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GeometricSolutionsofQuadraticandCubic
Equations
by
DavidW.Henderson1
DepartmentofMathematics,CornellUniversity
Ithaca,NY,148537901,USA1
Iamreadytoleadyou,thereader,onapaththroughpartoftheforestofmathematicsapaththathas
delightedmemanytimesandsurprisedme.EverytimeIwalkalongitIseesomethingIhadnotseen
before.Wewillbringwithusthequestion:Whataresquareroots?Wewillfindwhatisoneoftheoldest
writtenmathematicalproofs,stillverymuchalive,rightalongsidesomenewresultsneverbefore
published.
Thesewillbecombinedtosolvequadraticequationsby"completingthesquare"arealsquare.Thesein
turnleadtoconicsectionsandcuberootsandculminatinginthebeautifulgeneralmethodfromOmar
al'Khayyam,thePersiangeometer,philosopher,poet,whichcanbeusedtofindalltherealrootsofcubic
equations.AlongthewayweshallclearlyseesomeoftheancestralformsofourmodernCartesian
coordinatesandanalyticgeometry.Iwillpointourseveralinaccuraciesandmisconceptionsthathave
creptintothemodernhistoricalaccountsofthesematters.ButIurgeyoutonotlookatthisonlyforits
historicalinterestbutratherlookforthemeaningithasinourcurrentdayunderstandingofmathematics.
Thispathisnotthroughadeadmuseumorpetrifiedforest,thispathpassesthroughideaswhicharevery
muchaliveandwhichhavesomethingtosaytoourmoderntechnological,increasinglynumerical,world.
1.TheBeginningofthePath
FormethepathstartedineighthgradewhenIaskedmyteacher"Whatisthesquareroot?"Iknewthat
thesquarerootofNwasanumberwhosesquarewasequaltoNbutwherecanIfindit?(Hiddeninthat
questionis"HowdoIknowitalwaysexists?")Iknewwhatthesquarerootsof4and9wereno
problemthere.
Ievenknewthatwasthelengthofthediagonalofaunitsquare,butwhatofor?Atfirstthe
teachershowedmeaSquareRootTable(atableofnumericalsquareroots),butIsoondiscoveredthatif
ItookthenumberlistedinthetableasandsquareditIgot1.999396not2.(Moderndaypocket
calculatorsgiverisetothesameproblem.)SoIpersistedaskingmyquestionWhatisthesquareroot?
ThentheteacheransweredbygivingmeTHEANSWERtheSquareRootAlgorithm.Doyou
remembertheSquareRootAlgorithmthatprocedure,similartolongdivision,bywhichitispossibleto
calculatethesquareroot?Orperhapsmorerecentlyyouweretaughtthe"DivideandAverage"Method
whichgoeslikethis:IfA1isanapproximationofNthentheaverageofA1andN/A1isanevenbetter
approximationwhichwecouldcallA2.AndthenthenextapproximationA3istheaverageofA2and
N/A2.InequationformthisbecomesAn+1=(1/2)(An+(N/An)).Forexample,ifA1=1.5isan
approximationof2,thenA2=1.417,A3=1.414216andsofortharebetterandbetter
approximation.Butwait!Mostofthetimethesealgorithmsdonotcalculatethesquareroottheyonly
calculateapproximationstothesquareroot.ThealgorithmshaveanadvantageoverthetablesbecauseI
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could,atleastintheory,calculateapproximationsascloseasIwished.Howevertheyarestillonly
approximationsandmyquestionstillremainedWhatisthissquarerootwhichthesealgorithms
approximate?
Myeighthgradeteacherthengaveup,butlaterincollegeIfoundoutthatmodernmathematicsanswers:
"Wemakeanassumption(TheCompletenessAxiom)whichimpliesthatthesequenceofapproximations
fromtheSquareRootAlgorithmmustconvergetosomerealnumber."And,whenIcontinuedtoaskmy
question,IfoundthatinmodernmathematicsthesquarerootisacertainequivalenceclassofCauchy
sequencesofrationalnumbersoracertainDedekindcut.Ithenletgoofmyquestionandforgotitinthe
turmoilofgraduateschool,writingmythesisandbeginningmymathematicalcareer.
Later,IstartedteachingageometrycourseformathematicsmajorsandoneofthetopicswasDissection
Theorywhichleads(amongotherthings)totheresultthateverypolygonalregionintheplanecanbecut
up(dissected)intoafinitenumberofpieceswhichcanthenberearrangedtoformasquare.Inthiscase
wesaythatthepolygonalregionisequivalentbydissectiontoasquare.Apreliminarysteptothegeneral
resultisthe:
Theorem1.Everyrectangleisequivalentbydissectiontoasquare.
IpresentedtotheclassthefollowingproofwhichIfoundslightlymodifiedinastandardgeometrytext
book,Eves(1963):
"Lets=abbethesideofthesquareequivalenttotherectanglewithsidesaandb.Placethesquare,
AEFH,ontherectangle,ABCD,asshownin[thefigure].

DrawEDtocutBCinRandHFinK.Let
BCcutHFinG.FromthesimilartrianglesKDHandEDAwehaveHK/AE=HD/AD,or
HK=(AE)(HD)/AD=s(as)/a=ss/a=sb.
Therefore,...wehaveEFKRCD,EBRKHD."
(IncasethatABCDissolongandskinnythatKendsupbetweenGandFwecan,bycuttingABCDin
halfandstackingthehalves,reducetheprooftotheabovecase.)
IwassatisfiedwiththeproofuntilinthesecondyearofthecoursewhenIstartedsensingstudent
uneasinesswiththeproof.AsIlistenedtotheiruneasinesstherestartedtocomeupthequestionWhatis
ab?Howdoyoufindit?Oh,yes,Irememberthatusedtobemyquestion!
ThestudentsandIalsonoticedthatthefactsusedaboutsimilartrianglesintheaboveproofareusually
provedusingthetheoryofareasoftrianglesandthusthatthisproofcouldnotbeusedaspartofa
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concretetheoryofareasofpolygons,whichwasourpurposeinstudyingDissectionTheoryinthefirst
place.
Thatstartedmeoffonanexplorationwhichcontinuedonandoffovermanyyears.SomeofwhatIfound
Iwillnowshowyou(butinadifferentorderfromtheorderIfirstsawthen).
2.WhatisaSquareRoot?
WhilereadinganarticleaboutsomethingelseIranacrossanitemthatsaidthattheproblemofchanging
arectangleintoasquareappearedintheSulbasutrambyBaudhayana(seePrakash(1968)).
"Sulbasutram"means"Rulesofthecord"andisanancient(atleast600BC)bookwritteninSanskritasa
handbookforpeoplewhowerebuildingaltarsandtemples.Mostofthebookgivesdetailedinstructions
ontempleconstructionanddesign,butthefirstchapterisageometrytextbookwhichcontainsgeometric
statementscalled"Sutra".Sutra54is:(Here"oblong"means"rectangle".)
"Ifyouwishtoturnanoblongintoasquare,takethetiryanmani,i.e.theshortersideoftheoblongforthe
sideofsquare.Dividetheremainder(thatpartoftheoblongwhichremainsafterthesquarehasbeencut
off)intotwopartsandinverting(theirplaces)jointhosetwopartstotwosidesofthesquare.(Weget
thusalargesquareoutofonecornerofwhichasmallsquareiscutoutasitwere.)Filltheemptyplace
(inthecorner)byaddingapiece(asmallsquare).Ithasbeentaughthowtodeductit(theaddedpiece).
"Byaddingthesmallsquareinthecornerwegetalargesquarewhichisequaltotheoblongplusthe
smallsquare,thereforewemustdeductthesmallsquarefromthelargesquare(seeSutra51)andthenwe
haveasremainderasquarewhichisequaltotheoblong."
HereisadiagramforSutra54:

Soourrectanglehasbeenchangedintoalargesquarefromwhichasmallsquarehasbeenremoved(or
deducted).NowSutra51:
"IfyouwishtodeductonesquarefromanotherSquare,cutoffapiecefromthelargersquarebymaking
amarkonthegroundwiththesideofthesmallersquarewhichyouwishtodeduct(theprocessisthe
sameasthatdescribedinSutra50anoblongiscutoff,thesidesofwhichareequaltothesidesofthe
twogivensquares)drawoneofthesides(THECORDREPRESENTINGoneOFTHElongerSIDESof
theoblong)acrosstheoblongsothatittouchestheothersidewhereittouches(theotherside),bythis
linewhichhasbeencutoffthesmallsquareisdeductedfromthelargeone(i.e.thecutofflineistheside
ofasquaretheareaofwhichisequaltothedifferenceofthetwosquares.)"

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Thislastassertionfollowsfromsutra50:
"Ifyouwishtocombinetwosquaresofdifferentsizeintoone,scratchupwiththesideofthesmaller
squareapiececutofffromthelargerone(i.e.cutoffapiecefromthelargersquarebyscratchingupthe
groundormakingamarkuponthegroundatadistancefromoneendofasideofthelargesquare,
whichisequaltothelengthofthesideofthesmallersquareandbyrepeatingthisprocessonthe
oppositesideofthelargersquareandjoiningthetwomarksonthegroundbyalineorcord,anoblongis
cutoff,ofwhichthetwolongersidesareequaltothesideofthelargesquare).Thediagonalofthis
cutoffpieceisthesideofthecombinedsquares(ofthesquarewhichcombinesthetwosquares)."

Doessutra50soundfamiliar?ItshoulditisaclearstatementofwhatwecallthePythagoreanTheorem,
writtenbeforePythagoraswasborn!
A.Seidenberg(1961)inanarticleentitledTheRitualOriginofGeometrygivesadetaileddiscussionof
thesignificanceoftheSulbasutram.Hearguesthatitwaswrittenbefore600BC(Pythagoraslivedabout
500BCandEuclidabout300BC)Hegivesevidencetosupporthisclaimthatitcontainscodificationof
knowledgegoing"farbackof1700BC"andthatthisknowledgewasthecommonsourceofIndian,
Egyptian,BabylonianandGreekmathematics.Combinedtogethersutras50,51and54describea
constructionofasquarewiththesameareaasagivenrectangle(oblong)andaproof(basedonthe
PythagoreanTheorem)thatthisconstructioniscorrect.Youcanfindstatedinmanybooksandarticles
thattheancientHindus,ingeneral,andtheSulbasutraminparticular,didnothaveproofsor
demonstrationsortheyaredismissedasbeing"rare".Isuggestyoudecideforyourself.
BaudhayanaavoidstheCompletenessAxiombygivinganexplicitconstructionofthesideofthesquare.

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Theconstructioncanbesummarizedinthediagram:
ThisisthesameasEuclid'sconstructioninPropositionII14(seeHeath(1956),page409).ButEuclid's
proofismuchmorecomplicated.
NotethatneitherBaudhayananorEuclidgiveaproofofTheorem1becausetheuseofthePythagorean
Theoremobscuresthedissection.However,theydogiveaconcreteconstructionandaproofthatthe
constructionworks.Inaddition,ifsupplementedwithadissectionproofofthePythagoreanTheorem
suchasinTheorem3,below,bothBaudhayana'sandEuclidmethodsprove(withoutusing
completeness):
Theorem2:ForeveryrectangleRtherearesquaresS1andS2suchthatR+S2isequivalentby
dissectiontoS1+S2andthusRandS1havethesamearea.
Theorem3:(DissectionversionofPythagoreanTheorem).Inanyrighttriangle,theunionofthesquares
onthetwosidesisequivalentbydissectiontothesquareonthehypotenuse.
ProofofTheorem3knowntotheancientChinese:

Aboutadozendifferent(andcorrect)proofsofTheorems1havebeenfoundbythestudentsinmy
geometrycourse.Oneparticularlyclearonefollows:(AsfarasIknowthisproofhasneverbeforebeen
published.)
LetABGHbetherectangleandextendthelineABtoCsothatBCBH.DrawthesemicircleSonAC
andletDbetheintersectionofSwiththeextensionofBH.

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ThenADCisarightangleandtheanglesarecongruentasindicatedinthediagram.Constructthe
squareDBEF.ThenDBCIGAandDBC DFJbothbyAngleSideAngle.EasilyAEJ
IHD.ThustherectangleABHGisequivalentbydissectiontothesquareDBEF.
Noticethatthisproofavoidsassumingthatthesquarerootexists(andthusavoidstheCompleteness
Axiom)andavoidsusinganyfactsaboutsimilartriangles.Theproofexplicitlyconstructsthesquareand
showsinanelementarywaythatitsareaisthesameastheareaoftherectangle.Thereisnoneedforthe
areaorthesidesoftherectangletobeexpressedinnumbers.Alsogivenarealnumber,b,thesquareroot
ofbcanbeconstructedbyusingarectanglewithsidesband1.
So,finally,IhaveananswertomyquestionWhatisasquareroot?Isay"ananswer"becauseevery
yearIseemoreorseeitfromadifferentpointofview.
3.QuadraticEquations
Findingsquarerootsisthesimplestcaseofsolvingquadraticequations.Ifyoulookinsomehistoryof
mathematicsbooks,youwillfindthatquadraticequationswereextensivelysolvedbytheBabylonians
(numerically)andbytheGreeks(geometrically).However,theearliestknowngeneraldiscussionof
quadraticequationstookplacebetween800and1100ADintheMuslimEmpire.Bestknownare
MohammedIbnMusaal'Khowarizmi(wholivedinBaghdad)andOmaral'Khayyam(wholivedin
Persia,nowIran,andismostlyknownintheWestforhispoetryTheRubaiyat.Bothwrotebooksentitled
AljabrW'almugabalah,al'Khowarizmiabout820ADandal'Khayyamabout1100AD.From
al'Khowarizmiwegetourword"algorithm"andfromthetitleoftheirbooksourword"algebra".An
Englishtranslationofbothbooksisavailableinmanylibraries,ifyoucanfigureoutwhosenameitis
cataloguedunder(seeReferences,Karpinski(1915)andKasir(1931)).
Inthesebooksyoufindgeometricandnumericalsolutionstoquadraticequationsandgeometricproofs
ofthesesolutions.Butthefirstthingthatyounoticeisthatthereisnotonegeneralquadraticequationas
weareusedtoit:2ax+bx+c=0.Rather,becausetheuseofnegativecoefficientsandnegativeroots
wasavoided,theylistsixtypesofquadraticequations(wefollowal'Khayyam'sleadandsettheleading
coefficientequalto1):
1. x=c,whichneedsnosolution,
2. x=bx,whichiseasilysolved,
3. x2=c,whichhasrootx=c,
4. x2+bx=c,withrootx=(b/2)2+c]b/2,
5. x2+c=bx,withrootsx=b/2(b/2)2c],ifc<(b/2)2,and
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6. x2=bx+c,withrootx=b/2+[(b/2)+c].
Herebandcarealwayspositivenumbersorageometriclength(b)andarea(c).Thesetypesaretheonly
possibilitieswithpositivecoefficientsandpositiveroots.(x2+bx+c=0hasnopositiveroots.)
Butwhydidmathematiciansavoidnegativenumbers?Theavoidanceofnegativenumberswas
widespreaduntilafewhundredyearsago.IntheSixteenthCentury,Europeanmathematicianscalledthe
negativenumbersthatappearedasrootsofequations,"numerifictici"fictitiousnumbers(seeWitmer
(1968),page11).
Togetafeelingforwhy,thinkaboutthemeaningof2x3astwo3'sand3x2asthree2'sandthentryto
findameaningfor3x(2)and2x(+3).Anotheranswerisfoundintherelianceongeometric
justifications,asal'Khayyamwrote(seeAmirMoez(1963),page329):
"Whoeverthinksalgebraisatrickinobtainingunknownshasthoughtitinvain.Noattentionshouldbe
paidtothefactthatalgebraandgeometryaredifferentinappearance.Algebras(jabbreandmaqabeleh)
aregeometricfactswhichareprovedbypropositionsfiveandsixofBooktwoof[Euclid's]Elements".
Somehistorianshavequotedthispassagebuthaveleftoutallthewordsappearingafter"proved".Inmy
opinion,thisomissionchangesthemeaningofthepassage.Euclid'spropositionsthatarementionedby
al'KhayyamarethebasicingredientsofEuclid'sproofofthesquarerootconstructionandformabasis
fortheconstructionofconicsectionsseebelow.Geometricjustificationwhentherearenegative
coefficientsisatleastverycumbersomeifnotimpossible.(Ifyoudoubtthistrytomodifysomeofthe
geometricjustificationsbelow.)Inanycase,Euclid,uponwhichthesemathematiciansrelied,didnot
allownegativequantities.
Forthegeometricjustificationof(III)andthefindingofsquareroots,al'KhayyamreferstoEuclid's
constructionofthesquarerootinPropositionII14.
For(IV)wehaveasgeometricjustification:

andthus,by"completingthesquare"onx+b/2,wehave(x+b/2)2=c+(b/2)2.Notethesimilarity
betweenthisandBaudhayana'sconstructionofthesquareroot(seeSection2).
For(V),firstassumex<(b/2)anddrawtheequationas:

andnotethatthesquareonb/2is(b/2x)2+c.
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Thisleadstox=b/2[(b/2)2c].Notethatifc>(b/2)2thenthisgeometricsolutionisimpossible.
Whenx>(b/2),usethedrawings:

Forthesolutionof(VI)usethedrawing:

Dotheabovesolutionsfindthenegativeroots?Well,first,theanswerisclearly,No,ifyoumean:Did
al'Khowarizmiandal'Khayyam(ortheearlierGreeksandBabylonians)mentionnegativeroots?Butlet
usnotbetoohasty,supposer(r,positive)isthenegativerootofx2+bx=c.Then(r)2+b(r)=corr2
=br+c.Thusrisapositiverootofx2=bx+c!Theabsolutevalueofthenegativerootofx2+bx=cis
thepositiverootofx2=bx+candviceversa.Also,theabsolutevaluesofthenegativerootsofx2+bx+
c=0arethepositiverootsofx2+c=bx.So,inthissense,Yes,theabovegeometricsolutionsdofindall
therealrootsofallquadraticequations.Thusitismisleadingtostate,asmosthistoricalaccountsdo,
thatthegeometricmethodsfailedthefindnegativeroots.Theusersofthesemethodsdidnotfind
negativerootsbecausetheydidnotconceiveofthem.However,themethodscanbeeasilyanddirectly
usedtofindallthenegativeroots.
4:ConicSectionsandCubeRoots
TheGreeksnoticedthat,ifa/c=c/d=d/b,then(a/c)2=(c/d)(d/b)=(c/b)andthusc3=a2b.Nowsetting
a=1,weseethatwecanfindthecuberootofb,ifwecanfindcanddsuchthatc2=dandd2=bc.If
wethinkofcanddasbeingvariablesandbaconstant,thenweseetheseequationsastheequationsof
twoparabolaswithperpendicularaxesandthesamevertex.TheGreeksalsosawitthiswaybutfirstthey
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hadtodeveloptheconceptofaparabola!
TotheGreeks,andlateral'Khayyam,ifABisalinesegment,thentheparabolawithvertexBand
parameterABisthecurvePsuchthat,ifCisonP,thentherectangleBDCE(seethedrawing)hasthe
propertythat(BE)2=DBAB.SinceinCartesiancoordinatesthecoordinatesofCare(BE,BD)thislast
equationbecomesafamiliarequationforaparabola.

PointsoftheparabolamaybeconstructedbyusingtheconstructionforthesquarerootgiveninSection
2.Inparticular,EistheintersectionofthesemicircleonADwiththelineperpendiculartoABatB.(The
constructioncanalsobedonebyfindingD'suchthatAB=DD',thenthesemicircleonBD'intersectsP
atC.)Iencourageyoutotrythisconstructionyourselfitisveryeasytodoifyouuseacompassand
graphpaper.
Nowwecanfindthecuberoot.LetbbeapositivenumberorlengthandletAB=bandconstructCso
thatCBisperpendiculartoABandsuchthatCB=1.

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ConstructaparabolawithvertexBandparameterABandconstructanotherparabolawithvertexBand
parameterCB.LetEbetheintersectionofthetwoparabolas.DrawtherectangleBGEF.Then(EF)2=
BFABand(GE)2=GBCB.But,settingc=GE=BFandd=GB=EF,wehaved2=cbandc2=d.
Thusc3=b.Ifyouuseafinegraphpaperitiseasytogetthreedigitaccuracyinthisconstruction.
TheGreeksdidathoroughstudyofconicsectionsandtheirpropertieswhichculminatedinAppolonius's
bookConicswhichappearedin200BC.YoucanreadthisbookinEnglishtranslation,seeHeath(1961).
Tofindrootsofcubicequationsinthenextsectionweshallalsoneedtoknowthe(rectangular)
hyperbolawithvertexBandparameterAB.ThisisthecurveH,suchthatifEisonHandACEDisthe
determinedrectangle(seedrawing),then(EC)2=BCAC.

ThepointEcanbeconstructedusingSection2.LetFbethebisectorofAB.ThenthecirclewithcenterF
andradiusFCwillintersectatDthelineperpendiculartoABatA.Fromthedrawingitisclearhowthese
circlesalsoconstructtheotherbranchofthehyperbola(withvertexA.)
Noticehowthesedescriptionsandconstructionsoftheparabolaandhyperbolalookverymuchlikethey
weredoneinCartesiancoordinates.TheancestralformsofCartesiancoordinatesandanalyticgeometry
areevidenthere.Alsotheyareevidentinthesolutionsofcubicequationsinthenextsection.Theideas
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ofCartesiancoordinatesdidnotcometoDescartesoutofnowhere.Theunderlyingconceptswere
developinginGreekandMuslimmathematics.Oneoftheapparentreasonsthatfulldevelopmentdidnot
occuruntilDescartesisthat,aswehaveseen,negativenumberswerenotaccepted.Thefulluseof
negativenumbersisessentialfortherealizationofCartesiancoordinates.
5:RootsofCubicEquations
InhisAlJabrwa'lmuqabalahOmaral'Khayyamalsogavegeometricsolutiontocubicequations.We
shallseethathismethodsaresufficienttofindgeometricallyallreal(positiveornegative)rootsofcubic
equationshoweverinhisfirstchapteral'Khayyamsays:(seeKasir(1931),page49.)
"When,however,theobjectoftheproblemisanabsolutenumber,neitherwe,noranyofthosewhoare
concernedwithalgebra,havebeenabletoprovethisequationperhapsotherswhofollowuswillbeable
tofillthegapexceptwhenitcontainsonlythethreefirstdegrees,namely,thenumber,thethingandthe
square."
By"absolutenumber",al'Khayyamisreferringto,whatwecall,algebraicsolutionasopposedto
geometricone.Thisquotationsuggests,contrarytowhatmanyhistoricalaccountssay,thatal'Khayyam
expectedthatalgebraicsolutionswouldbefound.
Al'Khayyamfound19typesofcubicequations(whenexpressedwithonlypositivecoefficients).(See
Kasir(1931),page51).Ofthese19,fivereducetoquadraticequations(e.g.,x3+ax=bxreducestox2+
ax=b).Theremaining14typesal'Khayyamsolvesbyusingconicsections.Hismethodsfindallthe
positiverootsofeachtypealthoughhefailedtomentionsomeoftherootsinafewcasesand,ofcourse,
heignoresthenegativeroots.Insteadofgoingthroughhis14types,Iwillshowhowasimplereduction
willreduceallthetypestoonly3typesinadditiontotypesalreadysolvedsuchas,x3=b.Iwillthen
giveal'Khayyam'ssolutionstothesetypes.
Inthecubicy3+py2+gy+r=0(where,here,p,g,r,arepositive,negative,orzero)sety=x(p/3).
Tryit!Theresultingequationinxwillhavetheformx3+sx+t=0,(where,here,sandtarepositive,
negativeorzero).Ifwerearrangethisequationsoallthecoefficientsarepositivethenwegetfourtypes
thathavenotbeenpreviouslysolved:
(I)x3+ax=b,(II)x3+b=ax,(III)x3=ax+b,and(IV)x3+ax+b=0,
whereaandbarepositive,inaddition,totypespreviouslysolved.Now(IV)hasnopositiverootsand
theabsolutevalueofitsnegativerootsarethe(positive)rootsof(I).Also,theabsolutevalueofthe
negativerootsof(II)aretherootsof(III)andviceversa.Thus,weneedonlyfindthepositiverootsof
types(I),(II),and(III).
Al'Khayyam'ssolutionfortype(I):x3+ax=b.
"Acubeandsidesareequaltoanumber.LetthelineAB[seefigure]bethesideofasquareequaltothe
givennumberofroots,[thatis,(AB)2=a,thecoefficient.]Constructasolidwhosebaseisequaltothe
squareonAB,equalinvolumetothegivennumber,[b].Theconstructionhasbeenshownpreviously.
LetBCbetheheightofthesolid.[I.e.BC(AB)2=b.]LetBCbeperpendiculartoAB...Constructa
parabolawhosevertexisthepointB...andparameterAB.ThenthepositionoftheconicHBDwillbe
tangenttoBC.DescribeonBCasemicircle.Itnecessarilyintersectstheconic.Letthepointof
intersectionbeDdropfromD,whosepositionisknown,twoperpendicularsDZandDEonBZandBC.
Boththepositionandmagnitudeoftheselinesareknown."
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TherootisEB.Al'Khayyam'sproof(usingamorecompactnotation)is:Fromthepropertiesofthe
parabola(Section4)andcircle(Section2)wehave
(DZ)2=(EB)2=BZABand(ED)2=(BZ)2=ECEB,
thus
EB(BZ)2=(EB)2EC=BZABEC
andtherefore
ABEC=EBBZand(EB)3=EB(BZAB)=(ABEC)AB=(AB)2EC
So
(EB)3+a(EB)=(AB)2EC+(AB)2(EB)=(AB)2CB=b.
ThusEBisarootofx3+ax=b.Sincex2+axincreasesasxincreases,therecanbeonlythisoneroot.
Al'Khayyam'ssolutionsfortypes(II)and(III):x3+b=axandx3=ax+b.
Al'Khayyamtreatedtheseequationsseparatelybutbyallowingnegativehorizontallengthswecan
combinehistwosolutionsintoonesolutionofx3b=ax.LetABbeperpendiculartoBCandasbefore
let(AB)2=aand(AB)2BC=b.PlaceBCtotheleftifthesigninfrontofbisnegative(type(III))and
placeBCtotherightisthesigninfrontofbispositive(type(II)).ConstructaparabolawithvertexBand
parameterAB.ConstructbothbranchesofthehyperbolawithverticesBandCandparameterBC.

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Eachintersectionofthehyperbolaandtheparabola(exceptforB)givesarootofthecubic.Suppose
theymeetatD.ThendropperpendicularsDEandDZ.TherootisBE(negativeiftotheleftandpositive
iftotheright).Again,ifyouusefinegraphpaperitiseasytogetthreedigitaccuracyhere.Ileaveitfor
you,thereader,toprovidetheproofwhichisverysimilartotype(I).
Alittlemorehistory:Mosthistoricalaccountsassertcorrectlythatal'Khayyamdidnotfindthenegative
rootsofcubics.However,theyaremisleadinginthattheyallfailtomentionthathismethodsarefully
sufficienttofindthenegativerootsaswehaveseenabove.Thisisincontrasttothecommonassertion
(see,forexample,Davis&Hersch(1981))thatGirolamoCardano(16thcenturyItalian)wasthefirstto
publishthegeneralsolutionofcubicequationswheninfact,asweshallsee,hehimselfadmittedthathis
methodsareinsufficienttofindtherealrootsofmanycubics.
Cardanopublishedhisalgebraicsolutionsinhisbook,ArtisMagnae(TheGreatArt)whichwas
publishedin1545.ForareadableEnglishtranslationandhistoricalsummary,seeWitmer(1968).
Cardanousedonlypositivecoefficientsandthusdividedthecubicequationsintothesame13types
(excludingx3=candequationsreducibletoquadratics)usedearlierbyal'Khayyam.Cardanoalsoused
geometrytoprovehissolutionsforeachtype.Aswedidabovewecanmakeasubstitutiontoreduce
thesetothesametypesasabove:
(I)x3+ax=b,(II)x3+b=ax,(III)x3=ax+b,and(IV)x3+ax+b=0.
Ifweallowourselvestheconvenienceofusingnegativenumbersandlengthsthenwecanreducetheseto
onetype:x3+ax+b=0,wherenowweallowaandbtobeeithernegativeorpositive.
Themain"trick"thatCardanousedwastoassumethatthereisasolutionofx3+ax+b=0oftheform
x=t1/3+u1/3.Pluggingthisintothecubicweget
(t1/3+u1/3)3+a(t1/3+u1/3)+b=0.
Ifyouexpandandsimplifythisyougetto
t+u+b+(3t1/3u1/3+a)(t1/3+u1/3)=0.
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Thusx=t1/3+u1/3isarootif
t+u=bandtu=(a/3)3.
Solving,wefindthattanduaretherootsofthequadraticequationz2+bz(a/3)3=0whichCardano
solvedgeometrically(andyoucanusethequadraticformula)toget
t=b/2+(b/2)a3)3]andu=b/2[(b/2)a3)3].
Thusthecubichasroots
x=t1/3+u1/3={b/2+(b/2)a3)3]}1/3+{b/2[(b/2)a3)3]}1/3.
ThisisCardano'scubicformula.But,astrangethinghappened,Cardanonoticedthatthecubicx3=15x+
4hasapositiverealroot4but,forthisequation,a=15andb=4,andifweputthesevaluesintohis
cubicformulawegetthattherootsofx3=15x+4are
x={2+}1/3+{2}1/3.
InCardano'stimetherewasnotheoryofcomplexnumbersandsohereasonablyconcludedthathis
methodwouldnotworkforthisequationCardanowrites(Witmer(1968),page103):
"Whenthecubeofonethirdthecoefficientofxisgreaterthanthesquareofonehalftheconstantofthe
equation...thenthesolutionofthiscanbefoundbythealizaproblemwhichisdiscussedinthebookof
geometricalproblems."
Itisnotclearwhatbookheisreferringtobutthe"alizaproblem"presumablyreferstoal'Hazen,anArab,
wholivedaround1000ADandwhoseworkswereknowninEuropeinCardano'stime.Al'Hazenhad
usedintersectingconicstosolvespecificcubicequationsandtheproblemofdescribingtheimageseenin
asphericalmirrorthislaterproblemisinsomebookscalled"Alhazen'sproblem".
Inaddition,weknowtodaythateachcomplexnumberhasthreecuberootsandsotheformulax={2+
}1/3+{2}1/3isambiguous.Infact,somechoicesforthetwocuberootsgiverootsof
thecubicandsomedonot.(Experimentwithx3=15x+4.)FacedwithCardano'sFormulaandequations
likex3=15x+4,Cardanoandothermathematiciansofthetimestartedexploringthepossiblemeanings
ofthesecomplexnumbersandthusstartedthetheoryofcomplexnumbers.Thisleadstoanother
interestingpathwhichwemaytakeanotherday.
6:SoWhatDoesThisAllPointTo?
Itpointstodifferentthingsforeachofus.Iconcludethatitisworthwhilepayingattentiontothe
meaninginmathematics.Ofteninourhastetogettothemodern,powerful,analytictoolsweignoreand
troduponthemeaningsandimagesthatarethere.Sometimesitishardeventogetaglimpsethatsome
meaningismissing.Onewaytogetthisglimpseandfindmeaningistolistentoandfollowquestionsof
"Whatdoesitmean?"thatcomeupinoneselfandinone'sstudents.Wemustlistencreativelybecause
weandourstudentsoftendonotknowhowtoexpresspreciselywhatisbotheringus.
Anotherwaytofindmeaningistoreadthemathematicsofoldandkeepasking"Whydidtheydothat?"
or"Whydidn'ttheydothis?"Whydidtheearlyalgebraists(upuntilatleast1600andmuchlaterIthink)
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insistongeometricproofs?Ihavesuggestedsomereasonsabove.Today,wenormallypassover
geometricproofsinfavorofanalyticonesbasedonthe150yearoldnotionofCauchysequencesandthe
AxiomofCompleteness.However,formoststudentsand,Ithink,mostmathematicians,ourintuitive
understandingoftherealnumbersisbasedonthegeometricrealline.Asanexample,thinkabout
multiplication:Whatdoesaxbmean?Comparethegeometricimagesofaxbwiththemultiplicationof
twoinfinite,nonrepeating,decimalfractions.Whatis2x?
Thereisanotherreasonforwhyageometricsolutionmaybemoremeaningful:Sometimeswewanta
geometricresultinsteadofanumericalone.Asanexample,IshalldescribeanexperiencethatIhad
whileafriendandIwerebuildingasmallhouseusingwood.Theroofofthehouseconsistsof12
isoscelestriangleswhichtogetherforma12sidedcone(orpyramid).Itwasnecessaryforusto
determinetheanglebetweentwoadjacenttrianglesintheroofsothatwecouldappropriatelycutthelog
rafters.Iimmediatelystartedtocalculatetheangleusing(numerical)trigonometryandalgebra.Butthen
Iranintoaproblem.ForfindingsquarerootsandvaluesoftrigonometricfunctionsIhadonlyasliderule
withthreeplaceaccuracy.AtonepointinthecalculationIhadtosubtracttwonumbersthatdifferedonly
inthethirdplace(e.g.5.685.65)thusmyresulthadlittleaccuracy.AsIstartedtofigureoutadifferent
computationalprocedurethatwouldavoidthesubtraction,IsuddenlyrealizedIdidn'twantanumber,I
wantedaphysicalangle.Infact,anumericalanglewouldbeessentiallyuselessimaginetakingtwo
roughboardsandputtingthematagivennumericalangleapartusingonlyanordinaryprotractor!WhatI
neededwasthephysicalangle,fullsize.SoIconstructedtheangleonthefloorofthehouseusingarope
asacompass.NotetherelationshipbetweenthisandBaudhayana'sdescriptionsofusingcords.This
geometricsolutionhadthefollowingadvantagesoveranumericalsolution:
Thegeometricsolutionresultedinthedesiredphysicalangle,whilethenumericalsolutionresulted
inanumber.
Thegeometricsolutionwasquickerthanthenumericalsolution.
Thegeometricsolutionwasimmediatelyunderstoodandtrustedbymyfriend(andfollow
builder),whohadalmostnomathematicaltraining,whilethenumericalsolutionwasbeyondmy
friend'sunderstandingbecauseitinvolvedtrigonometry(suchasthe"LawofCosines").
And,sincetheconstructionwasdonefullsize,thesolutionautomaticallyhadthedegreeof
accuracyappropriatefortheapplication.
Iclosewiththewordswrittenin1934bythe"fatherofFormalism",DavidHilbert,fromthePrefaceto
GeometryandtheImagination(seeHilbert,CohnVossen(1952),pageiii):
"Inmathematics,asinanyscientificresearch,wefindtwotendenciespresent.Ontheonehand,the
tendencytowardabstractionseekstocrystallizethelogicalrelationsinherentinthemazeofmaterialthat
isbeingstudied,andtocorrelatethematerialinasystematicandorderlymanner.Ontheotherhand,the
tendencytowardintuitiveunderstandingfostersamoreimmediategraspoftheobjectsonestudies,alive
rapportwiththem,sotospeak,whichstressestheconcretemeaningoftheirrelations.
"Astogeometry,inparticular,theabstracttendencyhashereledtothemagnificentsystematictheories
ofAlgebraicGeometry,ofRiemannianGeometry,andofTopologythesetheoriesmakeextensiveuseof
abstractreasoningandsymboliccalculationinthesenseofalgebra.Notwithstandingthis,itisstillastrue
todayasiteverwasthatintuitiveunderstandingplaysamajorroleingeometry.Andsuchconcrete
intuitionisofgreatvaluenotonlyfortheresearchworker,butalsoforanyonewhowishestostudyand
appreciatetheresultsofresearchingeometry.
"Inthisbook,itisourpurposetogiveapresentationofgeometry,asitstandstoday,initsvisual,
intuitiveaspects.Withtheaidofvisualimaginationwecanilluminatethemanifoldfactsandproblemsof
geometry,...
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"Inthismanner,geometrybeingasmanyfacetedasitisandbeingrelatedtothemostdiversebranches
ofmathematics,wemayevenobtainasummarizingsurveyofmathematicsasawhole,andavalididea
ofthevarietyofitsproblemsandthewealthofideasitcontains."
HilbertisemphasizingthepointwhichIamtryingtomakeinthispaper:Meaningisimportantin
mathematicsandgeometryisanimportantsourceofthatmeaning.
References:
AmirMoez,A.R.(1963).APaperofOmarKhayyam,ScriptaMathematica,26,323337.
Davis,P.J.&Hersh,R.(1981).TheMathematicalExperience.Boston:Birkhuser.
Eves,H.(1963).ASurveyofGeometry,Vol.1.Boston:AllynandBacon.
Heath,T.L.(1956).TheThirteenBooksofEuclid'sElements.NewYork:Dover.
Heath,T.L.(1961).AppoloniosofPerga,TreatiseonConicSections.NewYork:Dover.
Hilbert,David,&CohnVossen(1952).GeometryandtheImagination.NewYork:Chelsea.
Karpinski,L.C.,editor(1915).RobertofChester'sLatinTranslationoftheAlgebraofal
Khowarizmi.NewYork:Macmillan.(ThisisanEnglishtranslation.)
Kasir,D.S.,editor(1931).TheAlgebraofOmarKhayyam.NewYork:ColumbiaTeachersCollege.
Prakash(1968).BaudhayanaSulbasutram.Bombay.
Seidenberg,A.(1961).TheRitualOriginofGeometry,ArchivefortheHistoryoftheExactSciences,
1,488527.
Valens,E.G.(1976).TheNumberofThings:Pythagoras,GeometryandHummingStrings.New
York:Dutton.
Witmer,T.R.,editor(1968).TheGreatArtortheRulesofAlgebrabyGirolanoCardano.
Cambridge:TheMITPress.
11ThispaperwaswrittenwhileIwasavisitingmemberofthefacultyatBirzeitUniversity,a

PalestinianuniversityintheIsraelioccupiedWestBank.Iappreciatethehospitalityandsupportgiven
mebythestudents,facultyandstaffduringmyvisit.

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