumping of solid domestic wastes around the sources also contributes to
the contamination of ground water, which causes adverse health effects on the
community. Some of the water samples showed excess levels of nitrate and
sulphate and the excess nitrate levels in drinking water leads to a significant
ailment, particularly among children, commonly termed as Blue baby Syndrome.
The excess of sulphate in the drinking water also sometimes contribute to
turbidity in water and has a health impact, if present in excessive concentrations.
Following the field survey and scrutiny of ground water analyses data, it is found
essential to maintain the ground water sources and their surroundings in a high
degree of sanitary fitness, which can be achieved as follows:
1. All domestic activities should be carried out, well away from the ground
water sources.
2. Washing of clothes and household utensils should be restricted around
the ground water sources, in order to maintain hygienic conditions around
the sources. Well canalized drainage system and washing facility should
be provided away from the sources.
3. Cesspool formation around the source should be checked and this can be
achieved by construction and proper management of platform around
source.
4. Dumping of domestic solid wastes should be prohibited around ground
water sources.
5. Disposal of domestic wastewater around the ground water sources should
be stopped completely.
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Water Quality
10.3 Surface Water Sources
The canal water is the main surface water source in the study area, except for a
few tanks when they get charged during wet season. To collect the surface water
samples, sampling stations were fixed along the stretch of the canal of the study
area. During the collection of water samples and field survey, a number of
contaminating activities were noticed, which directly contributes towards the
contamination of canal water during its passage in the study area.
The domestic activities in the rural areas such as agricultural activities, clothes
washings, household utensil washing, direct disposal of domestic waste water,
dumping of solid wastes into the surface water body, which were some of the
major contaminating activities noticed, which are the main causes for polluting
the water bodies, and following the use of such contaminated water, results in
some of the diseases such as cholera, digestive system problems, etc.,
particularly among children.
Open defecation was commonly observed on the banks of the canal which is the
main contributory agent of infectious diseases and the biological pollution of the
canal water. As a consequence, many water samples showed excess levels of
E.coli which proved the biological contamination aspects and its serious
dimensions.
The direct disposal of domestic wastewater into the canal/river system has a
serious impact on aquatic life by way of decreasing the Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
content as evident in many canal water samples analyzed during study. In most
of the water samples analyzed DO levels were found to be less than 5 mg/L,
which is mainly arising due to disposal of domestic waste water, which leads to a
rise in the BOD values. This contaminated canal water becomes unfit for drinking
purposes in the areas adjacent to the contaminating point. However, since
canals do posses a certain self-purification capacity, a few kilometers
downstream the water quality gets relatively better. Hence the surface water
should be maintained hygienically fit from health point of view in the study area.
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Water Quality
A health survey has been conducted to assess health effects following use of
both ground and surface water in the study area through a questionnaire
distributed randomly. Following the survey, the collected field data through
questionnaire, were analyzed. The results showed that
2) More than 80 % of the community are affected by diseases like
malarial fever and digestive problems and undesirable conditions due
to unhygienic conditions (Cesspool and dumping of domestic solid
wastes) prevailing around ground water sources.
3) Open defecating activities, and disposal and domestic activities are
main causal agents for the spread of communicable diseases and the
community requires the necessary awareness to maintain the hygienic
condition around the ground water sources.
With a view to maintain the quality of canal waters, both for drinking purposes
and
agricultural
activities,
strict
measures
should
be
undertaken
to
restrict/control the spread of pollution generation activities as given below:

1.
Disposal of agricultural wastes generated in rural areas should be

checked and properly managed.
2.
Disposal of domestic waste waters should be restricted in the

vicinity of ground water sources.
3.
All domestic activities resulting in pollution along the bank of canal

should be restricted and properly controlled.
4.
Open defecation along the canal banks should be prohibited and

appropriate alternative community systems should be provided in
addition to maintaining the sanitary system.
The labour camp set up during project work is likely to have nearly 50 inhabitants
consisting of at least 4 members in a house at a place nearer to construction
site. Proper management of drainage system for disposal of wastewater,
construction of septic tanks for the discharge of faecal matter, suitable
arrangements for the disposal of domestic waste are essential to maintain the
hygienic conditions in the labour camp area (Table 10.2).
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Water Quality
Table 10.2. Estimated waste water and solid waste
generation in a labour camps
Number
of
families
50
Members/
family
4
Water
Waste Water
Solid waste
requirement/
generation
generated/
household/day
/household/day
Person/day
120 L
96 L
0.6 Kg
The estimated generation of waste water indicated that 19.2 m3/day of waste
water will be generated in the camp area and proper discharging method has to
be adopted for this problem and to maintain hygienic condition (Table 10.2).
Regarding the solid waste, if 0.6 kg/day is generated per person i.e. 120 kg of
solid waste will be generated from 50 families in the camp area, resulting in
43.80 tonnes of solid waste generation in a year. In order to overcome
subsequent problem of the generated solid waste, proper management of solid
wastes by way of a scientific transport system and appropriate disposal methods
has to be adopted. It is desirable to construct a common septic tank for a unit of
ten families, which will work out to 4 septic tanks for 200 inhabitants.
It is also important that the civil engineers or safety officers at the project site
should be conscious of occupational hazards arising from the project in all its
dimensions and treating it as a priority humanitarian mission. Frequently, the
supervision of construction activities is the task of a civil engineer, and the
Engineer in-charge should be able to recognize potential health hazards and be
aware of the measures to provide the necessary safeguards.
There are several important approaches to the subject of safeguarding health in
construction activities; one is that of safety Engineer who may limit his
interpretation of health protection to the prevention of injury by accident; another
is that of the Health Safety Engineer in charge of health and safety who believes
that health conservation may be influenced by almost everything. For this reason
the concept of the latter is apt to be broader than that of the Health Safety
Engineer. The subject is thus to be discussed from the view point of the Health
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Water Quality
Safety Engineer, but however, certain purely safety engineering practices also
have to be considered.
A widely used construction material is cement and the health maladies that may
be traced to it, or to concrete, are varied. Perhaps the most commonplace
ailments result from burning, or irritation of the skin. Chemical analysis has
shown some cement that contain as high as 10% caustic alkali, although this
may be higher than the average. Frequently concrete or cement gets on clothes,
or in shoes and the constant rubbing of the stiffen wearing apparel abrade the
skin and opens an avenue to infection. Some deafness, due to cement caking in
the ears, and eye injuries, limited usually to conjunctivitis, are some of the
occupational health hazards associated with the use of cement and concrete.
Prolonged inhalation of dust from finished cement produces such slight
physiological reaction that little or no abnormality is seen in the roentgenogram.
Preventive measures are largely a matter of personal hygiene; i.e., clean clothes
and appropriate goggles are indicated for the protection of the eyes.
There are many other exposures in construction work that may result in ill-health
but reference will be made here to only a few of them. Many skin ailments have
been traced to frequent contact with oil and grease and with friction tape.
Frequently dermatitis may be due to washing the hands and forearms in
gasoline. Such practice is emphatically condemned as it removes all the natural
fats and waxes and leaves the skin dry and stiff, in which condition it readily
cracks and becomes susceptible to infection as open wound. Besides bruises
and bore injuries due to constant pressure; or friction; or posture necessary to
operate a machine; excessive heat; or wet conditions; all may constitute
occupational health hazards. The water bucket and the common drinking cup are
likely to be a source of disease hazard; portable pressure tank fountains are
recommended. Heat stroke due to excessive loss of minerals by excessive
perspiration is a real hazard in many jobs and they may be controlled by the wise
use of salt.
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Water Quality
10.4 Solid Waste Management
During the project construction, manpower comprising of laborers, technical staff
and other officials will be residing in the area. The manpower engaged during
construction phase will be of temporary nature and they are likely to leave the
area after the completion of the project. Since, substantial amount of solid waste
is generated from the temporary colonies, proper management of the same
becomes essential. An estimated population of about 150 comprising of
labourers and their families and other staff are expected to reside in the proper
area at any given time.
The project authorities need to undertake sufficient precautions to develop a
proper system for the sewage treatment for the colonies of labourers and
workers. Therefore, septic tanks and soak pits have to be provided for individual
dwellings or for a small cluster. The project authorities should ensure proper
waste disposal practices by facilitating various disposal methods like
incineration, composting, land filling etc.
Average per capita solid waste generated per day is reported to be 0.6 Kg (dry
weight). Therefore, from about 70 households with an average family size of 5
residing in the labour and staff colonies an estimated amount of about 76.65
tonnes (0.6 Kgx5x70x365 days = 76,650 Kg) of solid waste will be generated per
annum. No dumping of solid waste shall be allowed near any water body or a
stream to exclude any health hazard problem to the community.
The solid waste shall be collected in masonry vats with a minimum of 30 cm3
capacity constructed at suitable sites near the colony area. The garbage
generated should be transported to the land fill sites located with a minimum
distance of 0.5 Km away from the colony area. The organic waste should be
suitably processed to form compost, which can be used as manure. In addition
to the above facilities, proper sanitary facilities should also be provided at the
labour colonies. Septic tanks of required size shall be constructed. The waste
water generated from the colony should be collected and disposed in specifically
designed soak pits. It shall be ensured that waste water and sewage generated
from households should not be allowed to enter into the river or any other stream
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Water Quality
in the area; however the same could be utilized for maintaining landscape and
gardening purposes at the proposed project site.
Proper sanitary facilities should be provided at the colonies as per standard
municipal design, designed for hilly areas. Five community latrines of at least ten
seat facilities should be constructed at suitable locations in the colony area. The
estimated cost of solid waste management works out to about Rs. 27.35 Lakhs
for three years (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3. Cost estimates for solid waste management*

Sl.
Amount *
Specification
No.
(Rs. in Lakhs)
1
Community Toilets @ Rs.1.50 Lakhs per set, for
6.00
4 sets
2
Septic Tanks and Soak pits @ 1.25 lakhs, 4 No.
5.00
3
Land fill
1.95
Lumpsum @ Rs.0.65 lakh per year for 3 years
4
Salaries for cleaning workers and collectors
3.60
2Nos for 3 years @ Rs.5000/-per month
5
Miscellaneous expenditure including Implements,
2.40
Transport etc. Lumpsum @ 0.8 lakh per year, for
3 years
6
Water supply system
8.4
Lumpsum @ Rs. 2.80 lakhs per year, for 3 years
Total
27.35
* The outlay given as 27.35 is for three years. As such the annual outlay
works out to be around 9.11 Lakhs (9.116 Lakhs).
10.5 Management Plan
Although agriculture is usually associated with its positive impacts on human life,
irrigation practices may be associated with adverse impacts on environmental
conditions, which may eventually curtail the sustainability of irrigation projects.
For this reason, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been recognized
as an integral part of the early planning studies of irrigation projects in order to
identify any expected negative impacts and suggest the necessary mitigation
plans to curb these impacts. We have prepared mitigation plan for Command
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Water Quality
and Catchment area treatment plan, Canal afforestation plan and restoration
plan of water diversion site.
10.6 Command Area Development plan
The major problems associated with dry land irrigation are water logging and
Salinity and other command area development related activities are construction
of field channels and drains with related structures, land shaping including
grading, leveling, handling and related structures and lining of field channels with
suitable materials. The Water logging and salinity can be mitigated by biodrainage methods, as discussed below.
10.6.1 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Water Logging
To prevent the rise of water table above the critical level, attempts are usually
made to lower it by installing sub-surface drainage systems. Such systems are
expensive and generally an individual farmer cannot afford to adopt this practice.
Moreover, these pose a problem for the disposal of drainage effluent and hence
they are of limited utilities. However, bio-drainage, which is defined as the
process of removing the excess soil water through transpiration using bio-energy
of the plant, can be a supplement or an alternative to this engineering solution, to
avoid unwanted rise in the water table and subsequent development of
secondary salinisation problems.
The bio-drainage scheme can thus be undertaken to minimize and control
water logging and salinity. This has to be carried out by planting trees to
transpire water and absorb salts from the soil so that the waterlogged and saline
areas can be successfully reclaimed. It should be a preferred option to prevent
the development of waterlogged and saline soil, especially in land locked area,
where there is no possibility of disposing of saline drainage effluent. Trees
should also be planted along the link canal to protect embankments and to check
the water logging due to seepage, if any. Trees like eucalyptus and bamboo are
effective in controlling water logging. One more positive aspect of the plantation
is that it can supplement to the afforestation programme in the area.
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Water Quality
Tree species mainly Nilagiri (Eucalyptus toriticomis) and bamboo (Bambusa
arundinacea) are capable of preventing water logging by controlling the rise of
water table. The eucalyptus species can control water table rise up to 1 .95 m in
the first year and up to 3.56 m in the fifth year. Similarly, bamboo species can
control water table rise up to 1.09 m in the first year and up to 3.05 m in fifth
year.
The trees continue to absorb and transpire water throughout the year, the
capacity being more in summer and rainy season than in winter. The biodrainage capacity of the trees is significantly affected by the salinity of the
ground water due to its impact on root growth, biomass production and leaf area
index. Due to high transpiration capacity and an ability to extract water from
deeper layers containing saline ground water, bio-drainage by trees can control
the rise in water table in irrigation command areas and prevent the formation of
water logging and eventually the saline water land. Hence, bio-drainage is the
best way to lower water table and avoid the problems of disposal of drainage
effluent, which otherwise could cause problems of increased salinity of natural
drainage and fresh water resources. This technique, in addition to improving the
environment and providing firewood to the farmers, is economically effective and
does not need extra energy for controlling the water table.
10.6.3 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Salinity
Tree species discussed above, viz., Eucalyptus toriticornis and Bambusa
arundinacea only help in removing the drainage surplus water by absorbing it
through the roots and transpiring from the leaves, thus lowering the water table
and help in counteracting the harm done by excessive irrigation, or a seepage of
the water through the canal. These trees dont bio-harvest the salts as such and
dont remove the salt from the soil. But by controlling the water table rise and
decreasing the capillary water fringe, the trees help in preventing the
accumulation of salts in the root zone. However, an assortment of plant species
can play a beneficial role in the restoration of water and salt balances of irrigated
areas, which can additionally provide income diversity to agricultural properties
affected by rising water table and increased salinities. This can be brought about
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Water Quality
by a programme of bio-drainage which includes several tree species, food crops
and vegetables.
Among the tree species, which are highly tolerant to water logging/salinity are,
Casuarina and Acacia. Food crops tolerant or moderately tolerant to salinity
include grains such as barley and wheat. Food crops such as maize, beans and
many vegetable crops are sensitive or moderately sensitive to salinity. Pulses
such as moong and pigeon peas are relatively more sensitive to irrigation salinity
than cereal crops. Thus when soils are affected by salinity, this type of crops are
to be done away from local cropping systems, and replaced with more tolerant
grain crops like barley and wheat. The direct environmental consequence of
abandoned land due to salinity problem is that it creates demand for more new
land to be brought under cultivation. Thus, it negates environmental benefits in
the form of potential land savings, which result from productivity-enhancing
technologies.
The potential positive impact of irrigation is the increased productivity or other
wise stated the land savings, and all environmental benefits resulting from
these savings. Whereas, the potential negative impact of decreased productivity
due to irrigation induced salinity is the use of more land to produce the same
output (i.e. reduced land savings or land-use augmentation). To strike an
appropriate balance between the two, so that the negative environmental
consequence is corresponding to land savings generated, yield-increasing
agricultural technologies should be implemented. As it has been observed, the
higher cropping intensity and irrigation frequency are associated with greater
yield losses and in the long run, may result in declining crop diversity. To
mitigate this, adequate measures should be taken to give economic policy
incentives to grow other alternative crops. When the soil conditions deteriorate,
the farmers may be advised to revert to low input traditional crop varieties and
practices. To minimize the yield loss, intensity of cropping practices and
frequency of irrigation should be maintained at optimum level of performance.
10.6.3 Conjunctive use of surface and ground water to multiple cropping
and proper utilization of available area resources
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Water Quality
Conjunctive use of surface and ground water in the command areas will enable
maximization of agricultural production and optimal and judicious use of
available water. This will also help in reducing ill effects of water logging. Crop
planning in the command areas should be developed on this basis so that
greater emphasis is given for ground water exploitation through both public and
private investment in the command area.
10.6.4 Cost of Command Area Development
A total area of 18,000 ha is going to be irrigated from the proposed project
covering 29 villages of Soudatti, Ramdurg and Gokak taluks of Belgaum district.
The bio-drainage strategy proposed above to mitigate water logging and salinity
is estimated to cost around Rs. 50,00,000.
10.7 Catchment Area Treatment Plan
The River Ghataprabha takes its origin in Sundergad of the Western Ghats at an
altitude of 858 m and flows eastwards for 59 km through Maharashtra state and
forms the border between Maharashtra and Karnataka for a length of about 10
km. It enters the district near the village Shedihal and here it receives the
Tamraparni from the south and runs about 40 km in a northeasterly direction
through Chikodi taluk before it is joined from the west by the Hiranyakeshi river.
The river then enters the Gokak taluk near the village Sultanpur and from this
point it takes a sharp turn towards north, running along the boundary of the taluk.
The total catchment area of the Ghataprabha river from the source and its
tributaries is 8,829 sq km but their principal source of supply is about 64 km
length of the Western Ghats and about 64 km width on the east of these hills. In
this area, the annual rainfall drops from about 300 to 100 cm.
In order to compensate adverse impacts such as soil erosion, land slides,
sedimentation due to various project activities during construction and operation
phase of the project, Catchment Area Treatment plan has been proposed. The
CAT plan addresses important issues such as damage to infrastructure, changes
in drainage pattern, increased pressure on natural resources, impacts on wildlife
and damage to visual & aesthetic nature of the catchment area.
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Water Quality
10.7.1 Catchment Area Treatment
The areas which are already eroded or prone to erosion will be undertaken to
provide land stability. The treatment of such areas include provision of
engineering measures such as check walls, protection walls, gully plugging,
diversion channels, for stabilization of area. In order to improve soil status of the
area vegetative measures such as vegetative shrub barrier, brush wood check
dams, planting of grasses etc, would be necessary. The watershed wise cost
details are given in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4. The details of Erosion control Measures for sites under
catchment Area of Project
Sl.
No.
Sub
watershed name
% are falling in
each watershed
Amount (% of
Total Cost)
Tamraparni
30
40,00,000
Hiranyakeshi
20
25,00,000
Sultanpur
20
25,00,000
Dhavaleswara
10
10,00,000
100,00,000
Total
10.7.2 Habitat development works in Catchment area
Water management is an important part of the forest management. It involves

locating areas without surface water during the pinch period and providing water
supply. Few water bodies are present in nearby villages, but it is very important
to identify ponds, small tanks and streams within forests.
For realizing the full habitat potential, vital resources, must be distributed
uniformly in the desired composition. This involves detailed survey of existing
resources. Rare species such as Gloriosa suparba, Santalum album, Gardenia
gummifera etc., should be rehabilitated outside the forest as a ex-situ
conservation plot. A detailed inventory of flora and fauna has to be carried out
and recorded on permanent file and registers. Similarly patches supporting
threatened fauna must be identified and mapped for preservation. The degraded
portions, patches with Eupatorium and Lantana etc, should be replanted with
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Water Quality
appropriate species suited to serve the wildlife. Mainly fruit bearing species such
as Flacourtia montana, Bridelia retusa, Vitex altissima, Saraca indica, Madhuca
indica, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus religiosa etc., should be considered for
reforestation in the fringes of human settlements at the edges of the forest and
not elsewhere in the region. The area surrounding cultivated field and the
hamlets should be tackled by planting fruit yielding trees and non timber forest
products species and not with the Eucalyptus, species.
10.7.3 Regeneration model for biodiversity conservation
One of the major silvicultural interventions in forest management is regeneration
operation. The regeneration strategy depends on various factors and ultimately
on the overall management objectives. The regeneration strategies are aimed at
maximizing the uniformity in the stand structure and promote economically
important species. Similarly artificial regeneration is aimed at creating plantations
with only timber species ignoring the biodiversity aspect. However with
biodiversity being main theme of the current management policy, the
regeneration model needs to be developed by taking both biodiversity and
economic objectives into consideration. The species proposed for in the gaps
are mainly fast growing timber species like teak and for open degraded areas,
the exotics like Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equsetifolia have been
suggested. Due to high density of planted exotics, with their fast growing nature
they have suppressed the under growth. The ground flora is also suppressed
under exotic plantations affecting the biodiversity.
This model area can be closed for grazing by digging cattle proof trenches
around the degraded forest area, which will also protect the same during any
incidence of fire. The old rootstocks in the degraded forest in moist and dry
deciduous forests will respond to the protection. These models have been
implemented and the results are very promising in other parts of Western Ghats.
As the natural regeneration takes care of both biodiversity and other Non timber
forest products needs, it would be appropriate to use this approach to reforest
the degraded forest of the sanctuary. The model is also cost effective and
ecologically, a sound measure.
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Water Quality
10.7.4 Natural Forests eco-restoration
There is a very good potential for the prevailing natural rootstock to regenerate
and recoup itself and establish themselves into well-stocked forests. A covert
attempt has been tried, just to provide protection to such areas and this has
resulted in very good results, where protection from fire and biotic pressure has
been checked.
10.7.5 Species choice for Reforestation
Native species should be preferred for compensatory reforestation. Forest
department in the region has extensively promoted exotics species plantations
such as Acacia auriculiformis and Silver oak. But it must be pointed out that
these species provide only fuel wood or poles, but are lacking in yielding fruits to
sustain wildlife and a fauna; also and beside bird community cant build nests on
such tree species. It is this very important to promote native species in
afforestation efforts.
10.7.6 Measures to rehabilitate the endangered species in the region
Four species belong to rare and endangered categories and few are of endemic
to the region are listed from the project site. It is very important to conserve
these species in gene bank. In the present context field gene bank for
conservation and preservation of wild gene pools of medicinal and aromatic
species is a new endeavor in the country and simulated in-situ conservation
practices is a pioneer approach for its establishment. This new method of
conservation practice functions as a viable link between nature on one hand and
man-made conservation methods on the other, by maintaining a healthy mutual
interaction among the populations and among species. It is also observed that
simulated in-situ conservation has an effective role in ecological balance as well
as watershed management of the region.
10.7.7 Terrestrial weed management
Already the region is occupied by the Wild growth of Eupatorium and Lantana,
which effectively suppress the regeneration of rare species and also curbs
growth of grass, which is very crucial for the survival of herbivores in the region
The Eupatorium dominate in disturbed areas, which is totally unpalatable to all
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Water Quality
herbivore animals. It also renders forests more susceptible to fire and to losses
of soil minerals through leaching.
10.8 Canal bank Afforestation

In many arid and semi-arid countries, wherever rivers are available, efforts have
been made to utilize the water for irrigation purposes through the construction of
dams or using lift irrigation for the agricultural needs. A total of 69.05 km length
canal area is coming up in the project area of which six are main canals and
remaining two are branch canals. Among these, the major canal portion lies in
Bagajikoppa village area. The details of canal network are provided in Table
10.5.
The lateral canal network that comes within the command area has not been
considered for afforestation.
Three rows of trees at 5 meter interval on both sides covering a length of 70 km
(102000 m) requires 10200 seedlings for one row, and hence for three rows on
one side of canal, 30600 seedlings are required.
Each seedling cost Rs. 200/sapling, hence for 30600 seedlings (include cost for
raising, and planting and maintenance for five years), the cost is Rs. 61,20,000/for one side of the canal and thus, for another side is Rs. 61,20,000/-. Hence,
overall cost for Canal bank afforestation is Rs. 1,22,40,000/- (One Crore twenty
two lakhs and forty thousand)
Table 10.5. Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km)
Sl. No.
Name of the canal network
Length (in km)
Hulund main canal
13.40
Radderahtti main canal
4.53
Kulgod main canal
2.26
Vankatapur main canal
5.0
Mannikere branch canal
2.70
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6
Kalliguddi main canal
5.40
Mugulihala branch canal
8.28
Bagajikoppa main canal
27.17
Total
69.05
The suitable species proposed for the canal bank afforestation are given in Table
10.6.
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Water Quality
Table 10.6. Species for compensatory afforestation
Sl. No
Species
Family
Fast growing colonizer dry deciduous forest species

1
Gmelina arborea
Verbinaceae
Tectona grandis
Verbinaceae
Emblica offcinalis
Euphorbiaceae
Acacia nilotica
Fabaceae
Acacia auriculiformis
Fabaceae
Ficus bengalenesis
Moraceae
Anogissis latifolia
Combrataceae
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius
Fabaceae
Pterocarpus marsupium
Fabaceae
10
Terminalia bellirica
Combrataceae
11
Terminalia paniculata
Combrataceae
12
Adenanthera pavonina
Fabaceae
13
Cassia saimia
Fabaceae
Medium to slow growing deciduous and semi-evergreen species

14
Syszygium cumini
Myrtaceae
15
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Moraceae
16
Artocarpus hirsutus
Moraceae
17
Mangifera indica
Anacardiaceae
18
Legerstromia lanctiolata
Lytharaceae
19
Diospyrous candalena
Ebinaceae
20
Santalum album
Santalaceae
21
Dalburgia latifolia
Fabaceae
22
Persea macrantha
Lauraceae
23
Lophopetalum wightianum
Celastraceae
24
Ficus sp
Moraceae
10.9 Restoration and Landscaping of Jack well Site

The construction of the proposed project, including its various appurtenances
e.g. power house, approach roads, labour camps, project colony, etc. would
disturb the existing topography and physiography. Since the project site is
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Water Quality
located in hilly area, it is prone to erosion and land sliding, unless the area is
restored and maintained properly. It is proposed to landscape the area, so that it
integrates with the natural surrounding reserve forests and the aesthetic
scenario of the area is restored. Accordingly, it is proposed to develop a small
garden and few view points, for sight seeing.
Garden establishment - A garden with local ornamental plants and trees shall be
developed near the project colony site. All plants will be properly labeled with
scientific and/or common names.
The native species consisting of fruit yielding, ornamental, key stone species can
be considered for garden and also all the along the boundary and avenue;
Artocarpus heterophyllus. Mangifera indica, Azadirictha indica, Ficus religiosa,
Ficus benjaminaria, Tamarindus indica, Dalburgia sp., Syzyzium cumini,
Pongamia pinnata, Switenia sp., Anthocephalus cadamba, Michelia champaka,
Tabebuia sp., Careyota urens (palm), Calophyllum inophyllum, Mimopsus
elengii, Terminalia arjuna, Cassia sp., Alstonia scholaris, Stereospermum sp.,
Legerstromia sp., Madhuca sp., Emblica officinalis, Pterocarpus marsupium etc.
10.9.1 Landscaping
Various sites in the area will be stabilized by constructing a series of benches.
The walls that will be constructed for containing the slope will be embedded with
local stones to integrate and enhance the aesthetics of the area. The native
trees and shrubs can be positioned based on the site condition. The species for
this purpose can be picked from the above mentioned, groups of plants.
A lumpsum amount of Rs. 10,00,000 can be earmarked for development of
various measures outlined for landscaping and restoration of construction sites.
10.10 Agro-forestry
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Water Quality
Agro-forestry refers to the practice of Agriculture and Forestry in the same piece
of land. The KFD has accorded high emphasis of Farm forestry as an important
component in the afforestation programmes. The sector of Agro-forestry or Farm
Forestry holds high promise and potential as most of the agriculture lands are
devoid of any tree population in the district. The trees if planted on the bunds
and on the boundary of the lands protects the crops from the desiccating high
winds and additionally would provide surplus income from the trees to the farmer
apart from providing fodder and fuel as well.
10.10.1 Silvi-Pasture: This Refers to the planting of the trees in a predominately
grassland so as to provide fodder all year round. The region has large areas
under grasslands especially the higher reaches of reserve forest areas in the
region. This afforestation is aimed not only by way of addition of tree species, but
also addition of high nutritive and palatable grass species in the area, thereby
providing, and much needed nutritious fodder is aimed through this intervention.
10.10.2 Natural Regeneration: This refers to providing protection to bring back
as much as possible the degraded natural forest to its original state. Nature
follows its own way of restocking the forests. Normally the seeds shedded from
the trees will germinate and establish themselves as trees and shrubs.
However even in nature several agents assist the process of natural
regeneration.
High winds aid the disposal of seeds over a large area.
Floods carry the seeds further away and assist regeneration.
Birds and animals feed on the fruits and seeds and their droppings aid
regeneration.
Bees and other insects carry pollen and aid regeneration.
The Forest Department is also assisting substantially the natural processes of
regeneration by dibbling of seeds in bushes where the chances of the
germinated seed to develop into a tree are high. Low viability (potential of seed
to germinate) seeds are sown in potential areas etc., to develop into trees.
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Water Quality
10.10.3 Cost estimates for implementing agro-forestry plan for project
affected villages
Total trees to be cut on both the corridors = 46
Compensatory afforestation at 1:10 comes to 460 trees
Cost of 460 saplings @ Rs. 1000/sapling = Rs. 4,60,000/Rs. 1000/ includes the cost of pit making, fertilizers, tree guard, watering, control
of pest and weed, thinning and maintenance etc. for 5 years
Table 10.7. Overall cost for implementing Biodiversity and

Ecosystem restoration plans
Sl. No.
Mitigation Plan
Amount (Rs)
Canal Bank afforestation
12240000.00
Catchments area treatment plan
10000000.00
Command Area Development plan
5000000.00
Restoration of Jack well site
1000000.00
Agro-forestry plan for 29 villages in command area

Grand total
460000.00
16895000.00
4,55,95,000.00
(Rupees Four crores fifty five lakhs ninety five thousand)
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Water Quality
Chapter XI
Environmental Monitoring Programme
11.0 Water Resource Monitoring Programme

11.1 Surface and ground water quality monitoring
It is now documented that with expanded irrigation facilities in the project area,
water quality monitoring is gaining importance, mainly because of considerable
rise in deterioration of water resources, due to the consumption of fertilizers and
pesticides in agriculture sector. Also, the water regime is bound to experience
transformation on account of percolation and movement of water through
geological formations. With commissioning of reservoir as part of the project, the
dissolved salt content of ground waters is subjected to changes. Thus, proposed
monitoring network will collect the water quality data for the surface and ground
waters system in order to predict changes in water quality on a regular basis.
11.2 Types of monitoring programme
As with any type of monitoring, it is significant that evident objectives are set
before initiating data collection activities. Also, it is of importance to decide
sampling sites and their frequency of analysis to meet the objectives. In the past,
formulation of water quality assessments and designing of monitoring
programmes were carried out to fit in with the existing infrastructure. But, this
method of monitoring was generally a failure in addressing the most vital
problems and in giving a complete picture of all the problems being monitored at
that point of time. In this regard, the Department of Environmental Sciences,
Bangalore University, Bangalore proposes the following monitoring scheme to
effectively supervise the quality of water regimes (both surface and ground
water) in the project site, which shall be useful for meeting appropriate
management objectives.
11.3 Significance of key monitoring parameters
Monitoring programmes were designed to keep a constant examination on all
those water quality parameters which are well-known to have adverse impact on
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Water Quality
human health as well as on agriculture. Thus, it is essential to monitor physicochemical parameters on a regular basis, particularly those components whose
concentrations are likely to change. This is largely determined by the geological
characteristics of the area and accordingly the monitoring plan is evolved.
11.4 Objectives of monitoring of surface and ground water status
Assessment of ground and surface water quality in the catchment and
command area.
Evaluation of impact of various water quality parameters on the ground
water quality in the command area.
Assessment of the effects of various water quality parameters on
biophysical and socio-economic activities.
To identify the major sources for ground and surface water pollution.
11.5 Establishment of optimal network for ground water monitoring
Monitoring of the groundwater status is carried out by selecting monitoring points
in the critical regions of the command area by making use of conventional and
modern equipments such as automatic water level recorder etc. The data will be
collected continuously for the groundwater levels in the selected points to
establish a stable platform for depicting observations on the impact of the Sri
Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme before its operation and after the operation.
Further, selection of the sampling stations was carried out in such a way to
acquire representative data related to the ground water behavior in the study
area.
11.6 Sampling scheme for ground water monitoring

In order to monitor annual changes in the ground water regime of the study area,
samples from the monitoring stations will be collected in all the four seasons, viz,
Pre-monsoon, Monsoon, Post Monsoon and winter. The sampling stations
identified are presented in Tables 11.1, 11.2, & 11.3. The report format for
analytical results of water sample parameters are given in Table 11.4.
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Water Quality
Table 11.1. Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area (Ground Water)

Tube/open
Sl.
No
Location
Well/surface
water
Depth of
water
(ft)
T
HP
T
HP
T
T
T
T
T
170
200
300
180
400
300
--210
400
425
HP
PWS
T
MWS
HP
MWS
HP
150
450
500
500
80
--500
160
HP
300
Gokak Taluk
Redrahatti
Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony, Koujalgi
Kalliguddi, Roadside
Kalliguddi, inside village
Hulkund, Roadside
Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri, Chenal
Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi,
Roadside b/w Manikere & Kuligodi
Saudatti Taluk
Mugalihaal
Mallikere Thota
HPS near temple, inside Mallikere village
Bagochikoppa, infront of yogeshwara matt
Hirekoppa, Near temple
Chikoppa, Road side, Opp to Bus stop
Ramdurga Taluk
Balappa Yavanappa Parakanatti,
Murukattnal
Hosur
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Table 11.2: Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area (Surface Water)

Tube/open
Sample
No.
Location
Well/surface water
Depth of
water (ft)
20
Dhavaleshwar Barrage
RW
---
21
Aralimatti
RW
---
22
Venktapura
RW
---
23
Siddramaiaha, Kalliguddi
OW
40
24
Mannikeri Manthose
OW
45
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Water Quality
Table 11.3: Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Location
GOKAK TALUK
Venktapura
Kollugodu
Koujalgi
Redrahatti
Meresab Honnur
Koujalgi, Roadside
Anand Yellapa Adimani, Koujalgi, Roadside
Sidramaiah, Kalligudi
Krishnappa Venkappa Heregudre, Hulkunda
Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri, Hulkunda
Between Hulkund & Chipalkatti, Roadside
Mannikeri Manthose
Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, Roadside
b/w Manikere & Kuligodi
SAUDATTI TALUK
Mallikere Thota
Mallikere Roadside, BagojiKoppa
Chowraddi, BagojiKoppa
Gurupadappa Guruningappa Gondhi, Hirekoppa
Chikoppa, Road side
RAMDURGA TALUK
Murkattnal
Hosur
Elevation
(m)
Soil
Type
595
619
617
605
623
626
641
625
633
654
628
610
617
638
626
Grey
Grey
Grey
Grey
Black
Grey
Grey
Grey
Black
Black
Grey
Black
Grey
Grey
Black
644
Black
614
629
666
645
668
674
Grey
Grey
Grey
Grey
Grey
Black
648
620
Grey
Grey
11.7 Sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring surface and ground
water quality during and after the project period
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Water Quality
The exact locations of the stations shall be determined after a series of sampling
survey to locate the precise sites for future sampling.
Sl. No.
Locations
No. of Sites
Gokak Taluk
Saudatti Taluk
Ramdurg Taluk
Total
24
Methodology
The analytical methodology adopted for assessment of water quality parameters
is based upon the widely followed Standard American Public Health Association
methods (APHA, 1995) which are given in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4. Analytical Methodology to be adopted for Water Parameters

Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Parameter
pH
Conductivity
Alkalinity Carbonate and
Bicarbonate
Turbidity
Redox potential
Total Hardness
Calcium
Magnesium
Manganese
Nitrates
Sulphates
Iron
Boron
Lead
Chromium
Chlorides
Phosphate
Nitrites
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
Sodium
Potassium
Methodology
Elctrode Method
Electrode Method
Titrimetric Method
Nephlometric/ HACH Colorimeter
Electrode Method
Electrode Method
EDTA Method
EDTA Method
EDTA Method
AAS Method
Spectrophotometer
Turbidimetric
AAS
Titrimetric
Spectrophotmetric
AAS
Argentometric
Spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometer
Kjeldahl Method
Flame Photometer
Flame Photometer
261
Water Quality
23
24
25
26
Fluoride
Percent sodium
E Coli (MPN Technique)
SPADNS Method
By Calculation
By Calculation
Membrane Filter Technique
262
Water Quality
Field Protocol format for water sampling
Sample
Collection Date:
By:
Latitude:
Longitude:
Sample Code :
Location
Village
Taluk
Details of Sampling Well/ Area:

Depth
Water Level Fluctuations:
Previous:
Present:
Usage status :
Feed back from Farmer
Any other observations
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Water Quality
Seasonal and Annual Report Format

Table 11.5. Report format for Analytical Results of water Sample
parameters
Parameters
Concentration (mg/l)*
Deviation if any
from the
Previous results
pH
Conductivity (mhos/cm)
Alkalinity Carbonate
and Bicarbonate
Turbidity (NTU)
Redox potential
Total Hardness
Calcium
Magnesium
Manganese
Nitrates
Sulphate
Iron
Boron
Lead
Chromium
Chlorides
Phosphate
Nitrites
Ammonical Nitrogen
Sodium
Potassium
Fluoride
Percent sodium
E Coli (number per 100ml)
*All values in mg/l except for pH, Turbidity and Conductivity
Note: a) Critical observations Parameter
b) interventions required if any -
264
Water Quality
11.8 Soil Resource monitoring programme
Presently considerable emphasis is placed over the problems regarding land degradation, associated loss of
soil productivity and declining soil quality. In order to monitor the soil resource and soil health to a greater
degree, two reasons must be taken into consideration, namely (a) Soil degradation undermines the productive
capacity of an ecosystem, and (b) It affects global climate through alterations in water and energy balances
leading to disruptions in natural cycles of carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur and other elements. Soil degradation has its
impact not only on agricultural productivity and environment, but also can enhance the rate of deforestation,
intensive use of marginal and fragile lands and emission of unwanted gases into the atmosphere, besides
causing social problems at the community level. Infact, soil degradation adversely affects the very fabric of
mankind (Lal and Steward, 1990).
11.8.1 Soil Resource Monitoring Scheme

Soil parameters such as erosion rate, sediment load rate, water logging etc., will
be studied in following locations of the Markandeya river basin of Rameshwara
Lift Irrigation region of the sub-watershed in catchments and command area
(Table 11.6).
Table 11.6: Soil resource monitoring locations
Sl. No.
Locations
No. of Sites
Gokak Taluk
Saudatti Taluk
Ramdurg Taluk
Total
24
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Water Quality
Methodology for soil analysis
The methodology for soil analysis has been drawn from a number of
sources/literature and the same are summarized in Table 11.7.
Table 11.7. Analytical Methods for soil Analysis

Parameter
pH
Conductivity
Organic Carbon
P2O5 (Average)
K2O (Average)
Exchangeable Sodium
Cation Exchange Capacity
Boron
CaCO3
Exchangeable Sodium
(Percentage)
Textural class
Water holding capacity
Methodology
Electrode Method
Electrode Method
Walkley & Blacks Method
Spectrophotometer
Flame Photometer
EDTA Method
EDTA Method
Flame Photometer
Flame Photometer
Neutralization Method
Curcumin Method
EDTA method
By calculation
Reference
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Olsen et al,.1982
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Sippola & Ereco, 1997
Jackson, 1973
Pipette Analysis/ Sieving

Pycnometric Method
Keens Cup Method
Jackson, 1973
Jackson, 1973
Soil analysis
Manual,1999

Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
By calculation
Macro Kjeldahl
Jackson. 1973
266
Water Quality
Field Protocol format for soil sampling
Sample
Collection Date:
By:
Latitude:
Longitude:
Sample Code :
Location
Village
Taluk
Details of Sampling Area:

Depth
Soil status:
Earlier:
Present:
Present land use:
Feedback from Farmer
Any other observations
267
Water Quality
268
Water Quality
Soil Resources report format

The sample format is given below.
Sample no.
Village:
Taluk
Soil Parameters
Concentration (mg/kg)*
Existing
Standards as
prescribed by
CPCB, BIS & FAO

Textural class
pH
Conductivity (mhos/cm)
Organic Carbon
Average P2O5
Average K2O
Exchangeable Sodium
Cation Exchange Capacity
Boron
CaCO3
Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage
Note: Critical parameter, needing intervention if any to be indicated
*All values in mg/kg except for pH, Turbidity and Conductivity
11.9 Flora and Fauna Monitoring programme

The conversion of forestlands to non-forest lands is a common phenomenon
throughout the developing countries like India, and this has been a matter of
great concern for forest functionaries, environmentalists and policy makers in the
269
Water Quality
last few decades (Lanley, 1982). As per the EIA guidelines of Ministry of
Environment and Forests, compensatory afforestation and Flora and Fauna
conservation has to be undertaken compulsorily for conversion of any forest
area. Flora and fauna conservation related activities should also be undertaken.
This includes a sustained programme of awareness building related to
biodiversity conservation among the local community.
Researchers and Environment managers have often stressed the importance of regular monitoring of Rare,
Endangered and Threatened (RET) ex-situ and in-situ species plots (Goldsmith 1991; Solbrig 1991; Noss and
Woperrider 1994). Therefore, there is a need to monitor and document changes during the course of
development of plantation at field gene bank and also at catchments area aiming at various biotic and abiotic
interactions which are taking place there. To detect, measure and assess changes in the status of biological
diversity, appropriate monitoring methods should employ specific indicators of health of ecosystem attributes,
as well as indicators of socio-economic changes. Long-term monitoring of such activities is pivotal for testing
many concepts associated with attempts to conserve RET species under ex-situ mixed conditions, and to
oversee as to how it promotes native species colonization thus enhancing the regional biodiversity.
The present study aims at considering the RET species adaptation in terms of nutrient and water use and
uptake efficiency, their growth behavior, and interaction with biotic or abiotic factors in the field gene bank. It
will be useful not only to emphasize the body of basic principles of each species but also to improve the existing
field gene bank system through appropriate management practices.
11.9.1 Objectives of Flora and Fauna monitoring programme

This study has been visualized with the following objectives,
1. Field gene bank establishment by collecting RET species.
2. Development of butterfly garden by considering the rare butterfly species
of the area and recognition of plant species that attracts these butterflies.
3. Census of plants and animals to maintain biodiversity register.
4. Assessment of nutrient uptake and use efficiencies; discern the growth
and architecture patterns and in turn monitoring the performance of RET
species in gene bank.
5.
To assess the impact of forest submergence on habitat fragmentation

specially species association and wildlife corridors in the basin.
6.
Conducting awareness programme for the local community on

biodiversity conservation and steps to promote eco-tourism in the Jack
well site.
11.9.2 Initiatives in RET species conservation

The Professor and Principal Investigator, Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University could be
actively involved in undertaking flora and faunal conservation related activities as mentioned below (Table 11.8).
In this regard, it may be stated that the Department of Environmental Sciences, has already undertaken a field
gene bank establishment project sponsored by Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, in which
several rare species have been successfully collected from the Western Ghats, including Thungabhadra river
270
Water Quality
basin and is presently maintained at Bangalore University Field Gene Bank with very encouraging results. The
Department project staffs are having considerable experience and expertise in establishing, maintenance and
monitoring field gene bank related activities, which would be a good asset for undertaking a similar programme
in the Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme environs. The number of In-situ and ex-situ sites for monitoring are
given in Table 11.8.
Table 11.8. Details of In-situ and ex-situ sites for the

purpose of monitoring Biodiversity
Location
Location no.
1
2
3
4
5
Catchment area right bank in-situ plots

Catchment area left bank in-situ plots
Upstream area
Around the Jack well site in-situ plots
Number of
sites
4
4
7
3
4
11.9.3 Field data collection format

Conservation related information for in-situ and ex-situ aspects are given in Tables 11.9 and 11.10.
Table 11.9. In-situ information sheet related to RET species

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Conservation Activities/
parameters
Species (common and
scientific name) and Family
Distribution of species
Locality name and address
Locality longitude and latitude
Altitude (m)
Mode of collection
Condition of forest or % of
canopy cover
Number of individuals and age
(months/years)
Date of collection
Collectors name and
designation
Mother tree details
(Approximate age)
Species regeneration details
visual observation
Local use/threats
Trade/ industrial use and past
Data
Seed/germinating seeds/
wildlings/seedlings from nursery
Disturbed/partially disturbed and
undisturbed
Poor/ partial/good
271
Water Quality
exploitation from Forest
Department
Topography
Soil type
Presence of litter mat
16
16
17
Flat/slope
Litter is intact/partially removed
Table 11.10. Ex-situ information sheet related to RET species

conserved in Field Gene bank
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parameters
Name of the Block
Individuals species code (A, B, C, etc.,) and location in
the field rows and its position
Number of days the wilding/seedling kept in hardening
chamber
Date of wilding transplanted to field
Kind of treatment given to each species after planting
i) Watering
ii) Manuring
iii) Shading
iv) Mulching
Planted species Height and Girth when planted
Other locations and Institutions where the above
species has been conserved or propagated
Data
11.10 Monitoring Air and Noise parameters

On account of construction activities, it is not only surface and ground water
quality likely to be affected, but also air environment and noise. Therefore,
monitoring for SPM, RSPM, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur also should
be carried out both during project and post-project phases to meet the
environmental air quality parameters. Besides, noise levels have also to be
monitored. The sampling sites for air and noise monitoring are given in Table
11.11.
Table 11.11. Location for air and noise monitoring
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Location
Number of
sampling sites
for air
monitoring
(on 8 hr basis)
Number of
sampling sites for
noise monitoring
(one reading for
every 10 min)
10
1
1
10
10
Aralimatti (At the end of village

close to pumping station)
272
Water Quality
4
5

Bhagojikoppa (Near bus stop)
1
1
10
10
11.10.1 The sampling frequency of Air and Noise parameters

For monitoring air quality, it is proposed to collect samples on random basis
during one working day in a month. Simultaneously it is proposed to collect the
data on noise levels. For the purpose of monitoring air quality and noise levels,
the stations have already been identified as in Table 11.11.
11.10.2 Details of sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring Air and Noise
quality during construction period are given in Table 11.11.
273
Water Quality
Methodology
Analytical methods to be adopted for Air and Noise quality parameters are given
in Table 11.12.
Table 11.12. Parameters and methods used for air and noise monitoring
Parameters
Methods
Recommended by
Air Quality
Respirable Suspended
Particulate Matter (RSPM)
(below 10 micron)
Suspended Particulate
Matter (SPM)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2 )
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx )
Cyclonic Flow
Technique
Gravimetric
Titrimetric method
Titrimetric
APHA, 1995
APHA, 1995
West and Ordiveza
(1962)
Jacob and
Hochheiser (1958)
Noise level
Noise level
Sound level meter
APHA. 1995
274
Water Quality
Field Protocol Format for Air and Noise monitoring
1) Data collection date:

2) Air quality sample code:
3) Noise level :
4) Location Latitude & Longitude :
5) Village:
6) Taluk :
7) Details of sampling station/area:
8) Human settlement distance from the sampling point :
9) Details of any other extraneous noise-emanating source near the sampling
point:
Local community opinion
Any other observation
275
Water Quality
276
Water Quality
The Report Format for evaluating air and noise levels measured with respect to
existing standards is given below.
For Air and Noise quality
a) Village
b) Taluk
c) Critical Parameters and their significance
d) Intervention needed, if any?
e) Critical observations
Existing standards as
Parameters
Concentration
prescribed by CPCB,
BIS & FAO
Air quality
Respirable
Suspended
Particulate Matter (below
255.5
150
83.3
500
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2 )
2.0
120
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx )
1.7
120
81.6
75
10 micron)
Suspended
Particulate
Matter (SPM)
Noise level
Noise level
277
Water Quality
11.11 Overall Cost Estimates for Implementing Environmental Management Plan
As per the general guidelines of the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, a total budget of approximately 1.5 % of the total cost of
the project, is required for EIA, EMP and Monitoring. An amount of Rs.105 Lakhs
has been allocated for the implementation of
different environmental
management plans. The summary of total cost estimates for the execution of
different plans is given in Tables 11.13.
278
Water Quality
Table 11.13. Item wise budget for the Environmental monitoring programme
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
Monitoring programmes
Surface & ground water quality monitoring
Soil resource monitoring in catchments
(Erosion & Sedimentation rate) and
command area (Salinity & Water logging)
Air & Noise monitoring
Monitoring of Flora & Fauna
Total
Amount
(Rs. In Lakhs)
40,00,000.00
30,00,000.00
20,00,000.00
15,00,000.00
105,00,000.00
Note: The above monitoring costs are estimates for two years of construction
and four years of post construction period.
279
Water Quality
Annexure I
Overall species Density and Diversity of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
SL.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Species
Acacia sp.
Acacia nilotica
Aegle marmelos
Annogesis latifolia
Albizzia odoratissima
Artocarpus integrifolia
Azadirachta indica
Bambusa arundianacea
Bauhinia racemosa
Bignonia sp.
Bombex ceiba
Butea monosperma
Careyota urens
Carica papaya
Carissa carnanda
Cassia fistula
Cocus nucifera
Eucalyptus torticornis
Ficus sp
Hardwickia binata
Holoptelia integrifolia
Legerstroemia reginae
Mangifera indica
Morinda tinctoria
Pandanus furcatus
Phylanthes reticulatus
Phyllanthus cerasoides
Pongamia glabra
Prosopis juliflora
Randia dometorum
Santalum album
Sapindus laurifolia
Shorea talura
Stereospermum sp
Streblus asper
Syzigium cumini
Density Diversity
17
12
3
8
5
5
29
5
2
5
8
13
4
3
4
7
12
13
19
6
7
7
15
5
6
2
7
21
12
4
4
5
7
6
5
13
0.143
0.112
0.084
0.039
0.059
0.059
0.201
0.059
0.028
0.059
0.084
0.119
0.049
0.039
0.049
0.076
0.112
0.119
0.154
0.067
0.076
0.076
0.131
0.059
0.067
0.028
0.076
0.164
0.112
0.049
0.049
0.059
0.076
0.067
0.059
0.119
280
Water Quality
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Tamarindus indica
Tectona grandis
Terminalia arjuna
Trichilia connaroides
Vitex altisima
Total
5
6
25
7
8
4
5
358
0.059
0.067
0.183
0.076
0.084
0.049
0.059
3.552
Annexure II
Tree species Density and Diversity of Command area of
Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation project
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
species
Acacia arabica
Aegle marmelos
Annogesis latifolia
Azadirachta indica
Bauhinia racemosa
Butea monosperma
Cassia fistula
Carissa carnanda
Ficus sp
Hardwickia binata
Morinda tinctoria
Mangifera indica
Pongamia glabra
Prosopis juliflora
Randia dometorum
Santalum album
Shorea talura
Streblus asper
Syzigium cumini
Terminalia arjuna
Tamarindus indica
Total
Density
17
8
3
5
5
9
2
7
5
7
4
5
6
7
5
4
7
12
4
2
7
5
4
7
5
2
154
Diversity
0.243
0.154
0.077
0.111
0.111
0.166
0.056
0.141
0.111
0.141
0.095
0.111
0.126
0.141
0.111
0.095
0.141
0.199
0.095
0.056
0.141
0.111
0.095
0.141
0.111
0.056
3.135
281
Water Quality
Annexure III
Species Density and Diversity of project site Sri Rameswara
Lift Irrigation project
Sl. No Species
Density
Diversity
1
Mangifera indica
3
0.178
2
Cocus nucifera
12
0.351
3
13
0.357
4
Acacia nilotica
4
0.212
5
Carica papaya
3
0.178
6
Tectona grandis
6
0.266
7
Santalum album
2
0.136
8
Azaridictha indica
3
0.178
Total
46
1.856
Annexure IV
Species Density and Diversity of Riparian vegetation of
Sri Rameswara Lift Irrigation project
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
11
12
14
15
16
17
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
Species
Acacia nilotica
Azaridichta indica
Bignonia sp.
Bombex ceiba
Butea monosperma
Careyota urens
Ficus sp.
Ficus sp.
Mangifera indica
Pandanus furcatus
Pongamia pinnata
Sapindus laurifolia
Stereospermum sp
Syzygium cumini
Terminalia arujuna
Vitex altisima
Total
Density Diversity
8
0.145
17
0.232
5
0.105
8
0.145
6
0.119
4
0.089
8
0.145
8
0.145
7
0.132
8
0.145
6
0.119
7
0.132
14
0.207
5
0.105
6
0.119
9
0.157
18
0.239
7
0.132
8
0.145
4
0.089
5
0.105
168
2.951
282
Water Quality
Annexure V
Plant Species scientific & common name, family and habitat of
Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Project area
SL. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Scientific name
Acacia arabica
Acacia nilotica
Aegle marmelos
Albizzia lebbeck
Amaranthus polygamus
Amaranthus spinosus
Andrographis serpyllifolia
Argemone mexicana
Argemone sp.
Asparagras racemosus
Azadirachta indica
Bauhinia racemosa
Bignonia sp.
Bombex ceiba
Borreria articularis
Butea monosperma
Calotropis gigantea
Canthium parviflorum
Careyota urens
Carica papaya
Carissa caranda
Carissa spinarum
Cassia auriculata
Cassia sp.
Cassia fistula
Chloris barbata
Clematis gouriana
Cocus nucifera
Croton bonplandianum
Cynodon dactylon
Cyperus odoratus
Desmodium triflorum
Digitaria marginata
Dioscorea oppositifolia
Dodonea viscosa
Eleusine indica
Eupatorium odoratum
Euphorbia tirucalli
Family
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Acanthaceae
Papaveraceae
Acanthaceae
Moraceae
Asparagaceae
Meliaceae
Arundiaceae
Fabaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bombacaceae
Rubiaceae
Pabaceae
Apocynaceae
Rubiaceae
Palmae
Caricaceae
Habitat
T
T
T
T
T
H
H
H
H
H
T
H
T
T
T
T
T
H
T
S
S
T
T
T
S
Fabaceae
S
Fabaceae
S
Fabaceae
T
Asteraceae
H
Rananunculaceae
CL
Palmae
T
Euphorbiaceae
H
Poaceae
H
Cyperaceae
H
H
H
Diosoraceae
CL
Verbinaceae
S
Poaceae
H
Myrtaceae
T
Asteraceae
S
Euphorbiaceae
S
283
Water Quality
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Euphorbia sp.
Evolvulus alisinoides
Ficus sp
Flueggea leucopyrus
Gloriosa superba
Gymnosporia montana
Hardwickia binata
Hemidesmus indicus
Hemidesmus sp.
Ipomaea mauritiana
Ixora arborea
Jasminum sp.
Kyllinga brevifolia
Lantana camara
Leucas aspera
Mangifera indica
Mimosa pudica
Morinda tinctoria
Ocimum adscendens
Oldenlandia fruticosa
Oxalis corniculata
Pandanus furcatus
Parthenum hystophorus
Passiflora foetida
Phyllanthus sp.
Pongamia glabra
Prosopis juliflora
Randia dometorum
Santalum album
Semicarpus sp.
Sapindus laurifolia
Shorea talura
Sida acuta
Sida cordata
Sonchus sp.
Stereospermum sp
Streblus asper
Syzigium cumini
Tamarindus indica
Tarenna asiatica
Tectona grandis
Tephorsia purpurea
Terminalia arjuna
Euphorbiaceae
Convovulaceae
Moraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Liliaceae
Fabaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Fabaceae
Convolvulaceae
Rubiaceae
Oleaceae
Verbinaceae
Lythoraceae
Anacardiaceae
Mimosaceae
Lamiaceae
Borreria strictus
Oxaliaceae
Pandanaceae
Asteraceae
Passofloraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Rubiaceae
Santalaceae
Sapotaceae
Pipterocarpaceae
Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Asteraceae
Myrtaceae
Verbinaceae
Fabaceae
Combrataceae
Combrataceae
S
H
T
S
CL
S
T
CL
H
T
CL
S
S
H
S
T
H
T
H
T
H
H
H
T
H
CL
T
T
S
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
H
H
H
T
T
T
T
S
T
H
T
T
284
Water Quality
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Toddalia aculata
Tribulus terestris
Tridax procumbens
Vitex altisima
Zizyphus rugosa
Combrataceae
Rutaceae
Xylophyllaceae
Meliaceae
Asteraceae
Verbinaceae
Rhamnaceae
T
S
H
T
H
T
S
285
Water Quality
Appendix 1.1
Aralimatti - Land affected under proposed project: survey number hissa
number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey
No.
94
95
74
Hissa
No.
1, 2,3
and 4
1 and 2
Area in
Acres
9-03
1-11
2-28
2-28
60
1A,
1B/1,
1B/2
1-09
61
0-31
63
1, 2,
3/1,
3/2,
3/33/2,
3/4p2,
4,5,6
0.29
Total
Name of the Khathedar/s

Pateela Paragauda Nandagauda
Pateela Adiveppa Nandigauda
Pateela Shivagauda
Pateela Vidhyashee
Alaguda Pateela
Pateela Ramdagauda Nandagauda
Mahalingappa Ramappa
Allapparayappa
Mahadhevappa
Guruva Kalavva
Madivalayya Lokayya
Mophatha Gayarana
Executive officer, Taluk Panchayath
Karya nirvahaka Abhiyanthavu, K.P C limited.
Ghataprabha
Pateela Thrikala amara Simha
Pateela Poornima Amara Simha
Kudrimani babanna basappa
Rayappanavara dundappa
Shidagowda
Nadhigunnavara satheppa kenchappa
Nadhigunnavara basappa kenchappa
Nadhigunnavara rayappa basappa
Ajjanakatti basalingappa basappa
Ajjanakatti hanamathappa basappa
Ajjanakatti basappa shiddappa
Ajjanakatti subhasha shiddappa
Ajjanakatti venkappa shiddappa
Ajjanakattinagappa shiddappa
Ajjanakatti rayappa basappa
Ajjanakatti kareppa basappa
Hallura laxmana birappa
Hallura maruthi venkappa
Hallura maruthi venkappa
Hallura lakkappa venkappa
Hallura girimallappa venkappa
Hallura narayana venkappa
Hallura nigavva co ettappa
Hallura halappa laximeshppa
Hallura hallappa laximeshppa
15- 31
286
Water Quality
Appendix 1.2
Venkatapur - Land affected under proposed project: suvey number, Hissa
number, Extent of area in acres and Name of Khathedar/s
Survey
No.
Hissa No.
Area in
Acres
Name of the Kathedar/s

Hulakunda kallappa mahadhevappa
Pateela ashok shankaragauda
Kanti dyamappa laxmana
Kanti saththevva
75
1A, 1B, 1K, 2,

3A, 3B, 3K
0-17
Hebbaala shivappa
Ajanakalpu ramappa basappa
Ajanakalpu subhash sidhdhappa
Pateela ashoka shankaragauda
Pujari urf konnoora
Dhundappa shidhdhappa
Pujari urf konnoora
Rayappa gurusidhdhappa
Pujari somappa shivarayappa
76
1A, 1B, 1K,

2A, 2
0-37
Pujari nagappa shiyarayappa

Pujari bheemappa shivarayappa
Hulakundha kallappa
Mahadhevappa
Pujari mahithi gulappa
Pujari gadigeppa kaleppa
287
Water Quality
Pujari yallappa kaleppa

Pujari gulappa gadhigeppa
Gaji hanumantha bheemappa
Gaji yallappa bheemappa
Gaji kashippa ramappa
Gaji yallappa ramappa
Gaji yankappa ramappa
77
1, 2A, 2B, 2K
0-13
Badakalurf budhkiramappa laxmappa

Gaji thimmappa yallappa
Gaji kallppa appanna
Uddavagola laxmappa balappa
Uddavagola basappa balappa
Uddavagola yankappa balappa
Uddavagola mahadheva balappa
Uddavagola sakashivva balappa
78
1, 2, 3
0-17
Uddavagola yamanappa balappa

Jelli urf Uddavagola laxmappa
balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola venkappa
balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola mahadevappa
balappa
288
Water Quality
Jelli urf Uddavagola nagarappa

balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola yamanappa
balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola basappa balappa
78
2, 4, 4A
0-17
Jelli mayappa bhemappa

Jelli shiddappa appanna
Dalavayi maruthi hanumappa
79
1, 2A, 2A, 2B
0-24
Kalavayi bheemappa hanumappa

Dalavayi bheemappa hanmanthappa
Dalavayi yankappa laxmappa
Phakeerappagola appanna yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha
yallappa
Phakeerappagola appeesha yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha
yallappa
Vanti yallappa hanumantha
80
1A, 1B, 2, 3, 4,
5
0-04
Vanti hanumantha shidhdhappa

Malli vittala shiddappa
Vanti shidhdhappa hanumappa
Vanti bhemappa hanumappa
Vanti rayappa shiddappa
Vanti yankappa shiddappa
Neelappagola hanumanthappa
venkappa
289
Water Quality
Neelappagola basappa
mahadhevappa
Neelappagola venkappa hanumantha
Phakeerappagola muththeppa
venkappa
Mophatha gayarana
93
0-25
Executive Officer
Talluk panchayath gokak
Hadimani chinthappa yallappa
Hadimani bheemappa hanumappa
Hadimani kareppa hanumappa
Hadimani maruthi hanumappa
Hosamani ballappa ramappa
109
1A, 1B, 1A,

1K, 4A, 4, 2A,
2B, 5K, 4A,
4B, 2, 3A, 3K,
3D, 1A, 1B,
5K, 4A, 4B,
1A, B 1A, 1K,
4A, 4, 3B
Hosamani hanumappa kalleppa

Hosamani kalleppa ningappa
1-01
Hosamani kallappa kareppa

Hosamani hanumantha ningappa
Hosamani sadhaashiva ningappa
Hadhimani chinthappa yallappa
Sannabalappagola hanmantha
ningappa
Sannabalappagola shiddappa
ningappa
290
Water Quality
Gangavva
Sannabalappagola kallappa kareppa
110
1, 2
0-38
Dhavaleshwara thammanna basappa

Appendix 1.3
Mannikere: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa
Survey
No.
Hissa
No.
Area inAcres
75
1A, 1B,
1K, 2,
3A, 3B,
3K
0-17
76
1A, 1B,
1K, 2A,
2
0-37
77
1, 2A,
2B, 2K
0-13
Name of the Kathedhar/s

Hulakunda kallappa mahadhevappa
Pateela ashok shankaragauda
Kanti dyamappa laxmana
Kanti saththevva
Hebbaala shivappa
Ajanakalpu ramappa basappa
Ajanakalpu subhash sidhdhappa
Pujari urf konnoora
Dhundappa shidhdhappa
Pujari urf konnoora
Rayappa gurusidhdhappa
Pujari somappa shivarayappa
Pujari nagappa shiyarayappa
Pujari bheemappa shivarayappa
Hulakundha kallappa
Mahadhevappa
Pujari mahithi gulappa
Pujari gadigeppa kaleppa
Pujari yallappa kaleppa
Pujari gulappa gadhigeppa
Gaji hanumantha bheemappa
Gaji yallappa bheemappa
Badakalurf budhkiramappa laxmappa
Gaji thimmappa yallappa
Gaji kallppa appanna
291
Water Quality
78
1, 2, 3
0-17
78
2, 4, 4A
0-17
79
1, 2A,
2A, 2B
0-24
80
1A, 1B,
2, 3, 4,
5
0-04
93
109
0-25
1A, 1B,
1A, 1K,
4A, 4,
2A, 2B,
5K, 4A,
4B, 2,
3A, 3K,
3D, 1A,
1B, 5K,
4A, 4B,
1A, B
1-01

Uddavagola laxmappa balappa
Uddavagola basappa balappa
Uddavagola yankappa balappa
Uddavagola mahadheva balappa
Uddavagola sakashivva balappa
Uddavagola yamanappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola laxmappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola venkappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola mahadevappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola nagarappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola yamanappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola basappa balappa
Jelli mayappa bhemappa
Jelli shiddappa appanna
Dalavayi maruthi hanumappa
Kalavayi bheemappa hanumappa
Dalavayi bheemappa hanmanthappa
Dalavayi yankappa laxmappa
Phakeerappagola appanna yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa
Phakeerappagola appeesha yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa
Vanti yallappa hanumantha
Vanti hanumantha shidhdhappa
Malli vittala shiddappa
Vanti shidhdhappa hanumappa
Vanti bhemappa hanumappa
Vanti rayappa shiddappa
Vanti yankappa shiddappa
Neelappagola hanumanthappa venkappa
Neelappagola basappa mahadhevappa
Neelappagola venkappa hanumantha
Phakeerappagola muththeppa venkappa
Mophatha gayarana
Executive Officer
Talluk panchayath gokak
Hadimani bheemappa hanumappa
Hadimani kareppa hanumappa
Hadimani maruthi hanumappa
Hosamani hanumappa kalleppa
Hosamani kalleppa ningappa
Hosamani kallappa kareppa
Hosamani hanumantha ningappa
292
Water Quality
1A, 1K,
4A, 4,
3B
110
1, 2
0-38
84
2,3,4
0-39
Hosamani sadhaashiva ningappa

Sannabalappagola hanmantha ningappa
Sannabalappagola shiddappa ningappa
Gangavva
Sannabalappagola kallappa kareppa
Halaki suresha phakeerappa
Halaki vithala phakerappa
Thotagi mayappa ningappa
Thotagi ningavva
Thotagi bheemappa
Thapashi rayappa hanumanthappa
Mukannavara uddavva
Appendix 1.4
Kalliguddi: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa
Survey
No.
Hissa
No.
Area in
Acres
128
1,2,3A,3
K,3B,4A,
4K, 4B
0-36
126
1A, 1B,
2
0-36

Pinjara naidusaba
Husenasabu pinjari babu
Saba husenasaba pinjara
Appalaal husenasaba
Mavinagidadha gireppa bheemappa
Dalavayi urf alagodi
Adiveppa shivarayappa
Dhalavayi bheemappa adiveppa
Alagodi phakeeravva
Anmanthappa
Alagodi bheemappa adiveppa
Dhalavayi gurushiddappa
Huchchappa dalavayi venkappa
Guchchappa dhalavayi
Sharanappa balappa dhalavayi
Bheemappa koleri
Dhalavayi venkappa huchchappa
Jothani basappa laxmappa
Mallapura hanumantha ningappa
Jothennavara govindhappa thippanna
Hurakadli mallappa eerappa
293
Water Quality
Appendix 1.5
Koujalgi: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa
Survey
No.
Hissa
No.
Area in
Acres
729
1A, 1B,
2, 3A,
3B
0-09
727
1, 2, 3,
4, 5,
0-19
1, 2, 3
0-17
726
724
745
0-07
742
1,2,
0-17
741
1, 2A/1,
2A/2, 2B
0-14

Sannakki saththeppa ningappa
Sannakki ningappa neelappa
Sannakki sidhdhppa guththeppa
Mahadhevappa mallappa
Sannakki ningappa sannaneelappa
Sannakki thippanna sanna neelappa
Sannakki pundaleekappa sidhdhappa
Dholappanavara sidhdhappa sannappa
Dholappanavara yamanappa
Ningappa mirchimuththanna
Shankrappa
Dholappanavara viththala lachchappa
Meeshi doddahanumantha ningappa
Meeshi sanna hanumantha ningappa
Meeshi sidhdhappa dho ningappa
Doni hanmantha bheemappa
Doni appanna laxmappa
Doni mallappa laxmappa
Doni bheemappa laxmappa
Khaanannavara ningappa bheemappa
Kahaanannavara sidhdhappa bheemappa
Khanannavara hanumantha bheeemappa
Maladhinni hanmantha basappa
Sannakki thippanna sanna neelappa
Dholappanavara viththala
Mahadheva valeshwakara balaji venkatesha
Valeshwakare govindha venkatesha
Valeshwakara ananda
Valvekara raveendra s/o ramachandra
valvekara
Sudheendra
Valvekara ramesha
Aneppanavara adiveppa yallappa
Sathhthigeri kareppa mallappa
Thippamani saththevva
Bhajanthri ramesha basavanthappa
Bhajanthri mahesha basavanthappa
Lokannavara basavaraja
Multhani peerasaladasaba
Parushetti shivanandha allappa
Multhani noorasala kaseemasaba
294
Water Quality
0-08
2-24
739
762
1,2
763
737
765
0-10
0-03
1
0-14
0-11
766
1, 2
768
1A, 1B,
2A, 2B,
2C, 2D,
2E
772
773
0-11
0-28
0-09
1, 2
0-10
774
0-07
2-17
775
0-06
Parushetti prakasha eeshwarappa

Karnataka govt.
Pateela hanmanthagauda bheemanagauda
Pateela bheemanagauda pakeera gauda
Pateela mahadhevagauda pakeeraguda
Pateela venkanagauda pakeeragauda
Dhesayi govindha hanmantharao
Desaayi aruna hanmantharao
Karnataka govt.
Karnataka govt.
Kalavayi ayyappa bheemappa
Kalavayi parashurama bheemappa
No.2s asadhaera no. 1
Lakkappanavara garigatti
Dombara ramappa mahanthappa
Dombara ashoka maankathappa
Dombara venkatesha mahalingappa
Dhalavayi ayyappa bheemappa
Dhalavayi parashurama bheemappa
Nadagaudara annappa yamanappa
Nadagaudara jagadheesha yamanappa
No.2s asatha saththeppa
Doni mahadhevappa abbaleppa
Sannakki sidhdhappa saththeppa
Doni bheemappa abbaleppa
Sannakki sidhdhappa ningappa
Sannakki sidhdhappa ningappa
Doni mahadhevappa abbaleppa
Meeshi dhodda hanmantha dhodda nagappa
Meeshi sanna hanmantha dodda ningappa
Meeshi sidhdhappa dhodda ningappa
Pujari kashavva
Barki gangappa
Pujari hanmantha viththala
Pujari mahadheva vittala
Sidhdhanala sidhdhappa saththeppa
Sidhdhanala shivappa saathappa
Thattimani prakasha balappa
Thattimani mahanthesha balappa
Sankinnevara mahadhevappa
Sankinnavara kalasappa
Sankinnavara govindhabasappa
Itakannavara basappa hanumantha
Sannakiki mahadheva
Mallappa sankinnavara venkappa
Hanmappa sankinnavara balachandra
Hanmappa sannakki ramappa sidhdhappa
Mohare vittala venkappa
Mohare hanmanthappa vekappa
295
Water Quality
776
1, 2
0-06
0-06
480
0-12
451
0-19
447
1, 2A/1,
2A/2, 2B
521
0-09
0-08
518
1, 2
0-23
516
1, 2A,
2B
0-07
515
0-03
2-19
513
0-09
Mohara laxmana venkappa

Ulagadhavara neerappa ayyappa
Mumbai govt.
Ulagadhavara kallappa sidhdhappa
Ulagadhavara re4vappa
Ulagadhavara hanmantha sidhdhappa
Ulagadhavara huchchappa ayyappa
Ulagadhavara revappa
Hanmanthappa ulagadhavara guruppa
hanmanthappa ulagadhavara
Mahadheva shivarayappa
Karnataka water shed dept.
Bagaladha naidhusaba mukthasaba
Bagaladha rajesaba mukthasaba
Bagaladha bisabi
Bagaladha shyanusaba mehaboobusaaba
Bagaladhara mukthamsaba maiboobusaba
Dhalavayi sidhdhappa shinappa
Dhalavayi sanna sidhdhappa shinappa
Dhalavayi ravappa shinappa
Dhalavayi kareppa shinappa
Karnataka water shed dept.
Sarakara dhesayi A-B
Mohare sambayi venkappa
Asi thayi krishnabayi
Mohara shivaji hanmanthappa
Mohare govindhappa hanmanthappa
Mohare vittala hanmanthappa
Doni rayappa kenchappa
Mohare sambaji venkappa
Asadhara krishnappa
Doni rayapp kenchappa
Yadahalli baba shidhdhappa
Dhalavayi panchappa maddeppa
Nalabandha imamasaba sheele
Manasaba multhani ramesha
Dhoddamani rangayya krishnayya
Dhoddamani narayanayya krishnayya
Dhoddamani krishnayya venkayya
Karnataka govt.
Dhalavayi laxmappa
Dhalavayi ayyappa
Dhesayi AB
Maragatti udhaya ananthayya
Maragatti raghavendra ananthayya
Asa thayi sumithrabayi
Karnataka govt.
Hulishrara santhappa kenchappa
Hulishrara thammanna laxmappa
Hulishrara parasappa yamanappa
296
Water Quality
512
0-10
14
1, 2, 3,
4, 5
0-18
541
1, 2, 3A,
3B
0-17
18
1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6B
2-19
549
1,2,3
0-15
37
1A, 1B,
2
0-14
Asa thayi santhavva

Karanataka govt.
Hulishrara pakeerappa yamanappa
Hulishrara shanthavva
Hulishrara santhappa kenchappa
Kudhariyallappa golappa
Kudhari kareppa goleppa
Kudhari shivalingappa sidhdhappa
Kudhari mallappa siddappa
Kudhari sheeshaila basappa
Kudhari
Kudhari yallappa basappa
Kudhari sidhdhappa basappa
Saththigeri mudhukappa guruppa
Saththigeri hashivalingappa guruppa
Saththigeri hanumantha guruppa
Saththigeri ramappa parappa
Saththigeri mallappa parappa
Saththigeri gulappa parappa
Sanmanya rajyapalaru, Karnataka
Rajya rajabhavara, bangalora
B.E.O, mudalagi
Kankanawadi eshawara bhimappa
Nayya kallappa vasappa
Nayya rayappa hanmantha
Nayya basappa hanmantha
Bijaguppi gurupadappa kareppa
Bijaguppi gulappa shidhalingappa
Karnataka Government
Badigera uparnuthra
Rangappa basappa
Haggappa basappa
Shri hanumanthappa mankarajari
Guru yallinga maharajaru
Mugalakhodha
Dhoni shidhappa Bhimarayappa
Bisanakoppa viravva nigappa
Chararahutha yallavva co jayavantha
chararahutha
Mamhanthesha jayavantha
Chararahutha madev jayavantha
Chararahutha renuka jayavantha
Chararahutha Basappa jayavantha
Chararahutha mahanthesha jayavantha
Chararahutha annappa jayavantha
Theradala shiddappa sabanna
Theradala bagavva co sabanna
Theradala vittal shiddappa
Tayi kathri co shiddappa
Chararahutha mutthappa mahadev
297
Water Quality
38
1, 2, 1A,
1B, 1C,
1D,
0-17
35
0-18
550
0-19
47
1, 2,
2B/1A,
2B/1B,
2B/2,
2B/3
0-15
50
P2
0-15
51
0-13
Chararahutha dundappa mahadev

Khanatti hanumanthappa bhimappa
Godhikoppa lakkappa bhimappa
Godhikoppa dundavva co bhimappa
Godhikoppa balappa bhimappa
Godhikoppa yallvva co bhimappa
Benne sidhrama munneppa
Benne kempanna munneppa
Benne vital munneppa
Chararahutha muthappa mahadeveppa
Chararahutha dundappa mahadeveppa
Kudhari shivarudhrappa nigappa
Kudhari Mahadev nigappa
Kudhari sangappa nigappa
Kudhari yellappa nigappa
Kudhari srishalappa nigappa
Kudhari shidhappa lakkappa thayi muthivva
Etana basappa eswarappa
Kudhari manju lakappa thayi lakkavva
Kudhari srishala singappa
A B Desayai
Eti basappa lakshmappa
Eti ajjappa lakshmappa
Eti pundilika lakshmappa
Eti balappa lakshmappa
Nayya thulasavva co hanmappa
Hasarannavar yellapa mahanthappa
Multhani babusab thnmila
Sab multhani mahamdsab
Thum mirasab multhani
Rajesab thum mirasab
Multhani mirasab badisab
Government of Karnataka
Gargada basappa mahanthappa
Gargada golappa mahanthappa
Gargada yellappa mahanthappa
Talavara hanamatha basappa
Babrannavar holevva gangappa
Talavara govindappa hanamathappa
Talavara basappa hanamathappa
No 23 asadhara no 1
Talavara ramappa hanamathappa
Nagarji biyama co dasthageri
Nagarji husenasab dasthageri
Kotina thota pravena Ashoka
Kotina thota sunila Ashoka
Desayi laksmibai co krishamurthiraju
Desayi arundathi bhimappa
Desayi asha co ramachand
Nagarji shamanasab malikasab
298
Water Quality
58
P2
0-09
59
1P2,
2P2,
3P2
0-08
63
1P2,
2P2
0-06
62
1P2
0-17
44
45
0-09
0-16
68
1,2,2B,
2A3,
2B/1P2,
2B/2P2,
2A/2P2,
2A/4,
2A/5,
0-18
66
1+2/1,
1+2+3,
1+2/3,
1+2/4A,
1+2/4B,
Nagarji mahabubasab malikasab

Nagarji rajesab malikasab
Nagarji dasheserasab malikasab
Nagarji kashimsab malikasab
Khanatti bhimappa hanmantha
Khanatti shidappa hanmantha
Khanatti mahadeva hanmantha
Khanatti sannashidappa hanmantha
No 234 asadhara no1
Thotina thoti Srikantha shidappa
Desayi M B
Dhombara shankra bhimappa
Dhombara bhimappa sathappa
Dhombara allappa sathappa
Dhombara balavva sathappa
Dhombara rukmavva sathappa
Dhombara nagavva sathappa
Nagarji thashirusab charusab
Hallura shivaraya allappa
Hallura shiralingppa allappa
Hallura erappa allappa
Hallura ramappa allappa
Shinde lakshmana kedhareppa
Arera uprashinde ramojappa hanamanthappa
Arera uprashinde shidappa bhimappa
Arera uprashinde yananavva co Bhimappa
Theredala shivanagowda shivalengappa
Syaed jungabisab
Buddesab multhani dasthegerisab
Husenasab multhani
Dasthegerisab ameerasab
Nagarji mamathajabegum co sayidhusab
Dalavyai dareppa shirappa
Horatti rangappa ramappa
Horatti maruthi ajjappa thayai lakkavva
Horatti nigappa yamanappa
Horatti basappa yamanappa
Horatti ramappa yamanappa
Horatti yellappa hanamantha
Horatti bhimappa balappa
Horatti arjuna balappa
Horatti rushendra balappa
Horatti lakshmana balappa
Horatti rathnvva co thamanna
Horatti sathappa rayappa
Khanapura parasharama nengappa
Khanapura dundeppa keshavappa
Khanapura venkappa keshavappa
Khanapura gereppa keshavappa
Khanapura kallappa keshavappa
299
Water Quality
71
553
Total
P2
P2
0-24
0-32
17-15
Khanapura kallappa kasavappa

Khanapura dundappa kasavappa
Khanapura shereppa kasavappa
Khanapura venkappa kasavappa
Khanapura barmappa hanamnathappa
Khanapura mallippa hanamnathappa
Khanapura krishnappa hanamnathappa
Khanapura venkappa bhimappa
Khanapura rangappa bhimappa
Aramani venkappa dhrmappa
Aramani venkappa dhrmappa
300
Water Quality
Appendix 1.6
Kulgod: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa
Survey
No.
Hissa
No.
Area in
Acres
400
1, 2, 3,
4. 5, 6
0-27
395
1A+1B/1
,
1A+1B/2
, 2A, 2B
0-14
396
0-08
397
1+2/A,
1+2/B,
1+2/K
0-23
393
1 and 2
0-21
381
1A, 1B,
2
0-12
257
1, 2, 3
0-07
377
1, 2, 3, 4
0-05

Sannakki shiddappa shidappa
Sannakki yamanappa shidappa
Sannakki kareppa shidappa
Sannakki nelappa shidappa
Sannakki pundileka shidappa
Sannakki vittal shidappa
Gorava laxshmappa mallappa
Mishi maruthi laxshmana
Dalvayai shivalingappa
Venkappa dalvayai basappa
Dalvayai thamanna shidhappa
Channala basappa huthippa
Karigara shiddaruda shivakayai
Dalvayai shiddappa shiddappa
Mishi shivalingappa thamanna
Mishi basappa thamanna
Mishi prakasha thamanna
Mishi mahadeva maruthi
Mishi subhasha maruthi
Mishi shivalinga maruthi
Mishi sadashiva hanumatha
Mishi shankar hanumatha
Ranganna thippanna venkappa
Dhamaraddi thayavva co venkappa
Channal pavanivva co krishnappa
Channal satheppa krishnappa
Channal ashoka krishnappa
Nayaka bhagirithi co rangappa
Naymegowdar kasthuri co sudhesha huddar
Sharadha co venkappa
Channal hanamtha krishnappa
Channal parvathavva co krishnappa
Channel satheppa krishanappa
Nayaka bhagirithi co Suresh
Lakya appanna nigappa
Badakalla rangavva co ramappa
Badakalla venkappa hanamanthappa
Badakalla savithrivva hanamanthappa
Lakya appanna nigappa
301
Water Quality
258
1, 2, 3
0-13
252
1, 2, 3,
4, 5
0-24
249
1, 2
0-06
250
1B, 2B
0-05
242
0-11
246
1,
2A+2B,
3, 4A,
4B/2
0-06
247
1A, 1B
0-05
239
0.05
240
0-04
Badakalla rangavva co ramappa

Badakalla shrimathi paddavva co
hanamanathappa
Badakalla mandhakappa mudhakappa
Sonavalakar rangappa thamanna
Channal krishnareddy govindhappa
Channal hanamantha govindhappa
Panchagandhi sundharvva co sheshappa
Panchagandhi srikanth sheshappa
Badhakalla bhagavva co holebasappa
Sanna balappa gola upar
Nagachete hanamappa yellappa
Jalli bhimasheppa mayappa
Nayak paddatta co thimappa
Jalli uprva udhavvagola
Kareppa lakshmappa yellappa
Nayak krishnappa erappa
Nayak hanamantha erappa
Mulavada somappa shidhappa
Gulaganjubagi upravabi
Patel sathappa gowdappa
Nilappa gola hanamanthappa
Yenkappa nelappa gola
Mahadevappa yenkappa
Pujeri dundappa shidhappa
Pujeri bhemappa shivarayappa
Pujeri somappa shivarayappa
Pujeri nagappa shivarayappa
Devara venkappa hanamappa
Avaradhi shekrappa dhenappa
Avaradhi eshwrappa dhenappa
Avaradhi mallappa dhenappa
Herematta mallikarjuna shivalingappa
Mattadha mahalingaiah shivalingaiah
Karigannavar basappa thimappa
Ajjanakatti basalingappa basappa
Ajjanakatti Hanmanthappa basappa
Ajjanakatti subhasha shidhappa
Ajjanakatti sangappa shidhappa
Ajjanakatti venkappa shidhappa
Ajjanakatti rayappa lachappa
Ajjanakatti kareppa lachappa
Kulgod mallappa balappa
Kulgod basappa balappa
Devara laxshmana thamappa
Devara basappa ramappa
Devara gowdappa ramappa
Devara manjula co hanamantha
Devara vishala hanamantha
302
Water Quality
231
1, 1P
2-05
230
1,2
0-33
236
0-10
237
0-04
232
1, 2
0-33
400
1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6
0-27
Devara laxmi bai co bhemappa

Devara vijaya hanamantha
Konnar Bhimappa shivarayappa
Konnar Somappa shivarayappa
Konnar Rayappa shivarayappa
Hosamani shidhappa dundappa
Hosamani Hanamappa dundappa
Aralimatti Laxshmppa thimappa
Nasi maruthi hanamappa
Pujari sangappa rayappa
Badakalla rangappa rayappa
Badakalla sayavva co rayappa
Hosamani narayana shiddappa
Phakirappa gola annappa yellappa
Dalavayai yamanappa bhimappa
Hosamani dolappa ningappa
Pujari ningappa gurupadappa
Pujari thimanna gurupadappa
Pujari suresh gurupadappa
Konnur dundappa shiddappa
Konnur maruthi golappa
Konnur ramappa gurushiddappa
Konnur hanamantha gurushiddappa
Konnur bhimappa shivarayappa
Konnur somappa shivarayappa
Konnur nagappa shivarayappa
Sannakki shiddappa shiddappa
Sannakki yamanappa shiddappa
Sannakki karippa shiddappa
Sannakki nilappa shiddappa
Sannakki pundalika shiddappa
Sannakki vittal shiddappa
303
Water Quality
304

Environmental Impact of Rameshwara Lift

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Environmental Impact of Rameshwara Lift

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Soil Aspects

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter III - Salient Features

SRLIS Gross Command Area Details

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter IV - Soil Quality Assessment

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter V - Water quality Assessment

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Rainfall Infiltration (RIF) Method

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Salinity in Surface Water

Water sampling points of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter VI Ambient Air quality and Noise Levels assessment

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter VII - Biodiversity & Ecological Assessment

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter VIII - Remote sensing

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

9.6.8 Land holding details of farmers in the project

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Nature of ambiguity about proposed project

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter X - Environmental Management Plan

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter XI - Environmental Monitoring Programme

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Chapter XII Annexure and Appendix

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SITE ASSESSMENT OF RIVER

1. Existing project / Proposed Project/

Expansion project/ modernization

Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation

Village, Gokak Taluk, Belgaum

clearance has been obtained.

F. i. Total Area proposed for the project (in ha.)

ii. Forest area (in ha.), if any

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

Existing land usage of the proposed project site area (ha)

(vi) Water Bodies

(viii) Others (pl specify)

(ix) Government land

Alternate sites considered from the environment angle

Reason for selecting the proposed site from the

Department of Environmental Science, BUB

(As per IS 1893 part I 2002)

3. What models used for estimate?

(a) Determistic seismotictonic approach

(b) Combined seismotictonic probabilistic approach

B. Landslide Prone zone:

(b) Degree of Susceptibility to mass movement:

(a) Frequency of occurrence / decade

(b) Area affected (ha)

(c) Population affected (Nos.)

3. Whether any major landslide occurred in the past