h2 Mathematics Summarized Formulae

H2 Mathematics (9740)
Chapter 1: Binomial Theorem
Chapter 1: Binomial Theorem

Expansion
of linear
algebraic
factors
b)n
(a
(ax 2
Expansion
of quadratic
functions
Expansion
of (1 + x)n
bx
n n1
a b
1
n n 2 2
a b
2
c) n
(bx
[c
n n 2
c (x
2
x2 )
nx
b
b
a 1 x a n 1 x
a
n!
... b n where n is a positive integer and

r r !(n r )!
ax 2 )]n
n(n 1) 2
n(n 1)...(n
x
...
2!
r!
Ascending powers of x (or descending 1/x)
x) n
(1
n n r r
a b
r
...
n n 1
c (x
1
cn
a bx
Expansion
of (a + bx)n
an
1)
x 2 )2
xr
b n n 1 b
1
n
x

2! a
a
an
r
n n 1 ... n r 1 b
...
...
r!
a
...
... x
a bx
Express the quadratic factor into the

form (a + b)n where a is the constant
and b would be x and x2.
1
To expand (1 + kx), replace x with

kx.
Descending powers of x
n
a
a
n
bx 1 bx 1
bx
bx
a n n 1 a
1

...
2! bx
bx
bn xn
r
n n 1 ... n r 1
...

r!
bx
Range of validity:
b
a
a
a
x 1 x x
(small x values)
a
b
b
b
(closer to 0 gives better estimate)
Range of validity:
a
a
a
a
1 x x
or x (large x values)
bx
b
b
b
Chapter 2: Sequences and Series

Simple
definitions
u1 S1 [1st term = sum of 1st term]
un Sn Sn 1 ; n 2 [The difference in 2 sums gives the term]
General
term
Arithmetic progression (A.P.)

difference of any two successive members of
the sequence is a constant
un a (n 1)d where a = first term, n = no.
of terms, d = common difference.
Proving
d un un 1 a non-zero constant
Definitions
Sum of
first n
terms
Sigma
Notation
Rules of
sigma
notation
Method of
Differences
Limit of
sequence
Convergen
ce of
sequences
n
Sn 2a n 1 d
2
b
u
r a
Sn
n
Sn a l
2
l = last term
a 1 r n
Sn
1 r
a r n 1
r 1
a
1 r
S exists r 1
where r 0,1
ua ua 1 ua 2 ... ub where a and b are integers. n = (b a + 1) i.e. upper limit lower limit + 1.
a an
r 1
Geometric progression (G.P.)

each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one
by a fixed non-zero number called the common ratio.
un ar n 1
Tn Sn Sn 1
where r = common ratio
u
r n is a constant independent of n.
un 1
a
G.P.
1 r
r 1
r
au
r 1
a ur
r 1
r 1
r 1
r 1
ur vr ur vr
m 1
r m
r 1
r 1
ur ur vr
Note: Watch out for method of differences when there is a small difference in the terms being subtracted.
Also note that the cancelling is symmetrical, i.e. cancelling the 2nd term on the LHS will cancel the last 2nd term
on the RHS.
1
The other terms, e.g. an, an where a > 1 will
an 0
1 1
0 (if a > 1)
n
,
0
tend to infinity and are not included in the
a
(if 0 < a < 1)
n n!
limit of a sequence.
A sequence is convergent if lim un L
n
where L is a finite number
H2 Mathematics Summarised Formulae
un L , un 1 L
Page 1 of 19
S L
(Use G.C. to generate

terms of sequence)
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Last updated 19 October
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Chapter 3: Mathematical Induction
Chapter 3: Mathematical Induction

Let Pn be the statement where [copy eqn here] for all n
LHS of P1 = n
RHS of P1 = n
Therefore, P1 is true.
Format
In the process of proving, you may use

what you wrote for Pk into that
equation. [esp. for sigmas]
Assume that Pk is true for some k , i.e. [replace n by k]

We want to prove Pk+1, i.e. [replace k by k+1]
LHS of Pk+1
= [Start proving]
= RHS (Proven)
Since P1 is true and Pk is true
Conjecture
Pn is true for all n
Some induction questions may involve conjectures (guess) of the general formula. They will usually ask you to
write the values of a sequence/sigma for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 then deduce a general equation which will then be proven
by Mathematical Induction.
Chapter 4: Graphing Techniques

Points that
must be
labeled
Axial intercepts (x =
0, y = 0)
Turning Points (Let
dy
0 and
dx
solve for x)
Circle
( x h) ( y k ) r 2 represents a circle with
centre (h, k) and radius r.
2
R( x)
D( x)
Horizontal/Oblique
asymptote: Q(x).
Asymptotes (Express in form f( x) Q( x)
Vertical asymptote: Let

D(x) = 0, solve for x.
Eclipse (oval)
2
2
( x h) ( y k )
1 where a b represents an ellipse with

a2
b2
centre (h, k) x-intercepts at (a,0) and y-intercepts at (0, b) .
Lines of symmetry: x = h, y = k.
Hyperbola
Conics
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
1 where a b represents an
a2
b2
horizontal hyperbola with centre (h, k).
b
Oblique asymptotes: y k ( x h) and
a
b
y k ( x h) . Lines of symmetry: x = h, y
a
= k.
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
1 where a b represents a vertical

a2
b2
hyperbola with centre (h, k).
b
b
Oblique asymptotes: y k ( x h) and y k ( x h) .
a
a
Lines of symmetry: x = h, y = k.
Page 2 of 19

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Chapter 4: Graphing Techniques
y = a f(x)
For a > 0), the graph of y = f(x) + a is

obtained by translating the graph of y
= f(x) by a units in the positive y
direction.
For a > 0), the graph of y = a f(x) is

obtained by scaling the graph of y = f(x)
through a scaling parallel to the y-axis
by a scale factor of a.
This vertical translation only affects

the y-values and the horizontal
asymptote by the constant a.
This vertical scaling only affects the yvalues and the horizontal asymptote by
the constant a.
x
y = f
a
x
The graph of y f is obtained by
a
scaling the graph of y = f(x) by a units in
the x direction. If a > 0 you expand the
graph, if a < 0 you compress the graph
(as usual).
y = f(x + a)
The graph of y = f(x a) is obtained by
translating the graph of y = f(x) by a
units in the x direction. If a > 0, shift
towards the positive x-direction, if a <
0, shift towards the negative xdirection.
Transformations
y = f(x)
y = f(x) + a
the graph of y = f(x) is a reflection of the

graph y = f(x) in the x-axis.
This vertical transformation only affects

the y-values and the horizontal asymptote
by a negative sign.
(Just negate the points/equation)
y = f(x)
the graph of y = f(x) is a reflection of the
graph y = f(x) in the x-axis.
This horizontal transformation only

affects the x-values and the vertical
asymptote by a negative sign.
(Just negate the points/equation)
This horizontal translation only

affects the x-values and the vertical
asymptote by the constant a.
This horizontal translation only affects

the x-values and the vertical asymptote
by the constant a.
All transformations are done in the order y d cf a

b
y = f(|x|)
the parts of the graph below the

x-axis (<0) are reflected
upwards.
1. Keep y = f(x) where f(x)
0,
2. Reflect y = f(x) where f(x)
0 above the x-axis.
the x-values in the graph are

modulused.
1. Discard y = f(x) where x
< 0 [the part of the curve
left of y-axis]
2. Keep and reflect y = f(x)
where f(x) 0 to the left
of the y-axis.
The graph of y f x
consists of 2 parts
symmetrical to the x-axis.
1. Only consider the part of
the graph for which f(x)
0 (area above x-axis).
2. First sketch y f x :
When f(x) > 1,
When f(x) < 1,
y x2 5
y=
y2 = f(x),
y = |f(x)|
Asymptotes
and
x-intercepts
Horizontal
asymptotes
Maximum
and
Minimum
points
y x 5
3
Other trends
y x2 5
y = f(x)
x-intercept at (h,
0)
Vertical
asymptote x = h
y k, k 0
y0
f x f x
f x f x
1
f x
If function goes
to positive and
negative
infinity (i.e.
there is no
horizontal
asymptote)
(h, k)
Maximum pt
(h, k)
Minimum pt
(h, k)
f(x) is
increasing as x
increases
f(x) is decreases
as x increases
y2 = f(x)
Vertical asy.
x=h
x-intercept at
(h, 0)
1
y
k
No
horizontal
asymptote
Horizontal
asymptote at
y=0
1
h,
k
Minimum
1
point h ,
k
Maximum
1
point h ,
k
f(x)
decreases as
x increases
f(x)
increases as
x increases
y x3 5
Page 3 of 19

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Chapter 5: Functions
Chapter 5: Functions
Definition
Definitions
Domain
Range
A function f, or mapping, is a rule which assigns every element of x X to only one element
of y Y .
Domain is the set of x-values (input values) for
which a function f is defined as the domain (Df)
Note: It must always be stated in the answer.
axb
x a, b
x a, b
axb
x a, b
axb
x a, b
axb
Range is the set of y-values (output values)

corresponding to every x value in the domain
(Rf)
If f:A B is a function, for each a A , the vertical line x = a cuts the graph y = f(x) at only one point.
Vertical
line test
Positive
Negative
Definition
Horizontal
line test
Inverse
functions
From the sketch, any vertical line x = a, where a Df will cut the graph of y = f(x) at exactly one
point. Hence f(x) is a function.
From the sketch, the line x = a (state a constant)cuts the graph of y = f(x) at 2 different points. Hence
f(x) is not a function.
For any one-to-one function, f:x Rf , there is an inverse function that exists, i.e. f 1 :x Rf
such that f 1 y x y f x for every x X .

A function f:AB is one-one if each horizontal line y = b where b
= f(x) at only 1 point.
Example 1
Determine if the function f:x
x is
a one-to-one function.
From the diagram, any horizontal line
y = b, where b Rf cuts the graph of
y = f(x) at exactly one point. Hence f
is one-one.
Df 1 Rf
Notes
Rf cuts the graph of y
and
f x y x f 1 y
Rf 1 Df
To obtain the inverse function f-1, follow

these steps:
1. Let y = f(x) and express in terms of y.
2. Rewrite x as f-1(y) to obtain f-1(y) as a
function in y.
3. Replace all y with x to obtain f-1(x) as
a function in x.
4. State the domain of f-1 using Df Rf
The graphs of f and f-1 are reflections of each

other in the line y = x.
Hence finding the solution of f(x) = f-1(x) is the
same as the solution of the equation f(x) = x or
f-1(x) = x
Composite
functions
Definition
Function composition (or composite function) is the application of one function to the
results of another function. For instance, the composite function gf as gf(x) = g(f(x)) where
Conditions
The composite function gf exists Rf Dg
Notes
x Df
ff-1(x) = f-1f(x) = x
Dgf = Df, Dfg = Dg
the composite function fg exists Rg Df
Page 4 of 19
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Chapter 6: Equations and Inequalities
Chapter 6: Equations and Inequalities
Properties
of
Inequalities
Addition and
Subtraction
If a b , then a c b c and a c b c
Multiplication
and Division
If c 0 and a b , then ac bc and
a b
.
c c
(can only cross-multiply positive terms)
1.
2.
3.
Equate each factor to zero and solve to get

the critical points.
4.
Draw a no. line with the critical points.

Circle the critical points that will make the
denominator zero (or not satisfy the
inequality)
Without G.C.
Solving
inequalities
With G.C.
Properties
of |x|
Solving sim.
linear eqn
using GC
Make one side of the inequality zero.

(never cross-multiply terms that can take
positive or negative values)
Factorise the inequality into linear factors
(by using completing the square, etc.)
Positive factors can be ignored.
If a b and c d , then a c b d
a b
d d
(reverse the inequality sign especially when
dealing with logarithmic terms)
If d 0 and a b, then ad bd and
3x 2 7 x 2
0
x 1
(3x 1)( x 2)
0
( x 1)
Let 3x 1 0, x 2 0, x 1 0
1
x , x 2, x 1
3
Let x 0,
(0 1)(0 2)
2( 0)
(0 1)
5.
Test the sign in any region. The critical

points will divide the no. line into
alternating positive and negative regions.
6.
1
The solution will be the region required by
Hence, 2 x and x 1
the inequality.
3
Sketch the 2 different inequalities using G.C.
Calculate the x-intercepts (or points of intersection).
Determine the solution, ensuring it does not include values which will make the
denominators of the original inequality zero.
ab a b
x k
x k
x k x k
a
a
,b 0
x k or x k
k x k
b
b
1.
2.
3.
x2 x
Use the PlySmlt2 SIMULT EQN SOLVER in TI-84 GC.
Page 5 of 19

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Chapter 7: Differentiation and its Applications
Chapter 7: Differentiation and its Applications

Name
Rules of
differentiation
Chain Rule
Formula
d
(u
dx
du
dx
v)
dy
dx
dy
dx
Trigonometric
Functions
d
(sin x )
dx
Logarithmic
Functions
Implicit
Functions
d
sin
dx
cosec x cot x
dy
dt
Tangent and
normal
dy
dx
f'( x )
1 x
dy
dt
dx
dt
y y1
d u
dx v
1
dx
dy
du
dx
dv
dx
v2
dy
dt
dy
dx
dx
dt
d2 y
f''( x ) (used for finding nature of points)
dx 2
If f(x) > 0, curve is u shaped.
If f(x) < 0, curve is n shaped.
d
d
(cos x )
sin x
(tan x ) sec2 x
dx
dx
d
d
(sec x ) sec x tan x
(cot x )
cosec2 x
dx
dx
d x
d ln a x
(a )
(e
) ax ln a
dx
dx
d
1
(log a x )
log a e
dx
x
cos x
f( x )
du
v
dx
d dy
dx dx
d x
( e ) ex
dx
d
1
(ln x )
dx
x
d
d
f( y )
f( y )
dx
dy
Exponential
Functions
dv
u
dx
dy
dx
f'( x )
d
(cosec x)
dx
Parametric
Differentiation
d
(uv)
dx
dy du
du dx
Higher order
derivatives
Inverse
trigonometric
functions
dv
dx
d
cos 1 f( x )
dx
dy
dx
Note: whenever there is a y function, there will be a

dy/dx function in the answer.
dx
dt
d
tan
dx
f'( x )
1 x
f( x )
f'( x )
1
f( x )
When given parametric eqn, just find dy/dx and the

points from there
m x x1
y1
1
x
m
x1
First derivative
test
Second
derivative test
Increasing
functions
d2 y
d2 y
0
0
dx 2
dx 2
(use table form to determine nature)
For increasing functions, f(x) > 0.
If concave downwards, f(x) < 0.
If concave upwards, f(x) > 0.
Shape: n shape.
d2 y
dx 2
Strictly increasing: No flat points allowed.
Decreasing
functions
For decreasing functions, f(x) < 0.

If concave downwards, f(x) < 0.
If concave upwards, f(x) > 0.
Shape: u shape.
Strictly decreasing: No flat points allowed.
Graphs of y =
f(x)
Horizontal/oblique asy. becomes y = 0, vertical asy. remains. S

Stationary points at (h, k) all become x intercepts at (h, 0)
Page 6 of 19
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Chapter 8: Integration and its Applications
Chapter 8: Integration and its Applications
f( x) dx F( x) c
Integration
Definite
integral
Properties of
definite integral
f( x) dx F(b) F(a)
f( x) dx 0
f( x) dx f( x) dx
f( x) g( x) dx f( x) dx g( x) dx
ax b
ax b dx a n 1
n
f( x)
Exponential
Functions
f( x) dx f( x) dx f( x) dx
1
(include modulus sign)

b
f( x) dx f( x) dx f( x) dx whereby b is where f(x) = 0.
f( x)
n 1
f'( x) dx
f'( x)
f( x)
c where n 1
cos x dx sin x c
cos ec x cot x dx cos ec x c
sec x tan x dx sec x c

cosec x dx cot x c
tan x dx ln sec x c
cot x dx ln sin x c
sec x dx ln sec x tan x c
cos ec x dx ln cos ec x cot x c
Trigonometric
functions
sin
Trigonometric
identities
x dx
tan
1 cos 2 x
x sin 2 x
dx
c
2
2
4
cos
x dx sec2 x 1 dx tan x x c
cot
PQ
P Q
cos
2
2
PQ
P Q
cos P cos Q 2cos
cos
2
2
sin P sin Q 2sin
Factor
Formulae
px q
Involving
fractions
a
2
dx
1
px q
tan 1
c
ap
a
1
1
xa
dx
ln
2
2a x a
a
ax b x
1 cos 2 x
x sin 2 x
dx
c
2
2
4
x dx cosec2 x 1 dx cot 2 x x c
PQ
P Q
sin
2
2
PQ
P Q
cos P cos Q 2sin
sin
2
2
1
1 1 px q
dx sin
c
2
p
a
a 2 px q
2
1
1
ax
dx
ln
2
2a a x
x
px qx r
ax b cx d
2
Change all x to u.
Change du to dx
Integrate (should be easy)
Change all u back to x.
b dv
b du
b
a u dx dx uva a v dx
Choice of function to be differentiated u follows
the order: LIATE (logarithmic, inverse trigo,
algebraic, trigo, exponential)
It can be applied twice on certain integrals.
x dx
px 2 qx r
1.
2.
3.
4.
sin P sin Q 2cos
px q
A
B
ax b cx d ax b cx d
Partial
Fractions
Integration by
parts
ax b dx a ln ax b c
c where n 1
sin x dx cos x c
sec x dx tan x c
Integration by
substitution
k f( x) dx k f( x) dx
dx ln f( x) c
n 1
Note: the derivative may need to be manipulated (by adding constants, NOT variables outside and inside the
integral sign (not the final value of the integral cannot be changed)
ef( x )
f( x )
f( x )
f( x )
f
'(
x
)
a
d
x
c
f'( x)e dx e c
ln a
n
Reverse chain
rule
n 1
Integrals
involving linear
algebraic
functions
Page 7 of 19
A
B
C
ax b cx d cx d 2
A
Bx C
2
ax b x c
Note: Only use integration by substitution if the
question says so.
Can be used for:
Integrating simple functions (logarithmic and
inverse trigo functions) such as ln x,
sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x
Product of different types of functions.

On owlcove.sg
f( x)
0 (above x-axis)
0 (below x-axis)
f( x)
f( x)
0 on [a, c],f( x)
0 on [c, b]
A f( x) dx
A f( x) dx
Area bounded
by curve w.r.t.
x-axis
A f( x) dx f( x) dx
(the negative area must be negated)
f( x)
0 (right of y-axis)
f( x)
0 (left of y-axis)
f( x)
0 on [a, c],f( x)
0 on [c, b]
A f( y) dy
A f( y) dy
Area bounded
by curve w.r.t.
y-axis
A f( y) dy f( y) dy
(the negative area must be negated)
Note: Remember to (1) change f(x) to f(y) if required, (2) change the coordinates (3) write dy.
For f(x) > g(x), A f( x) g( x) dx
b
Always take top curve bottom curve
For f(x) > g(x), A f( y) g( y) dy

d
Always take right curve left curve
Area between 2
curves
A f( x) dx g( x) dx where intersection at p.
A f( y) dy g( y) dy where intersection at q
Area with one

point of
intersection
.
Area under
parametric
curve
tb
ta
A y dy g(t ) f'(t ) dt
with x = f(t) and y = g(t)
td
tc
A x dy f (t )g '(t ) dt
with x = f(t) and y = g(t)

(1) Express total area of rectangles in terms of f(x).
A (x) f( x1 ) (x) f( x2 ) ... (x) f( xn 1 )
(x) f( xb )
(2) Express total area in sigma notation.
Area as a limit
of sum of areas
of rectangles
A f( xr )x
r 1
(3) Find limit of the sum of rectangles as n .

n
r 1
A lim f( xr )x f( x) dx
n
Volume of
revolution
Volume of revn
bounded by 2
graphs
V f( x) dx
b
V f( y) dy
c
V [f( x)] [g( x)] dx
V [f( y)]2 [g( y)]2 dy
Always take top curve bottom curve
Always take right curve left curve
Page 8 of 19

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Chapter 9: Differential Equations
Chapter 9: Differential Equations

dy
dx
Direct
Integration
f( x)
dy
dx
Separation of
variables
dP
dt
Applications of
D.E.
d2 y
dx 2
f( x) dx
1
dy
f( y)
f( y)
f( x)
f''( x)
1 dx
dy
dv
dz
dy
v x
z x y
1
dx
dx
dx
dx
To obtain back the general solution, remember to replace the new variable back to y.
dP
1
dP 1
dP k
P
kP
dP
k dt
P dP
dt
P
dt
P
dt
P
y
By substitution
vx
k dt
Chapter 10: Macluarins Series

Power series
representation
f( x)
(1
Standard
Maclaurin
series
f(0)
x) n
ex
Compound
angle formulae
n(n 1) 2
x
2!
x2
2!
x3
3!
...
xn ( n)
f 0 ...
n!
n(n 1)...(n
r!
...
xr
r!
... (all x)
Differentiate to find f'( x),f''( x) and f'''( x)

Substitute x = 0 into the differentiated terms and
then apply the formula.
Only use the standard series from
1) r
x ... ( x 1)
MF15 if derivation is not
required.
3
x
x5 ( 1)r x 2 r 1
sin x x
... (all x)
3! 5
(2r 1)!
x2 x4
( 1)r x 2 r
x 2 x3
( 1)r 1 x r
...
... (all x)
ln(1 x) x
...
... ( 1 x 1)
2
3
r
2! 4!
(2r )!
When x is small and measured in radians, and x3 onwards is neligible, the following approximations are valid:
x2
tan x x
sin x x
cos x 1
2
sin( A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
You cannot assume x
x for some constant .
cos x
Small angle
approximations
1 nx
x2
f''(0) ...
2!
x f'(0)
cos( A
B)
tan( A
cos A cos B
B)
sin A sin B
tan A tan B
1 tan A tan B
Page 9 of 19
However you can assume sin( x)

x
Note: Always select the value of x closer to 0 if there
are 2 answers.

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 11: Permutations and Combinations
Chapter 11: Permutations and Combinations
Counting
principles
Permutations
Combinations
Permutations in
a circle
Addition principle: If there are two or more non

Multiplication principle: If an operation A can be
overlapping categories of ways to perform an
completed in m ways, a second operation B performed
operation, and there are m ways in the first category,
in n ways and the last operation in k ways, the
n ways in the second category and k ways in the last
successive operations can be completed in
category, there are (m + n + + k) to perform it.
m n k ways.
No.
of
ways
to
arrange
n
distinct
objects
in
a
straight
line
n!
A permutation is
an ordered
Note: If there are 2 objects that
n!
where p of them are identical.
arrangement of
must be together, treat them as a
p!
objects mainly
single unit and multiply 2!. If
n!
concerned to find
objects must be separated, place
and q of them are identical.
p
!q !
the total number
them between the gaps of the row.
of ways to arrange
n
No. of ways to arrange r objects out of n distinct objects in a straight line
Pr
objects.
n
No. of ways to choose r objects from n distinct objects
Cr
If r different balls are distributed to n different urns (such that any urn can
2n
contain any number of balls), then number of outcomes
Note: When restrictions are given, they must be satisfied first before the number of
A combination is
combinations is selected. This can be done by breaking down into different cases,
an unordered
calculating separately and adding/subtracting them.
selection of a
Some useful techniques:
number of objects
1. Complementary technique
from a given set.
2. Grouping technique (order must be taken into account)
3. Insertion technique (order must be taken to account use for 3 or more objects)
Note: When subdividing into groups of equal number, remember to divide by the
number of groups.
No. of ways of arranging n distinct objects in a circle if:
n!
The positions are distinguishable: n! n (n 1)!
The positions are indistinguishable:
(n 1)!
n
Note that seats become distinguishable if seats are numbered, different colour and different shapes/sizes.
Chapter 12: Probability

Probability of
an event
Complimentary
Events
Addition Law
Mutually
exclusive events
Conditional
Probability
Independent
Events
Other useful
approaches
Tree diagram
Other formulas
Notes
P( A)
No. of outcomes event occurs n( A)
No. of possible outcomes

n( S )
P( A) P( A ') 1
P( A or B) P( A) P( B) P( A and B)
P( A B) P( A) P( B) P( A B)
2 events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur together (within a situation)
P( A B) 0
P( A B) P( A) P( B)
P( A | B) = 0 or P( B | A) 0
P( A B)
P( B A)
If A and B are mutually exclusive,
P( A | B)
P(A | B)=0 (Since B occurs, A wont occur, vice versa)
P( A)
P( B)
2 events are independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the other (between diff. situations)
P( A | B) P( A)
P( B | A) P( B)
P( A B) P( A) P( B) *
Few stages with
Diff. probabilities
Small sample
P&C method: Only
Sequences and
few outcomes:
for diff. events:
space: Table of
Series: For turn-byWITHOUT
replacement
turn situations
Tree diagram
Venn diagram
outcomes
How to use a tree diagram:
1. Multiply the probabilities along the branches to get the end results
2. On any set of branches that meet up at a point, the probabilities must add up to 1.
3. Check that all end results add up to 1.
4. To answer any question, find the relevant end results. If more than one satisfy the requirements, add
these end results together.
P( B | A)
P( A B) 1 P( A ' B ')
P( A B) 1 P( A ' B ')
P( A) P( A B) P( A B ')
P( A ' | B) 1 P( A | B)
and means (i.e. multiply) whereas or means (i.e. add)
Page 10 of 19

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 13: Binomial and Possion Distributions
Chapter 13: Binomial and Possion Distributions
Use pdf for equal, cdf for less than or equal.
Where X is the random variable, n

n
P( X x) p x (1 p) n x
is the no. of trials and p is the
x
probability of success.
To find mode (value of x with highest probability), use the TABLE function in G.C. to get highest value.
Conditions for Binomial Distribution:
1. There are n independent trials,*
2. Each trial has exactly two possible outcomes: a success or a failure
3. The probability of a success, denoted by p is the same for each trial.*
X ~ B(n, p)
Binomial
Distribution
Poisson
Distribution
Expectation
Variance
Standard
Deviation
Additive
properties
X ~ Po( )
Where is the mean no. of

occurences.
P( X x)
e x
, x 0,1, 2,3
x!
Conditions for poisson distribution:

1. The events occur at random and are independent of each other in a given interval of time or space*,
2. The average number of events per interval is constant throughout the interval*
3. The average number of events per interval is proportional to the size of the interval.
The mean value (average) of a distribution.
Binomial Distribution: E( X ) np
Poisson Distribution: E( X )
Spread of values of X from its mean.
Binomial Distribution: Var( X ) 2 np(1 p)
Poisson Distribution: Var( X ) 2
Spread of values of X.
Binomial Distribution: np(1 p)
Poisson Distribution:
If X ~ Po( ) and Y ~ Po( ) , and X and Y are independent, then X Y ~ Po( )
Page 11 of 19

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 14: Normal Distribution
Chapter 14: Normal Distribution

Normal
Distribution
X ~ N( , 2 )
Standard
normal
distribution
Z ~ N(0,1)
P(a
P(a
Area under
normal curve
(by symmetry)
P( X
P( X
P( X
Where and are the mean

(average) and the variance (spread
of values) respectively.
Where = 0 and = 1.
b)
X
a)
P(a
b)
P(a
b)
X
b)
1 P( X a)
a) P( X
a) P( X
a)
Transforming
to standard
normal
E(a)
E(aX )
E(aX
Properties of
expectation and
variance
E( X1
...
Xn )
E(aX
(used for solving unknown or ) use invnorm function.
Var(a)
a E( X )
b)
bY )
Y)
a E( X )
Var(aX
E( X n )
n E( X )
Var( X1
b E(Y )
1,
E( X )
E(Y )
...
Xn )
a Var( X )
a 2 Var( X )
b)
Var( X1 ) ... Var( X n )
Var(aX
bY )
When a
Var( X
0
2
Var(aX )
a E( X )
E( X1 ) ...
When a
E( X
a)
Y)
a Var( X )
n Var( X )
b Var(Y )
1,
Var( X )
Var(Y )
If X and Y are two independent normal variables, then aX + bY will also be a normal variable.
2
Sample mean
Central Limit
Theorem (CLT)
Distribution: X ~ N
for any size n

n
n
If X1 , X 2 ... X n is a random sample of size n taken from a non-normal or unknown distribution with mean
Var( X )
E( X )
and variance 2, then for sufficiently large n, the sample mean is X ~ N

Large samples are usually of size 50.
Using poisson
distributions
X1
X2
...
approximately.
X n ~ N(n , n 2 ) approximately by CLT.
If X ~ B(n, p), then X ~ Po(np) approximately if n is large (>50) and np < 5.

If X ~ B(n, p), then X ~ N(np, npq) approximately if n is large, np > 5 and nq > 5
Approximation
of binomial and
poisson
distributions
Using normal
distributions
*Continuity correction must be applied. E.g.

P(5 X 8) c.c. P(5.5 X 8.5)
(note: convert to more/less than and equal to before c.c.)
When n is large (>50),

np > 5 but nq < 5
Redefine X as X ~ B(n, q) X ~ Po(nq) approximately.
Using normal
distribution
If X ~ Po(), then X ~ N(, ) approximately if > 10

*Continuity correction must be applied.
Page 12 of 19

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 15: Sampling
Chapter 15: Sampling

Random
sampling
: Every member of population has equal chance of being chosen

Type
Steps
Advantages
Disadvantages
Create a list of the
population (sampling
Difficult/impossible to identify
frame)
every member of the population
Free from bias
2. Create a random
Not able to get access to some
sample (using random
members chosen from the sample
selection)
1. List the populaton in
some order
Could lead to more precise
There could be bias caused by the
2. From the first k
inferences concerning
effect of periodic/cyclic pattern
elements select a
population because the sample
of the population.
member randomly.
chosen is spread evenly
Not always possible to list the
3. Select every kth
throughout the entire
members of the population in
member of the next k
population.
some order.
elements
1. Divide the population
Likely to give a sample
into a number of nonrepresentative of the
overlapping
population.
subpopulations (age /
Each strata can be treated
gender).
Strata may not be clearly defined.
separately, hence
2. Take a random
(overlapping of strata)
sampling may be more
sample from each
convenient and more
stratum with sample
accurate.
size proportional to the
size of the stratum.
Non-random sampling: Every member does not have an equal chance of being chosen
1. Divide the population
Not representative of the
into a number of nonpopulation as compared to other
overlapping
types of sampling
subpopulations (age /
Information can be collected
Biased (non-random) as not
gender).
quickly.
everyone gets an equal chance of
2. Samples taken from
being selected.
each stratum are non
No sampling frame
random (by choice)
Population
Sample
Unbiased estimate
1.
Simple
random
sampling
Systematic
sampling
Types of
sampling
Stratified
sampling
Quota
sampling
Mean
1
1
x c n ( x c)
n
1
(biased!)
( x x) 2
n
2
x
1
x 2
n
n
x2
Point
estimation
Variance
( x c)
1
( x c) 2
n
n
Page 13 of 19
1
1
x c n ( x c)
n
n
1
s2
x2
( x x) 2
n 1
n 1
2
x
1
2
n 1
n
( x c)
1
2
( x c )
n 1
n

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 16: Hypothesis Testing
Chapter 16: Hypothesis Testing

H0 (null
hypothesis)
H1 (alternative
hypothesis)
Test statistic
Critical region
Important
definitions
Level of
significance,
p-value
Types of tests
Hypothesis
tests
z-test
Particular claim for a value for the population

In hypothesis testing, we try to reject H0
mean.
as far as possible as it is a more reliable
Range of values that excludes the value specified
claim compared to do not reject H0.
by null hypothesis.
Random variable whose value is calculated from sample data.
Range of values of the test static that leads to the rejection of H0 The value of c which
determines the critical region is known as the critical value.
Probability of rejecting H0 given that H0 is true. (usually around 0.05)
If a result is significant at %, then it is also significant at any level greater than %.
If a result is not significant at %, then it is also not significant at any level < %.
The pvalue is the smallest level of significance at which H0 can be rejected.
Probability of observing a
p-value
p-value >
value of the test statistic as
Test statistic does not lie in
extreme or more extreme
Test statistic lies in the critical
the critical region, hence we
than the one obtained, given
region, hence we reject H0.
do not reject H0.
that H0 is true.
Left-tail test
Right-tail test
2-tail test
A change in the
A change in the
A difference in either direction. H1: 0.
decrease direction.
increase direction.
Note that (and p-value) is divided equally
H1: < 0
H1: > 0
between the 2 tails of the critical region.
However, when population variance is
True when population distribution is Normal
unknown, we use s2 instead of 2.
and the population variance is known this holds
for any sample size, large or small.
s2
Under H0, X ~ N 0 ,
Also true when population size is large when
n
population distribution is unknown. When n is

X
large >50, by central limit theorem,
approximately, test statistic Z 2 0
Under H0, X ~ N 0 ,
statistic Z
T-test
X 0
2 / n
General
hypothesis
testing
procedure
3.
4.
5.
6.
(approximately), test
n
approximately where
s2
(approximately).
2
x 1 ( x x)2
1
x
n 1
n n 1
Use when n is small and population variance is unknown.

Given (or assume) that the population distribution is normal,
Under H0, X ~ N 0 ,
1.
2.
s /n
approximately, test statistic T

n
Critical region method (if x, 0 or n is unknown)

Write down H0 and H1.
Determine an approximate test statistic and its
distribution.
Identify the level of significance, (from qn)
Determine the critical region. Multiply by 2 if
there is a 2-tail test.
Compute the test statistic (using G.C.)
Determine if the test static lies within the critical
region, and state conclusion in context of the
problem. (since z = ____ (< or >) _____, we (reject
/ do not reject H0 at ___% of significance and
conclude that there is sufficient evidence that )
Page 14 of 19
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
X 0
S2 / n
~ t (n 1) .
p-value method
Write down H0 and H1.
Determine an approximate test statistic and its
distribution.
Identify the level of significance, (from qn)
Compute the test statistic (using G.C.)
Find the p-value (from G.C.). Multiply by 2 if there
is a 2-tail test.
Determine if the test static lies within the critical
region, and state conclusion in context of the
problem. (since p = ___ (< or >) = ___, we (reject
/ do not reject H0 at ___% of significance and
conclude that there is sufficient evidence that )

On owlcove.sg
H2 Mathematics (9740) Statistics
17. Correlation and Regression
A sketch where each axis represents a variable and each point represents an observation.
Controlled variable is usually plotted at x-axis (usually stated from question).
Scatter
diagrams
Positive linear correlation
Product
moment
correlation
coefficient
Negative linear correlation
No linear correleation
The product moment correleation coefficient,

denoted by r, measures the strength and direction
of a linear correleation between the 2 variables.
Non-linear correleation
( x x)( y y)
x x y y
2
1 r 1
Anomalies are removed from a set of bivariate data

to calculate an accurate value of r.
There may not be direct cause-effect relationship
between the 2 variables.
x y
xy n
2
2
x
y
x 2 y 2
n
n
The linear regression fits a straight line in the scatter diagram.

Least squares regression line of y on x
Least squares regression line of x on y
y y b( x x) where
x x d ( y y ) where
x y
( x x)( y y ) xy
n
b
( x x)
x
x n
Both regression lines

intersect at ( x, y)
x y
( x x)( y y ) xy
n
d
( y y)
y
y n
2
Regression
lines
Choice of
regression
line
Interpolation
extrapolation
Linear law
Case
Estimate y given x
Estimate x given y
x is controlled, y is random
Use y on x
y is controlled, x is random
Use x on y
Both x and y is random
Use y on x
Use x on y
Interpolating: Estimation using a value within the
Extrapolation: Estimation using a value outside the
given range of data.
given range of data (unreliable and should be avoided)
Non-linear model
Variable Y
Variable X
y a bx 2
y
x2
ya
b
x
y axb
Page 15 of 19
1
x
ln y
ln x

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 18: Vectors
Chapter 18: Vectors

Modulus of vector a is its magnitude/length, denoted as |a|.
If a = PQ , its length = | PQ |.
Modulus of vector
Vector with magnitude 1. Unit vector of a is
Negative vectors
Null vector
Addition of vectors
Subtraction of vectors
Proving a
parallelogram
Parallel vectors
Collinear points
Multiplication of
vector by scalar
1
a , denoted as a .
a
Negative vector of a, denoted by a, is the vector of magnitude |a| with opposite direction.
Vector that has no magnitude or direction. Denoted by 0.
If AB u and BC v , AC w u + v . w is known as the vector sum of u and v.
If AB u and AD v , DB u v
To show that A, B, C, D is a parallelogram, just show AB DC or AD BC
If a and b are non-zero vectors, a // b a b for some \ {0}.
If 3 points A, B and C are collinear (lie in a straight line),
AB AC or AB BC or BC AC for some \ {0}.
For all vectors a and b, and , ,
( )a a a
(a) ( )a
Position vector
(a b) a b
Ratio Theorem
If point C divides the line AB in the
ratio : , then the position vector
of C is given by:
Position vector of a point P

with reference to origin O is
the vector OP . Given 2 points
P and Q, we have
PQ OQ OP .
OC
OA OB
a b

a
Given a point P(a, b) in the x-y plane, the position vector of P with respect to O can be written as OP or ai bj
b

where i, j are unit vectors of the positive x-axis and positive y-axis respectively.
Vectors
in 2-D
space
a
Length from origin to point P OP a 2 b 2
b
Unit vector in direction of OP
OP
OP
a

a b b
1
Given a point P(a, b, c) in the x-y-z plane, the position vector of P with respect to O can be written as
1.
Definitions, Geometric Representations and Properties of Vectors
Unit vector
a

OP b or ai bj ck where i, j and k are unit vectors of the positive x-axis, positive y-axis and positive z-axis
c

Vectors
in 3-D
space
respectively.
a

Length from origin to point P OP b a 2 b 2 c 2
c

Unit vector in direction of OP
OP
OP
a1
b1

If a a2 and b b2 , then the
a
b
3
3
Definition
Also, it can be
proven that
a b a b cos
scalar product of a and b, denoted as

ab, is defined as
where is the
(diverging or
converging) angle
between a and b.
a1 b1

a b a2 b2 a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 .
a b
3 3
2. Scalar
Product
Parallel
vectors
Perpendic
ular
vectors
Note that the product is a scalar.

For 2 parallel vectors,
For 2 opposite vectors,
a b a b cos0 a b
a b a b cos180 a b
If a and b are perpendicular, then

a b a b cos90 0 a b a b 0
a

b
a 2 b2 c2
c
1
aa a
i j j k k i 0
Page 16 of 19
i i j jk k=
1.
Other properties: ab = ba, a(b+c) = ab

+ ac, a(b) = (ab)

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 18: Vectors
Angle between 2 vectors

cos
Scalar
product
(cont)
ab
or
a b
cos 1
ab
a b
a cos
a b cos
a1b1 a2b2 a3b3

a a a
2
1
2
2
2
3
Vector
equation
Line through
2 fixed pts
Parametric
Equations
Cartesian
Equation
b b b
2
1
2
2
2
3
ab
Relationship
between 2
lines
Acute angle
between 2
lines
Foot of
from point P
to a line
ab
b
Consider a line which is parallel to

vector b and which passes through a
fixed point A with position vector a.
If P is a point on the line, then its
position vector r is given by a + d
where
Let A and B be 2 points with position vectors a and b respectively.
A direction vector of the line through A and B is AB .
A vector equation of the line is r a d where d b a and .
If a line passes through A( x1, y1, z1 ) and is parallel to d i j k , then the position vector of any
x x1

point P(x, y, z) on the line is r a d , i.e. y y1 where .
z z

1

Equating the i, j and k components, we get x x1 , y y1 , z z1 .
Equating the value of , we get

Parallel
3.
Vector
equation
of
straight
line
Length of projection
Length of
projection of a
on u
x x1
y y1
z z1
Intersecting
If L1 and L2 intersect, there are
unique values of and such that
Skew
d1 and d2 are not parallel and
there are no unique values of
If L1 // L2 d1 //d2
a1 d1 a2 d2
and for a1 d1 a2 d2 .
Note: Use the G.C. to determine if the system of linear equations is consistent and to find the solution if
it exists.
Consider 2 lines L1 and L2 where L1 : a1 b and L2 : c d
The acute angle between the 2 lines is the same as the acute
angles between b and d.
cos 1
d1 d 2
d1 d 2
Let vector equation of line L be r a d .

Since N is on the line, ON a b
Since PN L PN d.
Hence PN d 0 [by perpendicular vectors]
Solve the equation for and substitute into the vector equation to
find ON .
Let vector equation of line L be r a d and a is the position
vector of the point A on the line L.
Distance from
a point to a
line
The distance PN can be found using:

(1) Find ON then find PN
(2) Find AN (length of projection of AP on d, then use
Pythagoras theorem: PN AP2 AN 2
(3) Find (angle between AP and d). Then find PN AP sin
(use this if is found or known)
(4) Use PN
AP d
d
Page 17 of 19

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 18: Vectors
First find ON (using one of the 4 methods stated above)

Since N is the mid-point of PP, using ratio theorem, we have
Image of a
point P by
reflection in
the line L
Definition
ON
OP OP '
2
Then find OP by making it the subject.

a1
b1

If a a2 and b b2 , vector product of a and b denoted by
a
b
3
3
a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2

a b a2 b2 (a1b3 a2b1 )
a b a b a b
2 1
3 3 1 2
Also, it can be proven that a b a b sin n where is the angle

4.
Vector
Product
between a and b. n is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b,

the direction which follows the right hand grip rule.
Note that a and b must be perpendicular on the same plane.
Also, a b b a
Perpendicular distance from A to b
a b sin a b
a sin
(or a b )
distance
This can be used to find:

Area of parallelogram = a b where b is the length,
Area of triangle = a b
The vector equation of a plane is given by

r a d e, , where
Vectors d and e are parallel to the plane and
non-parallel to each other
a gives the point of the vector while d and
e gives the direction of the vector.
In a scalar product form, we let AP n .

AP n 0,(r a) n 0, r n a n d
Note that the position vector r of every point on

the plane will satisfy the equation rn = d.
d can be obtained from an
Equation
of Planes
5.
Planes
Cartesian
Equation
of a Plane
n1
x
x

Let r y and n n2 . Then r n d y
z
z
n

3
n1

n2 d n1 x n2 y n3 z d
n
3
Foot of from a point to plane
Distance from point P to a plane

Let be a plane with vector
equation rn = d. The
perpendicular distance PN can
be found by:
(1) Choose any point A on the
plane. Then PN = length of
projection of AP on n.
(2) PN PN
From the figure, the vector equation

of PN : r OP n .
Since N is the point of intersection
between PN and the plane, we
can equate the above with rn = d.
ON n d and ON OP n for some .
(OP n) n d . Solve for and find ON .
Point of intersection of line & plane

Line has vector equation r = a + d
Plane has vector eqn rn = d.
Equating them, (a d) n d
Acute angle between line & plane

sin
Page 18 of 19
dn
d n
Acute angle between 2 planes

cos
n1 n 2
n1 n 2

On owlcove.sg
Chapter 19: Complex Numbers
Chapter 19: Complex Numbers
Definition
Imaginary
numbers
Forms
Cartesian
form
Simple
operations
i 1
{a bi : a, b }
Denoted by
i 2 1
A complex number is a number of the form a + bi, where a, b

b is called the imaginary part of z, denoted as
a is called the real part of z, denoted as Re(z).
Im(z).
(a bi) (c di) (a c) (b d )i
i i i 2 1
For division, rationalise the denominator.
The complex conjugate of the complex number z (a bi) is denoted as z* (a bi) .

Complex
conjugate
zz* a2 b2
( z1 z2 )* z1 * z2 *
z1
z1 *

z2 z2 *
2 complex no. are equal only if they have the same real & imaginary parts, a bi c di a c, b d
z z* 2a
z z* 2bi
( z1z2 )* z1 * z2 *
Equality
The complex roots of any polynomial equation with real coefficients will always
Complex
b2 4ac 0 2 real roots
occur in conjugate pairs. b2 4ac 0 2 complex conjugate roots
roots
Multiple
i 4n 3 i, e.g. i,i5 ,i9 ,i13 i
i 4n 2 1, e.g. i 2 ,i 6 ,i10 1
i 4n 3 1, e.g. i3 ,i 7 ,i11 i
i 4n 1 e.g. i4 ,i8 ,i12 1
powers
Fundamental Theorem
If P( z) 0 has n solutions 1, 2 ,3 ,..., n , it can be expressed in the form P( z) ( z 1 )( z 2 )...( z n ) .
of algebra
Diagrams
Argand
diagram
Conjugate
Represented by P '( x, y) (reflection of P in the real axis)
Modulus
z x2 y 2 r
arg( z) . For a positive no. a,
Argument
arg(ai)
arg(a) 0
arg(a)
arg(ai)
Note: must follow principal argument:
z1z2 z1 z2
Powers
Eulers
formula
z1
z
1
z2
z2
arg( z*) arg( z)
zz* x2 y 2 z
Multiplication by i rotates 90o.

z1 r1
cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )
z2 r2
arg( z1 z2 ) arg( z1 ) arg( z2 )

z
arg 1 arg( z1 ) arg( z2 )
z2
zn z
arg( z n ) n arg( z)
rei r (cos i sin ) , where is in radians.

Definition
Circle
Locus
z1z2 r1r2 cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )
Operations
Modulusargument
form
Modulus-argument form: Since (by

parametric form), x r cos , y r sin
z x iy r (cos i sin )
z* z
Perpendic
ular
bisector
Half-line
Others
A locus is a set of points that satisfy given conditions. Note: always take z = x + iy.
Notes:
The equation z z1 r represents a circle with
Check if the circle passes through O by
comparing the radius with the distance
centre at (x1, y1) and radius r.
between the centre of the circle and O.
The Cartesian equation of the locus is
Check whether the circle crosses the axes by
( x x1 )2 ( y y1 )2 r 2
comparing the radius and the distance.
The equation z z1 z z2 represents the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2). The Cartesian equation will be a linear equation.
The equation arg( z z1 ) represents a half-line from A(x1, y1) (excluding A) making an angle with
the positive real axis.
Assume z = x + iy and then deduce its nature.
De
Moivres
Theorem
If z r (cos i sin ) , then z n r n (cos n i sin n ) for n
Nth roots
z n Re
2 k
i
, k 0,1, 2,3,...,(n 1)
Page 19 of 19
(rational no.)

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H2 Mathematics (9740)

Chapter 1: Binomial Theorem

Chapter 1: Binomial Theorem

... b n where n is a positive integer and

Express the quadratic factor into the

To expand (1 + kx), replace x with

Chapter 2: Sequences and Series

u1 S1 [1st term = sum of 1st term]

un Sn Sn 1 ; n 2 [The difference in 2 sums gives the term]

Arithmetic progression (A.P.)

Geometric progression (G.P.)

where L is a finite number

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(Use G.C. to generate

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Chapter 3: Mathematical Induction

Chapter 3: Mathematical Induction

In the process of proving, you may use

Assume that Pk is true for some k , i.e. [replace n by k]

Since P1 is true and Pk is true

Pn is true for all n

Chapter 4: Graphing Techniques

Turning Points (Let

Asymptotes (Express in form f( x) Q( x)

Vertical asymptote: Let

1 where a b represents an ellipse with

H2 Mathematics Summarised Formulae

1 where a b represents a vertical

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Chapter 4: Graphing Techniques

For a > 0), the graph of y = f(x) + a is

For a > 0), the graph of y = a f(x) is

This vertical translation only affects

the graph of y = f(x) is a reflection of the

This vertical transformation only affects

This horizontal transformation only

This horizontal translation only

This horizontal translation only affects

All transformations are done in the order y d cf a

the parts of the graph below the

the x-values in the graph are

H2 Mathematics Summarised Formulae

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Range is the set of y-values (output values)

such that f 1 y x y f x for every x X .

Rf cuts the graph of y

To obtain the inverse function f-1, follow

The graphs of f and f-1 are reflections of each

The composite function gf exists Rf Dg

Dgf = Df, Dfg = Dg

H2 Mathematics Summarised Formulae

the composite function fg exists Rg Df

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Chapter 6: Equations and Inequalities

Chapter 6: Equations and Inequalities

If c 0 and a b , then ac bc and

Equate each factor to zero and solve to get

Draw a no. line with the critical points.

Make one side of the inequality zero.

If d 0 and a b, then ad bd and

Test the sign in any region. The critical

Use the PlySmlt2 SIMULT EQN SOLVER in TI-84 GC.

H2 Mathematics Summarised Formulae

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