ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Necessary and sufficient condition: Cauchy-Riemann equations:

A necessary and sufficient condition that a function w=f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y), where
z=x+iy, be analytic in a region R is that the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u
x

v
=

u
&

v
x

are satisfied in R.
If a function, w=f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) where z=x+iy, is analytic in a region R, then
(i)

(u/x)=(v/y) & (u/y)= (v/x).

(ii)

(dw/dz)=f 1(z)=(u/x) i(u/y) or (dw/dz)=f 1(z)=(v/y) + i(v/x) or

(dw/dz)=f 1(z)=(u/x) + i(v/x) or (dw/dz)=f 1(z)=(v/y) i(u/y).

(iii)

(w/x)=(u/x) + i(v/x) i(w/x)=i(u/x) (v/x)

i(w/x)=i(v/y) + (u/y) i(w/x)=(w/y).

(iv)

u(x,y) and v(x,y) are harmonic.

(v)

u(x,y)= and v(x,y)= where and are any constants, are orthogonal
families of curves.

Harmonic functions:
A function f(x,y) is harmonic if it satisfies the Laplaces equation i.e.,
f=

2f

2f
+

=0
y

Orthogonal functions:
The families of curves u(x,y)= & v(x,y)= are orthogonal if
u
x

v
x

u
y

v
y

= 1

Complex integration:
Cauchys integration formula: If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed curve C and
a is any point inside C, then

fn-1(a)
f(z)
(za)n dz = 2i
(n1)!

where fn-1(a) is the value of the (n-1)th derivative of f(z) at z=a and the integral is taken in
the counterclockwise sense around C.
Important notes: (i) |za|=r means a circle of radius r with center at z=a. (ii) If z=a is not
inside C, then

C (za)
f(z)

dz = 0

Residue theorem: If f(z) is analytic on and inside a closed curve C and is of the
form

q(z)
f(z)=
k
mj
[z-pj]
j=1
then
k

C f(z)dz=2 i res[f(z)]
z=p
j=1

where

dmj-1

mj

res[f(z)]=
lim
(zpj) f(z)
mj-1
z=pj
(mj1)! zpj dz
Jacobian of a transformation: If we define
w=f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y)
then the determinant

(u,v)
(x,y)

(u/x) (u/y)
=
(v/x) (v/y)

is called the Jacobian of the transformation f(z).

Bilinear transformation: The bilinear transformation that maps the points z1, z2 and z3
on the z-plane into the points w1, w2 and w3 on the w-plane is

[(w-w1)(w2-w3)/(w-w3)(w2-w1)]=[(z-z1)(z2-z3)/(z-z3)(z2-z1)]

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Type I: Differential equations with variables separable:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)=f(x)g(y)
the solution would be obtained by (i) separating the variables and (ii) integrating i.e.,

[dy/g(y)]=f(x)dx+C.
Type II: Differential equations reducible to Type I:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)=f(ax+by+c)
the solution would be obtained by (i) making the substitution
z=ax+by+c
and hence (dz/dx)=a+b(dy/dx)
(ii) separating the variables and (iii) integrating i.e.,

{dz/[bf(z)+a]}=x+C.
Type III: Homogeneous differential equations:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)=f(y/x)
which is called the homogeneous differential equation, the solution would be obtained by
(i) making the substitution
y=vx
and hence (dy/dx)=v+x(dv/dx)
(ii) separating the variables and (iii) integrating i.e.,

{dv/[f(v)v]}=lnx+C.
Type IV: Differential equations reducible to Type III:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)=(a1x+b 1y+c1)/(a2x+b2y+c2)

the solution would be obtained by (i) making the substitutions

x=X+h & y=Y+k
(ii) choosing the constants h & k such that
a1h+b1k+c1=0 & a2h+b 2k+c2=0
(iii) thereby reducing the given differential equation to
(dY/dX)=( a1X+b 1Y)/(a2X+b2Y)
which is homogeneous, (iv) making the substitution
Y=VX
and hence (dY/dX)=V+X(dV/dX)
(v) separating the variables and (vi) integrating i.e.,

{(a2+b2V)/[(a1+b1V)V(a2+b2V)]}dV=lnX+C.
Type V: Linear differential equations of first order:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)+Py=Q
which is a linear differential equation of first order, the solution would be obtained by (i)
identifying P & Q in the given differential equation (ii) finding the integrating factor (IF)
IF=ePdx
(iii) multiplying the given differential equation by IF and (iv) integrating i.e.,
yePdx=QePdx+C.
Type VI: Bernoullis differential equations:
For the differential equation of the form
(dy/dx)+Py=Qyn
which is called the Bernoullis equation, the solution would be obtained by (i) dividing
the given differential equation by yn (ii) making the substitution
z=y1-n

and hence (dz/dx)=(1-n)y1-n(dy/dx)

(iii) reducing the given differential equation to
(dz/dx)+Pz(1-n)=Q(1-n)
and (iv) following Type V.
Type VII: Exact differential equations:
For the differential equation of the form
Mdx+Ndy=0
which is the exact differential equation as it satisfies the condition that (M/y)=(N/x),
the solution would be obtained by (i) integrating M wrt x as if y were constant (ii)
integrating those terms in N which do not occur in

{[Mdx]/y}
wrt y and (iii) equating their sum to a constant i.e.,

Mdx+{N[(Mdx)/y]}dy=C.
Type VIII: Linear differential equations with constants coefficients:
For the differential equation of the form
a0(dny/dxn)+a1(d n-1y/dx n-1)++any=Q
the solution would be obtained by (i) replacing (dky/dxk) by mk for k=0,1,2,,n to obtain
a characteristic equation (or as sometimes called, an auxiliary equation) of the form
a0mn+a1mn-1++an=0
(ii) finding the n roots, m1, m2, , mn of the above characteristic equation (iii) finding a
general solution (or as sometimes called a complimentary function) of the form
(iiia) CE=C1exp(m1x)+C2exp(m2x)++Cnexp(mnx) if the roots are real and
distinct
OR
(iiib) CE=[C1+C2x+C3x2++Ckxk-1]exp(m1x)+Ck+1exp(mk+1x)++Cnexp(mnx) if
the first k roots are equal to m1 and the other (n-k) roots are real and distinct
OR
x
(iiic) CE=[C1cosx+C2sinx]e +C3exp(m3x)++Cnexp(mnx) if the first two
roots are complex conjugate pairs i and the other (n-2) roots are real and
distinct.

(iii) finding the particular solution as follows:

(iiia) If Q=eax, then the particular solution would be of the form
PI=[1/f(D)]eax=[eax/f(a)] if f(a)0
OR
ax
PI=[1/f(D)]e =[x keax/fk(a)] if f(a)=f1(a)==fk-1(a)=0.
(iiib) If Q=sin(ax) or cos(ax), then the particular solution would be of the form
PI=[1/f(D2)]Q=[1/f(a2)]Q if f(a2)0
OR
PI=[1/f(D2)]Q=[xk/fk(a2)]Q if f(a2)=f1(a2)==fk-1(a2)=0.
(iiic) If Q=xm, then the particular solution would be of the form
PI=[1/f(D)]Q=f 1(D)Q {Hint:(1+x)1=1x+x2x3+ & (1x)1=1+x+x2+x3+...}
(iiid) If Q=eaxR, where R is any function of x, then the particular solution would be of the
form
PI=[1/f(D)]Q=eax[1/f(D+a)]R.
(iiie) If Q=Q1+Q2++Qn, then the particular solution would be of the form
PI=(PI for Q1)+(PI for Q2)++(PI for Qn).
and (iv) finding the total solution by adding them i.e.,
y=CE+PI.
Type IX: Differential equations expressed as a polynomial in (dy/dx):
(a) Differential equations solvable for p=(dy/dx): For the differential equation of
the form
f(p)=p n+Q1pn-1+Q2p n-2++Qn=0
where p=(dy/dx) and Q1, Q2,,Qn are functions of x & y, the solution would be obtained
by (i) factorizing the polynomial f(p) to obtain
f(p)=(p-R1)(p-R2)(p-Rn)=0
where R1, R2,, Rn are functions of x & y, (ii) finding the primitive solutions f1(x,y,c1),
f2(x,y,c2),, fn(x,y,cn) by equating each factor to zero and (iii) finding the product of the
primitive solutions to obtain a solution of the form
f1(x,y,c1)f2(x,y,c2)fn(x,y,cn)=0 or

f1(x,y,c)f2(x,y,c)fn(x,y,c)=0
by replacing c1, c2,, cn by c without any loss of generality.
(b) Differential equations solvable for y: For the differential equation of the form
y=f(x,p)
where p=(dy/dx), the solution would be obtained by (i) differentiating the given equation
wrt x (ii) separating the variables (iii) integrating to obtain a value for p and (iv)
substituting the value of p in the given differential equation.
(c) Differential equations solvable for x: For the differential equation of the form
x=f(y,p)
where p=(dy/dx), the solution would be obtained by (i) differentiating the given equation
wrt y (ii) separating the variables (iii) integrating to obtain a value for p and (iv)
substituting the value of p in the given differential equation.

Definite integrals:
b
a

1. f(x) dx = f(x) dx
a
b
a

2. f(x) dx = f(a-x) dx
0
0
2a

3. f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(2a-x) dx

0
0
0
2a

4. f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx [if f(2a-x) = f(x)]

0
0
2a

f(x) dx = 0 [if f(2a-x) = -f(x)]

4A.
0

na

5. f(x) dx = n f(x) dx [if f(a+x) = f(x)]

0
0
b

1. f(x) dx = f(x) dx
a
b
a
a
6. f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx [if f(x) = f(-x) i.e., f(x) is even]
-a
0
a

6. f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx [if f(x) = f(-x) i.e., f(x) is even]

-a
0

6A. f(x) dx = 0 [if f(x) = - f(-x) i.e., f(x) is odd]

-a
b

7. f(x) dx = f(a+b-x) dx
a
0
Bernoullis formula:

uv = uv-u v +u v -u v +...+(-1) u v +...

1

k k

where u k=kth derivative of u & v k=kth integral of v.

Increasing and decreasing functions:
First derivative test:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Find fl(x).
Find the critical points of f(x) by setting fl(x)=0.
Arrange the critical points in the ascending order.
Partition the domain of f(x) into open intervals using the critical points.
Find the sign of fl(x) in each open interval. (a) If the sign of fl(x) is +ve in an
open interval, then the function f(x) is increasing in that interval. (b) If the
sign of fl(x) is ve in an open interval, then the function f(x) is decreasing in
that interval.

Local extrema: (relative extrema):

First derivative test:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Find fl(x).
Find the critical points of f(x) by setting fl(x)=0.
Find the sign of fl(x) in the immediate, preceding and succeeding
neighbourhoods of each of the critical points. (a) If the sign of fl(x) changes
from +ve to ve around a particular critical point, then that point is the point
of local or relative maxima. (b) If the sign of fl(x) changes from ve to +ve
around a particular critical point, then that point is the point of local or relative
minima.

Second derivative test:

(i)

Find fl(x).

(ii)
(iii)

Find the critical points of f(x) by setting fl(x)=0.

Find the sign of fll(x) at each of the critical points. (a) If the sign of fll(x) is ve
at a particular critical point, then that point is the point of local or relative
maxima. (b) If the sign of fll(x) is +ve at a particular critical point, then that
point is the point of local or relative minima.

Rolles theorem and The mean value theorem:

(i)

(ii)

Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open
interval (a, b). If f(a)=f(b), then there is at least one point c in (a, b) such that
fl(c)=0.
If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open
interval (a, b), then there exists at least a point c in (a, b) such that

fl(c)=[f(b) f(a)]/(b-a)
Tangents & normals to a curve:
Tangent: Tangent to a curve y=f(x) at a point (x1, y1) on the curve is given by
(yy1)=m(xx1)

where m=(dy/dx) x 1, y1
Normal: Normal to a curve y=f(x) at a point (x1, y1) on the curve is given by
(yy1)=(1/m)(xx1)

where m=(dy/dx) x 1, y1
Angle between two curves:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Find the points of intersection of the curves given by substituting one into the
other.
Find the slope of tangent to each curve at any point of intersection. Let them
be m1 & m2.
The angle between the curves is given by

=tan-1(m1-m2)/(1+m1m2)
Taylor series:
f(a+h)=f(a)+[h/1!]fl(a)+[h2/2!]fll(a)+...to

Maclaurin series:
f(x)=f(0)+[x/1!]fl(0)+[x2/2!]fll(0)+... to

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

1.

Row matrix: A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix. A=[aij]1n.

2.

Column matrix: A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix.
A=[aij]m1.

3.

Null matrix: A matrix with only zero elements is called a null matrix.

4.

Transpose of a matrix: Transpose of a matrix A is the matrix A itself with rows

and columns interchanged. If A=[a ij]mn, then AT=[aji]nm. Properties: (i)
(A+B)T=AT+BT (ii) (AB)T=BTAT

5.

Symmetric matrix: A matrix A is said to be symmetric if AT=A.

6.

Skew-symmetric matrix: A matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if AT=A.

7.

Square matrix: A matrix with equal number of rows and columns is called a square
matrix. A=[aij]nn.

8.

Singular matrix: An nn square matrix A is called a singular matrix if the rank of

A i.e., (A)<n and a nonsingular matrix if (A)=n. [In other words, if detA=0, then
A is singular and if detA0, then A is nonsingular.]

9.

Diagonal matrix: A square matrix with only zero elements except the principal
diagonal elements is called a diagonal matrix.

10. Unit or identity matrix: A diagonal matrix with unit elements is called a unit or
identity matrix.
11. Triangular matrix: (i) A square matrix with only zero elements below the principal
diagonal is called the upper triangular matrix. (ii) A square matrix with only zero
elements above the principal diagonal is called the lower triangular matrix.
12. Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AAT=ATA=I.
13. Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A2=A.
14. Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if Ak=0 (null
matrix) for a least positive integer k.
15. Hermitian matrix: A complex square matrix A is called a Hermitian matrix if
(A*)T=A.
16. Skew-Hermitian matrix: A complex square matrix A is called a skew-Hermitian
matrix if (A*)T=A.

17. Unitary matrix: A complex square matrix A is called a unitary matrix if

A(A*)T=(A*)TA=I.
18. Adjoint of a square matrix: Adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of A
with each element replaced by its cofactor. If A=[aij]nn, then adjA=[Aij]nnT , where
Aij is the cofactor of the element aij. Properties:
(i)

A(adjA)=(adjA)A= detA 0 -------------0

0 detA -------------0

0
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

=detAInn

detA

det(adjA)=(detA)n-1, where n is the order of A

adj(AB)=adjB adjA
adj(adjA)=(detA)n-2A
det(adj(adjA))=[(detA)n-1]n-1

19. Inverse of a square matrix: Inverse of a square matrix A is defined as

A-1=[adjA]/detA. Properties: (i) AA-1=A-1A=I (ii) (AB)-1=B-1A-1
20. Equivalent matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent (written as
A~B) if one can be obtained from the other through a number of elementary row or
column transformations.
Rank of a matrix: Rank of a matrix A is the order of highest-ordered non-zero minor of
A and denoted as (A).
Eigen values (or characteristic roots) of a square matrix: Eigen values of an nn
square matrix A are the roots of the characteristic equation det(AI)=0.
Properties:
i. An nn square matrix has n non-zero Eigen values.
ii. The sum of Eigen values of a square matrix is equal to the sum of the principal
diagonal elements.
iii. The product of Eigen values of a square matrix is equal to its determinant value.
iv. Eigen values of AT are the Eigen values of A.
v. Only a singular matrix has zero as an Eigen value.
vi. The Eigen values of a triangular matrix are the diagonal elements themselves.
vii. If 1, 2,, n are the Eigen values of a matrix A, then those of A2 are 12,
22,, n2.
viii. If 1, 2,, n are the Eigen values of a matrix A, then those of kA, where k is a
scalar, are k1, k2,, kn.
ix. If is an Eigen value of a non-singular matrix A, then (a) that of A-1 is -1 & (b)
that of adjA is (detA).

x.

Cayley-Hamilton theorem: A square matrix satisfies its own characteristic

equation.

Eigen vectors of a square matrix: The Eigen vectors of an nn square matrix A are the
set of values satisfying the vector equation (A)x=0.
Properties:
i. For each Eigen value i, i=1,2,,n, of an nn square matrix A, there corresponds
an Eigen vector xi, i=1,2,,n, that satisfies the vector equation (Ai)xi=0.
ii. If xi is an Eigen vector of A corresponding to the Eigen value i, then kxi, where
k is any constant, is also an Eigen vector of A corresponding to the same Eigen
value i.

NUMERICAL METHODS

(I) Curve fitting:

(i) Fitting a straight line: To fit a straight line of the form
y=ax+b
evaluate the constants a & b using the given data on x & y and the normal equations
y=ax+nb
xy=ax2+bx.
(ii) Fitting a parabola: To fit a parabola of the form
y=ax2+bx+c
evaluate the constants a, b & c using the given data on x & y and the normal equations
y=ax2+bx+nc
xy=ax3+bx2+cx
x2y=ax4+bx3+cx2.
(iii) Fitting an exponential curve: (a) To fit an exponential curve of the form
y=aebx
(1) take logarithm on both sides of the given equation to obtain
logy=logaebx
logy=loga+bxloge
Y=A+Bx
where Y=logy, A=loga & B=bloge and (2) evaluate the constants A & B by method (I).
(b) To fit an exponential curve of the form
y=axb
(1) take logarithm on both sides of the given equation to obtain
logy=logaxb
logy=loga+blogx
Y=A+bX
where Y=logy, A=loga & X=logx and (2) evaluate the constants A & b by method (I).

(iv)Curve fitting-Method of moments: Given that

x
y
to fit a curve of the form y=f(x), equate the nth moment of the observed y to the nth
moment of the expected y i.e.,
n

xn+x

x y=x

n-1

n-1

f(x)dx
xn-x

(II) Theory of Equations:

Relations between the roots and the coefficients of the equation f(x)=0: Let 1,
2,..., n be the roots of the equation
f(x)=a0x n+a1x n-1+...+an=0
Then
n

= (a /a )
i

i=1
n

= (a /a )
i j

i=1,j=1
ij
n

ijk= (a3/a0)
i=1,j=1,k=1
ijk
and so on, where
n

= sum of the roots

i

i=1

= sum of the roots taken 2 at a time

i j

i=1,j=1
ij
n

= sum of the roots taken 3 at a time

i j k

i=1,j=1,k=1
ijk
and so on. Generally

... = (1) (a /a ), k=1,2,3,...,n

k

1 2

where

... =sum of the roots taken k at a time

1 2

To form the equation whose roots are the roots of the given equation f(x)=0, each
multiplied by the same constant: Let 1, 2,..., n be the roots of the equation
f(x)=a0x n+a1x n-1+...+an=0
Then, the equation whose roots are m1, m2,..., mn is found to be
f1(x)=a0xn+ma1xn-1+...+mnan=0
To form the equation whose roots are the roots of the given equation f(x)=0, each
diminished by the same constant: Let 1, 2,..., n be the roots of the equation
f(x)=a0x n+a1x n-1+...+an=0
Then, the equation whose roots are 1h, 2h,..., nh is found to be
f1(x)=A0x n+A1xn-1+...+An=0
where An, An-1,..., A0 are the successive remainders when f(x) is divided by xh.

(III) Numerical solution of equations: Iteration:

(i) Fixed-point iteration method:
(ii) Newton or Newton-Raphson iteration method: Given a function

f(x)=0
which is continuous and has a continuous derivative, and a starting value x0, the solution
is found by (i) computing a sequence, x0, x1, x2,, recursively from the relation of the
form
xn+1=x n[ f(xn)/f1(xn)]
if f1(xn)0 and (ii) terminating the process on any of the following termination criteria:
i. after N steps (N given & fixed) or
ii. if |x n+1x n| ( > 0 given) or
iii. if |f(x n)| ( > 0 given).
The last value in the sequence is the solution.

(IV) Interpolation: Prediction of value of a function

from a given set of its values:
Interpolation for a set of equally spaced values of independent variable:
(i) Newtons forward interpolation formula: Given the data
x
x0 x1 x2 xn
y=f(x) y0 y1 y2 yn
(1) evaluating the forward difference table
x
y
y
2y n-1y
x0 y0
y0
x1 y1
2y0
y1
x2 y2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
n-1y0
.
.
.
.
.
xn-2 yn-2
.
xn-1 yn-1 yn-2 2yn-2
xn yn yn-1
where xi=x0+ih, i=0,1,2,,n, the approximate value of y=f(x) for any value of x can be
estimated using the Newtons forward interpolation formula
y=y0+[(x-x0)/1!h]y0+[(x-x0)(x-x1)/2!h2]2y0++[(x-x0)(x-x1)(x-x n-1)/n!h n]ny0
y=y0+[p/1!]y0+[p(p-1)/2!]2y0+[p(p-1)(p-2)/3!]3y0++[p(p-1)(p-n+1)/n!]ny0
where p=[(x-x0)/h] & h=|xn+1-xn| i.e., the increment of x.

Error in polynomial interpolation: The error in the polynomial interpolation is

given by
y(x)(x)=[ (x-x0)(x-x1)...(x-xn)/(n+1)!] n+1y(c)
Error in Newtons forward interpolation formula: The error in the above
Newtons interpolation formula is given by
=[p(p-1)(p-n)/(n+1)!]h n+1n+1y0.
(ii) Newtons backward interpolation formula: Given the data
x
x0 x1 x2 xn
y=f(x) y0 y1 y2 yn
(1) evaluating the forward difference table
x
y
y
2y n-1y
x0 y0 y
0
x1 y1
2y0
y1
x2 y2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
n-1y0
.
.
.
.
.
.
xn-2 yn-2
.
yn-2
2
xn-1 yn-1
yn-2
xn yn yn-1
where xi=x0+ih, i=0,1,2,,n, the approximate value of y=f(x) for any value of x can be
estimated using the Newtons forward interpolation formula
y=yn+[(x-xn)/1!h]yn+[(x-xn)(x-xn-1)/2!h 2]2yn++[(x-x n)(x-x n-1)(x-x1)/n!h n] nyn
y=yn+[p/1!]yn+[p(p+1)/2!]2yn+[p(p+1)(p+2)/3!]3yn++[p(p+1)(p+n-1)/n!]nyn
where p=[(x-xn)/h] & h=|xn-xn-1| i.e., the increment of x.
Error in Newtons backward interpolation formula: The error in the above
Newtons interpolation formula is given by
=[p(p+1)(p+n)/(n+1)!]h n+1n+1yn.
Interpolation for a set of unequally spaced values of independent variable:
Interpolation-for a set of either equally or unequally spaced values of
independent variable:
(iii) Lagranges interpolation formula: Given the data

x
x0 x1 x2 xn
y=f(x) y0 y1 y2 yn
evaluate
n

y=
(x-xj)
i=0 j=0,ji
n

/ (x -x )]y
i

j=0,ji

y= [(x)f(xi)/(x-xi)/(xi)]
i=0
where
n

(x)=
(x-xj)
j=0
/
(xi)=(d/dx)(x) at x=xi

(V) Numerical integration:

(i) Trapezoidal rule of integration: By the Trapezoidal rule of integration
b

f(x)dx(1/2)h[y0+yn+2(y1+y2++yn-1)]
a
Procedure:
i. divide the interval (a,b) into n equal subintervals,
(x0,x1),(x1,x2),(x2,x 3),,(x n-1,xn), each of length h=[(ba)/n]
ii. putting a=x0 and b=xn, compute y0=f(x0),y1=f(x1),,yn=f(xn) and
iii. compute (1/2)h[y0+yn+2(y1+y2++yn-1)].
(ii) Rectangle formulas: By the rectangle formulas
b

f(x)dxh[y0+y1+y2++yn-1] or
a
b

f(x)dxh[y0+y1+y2++yn] or
a

f(x)dxh[y1/2+y3/2++y(2n-1)/2]
a
Procedure:
i. divide the interval (a,b) into n equal subintervals,
(x0,x1),(x1,x2),(x2,x 3),,(x n-1,xn), each of length h=[(ba)/n]
ii. putting a=x0 and b=xn, compute y1/2=f(x1/2),y3/2=f(x3/2),,y(2n-1)/2=f(x(2n-1)/2),
where x1/2, x3/2,, x(2n-1)/2 are the midpoints of the subintervals
(x0,x1),(x1,x2),(x2,x 3),,(x n-1,xn) respectively and
iii. compute h[y1/2+y3/2++y(2n-1)/2].
(iii) Simpsons rule of integration: By the Simpsons rule of integration
b

f(x)dx(1/3)h[y0+yn+2(y1+y2++yn-1)+4(y1/2+y3/2++y(2n-1)/2)]
a
Procedure:
i. divide the interval (a,b) into n equal subintervals,
(x0,x1),(x1,x2),(x2,x 3),,(x n-1,xn), each of length h=[(ba)/n]
ii. putting a=x0 and b=xn, compute y0=f(x0),y1=f(x1),,yn=f(xn)
iii. compute y1/2=f(x1/2),y3/2=f(x3/2),,y(2n-1)/2=f(x(2n-1)/2), where x1/2, x3/2,, x(2n-1)/2
are the midpoints of the subintervals (x0,x1),(x1,x2),(x2,x 3),,(x n-1,x n)
respectively and
iv. compute (1/6)h[y0+yn+2(y1+y2++yn-1)+4(y1/2+y3/2++y(2n-1)/2)].
Limiting errors in the numerical integration:
(i) Limiting error in the Trapezoidal rule: The limiting error in the Trapezoidal rule
is given by
LE=[(ba)3/12n2]M2=[nh3/12]M2
where M2 is the greatest value of |fii(x)| in the interval (a,b).
(ii) Limiting error in the rectangular rule of integration: The limiting error in the
rectangular rule is given by
LE=[(ba)3/24n2]M2=[nh3/24]M2
where M2 is the greatest value of |fii(x)| in the interval (a,b).
(iii) Limiting error in the Simpsons rule of integration: The limiting error in the
Simpsons rule is given by
LE=[(ba)5/180(2n)4]M4=[nh5/(1802 4)]M4
where M4 is the greatest value of |fiv(x)| in the interval (a,b).

PROBABILITY

Standard distributions:
(I) Binomial distribution: (i) The binomial distribution deals with the Bernoullis
experiment. (ii) The Bernoullis experiment is any experiment, which has only two
possible sets of outcomes: favourable and non-favourable. (iii) The experiment may be
tried several times. However, the number of trials must be finite. (iv) Getting a
favourable outcome in a trial is termed as success and getting a non-favourable outcome
in a trial is termed as failure. Hence, in n trials of an experiment, the experimenter may
succeed on time or once or twiceor all the n times. (v) Here, we define p as the
probability of succeeding in a trial, q as that of failing in a trial and X as the random
variable denoting the number of successes in the n trials of the experiment. (vi) Then, the
probability of succeeding exactly k times in the n trials of the experiment is found to be
P(X=k)=nCk pkqn-k.
(vii) The mean and variance of a binomial random variable are
mean=E(X)=np
and
variance=V(X)=E(X2)[E(X)]2=npq.
(Ia) Geometric random variable: Let us suppose that a Bernoullis experiment is
tried until we get a success. Here, we define Y as a random variable denoting the number
of trials required (to get a success). Y is called the geometric random variable. If we
define p as the probability of succeeding in a trial and q as that of failing in a trial, then
the probability of succeeding in the kth trial for the first time (or the probability of
requiring exactly k trials to get the first success) is found to be
P(Y=k)=qk-1p.
The mean and variance of a geometric random variable are
mean=E(Y)=(1/p)
and
variance=V(Y)=E(Y2)[E(Y)]2=(q/p2).
(Ib) Hypergeometric random variable: Let us choose n items, without replacement,
randomly from a lot containing T items out of which F items are favourable. Here we
define Z as a random variable denoting the number of favourable items in the n items
chosen. Z is called the hypergeometric random variable and can take on the values from 0
to n. We can choose k favourable items from F items in FCk ways and (nk) nonfavourable items in (TF)C(nk) ways. Thus we can choose k favourable items and (nk)
non-favourable items from the lot containing F favourable items in FCk(TF)C(nk)
ways. Since n items can be chosen from T items in TCn ways, the probability of having

exactly k favourable items in the n items chosen (i.e., probability of choosing exactly k
favourable items) is found to be
P(Z=k)=[ FCk(TF)C(nk)]/TCn.
The mean and variance of a hypergeometric random variable are
mean=E(Z)=n(F/T)
and
variance=V(Z)=E(Z2)[E(Z)]2=n[F/T][(TF)/T][(Tn)/(T1)].
(II) Poisson distribution: If n is very large and p is very small in the binomial
distribution, then it is called the Poisson distribution. The probability function is
approximated by the formula
P(X=k)=(ke)/k!.
The mean and variance of a Poisson random variable are
mean=E(X)=np=
and
variance=V(X)=E(X2)[E(X)]2=.
(III) Normal distribution: The continuous distribution described by

1
f(x)=

exp

(1/2)

(x )2
2

is called the normal distribution or Gauss distribution. the normal distribution has a
distribution function of the form

x
F(x)=
exp
2

(1/2)

(v )2
2

dv

where is the mean of the distribution and is the standard deviation of the distribution.
The random variable X with the distribution function, F(x) is called the normal
random variable. Here, we define that
(i)
P(X a)=P(X < a)=F(a)
(ii)
P(a < X b)=P(a X b)=P(a < X < b)=P(a X < b)=F(b)F(a) and
(iii)
P( < X < )=1.

Counting techniques:
(I) Permutation: Permutation is ordering.
(i)
A set of n symbols can be arranged in n! ways.
(ii)
A set of n symbols can be arranged in
nPr=n(n1)(n2)...(nr+1)=[n!/(nr)!]
ways, considering r at a time.
(II) Combination: Combination is grouping.
(i)
A set of n elements can be split into
nCr=[ n(n1)(n2)...(nr+1)/r!]=[ n!/(nr)!r!]
(ii)

The binomial expansion:

n

(x+y)n= nCi xiyni

i=0
(iii)

The number of subsets that can be chosen from a set of n elements is

2n.

(III) Permutation of a set of n elements with k different kinds: Let S be a set of

n elements, out of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike,...and n k are alike so that
k

n =n
i

i=1
Then, these n elements can be arranged in [ n!/(n1!n 2!...nk!)] different ways.
Random variables: Distribution functions and probability density functions: Given
the distribution function F(x) of a random variable X, the probability density function f(x)
of X is found to be the slope of the distribution function at x i.e.,
f(x)=(d/dx)F(x).
(I) Moments and moment generating functions:
(i)
The kth moment of a random variable X is defined as the expected
value of X to the kth power i.e.,
mk=E(Xk)=

x p(x) (discrete)
k

mk=E(Xk)=xkf(x)dx (continuous)

(ii)

The moment generating function m(t) for a random variable X is

defined as

e p(x) (discrete)

m(t)=E[etX]=

tx

m(t)=E(etX)=etxf(x)dx (continuous)

The kth moment of a random variable X in terms of m(t) is found to be

mk=lim[ (dk/dtk)m(t)]
t0
(iii)

The factorial moment generating function for a random variable X is

defined as
(t)=E[tX]=

t p(x) (discrete)
x

(t)=E(tX)=txf(x)dx (continuous)

Independent events: If A and B are independent events, then

p(AB)=p(A)p(B)
Conditional probability: The probability of the event A, given that the event B has
occurred, is defined as
p(A/B)=p(AB)/p(B)
If A and B are independent, then
p(A/B)=p(A)

Skewness & Kurtosis:

Measure of skewness=[m32/m22] i.e., =[(square of 3 rd moment)/(square of 2nd moment)]
Measure of kurtosis=[m4/m22] i.e., =[(4th moment)/(square of 2 nd moment)]
(i) Binomial distribution:
Measure of skewness= [(qp)/(npq)]
Measure of kurtosis=3+[(16pq)/npq]
(ii) Poisson distribution:
Measure of skewness= [1/(np)]
Measure of kurtosis=3+[1/np]
(iii) Normal distribution:
Measure of skewness=0
Measure of kurtosis=3

STATISTICS
Coefficient of correlation:
Given that
x
y
the coefficient of correlation is defined as
r(x,y)={covar(x,y)/[var(x)var(y)]}
where
covar(x,y)=mean(xy)mean(x)mean(y) i.e., =[(xy)/n][(x)/n][(y)/n]
var(x)=mean(x2)[mean(x)]2 i.e., =[(x2)/n][(x)/n]2
var(y)=mean(y2)[mean(y)]2 i.e., =[(y2)/n][(y)/n]2
Properties of coefficient of correlation: The coefficient of correlation
(i) lies between 1 and +1.
(ii) is independent of choice of origin and scale of measurement.
(iii) is a measure of linear relationship.
(iv) is positive if both the variables increase or decrease; negative if one variable
increases while the other decreases and vice versa.
Regression coefficient:
Regression coefficient of y on x: The regression coefficient of y on x is defined as
byx=[covar(x,y)/var(x)]
and the regression line of y on x is given by
[ymean(y)]=byx[xmean(x)]
Regression coefficient of x on y: The regression coefficient of x on y is defined as
bxy=[covar(x,y)/var(y)]
and the regression line of x on y is given by
[xmean(x)]=bxy[ymean(y)]
r(x,y)=(byxb xy)

VECTOR CALCULUS
Vector differential operator: The vector differential operator is defined as
=i(/x)+j(/y)+k(/z).
Gradient of a scalar function: The gradient of a scalar function (x,y,z) is defined as
grad==i(/x)+j(/y)+k(/z).
Properties:
i. If (x,y,z)=C represents a level surface S, then at a point P(x,y,z) on S is a
vector normal to the surface S at P.
ii. The magnitude of is the maximum rate of change of and the direction of
is the direction of the maximum rate of change of .
iii. rn=nrn2r
iv. f(r)=[f/(r)/r]r
v. 2rn=n(n+1)rn2
vi. 2f(r)=f//(r)+2[f/(r)/r]
Divergence of a vector function: The divergence of a vector function
F=F1i+F2j+F3k
is defined as
divF=F=(F1/x)+(F2/y)+(F3/z)
Properties:
i. If divF=0, then F is solenoidal.
ii. (A+B)=A+B
iii. (F)=(F)+ F
Curl of a vector function: The curl of a vector function
F=F1i+F2j+F3k
is defined as
curlF=F=

i
j
k
(/x) (/y) (/z)
F1
F2
F3

Properties:
i. If F=0, then F is irrotational.
ii. (A+B)=A+B

iii. (F)=(F)+ F
iv. (AB)=[(B)A(A)B]+[(B)A(A)B]
v. (A)=(A)2A
Miscellaneous properties:
i. (AB)=B(A)A(B)
ii. Directional derivative of a scalar function (x,y,z) in the direction of a vector A
is defined as
[(A)/A]
Vector integration:
(I) Line integral: Given that
F=F1(x,y,z)i+F2(x,y,z)j+F3(x,y,z)k
to compute the line integral

C Fdr
along the curve C joining the points P1 and P2
i. compute the dot product
Fdr=(F1i+F2j+F3k)(dx i+dy j+dz k)=F1dx+F2dy+F3dz=f(x,y,z,dx,dy,dz)
ii. convert the multi-variable function, f obtained in (i) into a function (say, f1) of
one variable and its derivative (i.e., either a function of x & dx alone or of y & dy
alone or of z & dz alone or of some third variable t that relates x, y & z) using the
information given about C and
iii. compute the integral
P1

f1(v)dv
P2
where v may be x or y or z or a third variable t that relates x, y & z.

If the curve C is split into a finite number of curves (say, C1 joining P1 and P12, C2
joining P21 and P22,,Cn joining Pn1 and P2), then the given integral is also split as
follows:

C Fdr= Fdr+ Fdr++ Fdr

C1

C2

Cn

and the steps (i) through (iii) are followed for each integral separately.
Important notes:
i. If F=0, then F is conservative. (A necessary & sufficient condition.)
ii.

If F=0, then the line integral C Fdr is independent of the path C joining any
two points P1 and P2.

iii.

If F=0, then F=, where is any scalar function.

iv.

If F=0, then
x

=F1(x,y1,z1)dx+F 2(x,y,z1)dy+F3(x,y,z)dz
x1
y1
z1
if we arbitrarily choose a straight line segments from (x1,y1,z1) to (x,y1,z1) to
(x,y,z1) to (x,y,z).
v.
vi.

If F=0, then the line integral C Fdr=0 around any closed path.
If F=0, then Fdr=F1dx+F2dy+F3dz is an exact differential. (A necessary &
sufficient condition.)
(II) Surface integral: Given that

F=F1(x,y,z)i+F2(x,y,z)j+F3(x,y,z)k
to compute the surface integral

Fds=Fn dS
S

along the surface S=(x,y,z)

i. compute the unit normal n to the surface S=(x,y,z) as n={/||}
ii. compute the dot product Fn
iii. choose a differential surface dS on S and find its projection onto any one of the
planes, z=0, y=0 or x=0 and
iv. compute the integral

Fn [projdS/|nn1|]
R
where projdS is the projection of dS onto any one of the planes, z=0, y=0 or x=0
and n1 is the unit normal to the plane containing projdS.
Note: If we project dS onto the plane z=0, then dS=[projdS/|nk|] or if we project dS
onto the plane y=0, then dS=[projdS/|nj|] or if we project dS onto the plane x=0, then
dS=[projdS/|ni|].
(III) Volume integral: To compute the volume integral

(VE)dV
V
where VE is any vector expression,
i. compute the vector expression VE and
ii. compute the integral

(VE)dV=(VE)dxdydz
V
V
Divergence theorem of Gauss: The divergence theorem states that

FdS=Fn dS=FdV
S

Greens theorem: The Greens theorem states that

CMdx+Ndy=[(N/x)(M/y)]dxdy
R
Area bounded by a closed curve C: The area, A bounded by a closed curve C on the
z=0 plane is given by
A=(1/2)C [xdyydx]
Stokes theorem: The Stokes theorem states that

CFdr=(F)n dS=(F)dS
S

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Modulation: The process of up-shifting the message frequencies to a range more useful
for transmission is called the modulation.
Need for modulation:
Several programs occupying the same base frequency band and being conducted at
the same time are separated by shifting each program to a different frequency band.
As the antenna size is inversely proportional to the frequency to be radiated and its
gain is directly proportional to square of the frequency to be radiated, shifting the
message frequencies to a higher band is advantageous.
Higher frequency signals will travel a longer distance.
(I) Amplitude modulation: In this process of modulation the amplitude of the carrier is
made proportional to the instantaneous value of the message signal.
Single tone AM:
Mathematics of AM wave: Let the carrier and modulating signals be
ec(t)=Eccosct
em(t)=Emcosmt,
respectively. Then the modulated wave would be
eAM(t)=(Ec+Emcosmt)cosct
eAM(t)=Ec(1+mcosmt)cosct
eAM(t)=Eccosct+(mEc/2)cos(c-m)t +(mEc/2)cos(c+m)t
carrier

LSB

USB

where
m=(Em/Ec)
is the modulation index.
Power calculation: The total power in the AM wave is given by
Pt=Pc+PLSB+PUSB
where
Pc=(Ec,rms2/R)=(Ec/2)2/R=Ec2/2R
PLSB=PUSB=PSB=(ESB,rms2/R)=(mEc/22)2/R=(m2/4)(Ec2/2R)=(m2/4)Pc
Pt=Pc[1+(m2/2)]
The total voltage in the AM wave is given by

Et2=2PtR=2PcR[1+(m2/2)]=Ec2[1+(m2/2)] since Pc=(Ec2/2R)

Et=Ec[1+(m2/2)]
The total current in the AM wave is given by
It2=(2Pt/R)=(2Pc/R)[1+(m2/2)]=Ic2[1+(m2/2)] since Pc=(Ic2R/2)
It=Ic[1+(m2/2)]
Multi-tone AM:
Mathematics of AM wave: The AM wave resulting from modulating a complex
wave
em(t)=E1cos1t+E2cos2t+...+Encosnt
by a carrier signal
ec(t)=Eccosct
is given by
eAM(t)=Ec(1+E1cos1t+E2cos2t+...+Encosnt)cosct
eAM(t)=Eccosct+[(m1Ec/2) cos(c-1)t +(m1Ec/2) cos(c+1)t+[(m2Ec/2) cos(c-2)t
+(m2Ec/2) cos(c+2)t]+...+ [(mnEc/2) cos(c-n)t +(mnEc/2) cos(c+n)t]
eAM(t)=Eccosct+[(m1Ec/2) cos(c-1)t +(m2Ec/2) cos(c-2)t+...+(mnE c/2) cos(c-n)t]
+ [(m1Ec/2) cos(c+1)t+(m2Ec/2) cos(c+2)t]+...+(mnEc/2) cos(c+n)t]
where
m1=(E1/Ec)
m2=(E2/Ec)...
mn=(E n/Ec)
are the individual modulation indices.
Power calculations: The total power in the modulated wave is given by
Pt=Pc+[PLSB1+PLSB2+...+PLSBn]+[PUSB1+ PUSB2+...+ PUSBn]
Since
Pc=(Ec2/2R)
PLSB1=PUSB1=(m12Ec2/8R)=(m12P c/4)
PLSB2=PUSB2=(m22Ec2/8R)=(m22P c/4)...
PLSBn=PUSBn=(mn2Ec2/8R)=(mn2P c/4)
Pt=Pc[1+(m12+m22+...+mn2)]=Pc[1+(meff2/2)]

where
meff=[(m12+m22+...+mn2)]
is the effective modulation index.
Similarly, the total voltage and the total current in the AM wave are given by
Et=Ec[1+(meff2/2)]
The total current in an AM wave is given by
It=Ic[1+(meff2/2)]
Bandwidth of an AM system:
BW=2fm
(II) Angle modulation: An angle-modulated wave is given by
eAN(t)=Eccos[ct+(t)]
where (t) is the instantaneous phase and the quantity
={d[ct+(t)]/dt}
f={(1/2)d[ct+(t)]/dt}=fc+(1/2)[d(t)/dt]
is the instantaneous frequency.
(i) Phase modulation: Phase modulation is a form of angle modulation, in which
the instantaneous phase (t) is made proportional to the modulating signal m(t) i.e.,
(t)=kpm(t)
where kp is a constant. Thus, the phase-modulated wave is given by
ePM(t)=Eccos[ct+kpm(t)]
(ii) Frequency modulation: Frequency modulation is a form of angle modulation,
in which the instantaneous frequency f is varied linearly with the modulating signal m(t)
i.e.,
f=fc+k fm(t)
where kf is a constant. Thus, the frequency-modulated wave is given by

eFM(t)=Eccos[ct+2kf m(t)dt]
0
Relatinship between PM and FM:
(i) An FM wave can be generated from a signal by first integrating it and then
phase-modulating the resultant.
m(t)integratormi(t)phase modulatoreFM(t)
(ii) A PM wave can be generated from a signal by first differentiating it and then
frequency-modulating the resultant.
m(t)differentiatormi(t)frequency modulatorePM(t)
Single-tone FM: Sinusoidal modulation: The FM wave resulting from modulating
a sinusoidal signal
em(t)=Emcosmt
by a carrier signal
ec(t)=Eccosct
is given by
t

eFM(t)=Eccos[ct+mfsinmt] since (t)=2kf m(t)dt

0
where mf is the modulation index and is given by
mf=(max. frequency deviation)/(modulating frequency)=[f/fm]
mf is also the maximum phase deviation.
Narrowband FM (mf<<1): Since cos=1 and sin= for <<1, the analytical
expression for a narrowband FM wave is given by
eNFM(t)EccosctmfEcsinct sinmt
Eccosct+(mfEc/2)cos(c+m)t(mfEc/2)cos(cm)t
The components of eNFM(t) are (i) A carrier component of amplitude Ec and frequency fc.
(ii) A set of sideband components with amplitude (mfEc/2) and frequencies (fcfm).

A narrowband FM wave resembles an AM wave except that the LSB is reversed in phase
and hence the wave is out of phase with the carrier.
To limit the harmonic distortion, mf must be less than or equal to 0.3 rad in MBFM i.e.,
mf<<0.3 rad.
Wideband FM:
eFM(t)=Eccos[ct+mfsinmt]
=Re[Ecexp(jct+jmfsinmt)]
=Re[Ecexp(jmfsinmt)exp(jct)]
=Re[e(t)exp(jct)]
where e(t)=Ecexp(jmfsinmt).
The complex Fourier series expansion of e(t) is given by

e(t)=
cnexp(j2nfmt)
n=
where cn=EcJn(mf).
Jn(mf) is the n th order Bessel function of the first kind.

e(t)=Ec
Jn(mf)exp(j2nfmt)
n=

eFM(t)=EcRe
J n(mf)exp(j2(fc+nfm)t)
n=

eFM(t)=Ec
Jn(mf)cos(2(fc+nfm)t)
n=

The components of eFM(t) are (i) A carrier component of amplitude Jo(mf) and frequency
fc. (ii) A set of sideband components with amplitudes Jn(mf) and frequencies (fcnfm),
where n=1,2,3,....

Multi-tone FM wave:
eFM(t)=Eccos[ct+mf1sin1t+mf2sin2t]

eFM(t)=Ec
Jn(mf1)J m(mf2)cos[2(fc+nf1+mf2)t]
n= m=
The components of eFM(t) are (i) A carrier component of amplitude J0(mf1)J0(mf2) and
frequency fc. (ii) A set of sideband components with amplitudes Jn(mf1)J0(mf2) and
frequencies (fcnf1), where n=1,2,3,.... (iii) A set of sideband components with
amplitudes J0(mf1)J m(mf2) and frequencies (fcmf2). where m=1,2,3,... (iv) A set of
sideband components with amplitudes Jn(mf1)Jm(mf2) and frequencies (fcnf1mf2),
where n, m=1,2,3,....
Frequency Multiplication applied to FM signal: If an FM signal passes through a
multiplier with a multiplication factor n, both the carrier frequency fc and the frequency
deviation f are multiplied by n. Thus, for a fixed modulation frequency fm, the
modulation index mf is also multiplied by the same factor n. That is
(i) New carrier frequency fc/=nfc
(ii) New frequency deviation f/=nf
(iii) New modulation index mf/=nmf
Deviation sensitivity: The deviation sensitivity is defined as
measured deviation in fc
Deviation sensitivity=
peak of the modulating voltage

Deviation ratio: The deviation ratio is defined as

maximum allowable deviation in fc
Deviation ratio=
highest allowable message frequency

Superheterodyne receiver:
The superheterodyne principle is such that when two sinusoidal signals of different
frequencies are mixed together so that they multiply, then the output signal will contain
signal components at the sum, the difference and each of the two original frequencies.
There will also be mixtures of the harmonics of these signals, but if the two original
frequencies are carefully chosen, these harmonics will not interfere.
Main parts of a super heterodyne receiver are: (1) the RF amplifier to provide gain
at the point of lowest noise in the system, (2) mixer and oscillator to downshift the carrier
to an intermediate frequency (for a low-carrier frequency AM receiver the IF is an
industry standard of 455 kHz), (3) the IF amplifier(s) to provide high gain, (4) the
detector, (5) the AGC circuit to automatically control the gain of the receiver by sending
a dc bias voltage, derived from the detector, to a selected number of RF, IF and mixer
stages to modify their gain ( a large negative dc voltage is sent to the selected number of
RF, IF and mixer stages to reduce their gain when the strength of the signal is too high
and a small negative dc voltage is sent to the selected number of RF, IF and mixer stages
to increase their gain when the strength of the signal is too low) and (6) the final power
amplifier(s) to improve the power level of the detected signal to drive the low-impedance
output reproducers such as loud speakers, CRTs etc.
Detectors: Either an envelop detector or a product detector (balanced demodulator)
can be used. The envelope detector uses diodes. The product detector (balanced
demodulator) uses the Class B push-pull differential amplifier.
Intermediate frequency:
IF=fsfo if fs > fo
IF=fofs if fs < fo
Image frequency: The image frequency is defined as
Image frequency=RF+2IF if flo>RF or
Image frequency=RF2IF if flo<RF.

Noise in AM:
(i) SSB-SC:
(1) (So/N o)=(Si/fm)=(Si/Ni) i.e., output signal-to-noise ratio is equal to input
signal-to-noise ratio.
(2) Figure of merit, which is defined as the ratio of the output signal-to-noise
ratio to the input signal-to-noise ratio is unity (1).
(ii) DSB-SC:
(1) (So/N o)=(Si/fm)=(Si/Ni) i.e., output signal-to-noise ratio is equal to input
signal-to-noise ratio.
(2) Figure of merit, which is defined as the ratio of the output signal-to-noise
ratio to the input signal-to-noise ratio is unity (1).
(iii) DSB-FC (any arbitrary modulating signal):
(1) (So/N o)=[mav2/(1+mav2)](Si/fm), where mav is the time average of the
modulating signal.
(2) Figure of merit, which is defined as the ratio of the output signal-to-noise
ratio to the input signal-to-noise ratio is [mav2/(1+mav2)].
(iii) DSB-FC (sinusoidal modulating signal):
(1) (So/N o)=[m2/(2+m2)](Si/fm), where m is the modulation index.
(2) Figure of merit, which is defined as the ratio of the output signal-to-noise
ratio to the input signal-to-noise ratio is [m2/(2+m2)].
Noise in FM:
(1) (So/N o)=(3/2)f2(Si/fm), where f is the maximum frequency deviation.
(2) Figure of merit, which is defined as the ratio of the output signal-to-noise
ratio to the input signal-to-noise ratio is (3/2)f2.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
(I) Linear systems and differential equations:
Linear independence and fundamental sets:
A sufficient condition for a set of n functions f1, f2,..., fn to be linearly independent
is that
f1
(df1/dt)
.
.
.
n-1
(d f1/dtn-1)

f2

. . .

(df2/dt) . . .

fn
(dfn/dt)

(dn-1f2/dtn-1) . . . (dn-1fn/dtn-1) 0

But this is not a necessary condition since there are linearly independent functions for
which the above determinant is zero.
Second order differential equations:
A linear constant coefficient second order differential equation, in the study of
control systems, of the form
(d2y/dt2)+0(dy/dt)+02y=02x
is very important where
=damping coefficient and
0=undamped natural frequency.
(II) Stability:
A system is said to be stable if (i) its impulse response approaches zero (i.e.,
converges) as time approaches infinity or (ii) if every bounded input produces a bounded
output or (iii) if the transfer function of the system has poles only with negative real
parts.
(i) Routh stability criterion:
The Routh stability criterion is a method for determining whether the roots of the
given nth order characteristic equation of the form
a0sn+a1s n-1+...+an=0
have only negative real parts thereby determining the system stability. The criterion is
applied through the Routh table defined as follows:
sn
a0 a2 a4 ...
sn-1 a1 a3 a5 ...
sn-2 b1 b2 b 3 ...
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 ...
.
........................

where a0, a1, a3, a4, a5 ... are the coefficients of the given characteristic equation and
b1=[(a2a1-a0a3)/a1],
b2=[(a4a1-a0a5)/a1], etc.
c1=[(a3b 1-a1b2)/b1],
c2=[(a5b 1-a1b3)/b1], etc.
The table is continued horizontally and vertically until only zeros are obtained. Any row
can be multiplied by a constant before the next row is computed without disturbing the
properties of the table. All the roots of the given characteristic equation have negative
real parts if and only if the elements of the first column of the Routh table have the same
sign. Otherwise, the number of roots with positive real parts is equal to the number of
sign changes in the first column of the Routh table.
General input/output gain formula:
The general input/output gain formula for any signal flow graph is given by
T=(C/R)=

[p ]/ [T is also known as the transfer function of the system]

i i

i
where
pi =ith forward path gain
=1{sum of all loop gains}+{sum of all gain-products of 2 non-touching loops}
{sum of all gain-products of 3 non-touching loops}+...
i= evaluated with all loops touching pi eliminated.
T=(C/R)=G/(1GH)
G=direct/forward transfer function of the system
H=feedback transfer function of the system
GH=open-loop or loop transfer function of the system
C/R=closed-loop transfer function or control ratio
E/R=error ratio=1/(1GH)
B/R=primary feedback ratio=GH/(1GH)
System classification:
If the open-loop transfer function GH of the system has k poles at origin, then the
system is called the type k system.

Error constants of stable type k, Unity feedback system:

(i) Position error constant:
Kp=lim G(s)
s0
(ii) Velocity error constant:
Kv=lim sG(s)
s0
(iii) Acceleration error constant:
Ka=lim s2G(s)
s0
Steady state error of a stable type k, unity-feedback system:
(i) when the input is unit step function is given
e()=[1/(1+Kp)]
(ii) when the input is unit ramp function is given by
e()=[1/Kv]
(iii) when the input is unit parabola is given by
e()=[1/Ka]
Error constants of general system:
(i) Step error constant:
1
Ks=
lim [TD-C/R]
s0
e()=1/Ks
TD=desired transfer function that the system approximates
C/R=actual transfer function of the system.

(ii) Ramp error constant:

1
Kr=
lim (1/s)[T D-C/R]
s0
e()=1/Kr
(iii) Parabolic error constant:
1
Kpa=

lim (1/s2)[TD-C/R]
s0

e()=1/Kpa
Second order control system:
The second order control systems are generally desired by the following linear,
constant coefficient differential equation
[d2y/dt2]+[20dy/dt]+02y=02x
=damping coefficient
=undamped natural frequency.
Root-locus analysis:
Variation of the closed-loop system poles: The open loop transfer function GH can
generally be expressed as
GH=KN(s)/D(s)
where
K=open-loop gain factor
N(s)=numerator polynomial in s.
D(s)=denominator polynomial in s.
Therefore, the closed-loop transfer function C/R can be expressed as
C/R=G/(1GH)=GD(s)/[D(s)KN(s)]

The roots of the equation

D(s)KN(s)=0
(called the characteristic equation) are the poles of the closed-loop system. The locus of
these poles plotted in the s-plane as a function of K is called the root-locus.
Number of root-loci: The number of root-loci is equal to the number of poles of the
open-loop transfer function GH.
Angle and magnitude criterion: Given the open-loop transfer function
GH=KN(s)/D(s)
(i) for a particular point s1 to be on the root-locus of G
arg[GH(s1)]=(2n+1), n=0, 1, 2, ...{for K>0}
(or) arg[N(s1)/D(s1)]=(2n+1), n=0, 1, 2, ...
arg[GH(s1)]=2n, n=0, 1, 2, ...{for K<0}
(or) arg[N(s1)/D(s1)]=2n, n=0, 1, 2, ...
(ii) for a particular point s1 to be a pole of the corresponding closed-loop system
GH(s1)=1
(or) D(s1)/N(s1)=K
(or) N(s1)/D(s1)=1/K
Real axis loci:
(i) The points on the real axis to be left of an odd number of finite poles and zeros
will be on the root locus for K>0.
(ii) The points on the real axis to the left of an even number of finite poles and zeros
will be on the root locus for K<0.
Asymptotes:
(1) Center of asymptotes=

[ P Z ]/(nm)
i

P =sum of poles of GH
i

 Z =sum of zeros of GH
i

i
n=no. of poles
m=no. of zeros.
(2) Angle between the asymptotes, =

(2k+1)/(n-m), K>0
2k/(n-m), K<0.

k=0, 1, ..., n-m-1.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
(I) DC generators:
Types of dc generators:
(i) Separately excited generator: The field coil is energized by an external dc
source.

(ii) Self-excited generator: The field coil is energized by the current induced by
the generator itself. It is further classified into
(iia) Shunt generator: The field coil is in parallel with the armature coil.

Ia=IL+If & Eg=VL+IaRa+BCD

(iib) Series generator: The field coil is in series with the armature coil.

Ia=IL=If & Eg=VL+Ia(Ra+Rf)+BCD

where (1) Ia=armature current, (2) IL=load current, (3) If=field current, (4) Eg=generated
emf, (5) VL=load voltage, (6) Ra=armature resistance, (7) Rf=field resistance, (8) RL=load
resistance and (9) BCD=brush contact drop.
(iic) Compound generator: Both the shunt field coil and series field coil
are present.
(1) The compound generators are further classified into two depending on
the position of the series field coil: (1a) the long shunt generator, in which the series
field coil is in series with the armature coil and (1b) the short shunt generator, in which
the series field coil is in series with the load.

(2) The compound generators are further classified into two depending on
the behaviour of the shunt and series field fluxes: (2a) the cumulative compound
generator, in which the shunt field flux aids the series field flux and (2b) the
differential compound generator, in which the shunt field flux opposes the series field
flux.

Ia=Ifp+IL & Eg=VL+Ia(Ra+Rfs)+BCD

Ia=Ifp+IL & Eg=VL+IaRa+ILRfs+BCD

where (1) Ia=armature current, (2) Ifp=shunt field current, (3) IL=load current, (4)
Ra=armature resistance, (5) Rfs=series field coil resistance, (6) Rfp=shunt field coil
resistance, (7) Eg=generated emf, (8) VL=load voltage and (9) BCD=brush contact drop.
Generator EMF equation:
Let
=flux per pole in webers,
Z=total number of armature conductors,
P=number of poles,
N=armature speed in rpm
A=number of parallel paths and
Eg=emf induced in any parallel path.
By definition, the average emf induced in any conductor=(/T) volts
where is the total flux linking any conductor and T is the time taken by any conductor
for one revolution. Hence
=P webers
Since the number of revolutions per second is (N/60), the time taken for one
revolution is found to be
T=(60/N) seconds
Hence,

Average emf generated per conductor=(NP/60) volts

Since the number of conductors in any parallel path is (Z/A), the average emf
generated in any parallel path is found to be
Eg=(NP/60)(Z/A) volts
Note: (1) For a wave winding, A=2 (i.e., number of parallel paths=2). (2) For a lap
winding, A=P (i.e., number of parallel paths=number of poles).
Total losses in a dc generator:
(i) Constant losses: The shunt field copper loss and the stray losses are termed as
the constant losses.
The stray losses are (1) the magnetic losses and (2) the mechanical losses.
(1) The magnetic losses are (1a) the hysteresis loss and (1b) the eddy current
loss.
(2) The mechanical losses are (2a) the friction loss at bearings and commutator
and (2b) the air-friction loss of rotating armature.
(ii) Variable loss: The armature copper loss is the variable loss.
Condition for maximum efficiency:
Constant losses=Variable loss
Important terms:
(i) Pole pitch: The number of armature conductors per pole is termed as the pole
pitch.
(ii) Coil span or coil pitch: The number of armature slots (or conductors)
between two sides of a coil is termed as the coil span or coil pitch. (1) If coil pitch=pole
pitch, then the winding is said to be full-pitched. (2) If coil pitch < pole pitch, then the
winding is said to be fractionally pitched. (3) For a full-pitched winding, the induced emf
is maximum and the coil span is 180 electrical degrees.
Important characteristics of dc generators:
There are three types of characteristics: (1) Open circuit characteristics (between
open circuit voltage VLO and field current If ), (2) Internal or total characteristics (between
generated emf Eg and armature current Ia) and (3) External characteristics or voltage
regulation curve (between load voltage VL and load current IL).
(i) Shunt generator: Except the open circuit characteristics, the other two
characteristics are dropping in nature i.e., the voltage drops as the current raises. Note:
For voltage buildup, (1) there must be some residual magnetism in the field winding, (2)
the shunt field resistance must be less the critical resistance when excited on open circuit
i.e., on no load and (3) the shunt field coil must be properly connected to the armature
terminals, for the given direction of rotation.
(ii) Series generator: All the three characteristics are raising in nature i.e., the
voltage raises as the current raises. The series generator cannot build up on open circuit.
(iii) Cumulative compound generator: (1) In case of over-compound generator,
the full load voltage is somewhat more than the no load voltage. (2) In case of flat
compound generator, the full load voltage is equal to the no load voltage. (3) In case of
under- compound generator, the full load voltage is somewhat less than the no load
voltage.

Voltage regulation:
The voltage regulation is defined as
% voltage regulation=[(VOL-VFL)/VOL]100
For an ideal generator, the voltage regulation is zero.
Applications of dc generators:
(i) Shunt generator: used (1) for charging batteries, (2) for lighting and (3) in
power supplies in conjunction with voltage regulators.
(ii) Series generator: used (1) as boosters to increase the voltage across the
feeders in the railway service and (2) to supply the field current for regenerative braking
of dc locomotive.
(iii) Compound generators:
(iia) Cumulative: used (1) as drives that require a constant voltage, (2) for
lamp loads and (3) for heavy power services such as railways.
(iib) Differential: used in arc-welding.
(II) DC motors:
Types of dc motors: (same as in the case of dc generators)
Equation for back EMF:
Let
=flux per pole in webers,
Z=total number of armature conductors,
P=number of poles,
N=armature speed in rpm
A=number of parallel paths and
Eb=back emf.
Then
Eb=(NP/60)(Z/A) volts
Equation for armature torque:
Since
power developed=work done per second
EbIa=Ta(2N/60)
Ta=EbIa(60/2N)
Ta=EbIa(30/N)
T a=(PZ/2A)Ia
Note: (1) For a shunt motor, =constant. Hence T aIa. (2) For a series motor, Ia.
Hence TaIa2.
Equation for shaft torque:
Since

power output=work done per second

output power=Ta(2N/60)
Ta=output power (60/2N)
Ta=output power (30/N)
Important characteristics of dc motors:
There are three types of characteristics: (1) (T a/Ia) characteristics, (2) (N/Ia)
characteristics and (3) (N/Ta) characteristics.
(i) Shunt motor: (1) Since TaIa and, for a shunt motor, =constant,
TaIaTa=kIa. (2) Since N(Eb/) and, for a shunt motor, =constant, NEbN=kEb.
Since Eb is also almost constant for any motor, N is almost constant for a shunt motor. (3)
N decreases slightly with increase in Ta.

(ii) Series motor: (1) Since TaIa and, for a series motor, Ia,
TaIa2Ta=kIa2. (2) Since N(Eb/) and, for a series motor, Ia,
N(Eb/Ia)N=k(Eb/Ia). Since Eb is also almost constant for any motor, N=k(1/Ia). (3) N
decreases with increase in Ta.

(iii) Cumulative compound motor: (1) Ta increases more rapidly than the shunt
motor but less rapidly than the series motor with increase in Ia. (2) N drops more rapidly
than the shunt motor but less rapidly than the series motor with increase in Ia. (3) N drops
more rapidly than the shunt motor but less rapidly than the series motor with increase in
Ta.

(iv) Differential compound motor: The characteristic curves are just opposite to
those of the cumulative compound motor.
Applications of dc motors:
(i) Shunt motor: (constant speed). used for lathes, centrifugal pumps,
reciprocating pumps, machine tools, blowers, fans, line-shaft drivers, wood working
machines, grinders and shapers.
(ii) Series motor: (very high starting torque). used for electric traction, tram cars,
railway cars, cranes, hoists, elevators, winches and conveyors.
(iii) Cumulative compound motor: used for shears, punches, rolling mills,
elevators, conveyors, printing presses, heavy planers and heavy machine tools.
Construction details of dc generator/motor:
The main parts of a dc generator/motor are:
(i) Yoke to provide support to other parts
(ii) Pole core and pole shoe to provide support to pole coil, to spread the magnetic flux
in the air gap and to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path because of its large
cross-sectional area.
(iii) Pole coil or field coil or exciting coil to produce the magnetic field when carrying
a current.
(iv) Armature core to provide support to armature winding.
(v) Armature winding: there are two types, namely, (1) lap winding, in which the
finishing end of one coil is connected to the starting end of the next coil and,
which is suitable for high current and low voltage applications and requires
equalizer rings, (2) wave winding, in which the finishing end of one coil is
connected to the starting end of another coil far away from it and, which is suitable
for low current and high voltage applications and does not require equalizer rings.
(vi) Commutator to convert the alternating emf induced in the armature winding into
unidirectional voltage across the external circuit.
(vii) Brushes
(viii) Bearings
(III) AC generator: Synchronous generator: Alternator:
Construction details:
The main parts of the synchronous generator are:
(i) Stator: Types: (1) wide open type, (2) Semi-closed type and (3) closed type.
(ii) Rotor: Types: (1) sailent pole rotor, which has large diameter and small axial
length, and is used for low-speed applications and (2) smooth cylindrical type
rotor, which has small diameter and large axial length, and is used for high-speed
applications.
EMF equation:
Let
=flux per pole in weber
f=frequency of the emf generated
T=number of coils or turns per phase
Z=number of coil sides or conductors per phase (Z=2T since any coil or turn has two
sides.)
P=number of poles and

N=speed of rotor in rpm.

Then,
average emf induced/conductor=[PN/60] volts
But N=[120f/P]
average emf induced/conductor=[P/60][120f/P] volts
average emf induced/conductor=2f volts
average emf induced/phase=2fZ=4fT volts
RMS value of the induced emf /phase=2.22fZ=4.44fT volts
(IV) AC motor: 3- Induction motor:
Principle of operation:
When a 3- supply is given to the stator of a 3- induction motor, a rotating
magnetic field of constant magnitude is created. The speed of this rotating magnetic field
is called the synchronous speed given by
Ns=[120f/P]
where
f=supply frequency in Hz and
P=number of stator poles.
The rotating magnetic field produces an emf in the rotor conductors. The magnitude of
this induced emf depends on the relative speed between the rotating magnetic field and
the rotor.
Construction details:
The main parts of the induction motor are:
(i) Stator and
(ii) Rotor
(i) Stator:
(ii) Rotor: There are two types: (1) squirrel cage rotor and (2) slip ring rotor. The
squirrel cage induction motor has a low starting torque whereas the slip ring induction
motor has a high starting torque.
Slip:
The slip (S) is defined as
S=[(NsN)/Ns]
%S=[(NsN)/Ns]100
where
Ns=synchronous speed (i.e., speed of the rotating magnetic field) and

N=speed of the rotor.

Frequency of rotor current (i.e., frequency of the emf induced in the rotor):
The frequency of the rotor current induced is given by
fr=Sf
where
S=slip and
f=supply frequency in Hz.
(V) Single phase induction motor: There are two types: (i) split-phase induction motor
and (ii) shaded pole induction motor.
(i) Split-phase induction motor:
There are four types: (1) resistance start induction motor, (2) capacitance start
induction motor, (3) capacitance start and run induction motor and (4) two-value
capacitor-run induction motor.
The two-value capacitor-run motor has (i) the highest starting pf, (ii) the highest
efficiency, (iii) the most noiseless operating conditions and (iv) the most improved
overload capacity.
(VI) Transformer:
Some important terms:
(i) Form factor: The form factor is defined as
Form factor=[RMS value/Average value]=1.11
(ii) Peak or Crest or Amplitude factor: The peak factor is defined as
Peak factor=[Peak value/RMS value]=1.414
EMF equation of a transformer:
Let
m=maximum value of the flux in the core in webers
f=input frequency in Hz
T=input time period in seconds (i.e., T=[1/f])
A=area of the core
Bm=maximum value of the flux density in the core in webers/sq.m
E1=self-induced primary voltage in volts
E2=induced secondary voltage in volts
N1=number of turns in the primary winding
N2=number of turns in the secondary
I1=full load primary current in amps and
I2=full load secondary current in amps.

Since the applied voltage is sinusoidal, the flux produced is also sinusoidal. As the
flux attains its maximum value in T/4 seconds, the rate of change of the flux is found to
be
(d/dt)=[m/(T/4)]=[4m/T]=4fm Wb/s
Average emf induced/turn=4fm volts
RMS value of the induced emf=4.44fm volts
Total emf induced in the primary E1=4.44fmN1=4.44fABmN1 volts
Total emf induced in the secondary E2=4.44fmN2=4.44fABmN1 volts
Transformation ratio:
The transformation ratio is defined as
k=(E1/E2)=(I2/I1)=(R1/R2)
Transformer on no-load:
The primary current Iop in a transformer on no-load has two components: (i) the
active or iron loss or wattful component Iw given by
Iw=Iopcos
and (ii) the reactive or magnetizing or wattless component I given by
I=Iopsin
where cos is the no-load pf and
Iop=Iw+jI Iop=(Iw+I)
Losses in a transformer:
The losses in a transformer are (i) the copper loss and (ii) the iron loss.
(i) Copper loss: The copper loss in a transformer is given by
Total copper loss=I12R1+I22R2=I12R01=I22R02
where
R01=R1+k2R2, k2=(I2/I1)2
R02=(R1/k2)+R2, k2=(I2/I1)2
(ii) Iron loss: The iron loss is also termed as the magnetic loss.
Efficiency of a transformer:
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as
Efficiency=[output/input]
Efficiency=[(inputtotal losses)/input]
Efficiency=1[total losses/input]

where
output=rated KVA1000pf(x)
x=fraction of load given (e.g., x=1 for full load, x=0.5 for half load etc.)
Condition for maximum efficiency: Copper loss=iron loss.
Voltage Regulation of a transformer:
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as
Voltage regulation=[(no-load sec. voltagefull load sec. voltage)/ no-load sec. voltage]

Miscellaneous topics:
1. Commutator brushes are made of carbon.
2. Carbon brush causes high voltage drop because of high resistance.
3. Copper brushes are used in the dc machines where low voltage and high current
are involved.
4. In dc machines, the mechanical losses are primarily the function of the speed.
5. In dc machines, the magnetic neutral axis coincides with the geometrical neutral
axis on no load.
6. In dc machines, the dummy coils are used for the mechanical balance.
7. In a dc generator, the ripples in the direct emf generated are reduced by using
commutator with large number of segments.
8. The armature core is usually made of silicon steel.
9. Creating the residual magnetism in the field winding by an external dc source is
termed as flashing the field.

Miscellaneous points:
(i) 3 induction motor:
1. On no load, the slip is generally less than 1%.
2. Slip rings are usually made of phosphor bronze.
3. In case the air gap in an induction motor is increased, the power factor is
increased.
4. If the number of the rotor slots is equal to the number of stator slots, the motor
refuses to start due to the fact that the speeds of all harmonics produced by the
stator slots coincide with the speeds of the corresponding rotor harmonics and
these harmonics tend to exert synchronous torques at their own synchronous
speeds. This condition is known as the cogging (or magnetic locking). This is
overcome in the squirrel cage induction motor by making the number of rotor
slots prime to the number of stator slots.
5. The relation between the full load torque and the maximum torque is given by
(Tf/Tmax)=[2aS/(a2+S2)]
where S=slip and a=ratio of rotor resistance to rotor standstill reactance.
6. The relation between the starting torque and the maximum torque is given by
(Tst/T max)=[2a/(a2+1)]
where S=slip and a=ratio of rotor resistance to rotor standstill reactance.
7. Maximum torque is obtained when
S=(Rr/Xr)
where Rr=rotor resistance and Xr=rotor standstill reactance.
8. The synchronous speed of the nth harmonic is (1/n)th of the synchronous
speed of the fundamental.
9. In an induction motor, the number of rotor poles is always equal to that of
stator poles.
10. The tendency of an induction motor to run stably at a speed (1/7)th of the
normal speed.
11. If the load on an induction motor goes on increasing, then the power factor
goes on increasing up to full load and starts decreasing.