I.

Introduction
Until the mid-1980s pure solid
carbon was thought to exist in only
two physical forms, diamond and
graphite. Diamond and graphite
have different physical structures
and properties however their atoms
are both arranged in covalently
bonded
networks.
These
two
different physical forms of carbon
atoms are called allotropes. In
1985 a group of researchers led by
Richard Smalley and Robert Curl of
Rice University in Houston and
Harry Kroto of the University of
Sussex in England made an
interesting
discovery.
They
vaporized a sample of graphite
with an intense pulse of laser light
and used a stream of helium gas to
carry the vaporized carbon into a
mass spectrometer. The mass
spectrum
showed
peaks
corresponding to clusters of carbon
atoms, with a particularly strong
peak corresponding to molecules
composed of 60 carbon atoms,
C60(buckminsterfullerene).
After
this
discovery,
other
related
molecules (C36, C70, C76 and C84)
composed of only carbon atoms
were also discovered and they and
the buckyball were recognized as a
new allotrope of carbon. This new
class of carbon molecules is called
the fullerenes. Fullerenes consist
of hexagons and pentagons that
form spherical shape. The unique
geometric properties of this new
allotrope of carbon did not end with
soccer shaped molecules, it was
also discovered that carbon atoms
can form long cylindrical tubes.
These tubes were originally called
buckytubes but now are better

known as carbon nanotubes or CNT

for short. This discovery was made
accidentally by by Sumio Iijima in
1991, while studying the surfaces
of graphite electrodes used in an
electric arc discharge. Carbon
nanotubes have diameters as small
as 1 nm and lengths up to several
centimeters.
Although,
like
buckyballs, carbon nanotubes are
strong, they are not brittle. They
can be bent, and when released,
they will spring back to their
original shape. One of the major
classifications of carbon nanotubes
is into single-walled varieties
(SWNTs), which have a single
cylindrical wall, and multi-walled
varieties (MWNTs), which have
cylinders within cylinders. MWNTs
are easier to produce especially in
great amounts but SWNTs are the
stars of the nanotube world.
Carbon nanotubes have unique
physical and chemical properties
that chemists are trying to better
understand
through
laboratory
research. One of the physical
properties of carbon nanotubes is
that its possible to make them
only a single atomic layer thick.
This means that they can be about
1/50,000th the thickness of a
human hair. Carbon nanotubes also
have a range of electric, thermal,
and structural properties that can
change based on the physical
design of the nanotube. One
distinct property that makes the
nanotubes special is its strength.
Carbon nanotubes have a higher
tensile strength than steel and
Kevlar. Their strength comes from
the sp bonds between the
individual carbon atoms. This bond

is even stronger than the sp bond

found in diamond. This strong bond
between carbon atoms is also the
one that allows carbon nanotubes
to
withstand
higher
electric
currents than copper. Thus making
one of the most significant
potential applications of singlewalled nanotubes to be in the
domain of Nano electronics. This is
as a result of SWNT's being highlyconductive. In fact, single-walled
nanotube ropes are the most
conductive carbon fibers known.
Alternative configurations of a
carbon nanotube can result in the
resultant material being semiconductive like silicon. Conductivity
in nanotubes is based on the
degree of chirality i.e. the degree
of twist and size of the diameter of
the actual nanotube - which results
in a nanotube that is actually
extremely conductive (making it
suitable as an interconnect on an
integrated
circuit)
or
nonconductive (making it suitable as
the basis for semi-conductors).
There are a lot more fascinating
properties
that
the
Carbon
Nanotubes possess but these few
that are stated earlier are enough
to prove that not only CNT is a
viable alternative to copper but can
also be used alongside existing IC
manufacturing process. Todays
technology is in need of a material
that is as efficient as silicon but is
also smaller. The progress of
Moores Law is heading in a way
such that by 2019 transistors
would just be a few atoms in width.
This means that the strategy of
ever finer photolithography will
have run its course; we have

already seen a progression from a

micron, to sub-micron to 45 nm
scale. Carbon Nanotubes, whose
walls are just 1 atom thick, with
diameters of only 1 to 2 nm, seems
to be one of the perfect candidates
to take us right to the end of
Moores Law curve. But since it has
many more interesting electronic
properties that will be furthermost
discussed in this paper, CNTs are
also viewed as a potential material
in areas as diverse as sensors,
actuators, molecular transistors,
electron emitters, and conductive
fillers for polymers. The diversity of
its application earns the Carbon
Nanotubes
a
spot
into
the
technological marketplace.

II.RELATED LITERATURE
Carbon and its Allotropes
Carbon is a chemical element with
symbol C and atomic
number 6.
Carbon is unique in its chemical
properties because it forms a
number of components superior
than the total addition of all the
other elements in combination with
each other. Carbon is capable of
bonding to itself and other
elements through the use of single,
double, and triple bonds. No other
element can do this as readily as
carbon. This trait causes carbon to
easily bind to itself to form chains
and rings and to bind with other
elements
in
different
arrangements. When carbon binds

to itself in chains and rings it forms

allotropes.
Elemental carbon exists in two
well-defined allotropic crystalline
forms: diamond and graphite.
Elemental carbon refers to the
inorganic forms of carbon which
can be found in crystalline and
amorphous
forms.The physical
properties of carbon vary widely
with the allotropic form. For
example,
diamond
is
highly transparent, while graphite
is opaque and black. Diamond is
the
hardest
naturally-occurring
material known; while graphite is
soft enough to form a streak on
paper .Diamond has a very
low electrical conductivity, while
graphite is a very good conductor.
In diamond, each carbon atom is
bonded to four other carbon atoms
forming rigid three dimensional
structures. In graphene, each
carbon is bonded to three other
carbon atoms in the same pane
giving a hexagonal array. Under
normal
conditions,
diamond, carbon
nanotubes,
and graphene have the highest
thermal conductivities of all known
materials.
Buckminsterfullerene
Buckminsterfullerene or buckyball
is
a
spherical fullerene molecule
with
the formula C60. It has a cage-like
fused-ring
structure
(truncated

icosahedron)
which
resembles
a soccer
ball,
made
of
twenty hexagons and
twelve pentagons, with a carbon
atom at each vertex of each
polygon and a bond along each
polygon edge.
It was first generated in 1985
by Harold Kroto, James R. Heath,
Sean
O'Brien, Robert
Curl,
and Richard
Smalley at Rice
University. Kroto, Curl and Smalley
were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize
in Chemistry for their roles in the
discovery of buckminsterfullerene
and the related class of molecules,
the fullerenes. The name is a
reference to Buckminster Fuller, as
C60 resembles
his
trademark
geodesic. Buckminsterfullerene is
the
most
common
naturally
occurring fullerene molecule, as it
can be found in small quantities
in soot. Solid and gaseous forms of
the molecule have been detected
in deep space.
The C60 molecule is extremely
stable, being able to withstand high
temperatures and pressures. The
exposed surface of the structure is
able react with other species while
maintaining the spherical geometry
.The hollow structure is also able to
entrap other smaller species such
as helium, while at the same time
not reacting with the fullerene
molecule. In fact the interior of
most buckyballs is so spacious,
they can encase any element from
the periodic table.
Buckminsterfullerene is one of the
largest objects to have been shown
to exhibit waveparticle duality; as

stated in the theory every object

exhibits this behavior. Its discovery
led to the exploration of a new field
of chemistry, involving the study
of fullerenes.

you allow for infinite diameters of

nanotubes

Chirality
A molecule is
considered chiral if there exists
another molecule that is of
identical composition, but which is
arranged
in
a
nonsuperposable mirror image. The
presence of an asymmetric carbon
atom is often the feature that
causes
chirality in
molecules.
(Organic Chemistry (4th Edition)
Paula Y. Bruice)
Imagine the nanotubes as
chicken wires. In fact, imagine a
chicken wire fence out of which will
be cut a rectangle to roll into a
tube. You could cut the rectangle
with the sides vertical or at various
angles. Additionally, when joining
the sides together, you can raise or
lower one side. In some cases it will
not be possible to make a tube
such that the loose ends match
and hexagons are formed, but in
other cases it will, and these
represent
the
possible
permutations
of
SWNTs.
The
possibilities are two forms in which
a pattern circles around the
diameter of the tube, often called
zigzag and armchair , and a variety
of forms in which the hexagons
spiral up or down the tube with
varying steepness, these being the
chiral forms. There is theoretically
an infinite variety of the latter, if

Three nanotubes of different

chirality
Which of these forms a
nanotube takes is the major
determinant
of
its
electrical
properties, i.e. whether the tube is
semiconducting or conducting. For
a long time, the fact that all known
production methods created a mix
of types has been considered one
of the hurdles to be overcome if
the electronic properties are to be
exploited. Claims have now been
made that it is possible to produce
only the semiconducting kind.
Additionally, there are approaches
that can yield only semiconducting
nanotubes
from
a
mix
of
semiconducting and conducting
ones. One such approach relies on
vaporizing
the
conducting
nanotubes with a strong electric
current,
leaving
only
the
semiconducting kind behind. A
more recent approach is simply to
leave the mix of nanotubes lying
around for a whilethe metallic
ones are oxidized and become

semiconducting. In the early part of

2001 there were also reports that
nanotubes had been induced to
form crystals, each of which
contained
just
one
type
of
nanotube. This would have been a
nice separation method but the
silence on this approach since then
suggests that these results have
not been duplicated.
Nanotechnology
The
term
nanotechnology
describes a range of technologies
performed on a nanometer scale
with widespread applications as an
enabling technology in various
industries.
Nanotechnology
encompasses the production and
application of physical, chemical,
and biological systems at scales
ranging from individual atoms or
molecules
to
around
100
nanometers, as well as the
integration
of
the
resulting
nanostructures into larger systems.
The area of the dot of this i alone
can
encompass
1
million
nanoparticles.
Nanotechnology "nanotech" is the
manipulation
of
matter
on
an atomic, molecular,
and supramolecular scale.
The
earliest, widespread description of
nanotechnology referred to the
particular technological goal of
precisely manipulating atoms and
molecules
for
fabrication
of
macroscale products, also now
referred
to
as molecular
nanotechnology.
A more generalized description of
nanotechnology was subsequently
established
by
the National
Nanotechnology Initiative, which

defines nanotechnology as the

manipulation of matter with at
least one dimension sized from 1 to
100 nanometers. This definition
reflects the fact that quantum
mechanical effects are important at
this quantum-realm scale, and so
the definition shifted from a
particular technological goal to a
research category
inclusive
of
all types
of
research and
technologies that deal with the
special properties of matter that
occur below the given size
threshold. It is therefore common
to
see
the
plural
form
"nanotechnologies" as well as
"nanoscale technologies" to refer
to the broad range of research and
applications whose common trait is
size
III. Methodology
The information and data stated in
this research were obtained by the
researchers from different journals
and articles posted in the internet.
These journals were read and
important parts were extracted and
were put together to form this
study. The topic of the study is a
technical and an incomplete and
rather poorly tested area of
technology which contributed to
the investigation of materials
posted
by
experts
and
professionals whose expertise is
the field of Carbon Nanotubes.
Scope and Limitation
This study covers about the
carbon nanotubes, a promising
material for the next generation
transistors, which is a semiconductor device that can act like

an on-off switch for current or

amplify current, how it is formed
for having an intriguing structure,
its strength compared to others,
the range of electric, thermal, and
structural properties that can
change based on the physical
design that can defined by its
diameter, length, and chirality, or
twist, the factor that may reduce
the toughness and ductility of the
composite materials and lastly, its
useful applications to our modern
world like being used as an
additives for various structural
materials.
This study didnt cover the
major focuses that has not yet
been solved, is on how to ensure a
good bonding between straight
nanotubes and their surrounding
matrix, and also the integrity of the
nanotubes structures, in their
atomic scale level after being
bonded with the matrix.
IV. CARBON NANOTUBES
As stated earlier Carbon
Nanotubes are wires of pure carbon
with nanometer diameters and
lengths of many microns. It is the
structure, topology and size of
nanotubes
that
make
their
properties exciting compared to the
parent,
planar
graphite-related
structures, such as are for example
found in carbon bers. The
uniqueness of the nanotube arises
from its structure and the inherent
subtlety in the structure, which is
the helicity in the arrangement of
the carbon atoms in hexagonal
arrays on their surface honeycomb
lattices.
The
helicity
(local
symmetry),
along
with
the

diameter (which determines the

size of the repeating structural
unit) introduces signicant changes
in the electronic density of states,
and hence provides a unique
electronic
character
for
the
nanotubes.
A. SYNTHESIS
There are a number of
methods
of
making Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs) and C60
Fullerenes. C60 Fullerenes were
first observed after vaporizing
graphite with a short-pulse, highpower laser, however this was not
a practical method for making
large quantities. Carbon Nanotubes
(CNTs) have probably been around
for a lot longer than was first
realized, and may have been made
during various carbon combustion
and vapor deposition processes,
but electron microscopy at that
time was not advanced enough to
distinguish them from other types
of tubes. The first method for
producing Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs) and C60
Fullerenes in
reasonable quantities was by
applying an electric current across
two carbonaceous electrodes in an
inert gas atmosphere. This method
is called plasma arcing. It involves
the evaporation of one electrode as
cations followed by deposition at
the other electrode. This plasmabased process is analogous to the
more
familiar
electroplating
process in a liquid medium. C60
Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes
(CNTs) are formed by plasma arcing
of
carbonaceous
materials,
particularly graphite. The C 60
Fullerenes appear in the soot that

is
formed, while
the Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs) are deposited on
the
opposing
electrode.
Another method
of Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs)
synthesis
involves plasma arcing in the
presence of cobalt with a 3% or
greater concentration. As noted
above,
the Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs) product
is
a
compact
cathode deposit of rod like
morphology. However when cobalt
is added as a catalyst, the nature
of the product changes to a web,
with strands of 1mm or so
thickness that stretch from the
cathode to the walls of the reaction
vessel. The mechanism by which
cobalt changes this process is
unclear, however one possibility is
that such metals affect the local
electric fields and hence the
formation of the five-membered
rings.
Arc Method Carbon Nanotubes
The carbon arc discharge
method, initially used for producing
C60 fullerenes, is the most
common and perhaps easiest way
to
produce Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs), as it is rather simple.
However, it is a technique that
produces a complex mixture of
components,
and
requires
further purification - to separate
the Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) from
the soot and the residual catalytic
metals present in the crude
product.
This
method
creates Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs) through arc-vaporization of
two carbon rods placed end to end,
separated by approximately 1mm,
in an enclosure that is usually filled

with inert gas at low pressure.

Recent investigations have shown
that it is also possible to
create Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs) with the arc method in liquid
nitrogen. A direct current of 50 to
100 A, driven by a potential
difference of approximately 20 V,
creates
a
high
temperature
discharge
between
the
two
electrodes.
The
discharge
vaporizes the surface of one of the
carbon electrodes, and forms a
small rod-shaped deposit on the
other electrode. Producing Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs) in high yield
depends on the uniformity of the
plasma arc, and the temperature of
the deposit forming on the carbon
electrode.
Laser Method Carbon Nanotubes
In 1996 Carbon Nanotubes
(CNTs) were first synthesized using
a dual-pulsed laser and achieved
yields of >70wt% purity. Samples
were
prepared
by
laser
vaporization of graphite rods with a
50:50 catalyst mixture of Cobalt
and Nickel at 1200oC in flowing
argon, followed by heat treatment
in a vacuum at 1000oC to remove
the C60 and other fullerenes. The
initial laser vaporization pulse was
followed by a second pulse, to
vaporize the target more uniformly.
The use of two successive laser
pulses minimizes the amount of
carbon deposited as soot. The
second laser pulse breaks up the
larger particles ablated by the first
one, and feeds them into the
growing nanotube structure. The
material produced by this method
appears as a mat of ropes, 10-

20nm in diameter and up to 100um

or more in length. Each rope is
found to consist primarily of a
bundle of single walled nanotubes,
aligned along a common axis. By
varying the growth temperature,
the catalyst composition, and other
process parameters, the average
nanotube
diameter
and
size
distribution can be varied. Arcdischarge and laser vaporization
are currently the principal methods
for obtaining small quantities of
high quality CNTs. However, both
methods suffer from drawbacks.
The first is that both methods
involve evaporating the carbon
source, so it has been unclear how
to scale up production to the
industrial
level
using
these
approaches. The second issue
relates to the fact that vaporization
methods grow CNTs in highly
tangled
forms,
mixed
with
unwanted forms of carbon and/or
metal
species.
The Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs) thus produced
are difficult to purify, manipulate,
and assemble for building Carbon
Nanotubes
(CNTs)-device
architectures
for
practical
applications.

Chemical Vapor Deposition

Carbon Nanotubes

of

Chemical vapor deposition

of hydrocarbons over a metal
catalyst is a classical method that
has been used to produce various
carbon materials such as carbon
fibers and filaments. for over
twenty years. Large amounts
of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) can be
formed by catalytic CVD of

acetylene over Cobalt and iron

catalysts supported on silica or
zeolite. The carbon deposition
activity seems to relate to the
cobalt content of the catalyst,
whereas the Carbon Nanotubes
(CNTs) selectivity seems to be a
function of the pH in catalyst
preparation.
Fullerenes
and
bundles of single walled carbon
nanotubes
(SWNTs) were
also
found among the multi walled
carbon
nanotubes
(MWNTs)
produced on the carbon/zeolite
catalyst. Some researchers are
experimenting with the formation
of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) from
ethylene. Supported catalysts such
as
iron,
cobalt,
and
nickel,
containing either a single metal or
a mixture of metals, seem to
induce the growth of isolated single
walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs)
or single walled carbon nanotube
(SWNTs) bundles in the ethylene
atmosphere.
The
production
of single walled carbon nanotubes
(SWNTs), as well as double-walled
carbon
nanotubes
(DWNTs), on molybdenum and mol
ybdenum-iron alloy catalysts has
also been demonstrated. CVD of
carbon within the pores of a thin
alumina template with or without a
Nickel catalyst has been achieved.
Ethylene was used with reaction
temperatures of 545oC for Nickelcatalyzed CVD, and 900oC for an
uncatalyzed process. The resultant
carbon nanostructures have open
ends, with no caps. Methane has
also been used as a carbon source.
In particular it has been used to
obtain nanotube chips containing
isolated single
walled
carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs) at controlled

locations. High yields of single

walled
carbon
nanotubes
(SWNTs) have been obtained by
catalytic decomposition of an
H2/CH4
mixture
over
welldispersed metal particles such as
Cobalt,
Nickel,
and
Iron
on magnesium oxide at 1000oC. It
has been reported that the
synthesis of composite powders
containing well-dispersed Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs) can be achieved
by selective reduction in an H2/CH4
atmosphere of oxide solid solutions
between a non-reducible oxide
such as Al2O3 or MgAl2O4 and one
or more transition metal oxides.
The reduction produces very small
transition metal particles at a
temperature of usually >800oC.
The decomposition of CH4 over the
freshly
formed
nanoparticles
prevents their further growth, and
thus results in a very high
proportion of single walled carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs) and fewer multi
walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs).
This process also includes the
production of single walled carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs) or multi walled
carbon
nanotubes
(MWNTs)
arrays on SI or other substrate
materials.
Ball Milling of Carbon Nanotubes
Ball milling and subsequent
annealing is a simple method for
the
production
of Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs). Although it is
well established that mechanical
attrition of this type can lead to
fully nano porous microstructures,
it was not until a few years ago
that Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and
boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs)

were produced from these powders

by thermal annealing. Essentially
the method consists of placing
graphite powder into a stainless
steel container along with four
hardened steel balls. The container
is purged, and argon is introduced.
The milling is carried out at room
temperature for up to 150 hours.
Following milling, the powder is
annealed under an inert gas flow at
temperatures of 1400oC for six
hours. The mechanism of this
process is not known, but it is
thought that the ball milling
process forms nanotube nuclei, and
the annealing process activates
nanotube growth. Research has
shown that thismethod produces
more
multi
walled
carbon
nanotubes (MWNTs) and few single
walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs).
Other
Methods
of
Nanotubes Production

Carbon

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) can

also be produced by diffusion flame
synthesis, electrolysis, use of solar
energy, heat treatment of a
polymer, and low-temperature solid
pyrolysis. In flame synthesis,
combustion of a portion of the
hydrocarbon gas provides the
elevated temperature required,
with
the
remaining
fuel
conveniently
serving
as
the
required
hydrocarbon
reagent.
Hence the flame constitutes an
efficient source of both energy and
hydrocarbon
raw
material.
Combustion synthesis has been
shown to be scalable for highvolume commercial production.
There has recently been new
innovations in carbon nanotubes

(CNTs) synthesis allowing for the

production of Single Walled Carbon
Nanotubes (SWNTs) with no metal
catalyst. The inventor of this
process is Jeanette Benavides.

Multi-Walled
(MWNTs)

Carbon

Nanotubes

B. TYPES
CNTs are of two types, namely,
single-walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs)
and
multiwalled
nanotubes (MWCNTs). The lengths
of both types vary greatly,
depending on the way they are
made,
and
are
generally
microscopic
rather
than
nanoscopic, i.e. greater than 100
nanometers. The aspect ratio
(length divided by diameter) is
typically greater than 100 and can
be up to 10,000, but recently even
this was made to look small. SWNT
strands were made in which the
SWNTs were claimed to be as long
as 20 cm. Even more recently, the
same group has made strands of
SWNTs as long as 160 cm, but the
precise make-up of these strands
has not yet been made clear. A
group in China has also found,
purely by accident, that packs of
relatively short carbon nanotubes
can be drawn out into a bundle of
fibers, making a thread only 0.2
millimeters in diameter but up to
30 centimeters long. The joins
between the nanotubes in this
thread represent a weakness but
heating the thread has been found
to
increase
the
strength
significantly, presumably through
some sort of fusing of the
individual tubes.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes are

basically like Russian dolls made
out of SWNT(concentric cylindrical
graphitic tubes.) In these more
complex structures, the different
SWNTs that form the MWNT may
have
quite
different
chirality.
MWNTs are typically 100 times
longer than they are wide and have
outer diameters mostly in the tens
of nanometers.
Although it is easier to produce
significant quantities of MWNTs
than SWNTs, their structures are
less well understood than singlewall nanotubes because of their
greater complexity and variety.
Multitudes of exotic shapes and
arrangements,
often
with
imaginative
names
such
as
bamboo- trunks, sea urchins,
necklaces or coils, have also been
observed
under
different
processing conditions. The variety
of forms may be interesting but
also has a negative sideMWNTs
always (so far) have more defects
than SWNTs and these diminish
their desirable properties.

Many of the nanotube applications

now being considered or put into
practice
involve
multi-walled
nanotubes, because they are easier
to produce in large quantities at a
reasonable price and have been
available in decent amounts for
much longer than SWNTs. In fact
one of the major manufacturers of
MWNTs at the moment, Hyperion
Catalysis, does not even sell the
nanotubes directly but only premixed
with
polymers
for
composites applications. The tubes
involved typically have 8 to 15
walls
and
are
around
10
nanometers
wide
and
10
micrometers
long.
Other
companies are moving into this
space, notably formidable players
like Mitsui, with plans to produce
similar types of MWNT in hundreds
of tons a year, a quantity that is
greater, but not hugely so, than the
current production of Hyperion
Catalysis. This is an indication that
even these less impressive and
exotic nanotubes hold promise of
representing a sizable market in
the near future.
Single-Walled
(SWNTs)

Carbon

Nanotubes

These are the stars of the

nanotube world, and somewhat
reclusive ones at that, being much
harder to make than the multiwalled variety. The oft-quoted
amazing properties generally refer
to SWNTs. As previously described,
they are basically tubes of graphite
and are normally capped at the
ends, although the caps can be
removed. The caps are made by
mixing in some pentagons with the
hexagons and are the reason that
nanotubes are considered close
cousins of buckminsterfullerene, a
roughly spherical molecule made of
sixty carbon atoms that looks like a
soccer ball and is named after the
architect Buckminster Fuller.
SWNTs are more pliable than
their multi-walled counterparts and
can be twisted, flattened and bent
into small circles or around sharp
bends without breaking.
Discussions of the electrical
behavior of carbon nanotubes
usually relate to experiments on
the single- walled variety. They can
be conducting, like metal (such
nanotubes are often referred to as
metallic
nanotubes),
or
semiconducting, which means that
the flow of current through them
can be stepped up or down by
varying an electrical field. The
latter property has given rise to
dreams of using nanotubes to
make extremely dense electronic
circuitry and the last year has seen
major advances in creating basic
electronic
structures
from
nanotubes
in the lab, from
transistors up to simple logic
elements. The gulf between these

experiments
and
commercial
nanotube electronics is, however,
vast. There are various ways of
producing SWNTs, which are briefly
discussed
later.
The
detailed
mechanisms
responsible
for
nanotube growth are still not fully
understood
and
computer
modeling is playing an increasing
role in fathoming the complexities.
The
volumes
of
SWNTs
produced are currently small and
the quality and purity are variable.
Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc. of
Houston,
Texas,
is
currently
ramping up production to a half a
kilogram a day, which is actually
huge in comparison to amounts of
SWNTs that have been made
historically.
Various
companies
pursuing
specific
nanotube
applications produce their own
material in house.
C. Properties
Strength
Carbon nanotubes have a
higher tensile strength than steel
and Kevlar. Their strength comes
from the sp bonds between the
individual carbon atoms. This bond
is even stronger than the sp bond
found in diamond. Under high
pressure, individual nanotubes can
bond together, trading some sp
bonds for sp bonds. This gives the
possibility
of
producing
long
nanotube wires. Carbon nanotubes
are not only strong, they are also
elastic. You can press on the tip of
a nanotube and cause it to bend
without damaging to the nanotube,
and the nanotube will return to its
original shape when the force is

removed. A nanotube's elasticity

does have a limit, and under very
strong forces, it is possible to
permanently deform to shape of a
nanotube. A nanotubes strength
can be weakened by defects in the
structure of the nanotube. Defects
occur from atomic vacancies or a
rearrangement of the carbon
bonds. Defects in the structure can
cause a small segment of the
nanotube to become weaker, which
in turn causes the tensile strength
of the entire nanotube to weaken.
The tensile strength of a nanotube
depends on the strength of the
weakest segment in the tube
similar to the way the strength of a
chain depends on the weakest link
in the chain.
Electrical properties
As mentioned previously, the
structure of a carbon nanotube
determines how conductive the
nanotube is. When the structure of
atoms in a carbon nanotube
minimizes the collisions between
conduction electrons and atoms, a
carbon
nanotube
is
highly
conductive. The strong bonds
between carbon atoms also allow
carbon nanotubes to withstand
higher
electric
currents
than
copper. Electron transport occurs
only along the axis of the tube.
Single walled nanotubes can route
electrical signals at speeds up to
10 GHz when used as interconnects
on
semi-conducting
devices.
Nanotubes also have a constant
resistively.
Thermal Properties

The strength of the atomic

bonds in carbon nanotubes allows
them
to
withstand
high
temperatures. Because of this,
carbon nanotubes have been
shown to be very good thermal
conductors. When compared to
copper wires, which are commonly
used as thermal conductors, the
carbon nanotubes can transmit
over 15 times the amount of watts
per meter per Kelvin. The thermal
conductivity of carbon nanotubes is
dependent on the temperature of
the
tubes
and
the
outside
environment.
D. Applications
There are many potential
applications for Carbon nanotubes
from waterproof and tear resistant
cloth fabrics, concrete and steel
like applications (a space elevator
has even been proposed) based on
the property of strength, electrical
circuits based on the property of
electrical
conductivity,
sensors
based on the property of thermal
conductivity, vacuum proof food
packaging, and even as a vessel for
delivering drugs. Applications for
nanotubes also encompassed the
fields and disciplines of medicine,
nanotechnology,
manufacturing,
construction, electronics, and so
on.
Batteries
Most
portable
electronic
devices use rechargeable lithiumion batteries. These batteries
release charge when lithium ions
move between two electrodes - one
of which is graphite and the other
is metal oxide. Researchers at the

University of North Carolina have

demonstrated that by replacing the
graphite with SWCNTs they can
double storage capacity.
Electrodes made of carbon
nanotubes can be ten times thinner
and lighter than amorphous carbon
electrodes and their conductivity is
more than one thousand times
greater. In some cases, such as
electric vehicles, the reduction in
weight can make a significant
reduction
in
battery
power
requirements. Carbon nanotubes
have been used in supercapacitors
producing a power density of
30kw/kg (compared to 4kw/kg for
commercially available devices).
Such
supercapacitors
could
drastically reduce the time it takes
to recharge devices such as
laptops and cell phones.
Ultra-thin flexible batteries
have been made with CNT infused
paper. Ionic liquid is soaked into
the
paper
as
the
battery's
electrolyte. Electrolytes in human
blood, sweat, and urine can also
help to power the battery which
may be useful in implantable
medical devices. These batteries
can be rolled, folded, or cut without
loss of efficiency. They can also be
stacked to boost their output
power. Although the materials used
in the batteries, which are over
90%
cellulose,
are
very
inexpensive
an
inexpensive
method of mass-production has not
yet been developed.
Transistors
Transistors form the basis for
modern
integrated
circuits

functioning as digital switches.

Alternative
configurations
of
carbon-nanotubes result in defects
being present that allow single
walled nanotubes to act as
transistors.
Nanotube
based
switches the size of an individual
electron had been envisioned but
had originally required cryogenic
like temperatures.
In such a switch a molecule
can be positioned inside a carbon
nanotube to affect the electronic
current flowing across it. The result
is a molecular-scare gate in which
the position of the molecule
controls the flow of the electrical
current. In this model, the gate is
about one nanometer in size, or
three orders of magnitude smaller
than a silicon chip. In 2001
researchers
demonstrated
that
nanotube transistors could be
realized that would operate at
room temperature. IBM has also
demonstrated
fabrication
of
nanotube transistors.
Nanoprobes and Sensors
The
small
and
uniform
dimensions of the nanotubes
produce
some
interesting
applications. With extremely small
sizes, high conductivity, high
mechanical strength and exibility
(ability to easily bend elastically),
nanotubes may ultimately become
indispensable in their use as
nanoprobes. One could think of
such probes as being used in a
variety of applications, such as
high resolution imaging, nanolithography, nanoelectrodes, drug
delivery, sensors and eld emitters.

Artificial implants
Nanomaterials
show
probability
and
promise
in
regenerative medicine because of
their attractive chemical and
physical properties [68]. Generally,
reject
implants
with
the
postadministration pain, and to
avoid this rejection, attachment of
nanotubes with proteins and amino
acids has been promising. Carbon
nanotube, both single and multiWNT, can be employed as implants
in the form of artificial joints and
other
implants
without
host
rejection
response.
Moreover,
because of unique properties such
as high tensile strength, CNTs can
act as bone substitutes and
implants if filled with calcium and
shaped/arranged in the bone
structure. It has been investigated
the
cellular
adhesion
and
proliferation can enhance with
SWCNT and MWCNT composites,
and therefore, these nanotubes
have been integrated into natural
and synthetic materials to generate
nanocomposites.
Cancer cell identification
Nanodevices
are
being
created that have a potential to
develop
cancer
treatment,
detection,
and
diagnosis.
Nanostructures can be so small
(less than 100 nm) that the body
possibly will clear them too quickly
for them to be efficient in imaging
or detection and so can enter cells
and the organelles inside them to
interact with DNA and proteins by
using a peptide nanotube-folic acid
modified
graphene
electrode,
improve
detection
of
human

cervical
cancer
cells
overexpressing folate receptors.
Since a large amount of cancers
are asymptomatic throughout their
early
stage
and
distinct
morphologic
modifications
are
absent in the majority of neoplastic
disorders
in
early
stage,
consequently traditional clinical
cancer imaging
methods, for
example, X-ray, CT, and MRI, do
not
acquire
adequate
spatial
resolution for detection of the
disease in early stage. The imaging
studies with SWCNTs have thrived
over
the
past
few
years.
Combination
of
radioisotopes
labeled SWCNTs with radionuclide
based imaging techniques (PET and
SPECT) can improve the tissue
penetration,
sensitivity,
and
medium resolution. There are many
characteristic protein biomarkers
which often are overexpressed in
cancer cells, and they provide an
opening gate for early diagnosis,
prognosis, maintaining surveillance
following
curative
surgery,
monitoring therapy in advanced
disease, and predicting therapeutic
response.
RECENT STUDIES
The following studies are some of
the most recent developments in
the field of carbon nanotube
research.
Carbon

nanotube
patches can keep your
heart pumping longer,
better, stronger
In 1985 a new form of carbon
known as buckminsterfullerene, or

simply C60, was discovered at Rice

University by the late Richard
Smalley. He later went on to
discover new ways to synthesize
carbon nanotubes. More recently,
when Rice bioengineers went
looking for a strong conductive
scaffold to bolster their ailing heart
biopatches,
they
(perhaps
unsurprisingly)
turned
towards
nanotubes. A recent paper in
ACSNano describes their marvelous
new cardiac putty (pictured above,
in some petri dishes), and suggests
it could have meaningful use in up
to a quarter of the people reading
this. Yes, you.
In
one
of
the
most
spectacular feats of physiological
shape-shifting most of us will ever
undergo,
your
newborn
body battened down the gaping
hole that divided the left and right
atria of your heart. The reason for
the hole is that the fetus gets
oxygen from the placenta and
obviously doesnt use its lungs in
that capacity. After birth, pressure
in the right side of the heart
plummets when the lungs finally
come online, triggering a complex
physical and chemical cascade
leading to closure most of the
time. In as much as 25% of the
adult population this process falls
short of completion and we are left
with
a
suboptimal
pumping
machine. In addition to this
problem, there is a whole host of
other similar heart defects many of
us walk around with but are totally
oblivious to.

The
Rice
researchers
had
previously developed a chitosanbased hydrogel patch which could
help fix the more severe cases of
heart defect. (Chitosan is produced
from the chitin exoskeletons of
crustaceans, such as shrimp.)
Heart cells could infiltrate the pores
in the mesh as the chitosin matrix
degraded and a good mechanical
seal could be made. The problem
was the patch wasnt electrically
conductive, with the end result that
it could cause the whole works to
go into a state of fibrillation (which
is bad). If nanotubes could be
properly
fixed
at
the
right
concentration in the patch, the
ideal rebar for the new heart
concrete might be had.

Other researchers had in fact

already shown nanotubes could be
of service in trying to build bulk
heart material that beats naturally
of its own accord (pictured right).
The big if, is whether the heart
cells
find
the
nanotubes
themselves just a little too
offensive. By keeping the nanotube
concentration as low as possible

(67 parts per million in the best

patches), the Rice engineers think
they got the right mix. The
amphiphilic
(having
both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic faces)
chitosan
is
what
keeps
the nanotubes from attracting each
other too closely. The researchers
also added an old biomaterials
standby called polycaprolactone,
which similarly degrades and
provides an initial mechanical
backbone.
The team found that the patch
supported electrical conduction
velocities at least as good as
natural heart tissue (22 9 cm/s),
and is robust enough to act as a
full-thickness patch of the heart
wall. In this case, as good as a
natural heart is all anybody wants
here. Having a hole in the heart
a patent foramen ovale as it is
clinically
called

is
a
developmental weak point that can
result from anything from Downs
syndrome
to
fetal
alcohol
syndrome. Once closed, many will
find that seemingly unrelated
symptoms, like migraine or blood
clots, will vanish. Not surprisingly
there are a few repair techniques
already in existence for the more
severe cases, but none would be as
good as a living, conductive tissue
patch.

Its like staring into a

black hole': Worlds

darkest material will be

used to make very
stealthy aircraft, better
telescopes
At a nondescript industrial
park in south England, scientists
have created a new super-black
material fashioned out of carbon
nanotubes that is so dark its like
looking at a black hole. The
material,
called
Vantablack,
absorbs all but 0.035% of the
incident light that bounces off it,
meaning
your
eyes
essentially cant see it you can
only see the space around it, and
then infers that there must
be something occupying that eerie
abyss. Vantablacks first customers
are in the defense and space
sectors, where the material can be
used to make a whole variety of
stealth craft and weaponry, and
more sensitive telescopes that can
detect the faintest of faraway stars.
Vantablack is essentially a
forest of carbon nanotubes on an
aluminum
foil.
Surrey
NanoSystems, the company that
created Vantablack, presumably to
look after its trade secrets, is
rather coy about how it built the
material and how it actually works.
There is a clue in the name,
however: The Vanta in Vantablack
stands
for
vertically
aligned
carbon nanotube arrays. We also

know that Surrey NanoSystems

prides itself in low-temperature
atomic deposition processes so
were probably looking at ALD
(atomic layer deposition) or CVD
(chemical vapor deposition) carbon
nanotubes
on
an
aluminium
substrate.
There is a little more
technical
information
about
Vantablack available in an Optics
Express research paper, but it
mostly focuses on the materials
qualification for use in aerospace.
We know from previous
studies that vertically aligned
carbon nanotubes, if you pack
them closely together, allow light
(photons) to come in but then
dont let the photons out again.
Basically,
carbon
nanotubes
(like graphene)
are
incredibly
absorbent to most forms of
radiation so incident radiation
strikes the material, and then
bounces around and gets absorbed
so effectively that almost no
radiation escapes. Its for a similar
reason that graphene is being
looked
at
for ultra-sensitive
imaging sensors.

This is what Vantablack looks

like under a microscope very
tightly packed vertical carbon
nanotubes
In this case, Vantablack absorbs
99.965% of incident radiation or,
to put it another way, just 0.035%
of radiation that hits Vantablack is
reflected.
Surrey
NanoSystems
doesnt say which frequencies of
radiation are absorbed, but we
know from previous studies that
carbon nanotubes are incredibly
absorbent across a huge range of
spectra, from ultraviolet, to visible
light, to infrared, to microwaves. As
such, Vantablack is an awesome
material
for
stealth
aircraft,
weapons, and a whole host of other
military uses. It will also be used on
the inside of telescopes and other
imaging devices, where absorbing
stray radiation can significantly
reduce the amount of noise and
thus increase the effective range
and resolution).

IBM betting carbon

nanotubes can restore
Moores Law by 2020

The ongoing collapse of

Moores Law is one of the least
reported stories in technology
today. That old canard says that
the
number
of
transistors
thats possible to fit onto a chip will
double every two years. Like a
shark, our processing industry can
only survive in its current form
thanks
to
that
constant
forward motion and with the rate
of semiconductor advance now
slowing, the industry could well
slow down with it. Silicon is, at this
point, totally incapable of providing
any further advancement; a new
material is needed, one that can be
reliably laid down at scales well
below 10 nanometers. For a long
time, experts have argued that
carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are the
most likely answer, and this week
IBM announced it expects to have
a commercial CNT chip ready by
the year 2020.
When it comes to computer
chips, size is everything. Our
devices, be they smartphones or
desktop towers, present a hard
physical limit on space; so long as
we are still switching physical
transistors on and off to do
computation,
making
devices
faster
means
packing
more
transistors into the same physical
space. Engineers have spent the
last decade or so forecasting the
end of silicon as a metal that could
support
much
further
miniaturization; its properties make
it inherently difficult to lay down at
the scales were beginning to
require. But carbon nanotubes
are just
rolled
up
tubes
of
graphene, which is only a single

atom thick; though engineers have

been talking about graphene as the
future of transistors for a while
now, IBM is the first to really put
itself out there on the issue.

first

The
CNT

transistors were built in the late

1990s but since then weve made
little progress in creating chips with
billions of those transistors packed
densely and above all
affordably.
IBM
has
already
demonstrated the ability to create
processors with about 10,000
transistors, but thats still a long,
long way off what well need. The
manufacturing
process
theyve
chosen for this project sees units
of six
CNTs
acting
as
each
transistor.
Theyre
about
30
nanometers long and 1.4 wide,
spaced eight nanometers apart
given their calculations, a CNT
processor could be six times faster
than a modern silicon chip for the
same power draw.
The problem is the same as
its ever been: its mechanically
very difficult to pack things that
closely together without losing
quality
and
accuracy
in

manufacturing.
One
possible
solution
is
to
use
labelled
transistors that can be laid down at
one scale but which will then selfassemble to pack even more
tightly. It would be gut-punchingly
expensive to replace all the
manufacturing infrastructure that
exists around making silicon
chips, so much of the funding
these days goes to finding ways
old manufacturing tech could
produce new chip tech.

Its unclear whether IBM has

made a specific breakthrough that
led it to this announcement or just
a general feeling of progress and
meaningful forward movement.
Either way, the company is upfront
about the fact that if CNT
computers dont manage to make
some sort of move by around the
year
2020,
the
window
of
opportunity may close. Potentially
competing technologies are also
under development, from quantum

computers to optical computers

and beyond, and their potential to
increase computational power is far
greater than CNTs.
Still, carbon nanotubes, and
their sister-material graphene, are
by far the most likely candidate to
replace silicon in the short term. If
we dont have a fundamentally
different sort of chip design by the
year 2020, we could see the
computer
hardware
industry
slowdown markedly. And if even
the computer business cant thrive
in the new economy, then there its
official: in the new economy, there
is absolutely no such thing as a
safe bet.
E. Environmental concerns
There are several remaining
obstacles, technical and nontechnical to CNT success. One
major factor is the effect of the
material to the ecological and
environmental aspect.
Inhaling carbon nanotubes
could be as harmful as breathing in
asbestos, and its use should be
regulated lest it lead to the
same cancer and
breathing
problems that prompted a ban on
the use of asbestos as insulation in
buildings, according to the new
study
posted
by Nature
Nanotechnology. During the study,
led by the Queen's Medical
Research Institute at the University
of
Edinburgh
Center
for
Inflammation Research in Scotland,
scientists observed that long, thin
carbon nanotubes look and behave

like asbestos fibers, which have

been
shown
to
cause
mesothelioma , a deadly cancer of
the membrane lining the body's
internal organs (in particular the
lungs) that can take 30 to 40 years
to appear following exposure.
Asbestos fibers are especially
harmful, because they are small
enough to penetrate deep into the
lungs yet too long for the body's
immune system to destroy. The
researchers
reached
their
conclusions after they exposed lab
mice to needle-thin nanotubes: The
inside lining of the animals' body
cavities became inflamed and
formed lesions. Scientist focused
their attention specifically on the
hypothesis that long, thin carbon
nanotubes could have the same
impact
as
similarly
shaped
asbestos fibers.
The toxicity of CNTs can be
affected by the size of nanotubes.
The particles under 100 nm have
potential harmful properties such
as more potential toxicity to the
lung, escape from the normal
phagocytic defenses, modification
of protein structure, activation of
inflammatory and immunological
responses,
and
potential
redistribution from their site of
deposition.
Experiments have also shown
that CNTs have also affected
different living variables used as
subjects such as bacteria, several
types of algae and larvae. When
looking at the entire life cycle of
carbon
nanotubes
from
production and use to disposal then the manufacturing of the CNTs

has a much greater impact on

environmental organisms than the
direct release of the CNTs in the
environment.
V.
CONCLUSION
AND
RECOMMENDATION
Carbon Nanotube is indeed a
promising material with seemingly
indefinite number of applications.
There have been a couple of
applications of the wonder material
as of today but most of it as a
composite
material.
Major
applications have not yet been
done as there has to be an ample
amount of study for it to be
integrated in the marketplace as a
feature in a new material. One
reason of it requiring tremendous
amount of work is that there is
much about carbon nanotubes that
is still unknown. More research
needs to be done regarding
environmental and health impacts
of producing large quantities of
them. It is quite ironic that one of
the possible major applications of
CNTs is indeed in the field of
medicine yet hazards for health
has
been
observed
in
the
integration
of
the
material.
Certainly, experts do not want to
cure cancer just to develop another
one. As to the ecological impact,
carbon nanotubes have proven to
disturb several links in the lower
food web such as algae and
bacteria. Although this might not
be too noticeable as it is not indeed
felt directly, it is important that
researchers monitor the effects of
theses disturbances as to prevent
catastrophic repercussions in the
future. There is also much work to
be done towards cheaper mass-

production and incorporation with

other materials before many of the
current
applications
being
researched can be commercialized.
The
current
problem
in
manufacturing is that it is costly
which is typical for a material that
has not been established as a
commercial
one.
For
bulk
applications, such as llers in
composites, where the atomic
structure (helicity) has a much
smaller impact on the resulting
properties,
the
quantities
of
nanotubes
that
can
be
manufactured still falls far short of
what industry would need. There
are no available techniques that
can pro- duce nanotubes of
reasonable purity and quality in
kilogram quantities. The industry
would need tonnage quantities of
nanotubes for such applications.
The market price of nanotubes is
also too high presently for any
realistic commercial application.
There are many more hindrances
and challenges that the Carbon
Nanotubes are facing for it to be
implemented but the human race
has proven itself to be determined
and
scintillating
towards
the
development of almost everything
and the researchers of this study is
expecting for experts to overcome
this hurdle in the future. There is
no doubt however that carbon
nanotube will play a significant role
in a wide range of commercial
applications. The only challenge is
how. As vast as it may seem,
experts are expecting to be a few
steps behind as carbon nanotubes
have progressed incredibly since
their discovery.