Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Unesco 1973
Printed in France
I' Unesco
Preface
United Kingdom).
This book,
while proving
teaching. In 1956
expanded,
the book
especially
by
was considerably
the incorporation of
large-scale
Profession (WCOTP).
Teachers' organizations
Acknowledgements
expert,
Sourcebook
for
the
Biological
Sciences
A
by
in People's
Republic
of
the Congo,
Contents
Introduction
Chapter One
Resources, facilities and techniques for science
teaching
11
13
Possible resources
Tools
19
Heat sources
23
6
. solutions
Chemical reactions
23
24
26
reactions
28
30
Preparation of reagents
Chapter Two
32
Conduction
Convection
39
79
Radiation
40
81
82
82
82
Thermometers
molecules
Heat as energy
39
Introduction
77
Building up molecules
Expansion
39
reaction
37
Physical sciences
Chemistry
31
31
72
29
Chemical solutions
70
28
Measuring devices
67
61
62
Construction materials
22
Optical devices
58
55
56
20
Soldering
54
Crystal growth
18
18
Glass cutting
50
gases
15
49
14
45
What is rusting?
14
mixtures
84
85
86
88
Quantities of heat
88
89
89
92
Current electricity
111-117
120
Fluids
197
Sun-dials
130
130
200
planets
133
210
136
Surface tension
196
125
Buoyancy
196
125
Liquid pressure
195
Additional activities
124
Action-reaction
191
123
190
Soils
122
Centripetal force
Machines
185
188
Things to do
120
182
184
187
Gravity experiments
Inertia
120
Balances
181
Simple beginnings
107
Mechanics
181
105
Making waves
181
Introduction
105
Wave motion
179
102
Electromagnetism
Sound
Chapter Four
99
Magnetism
138
Atmospheric pressure
2 12
motion
astronomy
145
Biological sciences
147
Introduction
147
Explanation of levels
222
station
149
Studying organisms
218
222
Weather
147
Levels of organization
2 15
227
229
organisms
149
149
Bird behaviour
152
Aquatic organisms
Appendixes
154
158
Studying populations
Studying communities
Ecosystems
166
Studying plants
Studying animals
Studying tissues
Studying cells
167
174
175
176
158
163
156
236
241
I. SI units
156
231
232
153
Chick embryos
Insects
Weather projects
243
3. Periodic table
244
5. Acid-base indicators
246
248 .
249
8. Logarithms
250
Index
255
252
249
Introduction
investigations
and experiments
which can be
of the New
submit to Unesco
'Physical
editions.
Sciences',
'Biological
Sciences'
and
comments,
criticisms
and
Chapter One
Resources, facilities
and techniques
for science teaching
14
15
Laboratory safety
16
Heating substances
in test-tubes
{[
Heat source
Smelling and
testing
17
If you
and try again. The best rule for tasting is 'don't '.
are
peroxides,
and
perchloric
acid.
are perfectly
H owever, when
safe-normally .
their dangers.
2.
3.
and magnesiu m .
Test tubes or any p ieces of equipment which
necessary
breakage.
Glass
storage bottles
6.
8.
18
is
into
since mercury
in trouser
can
be accidentally
turn-ups, pockets
deposited
and crevices
in
clothing.
19
1.2
Glass cutting
ner
as
ordinary
w indow glass.
Safety
glass,
1.3
20
(see figure).
parency.
attack
glass,
and
bottles
Soldering
again.
1.4 Solders
21
Fluxes
Rosin
Tallow, rosin
Borax, sal ammoniac
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Stearine, special flux
1.7
Electrical joints
rosin core solder
B soldering iron
1.7
22
lid
wide mouth jar
c diazo paper
o household ammonia
E ammonia fumes
1.9 Blueprints
23
1.15
1.14 Steelyards
1.14
1.12
Simple balance
1.13
A spring balance
Steelyards
1 .15
1.16
I.JS
24
25
,.,,,,,. - - - -- - -- - (- --- - --
...--
:
I
...'
__.,,.
:
!
----
- --
1.21
---
I
I
I
I
cm
1.21
26
Heat sources
27
1.26
c
- &;
1.23
A candle burner
:;,>
1.24
A charcoal burner
c
8
A
1.25
An alcohol lamp
A bunsen burner
lead base
B brass gas supply tube
c brass jet tu be
o barrel
E air hole to match air
hole in barrel D
F ring of copper wire
1.26
1.27
28
Measuring devices
1.31 A heater
29
Chemical solutions
l.31
1 .35
Heater
1.32
1.33
Air oven
1.34
Test-tube holder
1.35
Laboratory tweezers
Chemical solutions
Most of the chemical reactions that are studied
in introductory science courses are reactions that
occur in solution . Normally it is the material that
is dissolved in the water (or other solvent) that
is of interest. It is the dissolved material that is
Chemical solutions
interested in the material dissolved, it is important
to know how much dissolved material (solute) is
actually present in a particular volume of solu
tion. For example, vinegar is a dilute solution of
acetic acid. It is the acetic acid that gives the vine
gar its sour taste and consequently the concentra
tion is important. Most commercial vinegar is a
5 per cent solution ; i.e. 100 g of vinegar contains
5 g of acetic acid. Percentage by weight is one way
of describing the concentration of a solution.
However, since chemical ch'lnge involves inter
actions among molecules, it is convenient to ex
oress concentration in terms of molecules rather
than weight. In other words, we want concentra
tion defined in such a way that equal volumes of
wo different solutions of the same concentration
" .
contain the same number of molecules. Such
a concentration term is molarity. This is the con
centration term used throughout this book and is
abbreviated to 'M'. The notation that a solution
is 1 M means that one litre of that solution will
contain one mole (6.2 x 1023 molecules) of the
solute.
,
=
=
=
24.3
32. 1
64.0
1 20.4 (molecular
weight).
30
1 atom of Mg :
2 atoms of Cl :
12 atoms of H :
6 atoms of 0 :
1 x 24.3
2 x 35.4
12 x 1 .0
6 X 1 6.0
Total
=
=
24.3
70.8
1 2.0
96.0
203 . 1
(molecular weight)
=
=
31
Chemical solutions
1 .45
General reagents
1.46
Chemical solutions
32
1.53 Alloys
Alloy
Lead
Tin
Bismuth
Cadmium
7
0
1.3
1
0
0
Wood's metal
Solder
Electric fuse alloy
4
1
8.5
1
2.5
Alloy
Copper
Tin
Zinc
80
58
72
5
0
4
15
42
24
Bronze
Brass, malleable
Brass, casting
33
Chemical solutions
1.60
1.60
Chemical solutions
34
Chemical solutions
35
1.65 Iodine, tincture of
1.71
and gelatin)
Chapter Two
Physical sciences
Chemistry
Introduction
2.1
Chemi stry
2.1
40
2.2
An approximate
melting point
With
clean
other
point below
be
pu lled out
of un burned gases?
no
41
Chemistry
2.6
2.6
Chemistry
Pecreasing the
pressure
on boiling water
A to water pump
B granules to stop
b umping
42
43
'Chemistry
2.16
44
Chemistry
2.16
2. 1 6
I 1 q t 1 1 d n a p h t h a k ll L' , n l i d i ti.:s
Time in minutes
G
-
to \ a p<>ri1.c: a
45
Chemistry
2.19
2.20
Sublimation of iodine
Chemistry
2.20
46
47
Chemistry
2.24
chromatogram
Chemistry
2.24
48
49
Chemistry
2.30
to filter pump
loose packing of soda lime
Chemistry
2.30
50
Potassium permanganate
gives off a gas
::;:=:::::
2.33 Hydrogen
B
2.32
2.33
51
Chemistry
D
2.35
. .
A Preparing oxygen
52
Chemistry
2.35
2.36
A holder
for burning substances
2.37 A mmonia
Chemistry
53
2.37A
2.38
2 .378
Preparing ammonia
calcium oxide lumps
(i)
c=====
(ii)
Chemistry
2.39
2.39 Cooking and carbon dioxide
54
2.44
Chemistry
55
rusting
Chemistry
2.44
Colour
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
pH number
1 -3
4-5
6
7
8
9-10
1 1 -14
56
the melt
Acid/Base
very acidic
weak acid
very weak acid
neutral
very weak base
weak base
very basic
Crystal growth
,...
......
I
:
...1...-
---
regular (cube)
tetragonal
c orthorhombic
o hexagonal
E monoclinic
F triclinic
B
57
Chemistry
sulphur crystals
2.49
A
A
B
2.49
Chemistry
58
of charcoal,
brick or unglazed porcelain in a saturated solution
of sodium chloride. Keep the pieces covered by
adding more saturated sodium chloride solution
over a period of two weeks. At this point mix some
prussian-blue dye or ink with the sodium chloride
and add this to the pieces of charcoal. Then leave
to evaporate to dryness. Blossoms of crystals will
form. A variety of colours may be produced by
adding different dye compounds.
A crystal crown. Cut a crown from a piece of
tin taken from a fruit can. Fasten it with a piece
of wire as shown in the diagram. Wrap the crown
with strips of cotton cloth. Dip the whole crown
into a solution of potassium dichromate and then
leave to dry. Seed crystals will form on the cloth.
Prepare a saturated solution of potassium dichro
mate at 80 C and immerse the crown for a day or
so in this saturated solution. Red crystals should
Chemistry
59
2.54
2.54
2.53
A diffusion race
glass tube 1 metre long, 2 cm diameter
B cotton wool soaked in concentrated
ammonia solution
c cotton wool soaked in concentrated
hydrochloric acid
2.55
Chemistry
60
o i l layer
Chemistry
61
+
A
"-
A
B
2.60
Chemistry
2.60
62
of the metal?
(a) Melt the four alloys and the two pure metals
described in experiment 2.61, and pour a few
globules of each metal on to an asbestos mat.
Label each group of globules with the composi
tion of the metal.
(b) Next prepare a piece of iron metal about
Chemistry
63
D
0
Zero seconds
. . . seconds after lead
seconds after lead
etc.
2.64
100
200
0.
20%
40%
60%
80%
Composition of alloy
Chemistry
2.64
sand bricks
64
65
Chemistry
2.69
c
A
B
c
1 00 cm3 beaker
or crucible
wooden support
for electrodes
6 volt d.c. supply
Chemistry
2.69
A
pencil lead
rubber bung
screening wire
soldered joint
copper wire
6 volt d.c. supply
two 7 5 X 10 mm test-tubes
fastened with wire
to wooden support
A
B
- - - - - - -- -
66
Chemistry
67
2.72
Chemical reactions
of copper ions
the
equations
Ag2 Cr04(s)
Pbl2(s)
CuC03(s)
Chemistry
2.73
68
2.73 Observations on
other metals
with water
sodium
kerosene layer
hand lens
water
Evolution of hydrogen
Metal
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
(see note)
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
3M hydrochloric acid
3M sulphuric acid
Very rapid
Slight
Moderate
Rapid
None
Slight
Very slight
None
None
None
Very slight
None
None
None
Note.
Observations
69
Chemistry
2.76
2.758
2.75A
Bleaching flowers
Chemistry
2.77
bases
70
Chemistry
71
colder
2.83
reaction
Chemistry
2.83
72
2.83
solution
- 5 X temperature increase,
kcal g-equation-1.
the
displacement
of copper by zinc
B
A
zinc
copper
c electron flow
v voltmeter
s
Chemistry
73
C
2.86
c
B
Introducing a
porous pot
A zinc rod
B copper foil
c porous pot
v voltmeter
A
s
c
v
specimen metal
clean copper foil
filter paper soaked in aqueous copper
sulphate solution
voltmeter
2.86
Chemistry
74
A
blotting paper
lead
terminals
Chemistry
75
carbon
zinc
NH4+ (aq)
v voltmeter
2.89
chromate ions
76
Chemistry
2.89
2.89
D
E
F
77
2 .92
Chemistry
of reaction
2.92
Chemistry
78
In this experiment the concentration of sodium before and record the initial time and the temper
thiosulphate is made variable, whilst the concen ature of the solution. Record the final time when
tration of acid is kept constant. Sodium thiosul the black cross below the beaker is no longer
phate may be bought as 'hypo' which is used in visible.
Repeat the experiment, each time warming the
photography. Make up 500 cm3 of aqueous solu
tion containing 20 g sodium thiosulphate. 2 M thiosulphate solution to just over 300 C, 40 C,
hydrochloric acid is also needed. Bench dilute acid 50 C and 60 C. The actual temperature of the
is usually of this strength. Using a measuring . . reaction must be taken after adding the 5 cm3 of
cylinder, put 50 cm3 of thiosulphate solution into acid at the start of each experiment. The reaction
a 100 cm3 beaker. Place the beaker on a black goes faster at the higher temperatures. Pupils
cross marked on a sheet of paper. Add 5 cm3 of might plot a graph of temperature of reaction
the acid and note the time given by the seconq against time for the black cross to become invis
ible. As before, they might also plot a graph of
hand of a clock. Stir the acid into the solution.
Note the time when the cross is no longer visible temperature against I /time.
through the sulphur in the solution.
Repeat the experiment with a smaller concen 2.94 The effect of catalysts on the rate of reaction
tration of thiosulphate. Take 40 cm3 of thiosul The variable in this reaction is the substance used
phate solution and add 10 cm3 of distilled water. as a catalyst in the decomposition of an aqueous
Stir and then add 5 cm3 of acid as before. The time solution of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen pero
for the cross to become invisible should be greater xide can usually be purchased in a chemist shop
than for the last experiment. Repeat the experi or drugstore as hair bleach.
ment using 30 cm3, 20 cm3 and 10 cm3 of thio
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
sulphate mixed with 20 cm3, 30 cm3 and 40 cm3 with the burette filled with water as in a standard
of distilled water.
water displacement experiment. 2 cm3 of 20Pupils might plot concentration of the thio volume hydrogen peroxide will give enough oxy
sulphate solution against time taken for the gen almost to fill the burette. Weigh out I g each
reaction. Concentration values may be taken as
the volume of the original thiosulphate solution
used. Since I /time (or the reciprocal of time) is the
measure of the rate of the reaction, pupils might
also plot thiosulphate concentrations against
I /time.
The equation for the reaction can be written as :
Na2Sz0 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) --+
3
--+ H 20(1) + S0 2(g) + S(s)
(aq = aqueous solution ; 1 = liquid ; g = gas ;
s = solid).
2.93 Investigating the effect of temperature on the
rate of a reaction
79
Chemistry
2.96
A
B
Chemistry
2.96
80
A
A
B
2.97
From la rge
2.98C
A
B
foods
Chemistry
81
2.99
2.102
Building up molecules
2.103
82
intake
Expansion
2.105 The ring and plug experiment
A
B
copper tubing
clamp
knitting needle or bicycle spoke
balsa wood pointer
83
2.110
2.110
2.110
84
A
A
B
alcohol
water at 60o C
85
2.120
Conduction
2.117 How heat losses can be red Jced
2.120
86
Convection
2.124 Convection in a test-tube
water
87
2.129
maximum density
2.129
88
Quantities of heat
2.135 Heat and temperature: the idea of a calorie
89
2.141
gether
2.141
90
91
2.146
2.146A
'
+
2.146
2.146C
92
Current electricity
93
2.151
''. : " : : ;
',::.1.::)/t
. "
' . ....::::::,:.
A
B
zinc casing
absorbent paper
carbon rod
electrolyte mixed with
absorbent
material
2.152
94
2.154
95
2.158
J
B. Place a 4.5 volt lamp in the circuit, first
with one cell, then two cells in series and finally
three cells in series. Notice how the bright
ness of the lamp changes. When cells are connec
ted in this way, the total voltage is the sum of
the individual voltages of the cells. Therefore,
if you are using 1 .5 volt cells, two cells give
3 volts, and three cells give 4.5 volts.
D
E
F
lamp holder
curtain wire connectors
cells
clips
spring metal clips
brass curtain rod hooks
wooden base
mtoom!lmnm1:s11rnll!l111m111@
2.158
A. Lamps in series
Connect up one cell and one bulb as shown in
the top left-hand corner of the figure below. Note
the brilliancy of the lamp. Now connect up the
96
97
2.159
c:J CJ
c:IJ
B. Lamps in parallel
Investigate the changes in brilliancy of the
lamps when they are connected as shown below.
When lamps are thus connected in parallel,
each one receives the full voltage of the supply.
In (d) and (e), 'chains' of bulbs (in series) are
connected in parallel across the battery. Such
an arrangement is called a series-parallel circuit.
How would you describe the circuit shown in ( f ) ?
b
2.160
2.160 How a fuse works
98
crocodile clip
A
B
crocodile clips
switch
99
2.164
Magnetism
2.164 Simple compass needles
2.164
100
101
2.173
neutral point
soft iron
c induced S pole
D induced N pole
E screened region
B
2.173
1 02
103
in a wire
2.180
a coil
2.180
104
105
Wave motion
2.182
2.181
A
B
A
field magnets
armature-40 turns
for each pole
commutator
brushes
Wave motion
Making waves
2.182 Observing waves travelling in a rope
2.182
Wave motion
1 06
'
/---::---- ----------,/
( \7 )
/_Lt-;,
/ ',_) 1'
t::::-ii
107
Wave motion
2.190
Sound
Wave motion
2.190
108
A-
2.190(a)
2.190(b)
Sea wave
patterns
A ocean wave
B boat wave
c ripples
o combination
Sound wave
patterns
A pure note
B different
frequencies
combine
Bc-
D-
A-
B-
sound waves
F ----
2.191
109
Wave motion
2.197
the cans. Pull the string taut and talk and listen
to your pupil. Sound waves travel along the
string to the bottom part of the can which acts
as a diaphragm. Vibrations of the diaphragm
transmit the sound waves through the air to
your ear. Describe what happens when you
speak into this telephone.
2.194 Sound waves travel through wood
Wave motion
2.197
110
D
E
F
((1)"
:
1 -
D
E
vocal chords
epiglottis
ordinary breathing
speaking
larynx
Wave motion
111
2.202
Producing light
Light
Reflection
2.201 Reflecting beams of light
2.199
2.202
Wave motion
2.202
112
A smoke box
A
B
white card
about one metre
glass top and front
black cloth
PAPYRUS
113
Wave motion
2.207
ray box
2.205
A ray box
A
B
lens
lamp
slot for screens
screens
2.206
Reflection
with a ray box
2.207
Reflection from a
concave mirror
2.208
Wave motion
1 14
2 .208
Reflection from a
convex surface
Refraction
2.212 Refraction shown with the smoke box
2.209 Studying the spectrum with a ray box
115
Wave motion
2.216
the stopper and let the water pour into the sink.
The light will appear to pour out with the water.
What happens is that some rays of light reflect
back and forth in the stream of water all the way
to t he s i n k . Other rays arc refracted to your eyes.
2.215
Refraction
A cardboard
a aperture, above surface
c aperture, below surface
o milky water
Wave motion
2.217
1 16
A
B
hand lens
white card
window
Wave motion
1 17
2.223
Colour
2.220 The colour of sunlight
____ ______
/"
__ _
material
A
B
c
n
E
heat lamp
visible light
opaque solution of iodine in carbon
tetrachloride
invisible infra-red rays
black paper igniting
Wave motion
2.224
2.224 Using ultra-violet light
1 18
.,,,o
A
B
argon l a mps
peep hole
1 19
Wave motion
2.231
Mechanics
2.232
1 20
Mechanics
Balances
2.232 Balance with a see-saw
2.234
2.235
Accelerating
marbles
121
Mechanics
2.238
2.238
Mechanics
1 22
1 23
Mechanics
2.244
2.244
Mechanics
1 24
bodies
125
Mechanics
2.252
tops. Put the tops together with the dial faces up.
Ask a pupil to push on one while you push on the
other. Observe that when you push together each
balance reads the same, although the teacher may
push harder than the pupil. (See also experiments
4.102, 4.103.)
2.250 Action and reaction in pulling forces
2.258
Mechanics
1 26
Mechanics
1 27
2.255 A single fixed pulley
2.257
L J
2.256 A single movable pulley
. .o
2.257
Mechanics
1 28
o f'-_
-- 08
_
i
1 29
Mechanics
2.265
2.266
Mechanics
130
Fluids
Liquid pressure
2.267 The difference between weight and pressure
B
a
131
Fluids
2.274
2.274
Fluids
1 32
1 33
Fluids
2.280
2.281
1 34
Fluids
H
the water displaced when the stone is put in the
water (see figure). Immerse the stone in the water
and record its weight. Does it weigh the same as in
the air? Find the weight of the displaced water by
subtracting the weight of the bucket from the
weight of the bucket and water. How does the
apparent loss of weight of the stone compare with
the weight of the displaced water? Try this ex
periment with other sinking bodies.
of wood
A cork
B maple
c mahogany
D ebony
2.285 An experiment with a floating egg
Fluids
135
2.286 Drinking straw hydrometer
A cork
B paraffin wax
c ebony
o iron or steel
E kerosene
F water
G carbon tetrachlor ide
H mercury
2.289
2.290
Fluids
Surface tension
2.290 The effect of soap on surface tension
1 36
1 37
Fluids
2.300
2.297
Dr i v i n g a boat by surface t e n s i o n
2.299
2.300
Experiments with
soap
films
2.301
Fluids
Atmospheric pressure
2.301 Pressure experiments with syringes
1 38
A. A i r
in a bottle
B. A i r in a glass
Fluids
1 39
2.305
A i r s u p p o r t s water
in a g l ass t u be
C.
water
A i r pressun:
con t ro l s t he
flow of water
Simple
Magdeburg
hemispheres
Fluids
2.306
a potato
140
o n
A
A
before heating
B after heating
c end of tube in hottest part of the flame
D mercury
141
Fluids
2.310
bicycle pump
with a
2.309
2.310
Fluids
2.310
142
l
A
0
B
c
A
B
D
E
1 43
Fluids
2.315
2.318
2.316
2.314
of air
Fluids
2.318
144
card
B spool
c pin
i
A
Chapter Three
Biological sciences
Introduction
In any region of the earth, teachers and students
are surrounded by an inexhaustible supply of liv
ing things worthy of scientific study. Unfortun
ately, few teachers exploit the opportunities
provided in their local situation. There are many
reasons for this failure to use the environment
as a source of materials for science classes. Per
haps this occurs because most teachers have not
discovered an organizational scheme that enables
them to relate daily observations of living things
Levels of organization
The major generalization employed here is des
cribed by biologists as the 'levels of organization'
approach to the study of living things. Inherent in
this way of thinking is the notion that life can best
be understood by organizing living things, groups
of living things, and parts of living things into a
natural order or hierarchy. In using this scheme
in science teaching emphasis is placed upon the
centre of the hierarchy, since this is the position
of whole living things (organisms) which consti
tute most of the experiences that people have with
life.
Explanation of levels
3.1
Introduction
148
Conceptual scheme
Higher levels
Biosphere
Biomes
Communities
Populations
Groups of organisms
Organisms
Lower levels
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Parts of organisms
Organelles
Macromolecules
Molecules
Particles
149
Studying organisms
Studying organisms
Why children should study living organisms
3.4
Studying organisms
Beak types
Feet types
1 50
151
Studying organisms
3.8
Studying orgamsms
3.8
152
Aquatic organisms
153
Studying organisms
3.11
A simple incubator
3.12
Studying organisms
154
155
Studying organisms
3.15
Making a collection :
left, a stretching board ; right, mounting guide
3.15
Studying organisms
156
..
157
Studying organisms
3.19
3.20
Studying organisms
Flatworms
158
fl
17
Studying populations
159
3.25
Studying organisms
A
D
c
Fruitfly cultures
A paper funnel
B cotton
c eggs
o larvae
E pupae and young adults
Studying organisms
3.25
.
: {}.. @'Pg
. . . o
.
1 60
. .
. o .
. .
: i :
:o.
..
, .
.
t)
J')
G
S
'Z3/
C":\
:1i
. 0 .
3.268
G:0
. .
. .
. .
..
..
: ...
ii
;;;
0
].
.... . .
3.26A
e-.----,---r--.-.-.--
Days
12
1 61
Studying organisms
3.31
-.
--;----.---.---.---.
--;----,--;-----;
/L
;<-t----r---t----J
l--c
100 r-----+--+--+---+--r-----+
!L
--+---t--+-__,
600 1----+--+---+---+--t--___,,__
,
500
-;------;---r1-
300
200
100
1----t---r---+---,-,-,----,---;---i----i----;
r---+--+--f-7.L
'--jv--t-----j--j---+---t--1
v
12
Days
:::: ==============:==1:1:
2400 1-------1----+----+-r--
2000 1-----+----t---
1 600 1-------1----+-L
--f'r--
>-----+-- r-::.;:7'
----y
-+-
--..+
, 2001----f-----t-F---+--
:: 800
400
:
!
1------l'--- __J
1 700
1 600
Year A. D .
1 800
1 900
2000
V"'"
8oo r----+---+----+----r--r----r--r-
A
--r---r---,
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
'
curve a, in a -litre bottle
curve b, in a -litre bottle
3.31
Studying organisms
162
1 63
Studying organisms
Studying communities
A grouping of populations in a particular location
is called a community. Typically, communities
consist of plants and animal populations that
perform certain roles. Some populations are the
producers. They are so called because they have
the capability of trapping energy from sunlight
and producing food. Populations that feed on
other living populations are called consumers.
Those populations that feed on dead material are
called reducers, since they disorganize organic
matter to yield simpler chemical substances.
3.35
1 64
Studying organisms
3.35
3.35
3.36
A rotting log
community
1 65
Studying organisms
3.39
A desert
community
3.38
A meadow
community
A forest floor
community
3.40
Studying organisms
Ecosystems
1 66
Studying organisms
1 67
Studying plants
3.41 Photosynthesis
3.42
3.41
Oxygen production
during
photosynthesis
3.42
Studying respiration
A to drain or sink
B tap water
c limewater
o open to air
Studying organisms
3.42
A potometer
A air bubble
B scale
1 68
169
Studying organisms
3.47
3.46
Plants in the
classroom
3.47
Osmosis
3.48
Studying organisms
1 70
3.49
3.50
171
Studying organisms
3.52
Comparative structures of a
dicotyledon (bean) and a
monocotyledon (corn). Note also that in
seeds such as beans the embryo absorbs
all the endosperm, but in a species such as
corn the embryo does not absorb much
of the endosperm 1.mtil the seed
germinates.
A seed coats
B embryonic shoots
c endosperm
n cotyledon
E embryonic root
F epicotyl
o hypocotyl
Germination and early development of a
bean plant
A leaf
B stem
c cotyledon
D primary root
E seed root
Studying organisms
3.53
3.53 The parts of a flower
1 72
ovary
3.56 Monocots
1 73
Studying organisms
cover one pot with a box that has a hole cut near
the top. From time to time lift the box and ob
serve the direction of growth. Tum the box so
that light comes from a different direction and
observe again after a few days.
B. Put two light baffles in a long, narrow box as
shown in the diagram, and cut a hole in the end.
Plant a sprouting potato in a small pot that will
3.60
3.60
Studying organisms
174
B
c
D
E
A
B
c
D
B
c
Stem cross-sections
A pith
B xylem
c cambrium
o phloem
E epidermis
Studying animals
3.61 Activities occurring in animal organs
The absorption of carbon dioxide by a potassium
hydroxide solution provides a means for measur
ing the oxygen intake of a small animal. Place
a cockroach, a locust, or several mealworms in
a closed container in which paper soaked in
0.5 per cent potassium hydroxide solution is
suspended. The two-hole stopper should contain a
0.2-ml pipette or a glass tube of fine bore (see
Studying organisms
1 75
3.65
Studying tissues
Studying organisms
3.65
176
Elodea
nucleus
B cell membrane
c cytoplasm
A
Cheek cells
A nucleus
B cytoplasm
c cell membrane
1 77
Studying organisms
Cell division
3.69
3.69
Studying organisms
1 78
A
G
B
c
3.71
A typical cell
mitochondria
B chromosomes
c nucleolus
D nuclear membrane
E centrioles
F cell membrane
G Golgi bodies
H ribosomes
A
Chapter Four
Introduction
Earth science topics have always been of interest
to children. This interest ranges from amazement
at the beauty in a so-called 'pretty' rock to
'Whatever happened to dinosaurs?' Recent
events in space science have made this topic
of equal interest. It is not necessary that the
instructor be either a geologist or a space astro
naut to teach these topics to elementary school
children.
Fi;e ;
Porcelain streak plate or tile ;
Small weighing scale ;
Magnet ;
Alcohol lamp ;
Boxes for separating rocks into groups ;
7.5 X 1 2.5 cm cards for recording data ;
Graph paper (millimetre squares) ;
Small glass jars ;
Glass plate ;
Tweezers.
B Rock and mineral observations
Get each pupil to bring in a rock or several
rocks that for one reason or another may have
some appeal to him. What kinds of questions
can the pupils ask about this rock ? For example,
How old is it? How did it get where it was
found? Is it valuable ? How many uses can
you think of for this rock?
4.1
1 82
Percentai es
Element
46.60
27.72
8.13
5 .00
3 . 63
2.83
2.59
2.09
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminium
Iron
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
by weight
symbol
0
Si
Al
Fe
Ca
Na
K
Mg
Transparency
Crystal form
Other special items
such as taste, odour
magnetism and
structure
1 83
4.10
4.6 Hardness
4.7 Streak
4.1 1
4.11 Transparency
1 84
185
4.21
Texture
of igneous
rocks
4.21
1 86
Texture of
sedimentary rocks
Texture of
metamorphic rocks
1 87
.
The lining-up of flat mineral grains in a single
plane, giving the rock a tendency to split in this
direction, is called foliation, and the rock is said
to be foliated. Like igneous rocks, metamorphic
rocks are hard and tough, and have interlocking
or intergrown mineral grains ; they differ in that
they exhibit foliation. Although foliation is the
outstanding characteristic of metamorphic rocks,
a few of them, such as marble and quartzite, are
not foliated. Three chief varieties of foliation are :
1 . Gneissic or banded: an imperfect or rough
foliation in which the layering is expressed
as distinct bands of different minerals. The
thicker bands are commonly composed of
feldspar.
2. Schistosic or well-foliated: the foliation is
caused by the parallel arrangement of platy
minerals, such as micas.
3 . Slaty cleavage: the tendency of a rock to split
into thin, even slabs such as slate. The min
erals are so small that t,hey cannot be seen by
the unaided eye, yet the cleavage is the result
of the parallel planar arrangement of many
microscopic mineral grains.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major
groups, based on the presence or absence of folia
tion. The type of foliation is the basis for classi
fying those which exhibit foliated structure ; for
the non-foliated group, the predominant mineral
serves as the basis for classification.
Gneiss
Schist
Slate
4.24
Marble
Quartzite
Serpentine or talc
Graphite and anthracite coal
4.24
1 88
1 89
4.34
4.33 Piezoelectricity
4.34
1 90
action
191
A soil auger
4.49
4.49
1 92
1 . Fill one tray with loose soil and the other with
firmly packed soil. Tilt both trays slightly and
using a sprinkling can pour the same amount
of water on each. Observe which soil is carried
away faster and the nature of the run-off water.
2. Fill both trays with soil, but cover one with
sod. Water equally as before and observe both
the erosion and the run-off water.
3. Fill both trays with soil but give one more
slope than the other. Water and observe as
before.
4.51 Raindrops may affect soils differently
193
4.56
by ground water
4.56
4.56
194
4.57
4.58 Oxidation
water
1 95
4.64
Additional activities
where
the
Add
sufficient
B.
Let
the
chi ldren
plant
grass
seed
in
Run water
Mature
soils
usually
zons designated A,
colour,
texture,
B,
and
exhibit
and
vary
thickness.
The A horizon is called the topsoil. Soluble
materials are removed . Generally, topsoil is
rich in organic matter and in soil organ isms.
in
of the soi l .
The
is
the
unconsolidated,
weathered
parent
material.
Make models of soil horizons from various
places and compare the depths of the A and B
horizons. This is best accomplished by observ
ing the horizons in fresh road cuts or in gulleys.
Using a spade, make a clean vertical cut to
metre
mounds,
activities.
of so i l .
anthills,
or
Note
other
any
earthworm
signs
of animal
soi l ?
4.64
1 96
(@
1 97
A
B
4.66A
4.68
4.668
Ray diagram
Demonstration of the
sun-dial (fi gure drawn for
the southern hemisphere)
IX
x
XI
)I.ii
s-----
<
v11
1 98
4.68
simple sun-dial
11
I
/J
11!
I
A
tan fiBC
tan ffiBC
tan IvBC
tan VBC
tan \7iBC
tan 90 sin Iat.
Since the markings are symmetrical about the
central line XY no other angles need be calcu
lated. N.B. If the base of the dial is erected verti
cally then the angle between the gnomon and the
base must equal (90 minus latitude of the place).
=
A home sun-dial
( figure drawn for the
northern hemisphere)
1 99
4.70A
E sub-solar point
A universal sun-dial
F where you are
A Arctic circle
G sunrise line
B Tropic of Cancer
c sun on your meridian H sunset line
o your zenith
J midnight sun
4.70
earth. But it will take a year for the sun to tell you
all it can before it begins to repeat its story.
When you look at the globe sitting in this pro
per orientation-'rectified' and immobile-you
will of course see half of 1t lighted by the sun and
half of it in shadow. These are the very halves of
the earth in light or darkness at that moment.
An hour later, the circle separating light from
shadow has turned westward, its intersection with
the equator having moved I 5 to the west. On the
side of the circle west of you, the sun is rising; on
the side east of you, the sun is setting. You can
'count up the hours' along the equator between
your home meridian and the sunset line and esti
mate closely how many hours of sunlight still
remain for you that day ; or you can look at a
country to the west of you and see how soon the
sun will rise there. As you watch the globe day
after day, you will become aware of the slow
turning of the circle northward or southward,
depending upon the time of year (see also
experiment 4.98).
B. It is not easy to appreciate the fact that the
sun's rays are parallel as they fall on the earth.
A simple experiment is suggested. On a bright
morning, take a piece of pipe or a cardboard tube
and point it at the sun so that it casts a small, ring
shaped shadow. Warning: Do not look at the sun
through the tube as direct sun rays can destroy
the retina of your eye. Now if at the very same
moment someone 1 20 east of you-one-third of
the way round the world-were to perform the
same experiment, he would point his tube west
ward at the afternoon sun. Yet his tube and
yours would necessarily be parallel to within a
very small fraction of a degree. If you point the
tube at the sun in the afternoon, and someone far
to the west simultaneously does the same (but for
him it will be in the morning), his tube will again
be automatically parallel to yours. This experi
ment will help explain how it is that, when our
globes are properly set up, people all over the
world who are in sunlight will see them illumi
nated in just the same way.
4.70
200
Northern hemisphere
BIG DIPPER
'
I
I
\
I
LITTLE DIPPER
SOUTHERN CROSS
(CRUX)
Date . . . . . . .
Time ...... .
Date ......... .
'
'
'
' .
'
CENTAURUS
Time......... .
201
the equator
4.72
PEGASUS
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
SS I O P E I A
\ Pointer
\
\
' I
' I \
I1 I
L I TT L E D I PPE
Pole Star
\ Pointer
Bl
\
\
r0
I
I
N
4.72 A
Locating constellations
from north of the
equator, October sky.
Map to be held
above your head,
face down
4.728
4.72
202
'
.._..
the equator
&ter
CRUX
C E N TA U R US
4.73
203
4.74 Locating
the
4.75
4.75
CASS I OP E I A
'J
204
Vega
BIG DIPPER
4.76B
Umbrella constellarium
The northern hemisphere
205
Fomalhaut
Alpha Centauri
Beta Centauri
0 0
4.77
SOUTH E R N
C R OSS
Achernar
Canopus
Sirius
.
4.76B
Umbrella constellarium
The southern hemisphere
the stars will rise in the east and set in the west.
In the diagram above you can see some of the
more prominent stars and constellations marked
on the umbrella.
4.77 The seasonal shift of the sky
4.78
206
207
4.78
4.78
208
way are sun times and they may differ from your
local standard time.
B. The star clock. Separate sets of diagrams are
given below for the northern and southern hemi-
l
.
..
Vega
January
.
..
February
Vega
March
Vega
Vega
April
May
June
August
September
Vega
.,..__
. .
July
u
....
u
..c::
Cl.
..1o1 e
"'
u u
..2 ..c::
i::
....
u
..c::
"' ....
u ....
..c:: 0
u
....
"'
...
Vf!ga
1-< Z
October
November
December
209
Canopus
4.78
Canopus
Canopus
Achernar
.
Achernar
'f. .
. .
......
Achrnar
January
February
March
May
June
August
September
November
December
Canopus
Achernar
April
Achernar
"'
..
"'
..c:
0.
"'
July
'
"'
..c:
c:
..
"'
..c:
Canopus
Achernar
0
tll
Canopus
October
\
:i.
4.79
210
21 1
,,
-- - - - - --
4.86
'
'
'-........... __
Lunar eclipse
moon 's orbit
B earth
c moon
A
4.86
212
using binoculars
b using a telescope
4.86
213
4.90
4.90
214
215
teaching constellations
4.95
8
A
4.95
216
4.97
217
4.99
----
- - - - - - - - -- - - - -
-. - - - - - - - - - -
,
,
'
\
I
I
--------- -- -
4.98
--
_,///
8 - - -
-- - -
0 -- -- - -
-- - - - -
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic circle
Antarctic circle
4.100
analysis
218
Discovering action-reaction
219
4.104
C.
4.104
Thrust
500,000 kg
500,000 kg
500,000 kg
500,500 kg wt
750,000 kg wt
1 ,000,000 kg wt
220
221
4.106
71
4.107
Weather
222
Weather
Making weather instruments and a weather station
223
Weather
4.110
Weather
4.110
224
4.1 10
Weather
225
,,.. .
'
4.112
Weather
4.112
226
4.1 12
A hair hygrometer
ments
227
Weather
4.117
4.117
Weather
228
Weather
229
Convection currents
A upward movement
of heated air
B down current of cool air
c wire
4.122
4.122
Weather
230
tion
ration
Weather
23 1
How moisture comes out of the air
4.131 Moisture condenses on cool surfaces
4.135
Weather
4.135
232
4. 1 35
bottle
Time
Temperature
Sky
Rain
8 Sunshine
O c1ear
et Partly cloudy
. Rain
@ snow
**
Weather projects
Wind
Weather
233
4.139
Weather
4.139
_-
o"' /'."
//
//
/ //
/
/
//
,,./ //
234
Weather
235
'
'
'
I
'
-'
' , '
"
'
4.142
4.143
Weather
236
237
Weather
4.143
C I RROCUMU LUS
C I RR U S
""
""::: -;t:t
. ..:-: .
N I M BOSTRATUS
STRATOCUM U L US
4.144
cold fronts
Cl RROSTRATUS
ALTOSTRATUS
Approximate altitude
Level
STRATUS
Polar
climate
Temperate
climate
Tropical
climate
km
km
km
Middle
2-4
2-7
2-8
Lower
Ground
level
to 2 km
Ground
level
to 2 km
Ground
level
to 2 km
Upper
3-8
5-13
6- 1 8
CUM U LO N I M B US
4.144
Weather
240
Appendix 1
SI units
Basic units :
Supplementary
units :
Derived units :
Physical quantity
Name of unit
Symbol
Amount of substance
Electric current
Length
Luminous intensity
Mass
Thermodynamic
temperature
Time
mole
ampere
metre
candela
kilogramme
mol
A
m
cd
kg
kelvin
second
Plane angle
Solid angle
radian
steradian
rad
sr
Customary temperature
Electric capacitance
Electric charge
Electric potential difference
Electric resistance
Energy
Force
Frequency
Illumination
Inductance
Luminous flux
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density
Power
Pressure
degree Celsius
farad
coulomb
volt
ohm
joule
newton
hertz
lux
henry
lumen
weber
tesla
watt
pascal
oc
Definition of unit
c
v
n
J
N
Hz
Ix
H
Im
Wb
T
w
Pa
tC
TK
273. 1 5
A2 s4 kg-1 m-2
A s y-1
As
kg m2 s-3 A-1
J A-1 s-1
kg m2 s-3 A -2
V A- 1
kg m2 s-2
kg m s-2
J m-1
cycles per second
s-1
cd sr m-2
V s A- 1
kg m2 s-2 A-2
cd sr
V s
kg m2 s- 2 A -1
V s m-2
kg s-2 A-1
kg m2 s-3
J s-1
kg m-1 s-2
N m-2
=
Appendix 1
Physical quantity
U nits used in
conjunction with
SI units :
Area
Dynamic viscosity
Energy
Kinetic viscosity (diffusion)
Length
Magnetic flux density
Mass
Pressure
Radioactivity
V olume
Name of unit
barn
hectare
poise
electronvolt
stokes
parsec
gauss
tonne
bar
curie
litre
242
Symbol
b
ha
p
ev
St
pc
G
bar
Ci
I
Definition of unit
1 0-2 s m2
1 04 m2
1 0- 1 kg m-1 s -1
1 .6021 x 1 0- 1 9 J
10-4 m2 s - 1
3 .087 x 1 01 6 m
1 0-4 T
103 kg = Mg
1 05 N m- 2
3 . 7 x 1 0 10 s-1
1 0-a m3 = dm8
Prefix
Symbol
Multiple
Prefix
Symbol
1 0-1
1 0-2
1 0-3
1 0-
1 0-9
1 0-12
1 0- 1 5
deci
centi
mi Iii
micro
nano
pico
atto
d
c
10
102
1 03
1 06
1 09
1 012
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
da
h
k
M
G
T
Appendix
243
Appendix 2
Conversion chart for units contrary to SI units
Physical quantity
Unit
Area
square inch
square foot
square yard
square mile
pound/cubic foot
B.Th.U
calorie ( 1 5 C)
erg
foot-pound-force
foot-poundal
dyne
kilogramme-force
pound force
poundal
angstri:im
inch
foot
yard
mile
pound
horsepower
atmosphere
torr
pound-force/square inch
645. 1 6 mm2
6.45 1 6 x 10-4 m 2
9.2903 x 1 0-2 m2
8.36127 x 1 0- 1 m2
2. 58999 km2
1 . 601 8 5 x 10 kg m-a
1 . 05506 x 1 03 J
4. 1 855 J
1 0-7 J
1 . 35582 J
4.21401 x 1 0- 1 J
1 0-5 N
9. 80665 N
4.44822 N
1 . 3 8255 x 1 0-1 N
1 0-10 m
2.54 x 10- 2 m
3.048 x 1 0-1 m
9. 1 44 x 1 0-1 m
Temperature
degree Fahrenheit
tF
Volume
cubic inch
cubic foot
U.K. gallon
U.S. gallon
1 .63871 x 1 0- m3
2. 8 3 1 68 x 1 0-2 m3
4.546092 X 1 0-3 m3
3.78 8404 x 1 0-3 m3
Density
Energy
Force
Length
Mass
Power
Pressure
Equivalent
1 .609344 km
4.5359237 x 1 0-1 x kg
7.457 x 1 02 w
1 .0 1 325 x 1 02 kN m-2
1 . 3 3322 x 1 02 N m-2
6. 89476 x 1 03 N m-2
=
5 PC
+ 32
Appendix
244
Appendix 3
Periodic table
1 .008
H
Hydrogen
6.940
Li
Lithium
11
22.997
Na
Sodium
24.32
Mg
Magnesium
19
39.096
K
Potassium
20
37
85.48
Rb
Rubidium
38
55
1 32.91
Cs
Cesium
56
87
(223)
Fr
Francium
9.0 1 3
Be
Beryllium
12
40.08
Ca
Calcium
21
87.63
Sr
Strontium
39
226.05
Ra
Radium
88
41
40
I
'
I
I
9 1 .22
Zr
Zirconium
88.92
57-71 Ra
earth
elements
I
I
I
23
22
Yttrium
1 37.36
Ba
Barium
47.90
Ti
Titanium
44.96
Sc
Scandium
--
Key
12
24.32
Mg
Magnesium
Name
Symbol
54.93
Mn
Manganese
95.95 43
(99)
92.91 42
Mo
Tc
Nb
Niobium Molybdenum Technetium
26
55.85 27
58.94
Co
Fe
Iron
Cobalt
44
1 0 1 .7
Ru
Ruthenium
45
76
1 02.91
Rh
Rhodium
77
38.92
La
nthanum
58
140.92 60 144.27 6 1
59
( 1 45)
Pr PraseoNd
Pm
dymium
Neodymium Promethium
62
227
Ac
Actinium
90
73
1 83.92
Tungsten
75
1 86. 3 1
Re
Rhenium
1 93. 1
Ir
Iridium
"S:
1\
l
1
89-98
57
Actinide
series
'
Atomic
weight
25
1 90.2
Os
Osmium
Atomic
number
Vanadium
52.01
Cr
Chromium
24
74
1 78.6
Hf
Hafnum
50.95
1 80.88
Ta
Tantalum
72
,>J
J
I
1 40. 1 3
Ce
Cerium
232. 1 2 9 1
(23 1 )
Th
Pa
Thorium Protactinium
92
238.07
Uranium
93
(237)
Np
Neptunium
1 50.43
Sm
Samarium
94
(242)
Pu
Plutonium
---
245
Appendix 3
10.82
B
Boron
Carbon
26.98
Al
Aluminium
14 28.09
Si
Silicon
13
58.69
Ni
Nickel
29
106.7
Pd
Palladium
47
1 95.23
79
28
46
78
63.54
Cu
Copper
30
1 07.88
Ag
Silver
48
1 97.2
80
1 4.008
N
Nitrogen
15
30.98
Phosphorus
16.00
Oxygen
16
32.066
Sulphur
1 9.00
F
Fluorine
10
17
35.457
Cl
Chlorine
18
20. 1 83
Ne
Neon
39.9
A
Argon
69.72 32
72.60
Ga
Ge
Gallium
Germanium
33
34
78.96
Se
Selenium
35
79. 9 1 6
Br
Bromine
36
1 1 4.76
In
Indium
50
1 1 8.70
Sn
Tin
51
1 2 1 .75
Sb
Antimony
52
1 27.60
Te
Tellurium
53 1 26.904
54
204.39
82
207. 2 1
83
209
84
65.38
Zn
Zinc
31
1 1 2.41
Cd
Cadmium
49
200.61
1 2. 0 1
4.003
He
Helium
81
74.91
As
Arsenic
210
83.6
Kr
Krypton
1 3 1 . 30
Xe
Xenon
Iodine
85
( 2 1 0)
222
86
Pt
Au
Hg
TI
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astitine
Radon
64
63
1 59.2
1 56.9 65
Gd
Tb
Gadolinium
Terbium
1 62.46
Du
Dysprosium
(243)
Am
Americium
96
(246) : 99
(254)
Cf
i
Es
Californium I Einsteinium
1 52.0
Eu
Europium
95
(243)
Cm
Curium
97
(245)
Bk
Berkel ium
66
98
67
1 64.94
Ho
Holmium
68
1 67.2
Er
Erbium
69
70
1 73.04
Yb
Ytterbium
71
1 00
IOI
(256)
Md Men
delevium
1 02
1 03
(253)
Fm
Fermium
1 69.4
Tm
Thulium
(254)
No
Nobelium
1 74.99
Lu
Lutetium
(257)
Lw
Lawrencium
Appendix 4
246
Appendix 4
Name
Interesting facts
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Dy
Es
89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96
66
99
Actinium
Aluminium
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Er
Eu
Fm
68
63
1 00
Symbol
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
c
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
He
Ho
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
67
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Helium
Holmium
Appendix 4
247
Symbol
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lw
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Md
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
0
Pd
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Atomic
No.
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
1 03
82
3
71
12
25
101
80
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
1 02
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
Name
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mendelevium
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorous
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Interesting facts
Appendix 4
Symbol
Sm
Sc
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
s
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
TI
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
u
v
w
Xe
Yb
Zn
Zr
Atomic
No.
62
21
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
92
23
74
54
70
39
30
40
248
Interesting facts
Name
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulphur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Tungsten
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
Appendix 5
Acid-base indicators
Indicator
Thymol blue
Tropeolin 00
Methyl yellow (B)
Methyl orange (B)
Brom phenol blue (A)
Brom cresol green
Methyl red (A)
Brom thymol blue
Phenol red (A)
Neutral red (B)
Thymol blue
pH range
1 .2-2.8
1 .3-3.2
2.9-4.0
3 . 1 -4.4
3.0-4.6
4.0-5.6
4.4-6.2
6.2-7.6
6.4-8.0
6.8-8.0
8.0-9.6
Acid
Alkaline
Red
Red
Red
Red
Yellow
Yellow
Red
Yellow
Yellow
Red
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Orange
Blue-violet
Blue
Yellow
Blue
Red
Yellow
Blue
Colour
Appendix 7
249
pH range
Indicator
Phenolphthalein (A)
Thymolphthalein
Alizarin yellow
Tropeolin 0
Nitramine (B)
Trinitrobenzoic acid
9.0-l l .O
9.4- 1 0.6
I 0.0- 1 2.0
1 1 .0- 1 3.0
1 l .0- 1 3.0
1 2.0- 1 3.4
Colour
Acid
Alkaline
Colourless
Colourless
Yellow
Yellow
Colourless
Colourless
Red
Blue
Orange-brown
Orange-brown
Orange-brown
Orange-red
Appendix 6
Relative humidity (percentage)-C
Temperature
of dry bulb
(OC)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
94
94
93
93
92
91
90
89
87
,6
10
12
14
16
18
20
89
88
88
87
86
84
81
79
75
84
83
82
80
78
76
73
68
62
79
78
77
75
72
69
64
59
51
74
73
71
68
65
61
56
49
38
70
68
65
62
59
54
47
39
27
65
63
61
57
53
47
40
30
17
61
59
56
52
47
41
32
21
5
57
55
52
47
41
35
26
12
53
51
47
42
36
29
18
4
46
42
38
33
26
17
5
40
35
31
24
16
6
33
28
23
16
8
28
22
16
8
22
16
10
Appendix 7
Equivalent temperatures in different scales
Kelvin
Absolute zero
Fahrenheit zero
Freezing point of water
Boiling point of water
0
255
273
373
K
K
K
K
Celsius
--273
- 1 8
0
1 00
c
c
c
c
Fahrenheit
-459
0
32
2 1 2
F
F
F
F
Appendix 8
250
Appendix 8
Logarithms
0
10
0000
0043
0086
0128
0 1 70
II
04 1 4
0453
0492
0531
0569
12
0792
0828
0864
0899
0934
13
1 1 39
1 1 73
1 206
1 239
1 27 1
14
1 46 1
1492
1 523
1 553
15
1761
1 790
1818
1 847
1 875
16
2041
2068
2095
2 1 22
2 1 48
17
2304
2330
2355
2380
2405
18
2553
2577
2601
2625
2648
19
2788
28 1 0
2833
2856
2878
20
3010
3032
35
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
5441
5563
5682
5798
59 1 1
6021
9 13 17
8 12 1 6
21
20
2 6 30 34 3 8
24 28 32 3 7
3
3
7 I I 14
7 JO 1 4
18
17
2 1 25 2 8 3 2
2 0 24 2 7 3 1
3
3
6
6
9 12
9 12
15
15
1 8 2 1 24 28
1 7 20 2 3 26
3
3
5
5
8 II
8 10
2
2
5
5
02 1 2
0253
0294
0334
0374
0607
0645
0682
0719
0755
1 004
1038
1072
1 1 06
1 303
1335
1 367
1 399
1430
1 6 14
1 644
1 673
1 703
1 732
1931
1 959
1 987
20 1 4
2201
2227
2253
2279
2455
2480
2504
2529
2672
2695
2718
2742
2765
2900
3118
2923
3 1 39
2945
3 1 60
2967
3181
2989
3201
0969
1 903
2 1 75
2430
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
8 12 15
7 11 15
7 10 1 3
7 10 1 2
6
5
19
19
16
16
9 11
8 11
14
14
5
5
8 10
7 10
13
12
4
4
4
7
6
6
7
7
9
9
9
8
8
14
13
12
11
II
11
11
1 7 2 0 2 3 26
16 19 22 25
1 6 1 9 2 2 24
1 5 1 8 2 1 23
1 5 1 8 20 23
1 5 1 7 1 9 22
14 1 6 19 21
1 4 1 6 1 8 21
1 3 1 6 1 8 20
13 15 17 19
1 3 1 5 1 7 19
3404
3598
3784
3962
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
5
8
8
7
7
10
10
9
9
4 1 66
4330
4487
4639
4 1 83
4346
4502
4654
4200
4362
45 1 8
4669
42 1 6
4378
4533
4683
4232
4393
4548
4698
4249
4409
4564
47 1 3
4265
4425
4579
4728
4281
4440
4594
4742
4298
4456
4609
4757
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
4
7
6
6
6
4928
5065
5198
5328
4942
5079
52 1 1
5340
4955
5092
5224
5353
4969
5 1 05
5237
5366
4983
5 1 19
5250
5378
4997
5 1 32
5263
5391
501 1
5 1 45
5276
5403
5024
5 1 59
5289
5416
5038
5 1 72
5302
5428
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
6
5
5
5
5575
5694
5809
5922
5587
5705
5821
5933
5599
5717
5832
5944
561 1
5729
5843
5955
5623
5 740
5855
5966
5635
5752
5866
5977
5647
5763
5877
5988
5658
5775
5888
5999
5670
5786
5899
60 10
I
I
I
4
3
3
3
5
5
5
4
6
6
6
5
7
7
7
7
6 1 60
6263
6365
6464
6561
6212
63 14
64 1 5
65 1 3
6222
6325
6425
6522
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
5
5
4
4
4
6
5
5
5
5
7
6
6
6
6
4786
5453
603 1
40 14
4800
5465
6042
6 1 38
6243
6345
6444
6 1 49
6253
6355
6454
6628
6721
6812
6902
6990
6637
6730
6821
69 1 1
6998
6646
6739
6830
6920
7007
6542
655 1
403 1
4814
5478
6053
6656
6749
6839
6928
7016
4048
4829
5490
6064
6 1 70
6274
6375
6474
6571
6665
6758
6848
6937
7024
4065
4843
5502
6075
6 1 80
6284
6385
6484
6580
6675
6767
6857
6946
7033
4082
4857
5514
6085
4099
4871
5527
6096
6191
6294
6395
6493
6201
6304
6405
6503
6684
6776
6866
6955
7042
6693
6785
6875
6964
7050
6590
6599
4116
4886
5539
6 1 07
6609
6702
6794
6884
6972
7059
4133
4900
5551
6117
66 1 8
6712
6803
6893
698 1
7067
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
I
12
12
11
11
14
14
13
12
16
15
15
14
8
8
8
7
10
9
9
9
11
11
11
10
13
13
12
12
8
8
8
8
lO
7
6
6
20 2 3 2 6 30
1 9 2 2 2 5 29
3385
3579
3766
3945
3997
23 2 7 3 1 3 5
22 2 6 3 0 33
3365
3560
3747
3927
6128
6232
6335
6435
6532
I
4
4
3345
3541
3729
3909
4 1 50
43 1 4
4472
4624
36
37
38
39
3324
3522
371 1
3892
26
27
28
29
477 1
49 1 4
5051
5 1 85
53 1 5
3304
3502
3692
3874
3243
3444
3636
3820
30
31
32
33
34
3096
3284
3483
3674
3856
3222
3424
3617
3802
3979
3075
3263
3464
3655
3838
21
22
23
24
25
3054
1 5 84
18
17
17
16
10 1 2 1 4 1 5
15
14
14
13
9 10 1 1 1 3
II
9 II
9 10
9 10
9 10
8 JO
8 9
8 9
8 9
8
12
12
12
11
II
11
10
10
10
9 10
8 9
8 9
8 9
8 9
8 9
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
251
Appendix 8
Note: These tables are so constructed that the fourth figme ot a logarithm obtained by their use is never more than one unit
above or below the best 4-figure approximation. E.g. if the logarithm found is 0.5014 the best 4-figure approximation may be
0.501 3, 0.5014 or 0.5015. Greater accuracy than this cannot be obtained by the use of a uniform table of differences of this kind.
51
52
53
54
7076
7 1 60
7243
7324
7084
7 1 68
725 1
7332
7093
7 1 77
7259
7340
7101
7 1 85
7267
7348
7110
7 1 93
7275
7356
7118
7202
7284
7364
7 1 26
7210
7292
7372
7 1 35
72 1 8
7300
7380
7 143
7226
7308
7388
7 1 52
7235
73 1 6
7396
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
8
7
7
7
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
55
7404
74 1 2
74 1 9
7427
7435
7443
7451
7459
7466
7474
56
57
58
59
7482
7559
7634
7709
7490
7566
7642
77 1 6
7497
7574
7649
7723
7505
7582
7657
773 1
75 1 3
7589
7664
7738
7520
7597
7672
7745
7528
7604
7679
7752
7536
76 1 2
7686
7760
7543
7619
7694
7767
755 1
7627
7701
7774
60
7782
7789
7796
7803
7810
7818
7825
7832
7839
7846
61
62
63
64
7853
7924
7993
8062
7860
793 1
8000
8069
7868
7938
8007
8075
7875
7945
8014
8082
7882
7952
8021
8089
7889
7959
8028
8096
7896
7966
8035
8 1 02
7903
7973
8041
8 1 09
79 1 0
7980
8048
81 16
79 1 7
7987
8055
8 1 22
65
8 1 29
8 1 36
8 1 42
8 1 49
8 1 56
8 1 62
8 1 69
8 1 76
8 1 82
66
67
68
69
8 1 95
8261
8325
8388
8202
8267
833 1
8395
8209
8274
8338
840 1
8215
8280
8344
8407
8222
8287
8351
84 1 4
8228
8293
8357
8420
8235
8299
8363
8426
8241
8306
8370
8432
8248
8312
8376
8439
1
1
I
I
I
1
1
2
2
2
2
8 1 89
8254
8319
8382
8445
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
70
8451
8457
8463
8470
8476
8482
8488
8494
8500
8506
71
72
73
74
8513
8573
8633
8692
8519
8579
8639
8698
8525
8585
8645
8704
853 1
859 1
865 1
8710
8537
8597
8657
87 1 6
8543
8603
8663
8722
8549
8609
8669
8727
8555
86 1 5
8675
8733
8561
8621
868 1
8739
8567
8627
8686
8745
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
75
8751
8756
8762
8768
8774
8779
8785
879 1
8797
8802
76
77
78
79
8808
8865
892 1
8976
8814
8871
8927
8982
8820
8876
8932
8987
8825
8882
8938
8993
8831
8887
8943
8998
8837
8893
8949
9004
8842
8899
8954
9009
8848
8904
8960
90 1 5
8854
8910
8965
9020
8859
89 1 5
897 1
9025
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
80
903 1
9036
9042
9047
9053
9058
9063
9069
9074
9079
81
82
83
84
9085
9138
9191
9243
9090
9 143
9 1 96
9248
9096
9 1 49
9201
9253
9101
9 1 54
9206
9258
9 1 06
9 1 59
92 1 2
9263
9112
9 1 65
92 1 7
9269
9117
9 1 70
9222
9274
9 1 22
9 1 75
9227
9279
9 1 28
9 1 80
9232
9284
9 1 33
9 1 86
9238
9289
1
1
1
85
9294
9299
9304
9309
93 1 5
9320
9325
9330
9335
9340
86
87
88
89
9345
9395
9445
9494
9350
9400
9450
9499
9355
9405
9455
9504
9360
941 0
9460
9509
9365
94 1 5
9465
9513
9370
9420
9469
95 1 8
9375
9425
9474
9523
9380
9430
9479
9528
9385
9435
9484
9533
9390
9440
9489
9538
1
0
0
0
90
9542
9547
9552
9557
9562
9566
9571
9576
9581
9586
91
92
93
94
9590
9638
9685
973 1
9595
9643
9689
9736
9600
9647
9694
9741
9605
9652
9699
9745
9609
9657
9703
9750
9614
9661
9708
9754
9619
9666
97 1 3
9759
9624
967 1
97 1 7
9763
9628
9675
9722
9768
9633
9680
9727
9773
0
0
0
0
95
9777
9782
9786
9791
9795
9800
9805
9809
9814
98 1 8
96
97
98
99
9823
9868
99 1 2
9956
9827
9872
99 1 7
9961
9832
9877
992 1
9965
9836
988 1
9926
9969
9841
9886
9930
9974
9845
9890
9934
9978
9850
9894
9939
9983
9854
9899
9943
9987
9859
9903
9948
9991
9868
9908
9952
9996
0
0
0
0
I
I
1
1
I
I
I
I
5
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
2
1
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
I
I
2
2
2
2
I
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
The copyright of that portion of the above table which gives the Jogarithqis of numbers from 1 ,000 to 2,000 is the property
of Messrs Macmillan and Company Ltd, who, however, have authorised the use of the form in any reprint published for
educational nurnoses.
Appendix 9
Appendix 9
252
10
4 l-l--+++++-++1-+1-+1-+1-+++t-+t--t-t-+t--t-t-t-t-i-l-i-IH--1---t-H 4
2 1-1-l-hH-1-H-H-H-H-H+++++t-++t+t+t-t-t-t-H-IH-l-t11
253
Appendix
Index
Index
in soil, 4.63
insect collector, 3 .33B
methods of introducing ants to nests, 3.33C
observation nest, 3.33
queen ant, 3.33B
Apatite, 4.6
Apple, 3 .55
Aqua regia, 1 .39
Aquaria, 3.9-10, 4.56, 4. 1 38
Arctic circle, 4.70A, 4.98-99
Argon, 4.101
Astronomy, 4.65- 1 0 1
Atmospheric humidity, 4.1 1 2, 4.1 14, 4. 1 2 1 - 1 3 6
Atmospheric pressure :
air exerts pressure, 2.301-3 1 9, 4.1 1 5, 4. 1 1 7
air has mass, 2.304, 4. 1 1 6
air stream experiments, 2.3 1 9
air takes u p space, 2.303
aneroid barometer, 2.308
finding air, 2.302
lifting water with air pressure, 2.3 1 5
measuring atmospheric pressure, 2.309-3 10
oxidation and air pressure, 2.318
pressure experiments with syringes, 2.301
relation between volume and pressure (Boyle's
law), 2.3 1 6
simple mercury barometer, 2.307
simple siphon, 2.3 1 3
siphon fountain, 2.3 1 4
syringe lift-pump, 2.3 1 1
test-tube force pump, 2.3 1 2
using air pressure t o put a straw through a potato,
2.306
working model of lungs, 2 . 3 1 7
Atomic structure o f minerals, 4. 1 2
Auriga, 4.9 1
Bacteria, 3.66
Baking powder, 2.39
Balance experiments :
see-saw, 2.232
metre stick, 2.233
Balances :
sensitive beam, 1 . 1 6
simple, 1 . 1 2
soda straw, 1 . 1 5
spring, 1 . 1 3
steelyards (Roman or Danish), 1 . 1 4
Balloons :
as model rocket engines, 4. 1 02-103
illustrating hovercraft principle, 2.265
measuring upper wind speeds, 4 . 1 39
256
257
Brom thymol blue, 1 .55, 3 .45C
Bronze, 1 .53
Brownian movement, 2.52
Building up molecules :
casein from milk, 2.100
formaldehyde-resorcinol resin, 2 . 1 02
urea-formaldehyde resin, 2.101
Buoyancy :
cartesian diver, 2.280
drinking straw hydrometer, 2.286
floating bodies, 2.282
floating candle, 2.283
floating different kinds of wood, 2.284
floating egg, 2.285
floating in different kinds of liquid, 2.287
how a submarine is raised and lowered, 2.288
of water, 2.279
sinking and floating, 2.289
sinking bodies, 2.281
Bunsen burner, 1 .26, 2.1
Burners :
alcohol, 1 .25, 2 . 1
bunsen, 1 ,26, 2. 1
candle, 1 .23
charcoal, 1 .24
propane gas. 1 .26, 1 .27
Cactus, 3.37
Caddis flies, 3.9
Cages for animals, 3 . 1 8
Calcite, 4 .6 , 4.1 9-20
Calcium, 4.4, 4.21
Calcium carbonate, 2.38, 4.22
Calcium hydroxide, 1 .37. See also : Lime water
Calcium sulphate, 2.67
Calorie, 2. 1 7, 2 . 1 35-1 36. 2.82-83
Calorific value for fuel, 2. 1 36
Calorimeter, 1 .28
Cambrian layer, 3.57
Camera, 4.90
Cancer (Tropic of), 4.70A, 4.98-99
Candle flame investigation, 2 . I D
Canis Major (Great Dog), 4.73
Canopus, 4.76B, 4.78B
Capella, 4.76A, 4.91
Capillarity in soil, 4.48, 4.56-57
Capillary tube :
use in boiling point determinations, 2.3
use in melting point determinations, 2.6B
Capricorn (Tropic of), 4.99
Carbon :
electrodes, 2.59, 2.68-69, 2.88-90
Index
in bunsen flame, 2.1
residue when food is heated, 2.98A
separation from tin-carbon misture, 2 . 1 8
Carbon(IV) chloride, 2 . 1 3 , 2 . 1 5 , 2.26, 2.49, 2.60B
Carbon dioxide :
cooking and carbon dioxide, 2.39
diffusion of carbon dioxide, 2.53A
preparation, 2.38
presence in leaves, 3 .45A
properties, 2.38
reaction with magnesium, 2.77
use in measuring oxygen intake in small animals,
3 .61
Carotene, 2.24A
Carrots, 3.46B, 3 .47-48
Casein from milk, 2.100
Cassiopea, 4.72, 4.28B, 4.91
Catalysts, 2.94, 2.97
Caustic soda, see : sodium hydroxide
Celery, 3 .60
Celestial equator, 4.74
Celestial sphere, 4.71 , 4.74, 4.90
Cells (biology) :
algae cells, 3 .66
cell walls, 3.68
cheek cells, 3.67
chromosomes, 3.69-70
comparison of plant and animal cells, 3.67
mitochrondria, 3.71
multi-cellular organism, 3.66
one-celled organism, 3.66
organelles, 3.70-71
ostrich egg, 3.66
protists, 3.66
reproduction, 3.69
salivary chromosomes, 3.70
use of electron microscope in cell study, 3 '.7 1
Cells (electric), see : Dry cells; Daniell cell ; Leclanche
cell
Cement :
acid-proof, 1 .56
aquarium, 1 .56
celluloid, 1 .56
Faraday's, 1 .56
iron, 1 .56
portland, 4.25
use in brick making, 2.66
Centauri (alpha and beta), 4.76B, 4.78B
Centripetal force, 2.245-246
Change of state :
liquid to vapour, 2 . 1 7
solid t o liquid, 2. 1 6
Index
258
Conduction (heat) :
copper coil snuffer, 2 . 1 20
Davy lamp, 2. 1 1 9
i n metal gauze, 2. 1 1 8
metals as conductors, 2 . 1 20-123
Conductors (electrical), 2 . 1 55
Conglomerate, 4.22
Constellarium, 4.76
Constellations :
Andromeda, 4.72
Auriga, 4.91
Canus Major (Great Dog), 4.73
Casseiopea, 4.73-74
Cygnus, 4.91
Orion (Great Hunter), 4.72-74, 4.77
Pegasus, 4.72
photography of constellations, 4.91
Southern Cross (Crux), 4.7 1 , 4.73, 4.77, 4.78B
Ursa Major (Plough, Big Dipper or Great Bear)
4.72, 4.77, 4.78B
Ursa Minor (Little Dipper or Little Bear), 4.72
Contour ploughing, 4.53
Convection box, 2 . 1 28, 4.1 1 9
Convection currents :
convection current box, 2. 1 28, 4.1 1 9
i n air, 2.1 27-128, 4. 1 1 9-120
in water, 2 . 1 24-126, 2 . 1 29
maximum density of water, 2 . 1 29
Copper :
as a conductor of heat, 2 . 1 22
copper vessel in Daniell cell, 2.85
displacement from aqueous solutions, 2.72, 2.8384
flux for soldering copper, 1 .5
oxidation when in heated air, 2.28A
reaction with 3 M acids, 2.74
snuffer, 2. 1 20
solutions of copper ions, 2.85
Copper carbonate, 2.30B, 2.71
Copper chromate, 2.89
Copper(II) oxide, 2.94
Copper(II) sulphate, 1 .42, 2 . 1 2, 2.32-33, 2.47, 2.69,
2.71 -72, 2.80, 2.83-86, 2.89, 3.46B, 3.47-48
Corn, 3.52, 3.56
Corona, 4.96, 4. 1 43
Corundum, 4.6
Crickets, 3 . 1 4
Croco d ile clips, 2.60, 2.1 56
'
Crop rotation, 4.53
Crucible, 2.28
Crude oil, 2.21
Crystals :
259
Index
index
electrodes, 2. 59
liquid conductors, 2.60
testing circuit, 2.59
Electrical energy, 2.84-85
Electricity :
current, 2 . 1 48-1 63
static, 2 . 1 37-147
Electrode potential order, 2.86
Electrolysis :
apparatus for electrolysis, 2.69
electrolysis of aqueous salt solutions, 2.69
electrolysis of melts, 2.68
electrolysis of solutions of ionic salts, 2 . 69B
electrolysis of water, 2.69A
Electromagnetism:
cylindrical electromagnet, 2 . 1 75, 2. 1 77
electric motor, 2 . 1 8 1
electricity from magnet and coil, 2. 1 80
horse shoe electromagnet 2 . 1 76
magnetic effect of current in a wire, 2 . 1 78
magnetic fields in open coil, 2 . 1 79
Electronmicroscope, 3.71
Electrophorus, 2 . 1 47
Electroplating solutions, 1 .6 1
Electroscope, 2 . 1 44-145
Elevation, angle of, 4 . 1 39
Elodea, 3 .9, 3.4 1 , 3.45B, 3 .66, 3.68
Embryos :
chicken, 3.1 1 - 1 3
seed, 3.52A, 3.528
Energy from chemical reactions :
dry cell, 2.88
electrical energy, 2.84-85
heat of neutralization reaction, 2.82
ion movement, 2.89-90
lead accumulator cell, 2.87
reactions which absorb heat (endothermic), 2.81
reactions which give out heat (exothermic), 2.80,2.83
Endosperm, 3.52A
Engines (action and reaction), 2.249-25 1 , 4.102-104
Equator of earth, 4.70A, 4.88, 4.94, 4.98-99
Erosion, 4.508, 4.53,. 4.62
Ethanol, 2. 1 7, 2.43, 2.608, 2.95-96
Ethylene (ethene), 2.96
Euglena, 3.66
Evaporation of water :
causes deposition of salt, 4.57
effect of surface area, 4. 1 27
effect of moisture in air, 4 . 1 30
effect of moving air, 4. 1 29
effect of temperature, 4 . 1 28
evaporation from soils, 4.1 23
260
261
Index
Hawks, 3.5
Hay infusion culture, 3 .25, 3.35
Heat :
bimetallic strip, 2.107
calorie, 2.135- 1 3 6, 2.82-83
collection of gaseous products of burning, 2.29
conduction, 2 . 1 1 8-1 22, 2 . 1 32
difference between heat and temperature, 2 . 1 03
effect on copper, 2.28A
effect on magnesium, 2.28A
effect on steel needles, 2.64
expansion of air, 2.1 1 0-1 1 1
expansion of liquid, 2 . 1 08-1 09
expansion of solids, 2 . 1 06
heat evolved in chemical reactions, 2.80-83
heat of vaporization and liquefaction, 2. 1 7
heating copper sulphate, 2.32
from electricity, 2. 1 60-162
insulation, 2 . 1 1 7
radiation, 2. 1 30- 1 34
ring and plug experiment, 2 . 1 05
substances which lose mass when heated, 2.30
substances whose mass remains constant when
heated, 2 . 3 1
temperature sense, 2. 1 1 2
thermometers, 2 . 1 1 3-1 1 5
thermoscope, 2. 1 1 6
transfer of kinetic energy to heat energy, 2. 104
Heater (tin can), 1 .3 1
Heat sensitive paper, 1 .64
Heavenly bodies (bearings of), 4.67
Horizon, 4.95
Hornblende, 4.20
Horned beetle, 3 .36
Horned lizard, 3.37
Horse shoe magnet, 2.176
Human population growth, 3 .29
Humidity (relative), 4. 1 1 2, 4. 1 14
Hurricanes, 4.144
Hydrochloric acid :
diffusion with ammonia, 2.54
dilute solution, 1 .36
in aqua regia, 1 .39
preparation, 2.36
properties, 2.36
"
use in ion movement experiments, 2.89
use in preparation of: carbon dioxide, 2.91 ;
formaldehyde resorcinol resin, 2 . 1 02 ; hydrogen,
2.33 ; sulphur from sodium thiosulphate,
2.92-93
use in testing minerals, 4. 1 3B, 4.55
Index
Hydrogen :
action of sodium on water, 2.73
preparation, 2.33-34, 2.73-74
properties, 2.33
Hydrogen peroxide, 2.35, 2.76, 2.94
Hydrometer, 1 .38, 2.286
Igneous rocks :
artificial, 4.24
basalt, 4.40
basic constituents, 4.21
extrusive, 4.21
formation of igneous rocks, 4.21
intrusive, 4.21
porphyries, 4.21
texture, 4.21
Inclined plane, 2.257A
screw, 2.257B
simple jack, 2.257C
Incubator, 3.1 1
Indicators :
extraction from plants, 2.43
litmus, 2.44
methyl orange, 2. 78
pH scale, 2.44
phenolphthalene, 2. 70
plant extracts as acid-base indicators, 2.44
Inertia :
with book and spade, 2.242
with a stone, 2.240
with two tin can pendulums, 2.241
Infra-red rays, 2.223
Insects :
as food, 3.38
cage, 3 . 1 5E
collecting net, 3 . 1 4
killing jar, 3 . 1 5
stretching board, 3 . 1 5B
Insulation (heat), 2. l t 7
Iodine, 1 .65, 2. 1 3 , 2. 1 9, 2.95
Ions, 2.69, 2.7 1 , 2.72, 2.83, 2.85, 2.87-90
Iris (plant), 3.48
Iron :
in copper displacement reaction, 2.83
in minerals and rocks, 4.4, 4.21
iron-sulphur reaction, 2. 70
reaction with dilute acids, 2.74
rusting of iron, 2.40-42, 2.318, 4.58
lron(II) ammonium sulphate, 1 .45
lron(III) chloride, 1 .43
Iron(III) hydroxide, 2.71
Tron oxides, 2.40-42, 2.3 1 8, 4.22, 4.58
262
263
Index
Machines :
belt drives, 2.258
gears, 2.259-260
inclined plane, 2.257
levers, 2.252
propeller, 2.266
pulleys, 2.254-256
reducing friction, 2.261 -265
wheel and axle, 2.253
Magnesium :
burning in air, 2.28B
displacement of copper from solution of copper
salt, 2.72, 2.80B
in earth's crust, 4.4
in igneous rocks, 4.21
reaction with carbon dioxide, 2.77
reaction with hydrochloric acid, 2.36C, 2.74
Magnesium chloride, 1 .50
Magnesium sulphate, 1 .50
Magnetism :
artificial magnets, 2 . 1 69
breaking magnets, 2 . 1 72
electro-magnetism, 2 . 1 75-1 8 1
freely suspended magnets, 2 . 1 67
in minerals, 4 . 1 3A
magnetic dip angles, 2 . 1 65
magnetic fields, 2.1 73-174
magnetic poles, 2 . 1 7 1
magnetic substances, 2 . 1 70
magnetising coil, 2 . 1 66
natural magnets, 2. 1 68
simple compass needles, 2 . 1 64
Magnifier (water-drop), 1 . 1 7-18
Manganese (IV) oxide, 2.35, 2.88, 2.94
Manometer, 4.1 10
Marble, 2.38, 2.9 1 , 4.23, 4.31
Mars, 4.79
Meadow community, 3.38
Mealworms, 3.24, 3.61
Measuring cylinder, 4. 1 1 1
Mechanics :
balances, 2.232-233
forces, 2.243, 2.351
gravity experiments, 2.234-235, 2.238-239
inertia, 2.240-242
machines, 2.252-266
pendulums, 2.236-237, 2.241
Melting points :
effect of impurities on, 2.4
naphtalene, 2.2-3
stearic acid, 2.2
Mercury (planet), 4.79
Mercury :
separation from water, 2.26
use in barometers, 2.307
Mercury I nitrate, 1 .49
Meridian, 4.70A, 4.74
Metamorphic rocks :
artificial, 4.26
classification of, 4.23
foliation 4.23
gneiss, 4.23
marble, 4.23, 4.3 1
quartzite, 4.23, 4.40
schist, 4.23, 4.40
slate, 4.23
texture, 4.23
Methyl alcohol, 2 . 1 3
Methyl orange, 2.78
Mica, 2.5 1 , 4.16, 4.20
Micro-projector, 1 .21-22
Index
Microscope : (see also : Magnifiers, l . 1 7-18)
compound, 1 . 22
simple, 1 . 1 7
Milky Way, 4.7 1 , 4.73
Mineral compounds, 4.4
Minerals :
amorphous, 4. 1 2
breakage, 4. 1 0
colour, 4.8
crystal form, 4. 1 2
crystalline, 4 . 1 2
definition, 4.1 3
diagnostic tests, 4.1 3
elements in earth's crust, 4.4
feldspars, 4.6, 4.1 5, 4.20, 4.22
hardness, 4.6
heavy, 4.9
hydrochloric acid test, 4.1 3B, 4.55
identification notes, 4.20
in solution, 4.55
light, 4.9
lustre, 4.5
magnetism in, 4 . 1 3A
non-crystalline, 4 . 1 2
opaque, 4. 1 1
physical properties of, 4.20
piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity, 4.33
quartz, 4.6, 4. 1 4, 4.20, 4.22, 4.30, 4.33, 4.55
relative density, 4.9, 4.41
rupture (cleavage and fracture), 4. 1 0
streak, 4.7
translucency, 4. 1 1
transparency, 4.1 1
tourmaline, 4.33
Mirrors :
concave, 2.207, 4.66
convex, 2.208
Mixtures (separation of), 2 . 1 8 , 2.20, 2.22, 2.26-27
Molar solutions, see Chapter 1
Monocotyledon, 3.52A, 3.56, 3.60
Moon :
corona, 4. 143-144
crescent, 4.83
eclipses, 4.85, 4.95, 4.97
gibbous, 4.95
halo, 4.105
horns of moon, 4.83
orbit, 4.97
phases, 4.82-83, 4.95
photographing apparent path of moon, 4.90
rise, 4.95
set, 4.95
Moss, 3.39
Motor (electric), model of, 2.1 8 1
Mounting block guide, 3 . I SC
Mounting boxes for insect collection, 3 . 1 5C
Mud, 4.52, 4.60
Mustard seeds, 3. 58-59
Muscovite, 4. 1 6
Myrcophyllum, 3.9
Naphthalene, 2.2-3, 2 . 1 6, 2.46, 2.60
Neon, 4.101
Neptune, 4.28
Nests :
ants, 3.33A
birds, 3.6-7
Newton's laws of motion, 4.102, 4.105
Newts, 3.10, 3.39
Nickel oxide, 2.94
Nitric acid, 1 . 36, 1 . 39
Nitrogen in food, 2.98
North Star (Pole star), 4.70A, 4.71-72, 4.74-77
Nessler's reagent, l .66
Oats, 3.58A, 3.58C, 3.59
Occlusion of warm and cold fronts, 4.138
Octantis (sigma), 4. 76B
Olivine, 4. 1 8
Onions, 3.58A, 3.58C, 3.59
Optical bench, 2.21 9
Orbit of moon, 4.97
Orion (Great Hunter), 4.72-74, 4.91
Orthoclase feldspars, 4. 1 5
Osmosis, 3 .47
Ovary of flowers, 3.53-55
Oven (air), 1 .33
Owls, 3.5, 3.7
Oxidation :
hydrogen peroxide, 2.76B
iron oxide, 2.42, 2.3 1 8 , 4.58
solders, 1 .6
Oxygen :
absorbent, 1 .67
in earth's crust, 4.4
preparation, 2.35A, 2.94
properties, 2.35B
oxidation, 1 .6, 2.42, 2.76B, 2.318, 4.58
respiration in animals, 3.61
respiration in leaves, 3.41
Paraffin wax, 2 . 1 22
Parmecium, 3.35
264
265
Index
Pelican, 3.5
Pendulums :
coupled pendulums, 2.237
Foucault 's pendulum, 4.48, 4.88
simple pendulum, 2.236
Period of rotation of sun, 4.86
Permeability of soil, 4.54
Perspex, 2.97
Phases of moon, 4.82-83
Phenolphthalein, 2. 78
Photography :
constellations, 4.92
moon's apparent path, 4.90c
satellites, 4.93
star trails, 4. 93
sun's apparent path, 4.90
Photosynthesis, 3 .4 1
Piezoelectricity, 4.33
Pineapple, 3.46C
Pistil of flower, 3.53-54
Pith ball indicators, 2 . 1 43, 2 . 1 45-146
Plagioclase feldspars, 4. 1 5
Planaria, 3.20-22
Planets, see: Solar system
Plants (see also: Leaf activity) :
effect of light, 3.58
effect of soil, 4.39-40, 4.44, 4.50B, 4.52, 4.62
effect of water, 4.44, 4. 1 24- 1 26
growing without water, 3.46
Plaster casts, 3.5
Plaster of Paris, 2.67, 3.5, 4.25, 4.34
Plumb-bob, 4. 1 39
Pluto, 4.79
Poles :
north, 4.70C
south, 4.70C
north celestial, 4. 7 1
south celestial, 4.71
Pole star (North star), 4.70A, 4.7 1 , 4.74-77
Pollen germination, 3 .5 1 , 3.54-55
Polystyrene (styrofoam ) calorimeters, 1 .28
Populations :
brine shrimp, 3 . 3 1
fruit fly, 3 . 30
graphing changes, 3.28
human, 3.29
yeast, 3 .26
Porphyries, 4.21
Potassium bromide, 2.68
Potassium chlorate, 2.47
Potassium chloride, 2.47
Potassium chromate, 2.7 1 , 2.89
Index
Reference systems, 4.1 05
Reflection of heat waves, 2. 1 32
Reflection of light, 2.20 1 , 2.203-204, 2.206-208
Refraction of light, 2.209-21 5
Respiration i n organisms, 3 .42, 3 . 7 1
Reversed writing, 2.204
Revolution (apparent), of stars, 4.71
Rigel, 4.74
Right-ascension, 4. 74
Ring and plug experiment, 2.105
Ripple tank, 2 . 1 83-189
Robins, 3 . 7
Rockets, 4.1 02-104
Rocks :
collection, 4.27-28
definition, 4.3
identification, 4.1 , 4.31
igneous, 4. 1 8 , 4.21
metamorphic, 4.22
observation or rocks, 4. 1 , 4.29
prparation for identification, 4.2
sedimentary, 4.18
texture, 4.21
Root growth, 3.48-50
Roses, 3 .55
Rosin, 1 .5
Rotting log community, 3.36
Salamanders, 3.39
Salt bridge, 2.85
Sand, 2.22, 4.22, 4.30, 4.36
Sandstone, 4.22
Sarcophagid flies, 3 .70
Satellite (model launcher), 4. 1 06
Saturn, 4.79
Seasonal shift of sky, 4.77
Seasons, 4.70, 4.98
Sea-water, 1 . 50
Sedimentary rocks :
artificial, 4.25
cementing agents, 4.22
chert, 4.22
elastics, 4.22
clay, 4.26, 4.32, 4.48-49, 4.55, 4.60
conglomerates, 4.22
fossils, 4.34
limestone, 4.22, 4.3 1 , 4.38, 4.40, 4.55
precipitates, 4.22
sandstone, 4.22
shale, 4.22
silt, 4.34, 4.60
sorting sediments, 4.32
266
See-saw, 2.232
Seed structure, 3.52
Seeds, 3.49, 3.52, 4.44
Sensitive beam balance, 1 .1 6
Sepals, 3.53-54
Separation of substances :
chromatography, 2.24
distillation, 2.20
extraction of oil from nuts, 2.23
fractional distillation, 2.21
gas dissolved in water, 2.25
salt and sand, 2.22
separation of solids by density differences, 2.27
sublimation, 2 . 1 9
tin and carbon, 2 . 1 8
two immiscible liquids, 2.26
Serpentine, 4.23
Shale, 4.22, 4.38
Shells, 4.34
Silica (sand), 2.22, 4.22, 4.30, 4.36
Silicon, 4.48-49, 4.64
Silt, 4.34, 4.60
Silver :
chromate, 2.71
iodide, 2. 7 1
nitrate, 2. 7 1
Silvering solution, 1 .68
Simple balance, 1 . 1 2
Simple microscope, 1 . 1 7
Siphons :
simple siphon, 2 . 3 1 3
siphon fountain, 2 . 3 1 4
Sirius, 4.73
Sling psychrometer, 4. 1 14, 4.134
Snails, 3.9, 3 .62
Soap making, 2.79
Soda lime, 2.29, 2.99
Soda straw balance, 1 . 1 5
Sodium :
element , 4.4
reaction with water, 2.73
Sedium bicarbonate, 2. 1 1
Sodium carbonate, 2.71
Sodium chloride, 1 .50, 2 . 1 2-1 3, 2 . 1 9, 2.22, 2.36, 2.47,
2.50A, 2.5 1 , 2.60B, 2.69, 4.24-25
Sodium hydroxide, 1 .36, 1 .69, 2.73, 2.79, 2.82, 4. 1 1 2
Sodium sulphate, 2.47, 2.87
Sodium sulphide, 1 .5 1
Sodium thiosulphate, 2.45, 2.92-93
Soil :
acids, 4.47
air content, 4.43
267
Index
auger, 4.42
bases, 4. 47
capillarity, 4.48, 4.56-57
contour ploughing, 4.53
crop rotation, 4.53
density, 4.9, 4.41
effect on growing plants, 4.39
effect of life on soil, 4.63
effect of wind on soil, 4.64
erosion, 4.53, 4.62
fertility, 4.44
formation, 4.37-38
ground water, 4.56-57
horizons, 4.61
nutrition, 4.40
organism funnel , 3 . 1 6
particle variability, 4.41
permeability, 4.54
profile, 4.61
rainfall effects, 4.50-53
sampling, 4.42, 4.54
subsoil, 4.44, 4.61
terracing, 4.53
topsoil, 4.44, 4.61
type, 4.36
water, 4.44-46, 4.48-49, 4.52- 56, 4.59
Solar system :
model of, (earth, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Nep
tune, Pluto, Saturn, Uranus, Venus), 4.70
sun, 4.68, 4.79, 4.84, 4.86, 4.89-90, 4.94, 4.96,
4.98-l 00, 4. 1 43
Soldering :
electrical connexions, 1 . 7
fluxes, 1 . 5
methods, 1 .6
solder, 1 .53
soldering iron, 1 .5
torch, 1 .8
types of solder, 1 .4
Solutions :
different solvents, 2 . 1 3
effect o f particle size, 2 . 1 2
effect of temperature, 2. l 0
of different molarities, see Chapter
saturated solutions, 2 . 1 0
solubility a t given temperatures, 2. 1 1
solubility of salts, 2.9
solutions in soils, 4.55-56
Sound :
ear, 2.197
materials that absorb sound, 2 . 1 95
seeing and feeling vibration of sound waves, 2 . 1 92
Index
Sterns (of plants) :
dicots, 3. 57
growth of sterns, 3 . 50 ; effect of coloured light,
3 . 58D ; effect of gravity, 3 . 59A, 3 . 59B ; effect
of light, 3 . 58A, 3 . 58B
rnonocots, 3 .56
tissue, 3.60
Stigma, 3 . 53
Straw (drinking), 1 . 1 5, 2.306, 4.48, 4.67
Streak, 4.7
Stretching board for insects, 3.l 5B
Style, 3 .53
Stylonychia, 3 . 3 5
Sublimation, 2. 1 9
Succulents, 3 . 3 7
Sugar, 2 . 3 9 , 2.60B, 2 . 9 5 , 4 . 2 4 ; production in plants,
3 .45B, 3 . 5 1
268
269
Tissue :
bone, 3 .63
blood and blood vessels, 3 .63-65
blood flow in fish and frog, 3 .65
chicken leg tissue, 3.63
muscle, 3 .63
stem tissue, 3.60
tendons, 3.63
Titration (acid and bases), 2.78
Toads, 3 .39
Toluene, 2. 1 5 , 2.48
Tomatoes, 3.55, 3 . 57
Topaz, 4.6
Tornadoes, 4. 1 44
Tourmaline, 4.33
Tradescantia, 3 .68
Transformer, 1 . 3
Transit (hand), 4. 1 39
Translucency of minerals, 4. 1 1
Transpiration, 3.43
Trap for animals and reptiles, 3 . 1 8
Trap for fruitflies, 3.23
Tree seedlings, 3 . 38-39
Trichloroethane, 2. 1 7
Tripod, 1 .30
Tuning fork, 2 . 1 9 1
Turnips, 3.46B
Turpentine, 1 . 5
Tweezers, 1 . 35
Ultraviolet light, 2. 224
Uranus, 4.79
Urea, 2.89
Ursa Major, 4.72, 4.78B
Ursa Minor, 4.72
Vaporisation (heat of), 2 . 1 7
Vacuum, 2. 1 96
Vascular plants, 3 . 60
Vega, 4.76A, 4.78B
Ventilation, 4. 1 1 9
Venus (morning/evening star), 4.79-80
Vibrating cans. , 2 . 1 93
Voice production, 2. 198
Vorticel/a, 3 . 3 5
Water :
atmospheric humidity, 4. 1 1 2, 4 . 1 1 4, 4. 1 21 - 1 36
boiling point, 2.5
condensation, 4. 1 3 1 - 1 36
condensed in air, 4. 1 2 1 - 1 30
clouds, 4 . 1 35, 4 . 1 43-44
Index
convection currents, 2. 1 24-- 1 26, 2. 1 29
cycle, 4 . 1 32-1 3 3
dew-point, 4 . 1 1 3- 1 1 4, 4. 1 34-- 1 35
distilled, 1 . 32, 4 . 1 4 1
effect o f temperature on, 4.59
effect on plants, 4.44
electrical conductivity, 2.60C
estimation of air dissolved in water, 2.25
erosion by water, 4.50B, 4.53, 4.62
evaporation, 4.56, 4 . 1 1 4 , 4 . 1 22- 1 23 , 4 . 1 27- 1 30
freezing, 2 . 1 29, 4.59, 4. 1 43
ground water, 4. 56-57
hair hygrometer, 4. 1 1 2
heat conductivity, 2. 1 23
heat of vaporization, 2. 1 7
hygrometer (dew point), 4. 1 1 3- 1 1 4C, 4 . 1 34, 4 . 1 40
in breath, 4. 1 27
in food, 2.98B
in plants, 4.1 24- 1 26
in soils, 4.44--4 6, 4.48-50, 4. 1 23
infiltration, 4.57
maximum density, 2 . 1 29
minerals in solution, 4.55
permeability of soil, 4.54
rain gauge, 4.46, 4. 1 1 1 , 4.1 1 3
relative humidity, 4.1 1 2, 4. 1 1 4
separation from benzene, 2.26
snowflakes, 4 . 1 36
splash sticks, 4.52
water of crystallization, 2.32
water used to demonstrate air presure, 4. 1 1 7
Water-drop magnifier, 1 . 1 7- 1 8
Water pressure :
balancing water columns, 2.273
in a large vessel, 2.271
liquids exert pressure, 2.268
model hydraulic elevator, 2.276
model hydraulic ram, 2.277
pressure of different liquids, 2.270
raising weights by water pressure, 2.274
same in all directions, 2.272
thrust experiment, 4 . 1 04A
varies with depth 2.269
water is incompressible, 2.275
Water wheels, 2.278
Wave motion :
light, 2 . 1 99-23 1
ripple tank : circular pulses, 2. 1 84 ; reflection at
curved and straight barriers, 2 . 1 87 ; refraction,
2 . 1 88- 1 8 9 ; straight pulses, 2 . 1 85
sound, 2. 1 90-1 98
waves in rope, 2. 1 82
Index
Wax :
as a conductor of electricity, 2.60
Chatterton 's compound, 1 .56
Faraday's cement, 1 . 56
Weather, see: Air, Water, Weather projects, Wind
Weather projects :
amount of dust in air, 4.141
clouds, 4 . 1 35, 4.14 1 , 4. 143
fronts, 4.138, 4.143-144
hurricanes, 4. 144
making weather instruments, 4.107- 1 1 4
measuring upper winds, 4.139
occlusions, 4.138
thunderstorms, 4.142
tornadoes, 4.144
weather instrument housing box, 4.1 1 3
weather picture, 4.140
weather record, 4. 1 37
Weight, 4.105
Weight and pressure, 2.267
Weightlessness, 4. 1 05
Wet and dry bulb thermometer, 4.1 14, 4.1 34
Wheel and axle, 2.253
Willow, 3.48, 3.57
Wind :
deflection anemometer, 4.109
direction finder (vane), 4.107, 4.1 1 3
effect on soil, 4.64
measuring upper winds, 4 . 1 39
scale of winds, 4. 1 37
sorting soil, 4.64
speed indicator, 4.108, 4.1 1 3
speed of hurricanes and tornadoes, 4.144
Winter, 4.98
Woodpecker, 3 . 5
Wood gas, 2.99
Wood's metal, 1 . 53
Wrens, 3.7
Xylene, 2.48
Yeast :
baker's yeast, 3.26
cultures, 3 .26A
reproduction, 3 .26B
role as catalyst, 2.95
sampling yeast populations, 3.27, 3.29
use in cooking, 2.39
Zenith, 4.74
Zinc :
electrode in cells, 2.84-85, 2.88, 2. 1 50
flux for soldering zinc, 1 .5
preparation of hydrogen, 2.33 -34, 2.74
use in copper displacement experiments, 2.83
Zinc chloride, 1 .5
Zinc oxide, 2.3 1 , 2.94
Zinc sulphate, 2.33-34, 2.69, 2.74, 2.83, 2.85
270
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