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SQL Intro
SQL Syntax
SQL SELECT
SQL DISTINCT
SQL WHERE
SQL AND & OR
SQL ORDER BY
SQL TOP
SQL Advanced
SQL LIKE
SQL Wildcards
SQL IN
SQL BETWEEN
SQL Alias
SQL Join
SQL INNER JOIN
SQL LEFT JOIN
SQL RIGHT JOIN
SQL FULL JOIN
SQL UNION
SQL SELECT INTO
SQL CREATE DB
SQL CREATE TABLE
SQL Constraints
SQL NOT NULL
SQL UNIQUE
SQL PRIMARY KEY
SQL FOREIGN KEY
SQL CHECK
SQL DEFAULT
SQL CREATE INDEX
SQL DROP
SQL ALTER
SQL INSERT
SQL INCREMENT
SQL UPDATE
SQL DELETE
SQL CREATE VIEW
SQL Functions
SQL Functions
SQL AVG()
SQL COUNT()
SQL FIRST()
SQL LAST()
SQL MAX()
SQL MIN()
SQL SUM()
SQL GROUP BY
SQL HAVING
SQL UCASE()
SQL LCASE()
SQL MID()
SQL LEN()
SQL ROUND()
SQL NOW()
SQL FORMAT()
SQL Specials
SQL NULLS
SQL ISNULL()
SQL Data Types
What is SQL?
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands
(such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to
the SQL standard!
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.
A table is a collections of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
P_Id
1
2
3
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys),
specify links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL
statements in SQL are:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the
table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name
equal to "Svendson":
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal
to "Ola":
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
LastName
Svendson
FirstName
Tove
Address
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name
equal to "Svendson":
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Svendson
FirstName
Tove
Address
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal
to "Ola":
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
LastName
Svendson
FirstName
Tove
Address
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
Nilsen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Tom
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
Vingvn 23
Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Stavanger
P_Id
1
2
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
Nilsen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Tom
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
Vingvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Stavanger
Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:
Wildcard
%
_
[charlist]
[^charlist]
or
[!charlist]
Description
A substitute for zero or more characters
A substitute for exactly one character
Any single character in charlist
Any single character not in charlist
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "nes" from the
"Persons" table.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
LastName
Hansen
FirstName
Ola
Address
Timoteivn 10
City
Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "S", followed by any character,
followed by "end", followed by any character, followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Svendson
FirstName
Tove
Address
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
LastName
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Tove
Kari
Address
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Stavanger
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from
the "Persons" table.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
The IN Operator
FirstName
Ola
Address
Timoteivn 10
City
Sandnes
SQL IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example
The "Persons" table:
P_Id
1
2
3
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table
above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Stavanger
The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between two
values.
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Hansen" and
"Pettersen" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
FirstName
Ola
Address
Timoteivn 10
City
Sandnes
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
LastName
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Tove
Kari
Address
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Stavanger
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can be a good thing to do if
you have very long or complex table names or column names.
An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called "Product_Orders". We will give
the table aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.
Now we want to list all the orders that "Ola Hansen" is responsible for.
We use the following SELECT statement:
The JOIN keyword is used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship
between certain columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column with a unique value for each row. Each primary key value must be unique
within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of the
data in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id
1
2
3
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two rows
can have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:
O_Id
1
2
3
4
5
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
P_Id
3
3
1
1
15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column
refers to the persons in the "Persons" table without using their names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.
JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right
table
RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left
table
FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
P_Id
3
3
1
1
15
FirstName
Ola
Ola
Kari
Kari
OrderNo
22456
24562
77895
44678
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there are
rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no
matches in the right table (table_name2).
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
P_Id
3
3
1
1
15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
FirstName
Ola
Ola
Kari
Kari
Tove
OrderNo
22456
24562
77895
44678
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there are no
matches in the right table (Orders).
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
P_Id
3
3
1
1
15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
FirstName
Ola
Ola
Kari
Kari
OrderNo
22456
24562
77895
44678
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no
matches in the left table (Persons).
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
P_Id
3
3
1
1
15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons.
We use the following SELECT statement:
FirstName
Ola
Ola
Kari
Kari
Tove
OrderNo
22456
24562
77895
44678
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows from the
right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there
are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA":
E_ID
01
02
03
04
E_Name
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.
The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to create backup copies of tables.
SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
SELECT LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
SQL FUNCTION
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next
chapters.
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted)
of the specified column:
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
4
5
6
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
300
2000
100
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
We use the following SQL statement:
SUM(OrderPrice)
1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:
SUM(OrderPrice)
2000
Jensen
2000
..
The GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set
by one or more columns.
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
300
2000
100
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.
We use the following SQL statement:
SUM(OrderPrice)
2000
1700
2000
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
SUM(OrderPrice)
5700
5700
5700
5700
5700
5700
OrderDate
2008/11/12
2008/10/23
2008/09/02
OrderPrice
1000
1600
700
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Hansen
4
5
6
2008/09/03
2008/08/30
2008/10/04
300
2000
100
Hansen
Jensen
Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
We use the following SQL statement:
SUM(OrderPrice)
1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:
SUM(OrderPrice)
2000
2000
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert
the "LastName" column to uppercase.
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert
the "LastName" column to lowercase.
We use the following SELECT statement:
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Description
Required. The field to extract characters from.
Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1).
Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function
returns the rest of the text.
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
Description
Required. The field to round.
Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
ProductName
Jarlsberg
Mascarpone
Gorgonzola
Unit
1000 g
1000 g
1000 g
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
We use the following SELECT statement:
UnitPrice
10
33
16
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
ProductName
Jarlsberg
Mascarpone
Gorgonzola
Unit
1000 g
1000 g
1000 g
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.
We use the following SELECT statement:
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
PerDate
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Description
Required. The field to be formatted.
Required. Specifies the format.
ProductName
Jarlsberg
Mascarpone
Gorgonzola
Unit
1000 g
1000 g
1000 g
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in the
following format "YYYY-MM-DD").
We use the following SELECT statement:
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
PerDate
2008-10-07
2008-10-07
2008-10-07
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a
record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL
value.
How can we test for NULL values?
It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NULL operator:
FirstName
Ola
Kari
Address
FirstName
Tove
Address
Borgvn 23
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions.
ProductName
Jarlsberg
Mascarpone
Gorgonzola
UnitPrice
10.45
32.56
15.67
UnitsInStock
16
23
9
UnitsOnOrder
15
20
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values.
We have the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL.
Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values.
The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result.
In this case we want NULL values to be zero.
Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if
the value is NULL:
SQL Server / MS Access
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Oracle
Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve the
same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
MySQL
MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's
ISNULL() function.
In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from one single table.
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category
"Beverages":
2. DDL
SQL Data Types
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.
Byte
Integer
Long
Single
Double
Currency
AutoNumber
Date/Time
Yes/No
Ole Object
Hyperlink
Description
Storage
Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters
maximum
Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536
characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are
searchable
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
1 byte
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
2 bytes
Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647
4 bytes
Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
4 bytes
Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
8 bytes
Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal 8 bytes
places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use
AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number,
4 bytes
usually starting at 1
Use for dates and times
8 bytes
A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In
1 bit
code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0).
Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large
up to 1GB
OBjects)
Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Wizard
Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a drop- 4 bytes
down list
VARCHAR(size)
TINYTEXT
TEXT
BLOB
MEDIUMTEXT
MEDIUMBLOB
LONGTEXT
LONGBLOB
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)
Description
Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters
Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a
TEXT type
Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an
ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be
inserted.
Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.
SET
Number types:
Data type
TINYINT(size)
SMALLINT(size)
MEDIUMINT(size)
INT(size)
BIGINT(size)
FLOAT(size,d)
DOUBLE(size,d)
Description
-128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may
be specified in parenthesis
-32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in parenthesis
-8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum
number of digits may be specified in parenthesis
-2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis
-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to
18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
DECIMAL(size,d)
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an
negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at
zero instead of a negative number.
Date types:
Data type
DATE()
Description
A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME()
TIMESTAMP()
TIME()
YEAR()
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an
INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time.
TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD,
or YYMMDD.
Description
Storage
Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters
n
Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters
Variable-length character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters
Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of text data
Unicode strings:
Data type
nchar(n)
nvarchar(n)
Description
Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters
Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters
Storage
nvarchar(max)
ntext
Binary types:
Data type
bit
binary(n)
varbinary(n)
varbinary(max)
image
Description
Allows 0, 1, or NULL
Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB
Storage
Description
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647
Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Storage
1 byte
2 bytes
4 bytes
8 bytes
Number types:
Data type
tinyint
smallint
int
bigint
decimal(p,s)
5-17
bytes
numeric(p,s)
smallmoney
money
float(n)
real
Date types:
Data type
datetime
datetime2
smalldatetime
date
time
datetimeoffset
timestamp
Description
Storage
From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 8 bytes
milliseconds
From January 1, 0001 and December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of
6-8 bytes
100 nanoseconds
From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute 4 bytes
Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999
3 bytes
Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds
3-5 bytes
The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset
8-10
bytes
Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets
created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal
clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only
one timestamp variable
Description
Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and
timestamp
Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
Stores a result-set for later processing
table_name
data_type,
data_type,
data_type,
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the
data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types
reference.
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the
table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
DEFAULT
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
OrderNo
77895
44678
22456
24562
P_Id
3
3
2
1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column,
because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
MySQL:
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
MySQL:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
DateOfBirth
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.
Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So you should only create indexes on columns (and tables) that will
be frequently searched against.
DML
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
Nilsen
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Johan
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
Bakken 2
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Stavanger
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
Nilsen
Tjessem
FirstName
Ola
Tove
Kari
Johan
Jakob
Address
Timoteivn 10
Borgvn 23
Storgt 20
Bakken 2
City
Sandnes
Sandnes
Stavanger
Stavanger