HONGIRANA: KHV'S SYNOPSIS

SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS -

SET: A set is a well defined collection of distinct

objects, Note that by well defined we means one
should be able to say that whether a particular object
is a member of the set or not.
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters
A, B,C..... and members of the set are called its
elements, we denote them by small letters a,b,c...x,y,
z.
REPRESENTATION OF SETS:
There are two basic ways of representing sets

EQUAL AND EQUIVALENT SETS: Two sets A

and B are called equal if A and B have identical
elements e.g. A={2,4,6} , B={4,2,6}, If two sets A
and B have equal number of elements then A and B
are called equivalent sets. e.g: A={x, y, z} ,
B={1,2,3}
Note : Two sets A and B are equal if A B and

BA

Note : Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent

sets may or may not be equal

a)Roster method or Listing method or Tabular PROPER SUBSET : A set is said to be proper
method: In this method we list all the elements of subset of a set B if every element of A is an element
sets seperated by commas in the curly (flower) of B and B has at least one element which is not an
bracket like {2,4,5,9}
element of A and is denoted by A B i.e. If A is a
subset of B and A#B.
b)Rule method or Property or set builder method: e.g: A={1,2,3,4} B={1,2,3,4,6,7} A B
In this method a set is represented by writing all the POWER SET: The set of all subset of a set A is
properties which is satisfied by all its elements
called power set of A and denoted by P(A).
e.g: A={3,6,9,12,15....} is written as A={x/ x is a If A is a set of n distinct elements , then the
multiple of 3} (Here / is read as such that)
number of subsets of A is 2n
Set of all odd numbers can be written as
If n(A)=n, then p(A) contains 2n elements
A={x/x is an odd number and x=2m+1 m N
e.g: If A={a, b, c} then P(A)={ , {a}. {b}. {c}.
{a.b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c} }
TYPES OF SETS:
FACTS:
FINITE AND INFINTE SETS: A set which has 1)For empty set n(p(A))=1, i.e. number of elements
only a finite number of elements is called finite set of power set of an empty set is 1.
and which has infinite number of elements , is called 2)Number of NONEMPTY proper subset of a
infinite set .e.g: A={a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set and finite set consisting of n elements is 2 n -1(exluding
B={2,4,6.......} is an infinite set
null set)
CARDINAL NUMBER: Number of elements in a Super set: The statement A B can be rewritten
finite set is called cardinal number or order of a finite as BA , then B is called the super set of A and
set. If set A contains n elements then it is denoted is written as BA
by n(A)=n
DISJOINT SETS: Two sets A and B are said to be
NULL SET OR EMPTY SET OR VOID SET :
disjoint if they have no element in common.
A set having no element in it , is called null set, we
UNIVERSAL SET: A universal set is a nonempty
denote it by or {} e.g: A={x/ x2 +1=0}
set of which all the sets under consideration are
SINGLETON SET: A set consisting exacly one subsets.
element is called singleton set, i.e. A={a} and e.g: In the context of human population studies, the
A={x/5<x 6 xN }
universal set consists of all the people in the world,
SUBSETS: If A and B are sets such that every For the set Z of all integers , the universal set may the
element of A is also an element of B, then A is said to set Q of rational numbers
be a subset of B, symbolically we write A B
which is also read as A is contained in B we may OPERATION ON SETS:
also write this relation ship as BA which is read UNION OF SETS:
as B is a super set of A or B contains A
A B ={Set of all those elements which are in A
Note: A i.e. Null set is a subset of every set . or in B}
A A i.e. Every set is a subset of itself
A B ={x/ x A or x B }
n
If A B and BC then AC
Ai ={x : x Ai for atleast one I}

U
i =1

1 KHV

Consequences:

6. a)(AUB)' =A' B' b)(AB)' =A' U B'

(De morgan's laws)
A AB
BAB
MORE RESULTS ON OPERATION ON SETS:
A B=B A
For any two sets A and B

A A= A and A= A
a)A-B= AB' b)(A-B)UB= AUB

If A B then A B=B
c)(A-B)B=, d)AB B'A'

AU =U U is universal set
ABC = A BC (Union is e)A-B= B'-A' f)(AUB) (AUB')=A

f)A-(A-B)=AB g)AUA'=U h)AA'=

associative)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUMBER OF
INTERSECTION OF SETS:
A B ={ Set of all those elements which belong to ELEMENTS OF TWO SETS

n(AUB) =n(A) +n(B) -n(A B)

A & B both}

n(A B) =n(A) +n(B) -n(AUB)

A B ={x/ x A and x B }
or n(A) +n(B) =n(AUB) +n(A B)
n
(The above results are when A and B are not
x
A
Symbolically
={x
:
for
all
i}
Ai
i
i=1
disjoint)
Immediate consequences:
Also we have

A B=B A

n(AUB) =n(A-B)+n(B-A) +n(AB)

AB C= A BC

n(A-B) is the no. of elements in A but not in

B.

A A= A
A =

If A and B are disjoint A B= then

A B A and Ab B
n(AUB) =n(A) +n(B)
& A B AB

For any three sets A, B and C, we have

If A B then AB= A Also

n(AUBUC)
=n(A)+n(B) +n(C) -n(B C)
BA ; AB= B
n(A
B) -n(A C)+n(A B C)

If A B= then A and B are disjoint

and

sets.
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SETS:
A-B
**
A-B={ Set of all elements which belongs to A but not
**
to B} ={ x/ x A and x B } This can be
B-A
From figure
c
c
**
also denoted by A B or AB
A=(A-B)U(AB)
* * * AB
B-A={elements belong to only set B} = Ac B
n(A) =n(A-B) +n(AB)
Note: A B A & BAB
n(B) =n(B-A) +n(BA)
A-B#B-A ; x AB x A& x B
n(AB')=n(A)- n(AB)
COMPLETMENT OF A SET: A' or Ac (A n(BA')=n(B)-n(AB)
complement) means set of elements which are not in
n(A')=n(U)-n(AB)
set A(i.e. U-A) Symbolically, A' or Ac or
n(A'UB')=n(AB)'=n(U)-n(AB)
C(A) ={x : x U and x A }
n(A'B')=n(AUB)'=n(U)-n(AUB)
SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE OF TWO SETS: ORDERED PAIR: An ordered pair of objects
Let A and B two nonempty sets, the set (A-B) (B- consists of two elements 'a' and 'b' written as
A) is called the symmetric difference of two sets and parenthesis (a, b) then a is designated as the first
is denoted by A B =(A-B) (B-A)
member and b as the second member.
e.g: The points in plane can be represented by an
LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS:
ordered pair (x, y) where x is the first co-ordinate
1. a)A= b)AA=A(Idempotent Laws)
2. a)AUB=BUA b)AB= AB(commutative called abscissa and y the second co-ordinate called
ordinate. Thus a point represents an ordered pair.
laws)
Equality of ordered pairs: Two ordered pairs (a, b)
3. a)AU(BUC) =(AUB)UC
b)A(BC)=(AB)C (Associative laws) and (c, d) will be equal if and only if a=c and b=d
CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS: Let A and B
4. a)AU(BC) =(AUB) (AUC)]
be any two non-empty sets. The set of all ordered
b)A(BUC)=(AUB) (AUC)
pairs (a, b) such that a A and b B is called
(Distributive laws)
the Cartesian product of the sets A and B and is
5. a) A-(BUC) =(A-B) (A-C)
denoted by A x B.
b)A-(BC) =(A-B) U(A-C)
A x B={(a, b) / a A and b B }
(De'morgan's laws)

2 KHV

IMPORTANT RESULTS ON CARTESIAN

PRODUCT;

If set A contains m elements and set B

contains n elements , then the number of
elements in A x B is mn

A x(BUC) =(AxB) U (A x C)
A x (BC) = (A x B) (A x C)
A x (B-C) = (A x B) - (Ax C)
A x (B' U C') =(Ax B) (A x C)
A x (B' C' )' =(A x B) U (A x C)

A x B # Bx A unless A=B. Thus the cartesian

product of two sets is commutative if the two
sets are equal

If A and B are disjoint sets, then AxB and

BxA are also disjoint.

If either A or B is empty , then the set A x B

is also null set.

If A B then ACBC
If A B and C D then

element ) 'y' =f(x) in set B.

The other terms used for functions are operators or
transformations or mappings. f
This is denoted by f: AB or A B
Alternate Definition: A subset of AxB is called a
function from A to B iff to each x A, there
exist a unique y in Y such that (x, y) f.
Function as a particular type of relation:
It follows from the above definition that
A relation from A to B is a function from A to B if
i) to each x A, there exists a y Y such that
(x,y) f
ii)(x, y1) f, and (x, y2 ) f y1 =y2

Condition (i) ensures that to each x in X, f associates

an element y in Y(i.e. each element of A is the first
ACBD
element of some element in the relation) and

If A B then A B
condition (ii) guarantees that y is unique. (no element
= AB AC
of A is the first element of any two distinct elements
in the relation)
RELATIONS:
Note: Every function is a relation but every relation
Definition: Let A and B be any two sets , Then any may not be a function
B
A
subset of AxB is a relation R from A to B i.e.
f
R AB If (a,b) R , we write a R b
e.g: If A ={2,4,6} and B={a,b,c}, then R={(2,a), (2,b)
x
y=f(x)
, (4,b), (6,c)} being a subset of A x B, is a relation A
to B. Here (2,a) (2,b) (4,b) and (6,c) R, So we
Domain: The set A is called the domain of f and
write 2Ra , 2Rb, 4Rb, and 6Rc but (2,c) R.
denoted by Df
Codomain: The set B is called the Codomain of f and
If set A consists of m elements and B consist n
denoted by Cf
elements then A x B consist mn elements.
So there are 2mn subsets of A x B or 2mn different Image and Preimage: The unique element 'y' in B
assigned to 'x A is called the image (or f
relation from A to B
image)of 'x' under f and write it as f(x)=y(image of x
is y), x is called the preimage of y
If R AB is a relation from A to B , then
Domain of R = {Set of all frist elements in R}
Range of function: The range of f denoted by Rf is
={ a/ (a, b) R}
the set consisting of all the images of the elements of
Range of R = {Set of all second elements in R}
the domain A. and denoted by f(A), Symbolically
={b/(a, b) R}
f(A)=Range of f ={f(x)/ x X} or
={y Y/ y=f(x) for some x X}
RELATION ON A:
Note:
If A is nonempty set, then a relation R such that
1) From the definition of a function as a
R A A is called a relation on set A. Here, A x
correspondence, it follows that
A is universal relation on set A.
i) there may exist some elements in set B which
may not have any corresponding element in set
FUNCTIONS
A.
FUNCTIONS: Let A and B be two sets. A
2)y=f(x) is not a function (y as a function of x), if
correspondence between the elements of A and B is
there is an input for which we get more than one
called a function from A to B, if to each element x in
outputs.
A, there exist one and only one element (a unique

3 KHV

3) y=f(x) is not a function if there is an element in

the set of A for which we do not have it's image
(corresponding element in set B)
4)We denote the function by f, g, h, , ,
with suitable variables x, y, z.......... so on.
6)A function is a set of ordered pairs, no two of
which have the same first component for
different second components. ;
If x A, y=[f(x)] B then (x,y) f;
If(x1, y1) f and (x2 , y2) f, then y1 =y2.;
ALBEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON
FUNCTIONS(COMBINATION OF FUNCTIONS):
If f and g are two functions with domains D1 and D2
respectively, then
i)(f +g)x=f(x) +g(x) with domain

D 1 D 2
ii)(fg)x=f(x).g(x) with domain

D 1 D 2

7)Domain is a set of inputs, Range is a set of

outputs.
ILLUSTRATIONS: 1). y=x2, Here if x R,
Here x R and y R, then y is a function of x,
since each element of set A have it's image in set B and
there is no element in set A which can give two different
images in set B
2).y2 =x, Here x [0, ) and y R, then y is
not a function of x, as any element in set X gives two
images.
If x =4 y= 2

f(x)=x x A and is denoted by IA

(IA is bijective or bijection)
4. EQUAL FUNCTIONS: Two functions f and g
defined from A to B are said to be equal if
Df(f)=Df(g) and Rf(f)=Rf(g)
i.e. f(x) =g(x) x A. and written as
f=g

f x
f
x =
iii)
provided g(x)#0 with domain
g
gx
D 1 D 2

e.g. f(x)=x and g(x)=

x2
x

are not equal functions

as they have different domains. but f(x)=

i.e.Two functions y=f(x) and y=g(x) can be

combined(added, subtracted, multiplied or divided) only
in common domains.

x
and g(x)=
2
x

x2
x

are equal functions(identical

functions)
5. INCLUSION FUNCTION: If BA , then
the function i: B A : i(b)=b b
B.
I. Number of funtion from finite set A to
fintite set B =(n(B))n(A)
e.g: The number of functions from {1,2,3}
2. CONSTANT FUNCTION: A function f: AB
into {a, b} =23 =8
is called a constant function if each element of
The number of functions from {a, b} into
set A has the same image in set B i.e. if the range
{1,2,3} =32 =9
of B has only one element.
The number of functions from
For all x A, f(x) =(constant or fixed
{1,2,3} to {a, b,c} =33 =27
number )
II. Number of functions from A to B if
3. IDENTITY FUNCTION: A function f: AB
n(A)= and set B is non empty
is said to be Identity function if

TYPES OF FUNCTION:
1. REAL VALUED FUNCTION: Let f be a
function from the set A to set B. If sets A and B
are subsets of real numbers, then f is said to be
real valued function.

OTHER KINDS OF FUNTIONS:

REAL VALUED FUNCTIONS: Let f be function from
the set X to se Y. If sets X and Y are subsets of real
numbers then f is said to be real valued function.
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION OF DEGREE n :
If a function f is defined by f(x)=a0xn +a1 xn-1 +a2 xn-2
+a3xn-3 +......+an-1 +an where n is a non-negative integer
and a0,a1,a2,a3 ...........an are constant numbers and a0#0,
then f is called a polynimial function in x of degree n.
RATIONAL FUNCTION: Let f(x)=

Px
Q x

where

P(x) and Q(x) are two polynomial functions, Q(x)#0,

then f is called a rational function of x.

IRRATIONAL FUNCTION: A function involving

one or more radicals of polynomial is called irrational
funtion. e.g

x 2x3
2

x 7 x 32x 272 / 3
1 x

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS: A function f(x) is

said to be even if f(-x) =f(x) x domain of f.
A function f(x) is said to be odd if f(-x)=-f(x),
x domain of f.
Note: Here the assumption is that -x domain of f
whenever x domain of f.

4 KHV

FACTS:

Product of two odd or two even functions is

always an even function.

Product of an even and an odd function OR

viceversa is always an odd function

Any function can be written as sum of an

even function and an odd function
i.e. f(x)=

f x f x
+
2

ii)Denominator #0
iii)If domain of y=f(x) and y=g(x) are D1 and D2
respectively then the domain of f(x) +g(x)
or f(x).g(x), is D 1 D2
iii) Domain of

f x f x
2

f x
f
x =
is
g
gx

D1 D2 -{g(x)=0}

iv) log a x is defined if a>0 , x>0 and a#1

=Even function +odd function
Range:
Every constant function is an even function and

Set of all actual out put values y

f(x)=0 is an even function as well as an odd

collection of all outputs f(x) corresponding

functon.
to each real number in the domain.
If f(x) is an even as well as differentiable then
METHOD
TO FIND RANGE OF FUNCTION:
f'(x) will be odd function and satisfies the
i)Given
y=f(x)
condition
ii)Solve (1) for x in terms of y and let x= y
f'(-x)=-f'(x) provided f(-x)=-f(x) x R
If f(x) is odd as well as differentiable then f'(x) iii)Find values of y for which x is real and belongs to
Df
will be an even function and satisfies the
iv)Rf =Set of values of y obtained in step (iii)
condition f'(-x)=f'(x) provided f(-x)=f(x)

x R

Rule for finding range:

CONCEPTS AND IMPORTANT POINTS ON
I) If domain finite number of
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS:
pointsrangeset of corresponding f(x)
Domain of a function y=f(x):
values

Set of all input values x

II) If domain R or R-{some finite points},

It is the set of all real x for which f(x) is

then express x in terms of y. From this find
defined.
y for x to be defined (I.e find the values of y
for which x exists)

To find the domain of a function we have to

find values of x for which y i.e. f(x) is
III)
If domain a finite interval, find the
defined.
least and greatest value for range using
METHOD TO FIND DOMAIN OF FUNCTION:
monotonicity.
Df ={x R such that f(x) is real} (Defn)
SHORT CUT:
i)The values of x for which f(x) is real are to be
Range of f(x)=asinx +bcosx +c is
included in Df
[ c a 2+b2 ,c+ a 2+b 2]
ii)The values of x for which f(x) is non real are to be
Range of f(x)=ax2 +bx+c is
excluded from Df .
D
D
Rule for finding Domain:
, if a>0 and ,
if a<0
4a
4a
i)Expression under even root(i.e. Square root,
fourth root etc)0)
x<b}[Here left end point is included but right end point
INTERVALS:
is not included)
Closed Interval: If a real number x is sucha that
Infinite Intervals: a , ={ xR : x>a} ;
a xb then x lies in closed interval a and b, and
[ a , ={ xR : x a};
is written as x [a, b] (Here end points are included)
, a ={ xR : x<a};
i.e. [a, b]={xR : a xb }
, a ] ={ xR : x a}
Open interval: If a real number x is such that a<x<b ,
Remarks: 1.Four intervals [a, b], (a, b), (a, b], [a, b)
then x lies in the open interval a and b and written as x are finite intervals as their lenght is b-a is real and
(a,b) or x ] a, b [ (Here end points are not
finite. The intervals a , , [ a , ,
included). (a, b)={xR : a<x<b}
, a , , a ] . are infinite intervals as
Semi open, Semi closed intervals: (a, b]={x R:
their length is infinite.
a<x b}(here left end point is not included but right
2.R= , is the set of all reals.
end point is included); i.e. [a, b)={ xR : a

5 KHV

SOME USEFUL RESULTS:

x. For a>0, x 2a 2 axa
Let a and b R and a<b, then
xi. For a>0, x2 >a2 x>a or x<-a
xii. For a>0, x2 a2 x a or x
i. (x-a)(x-b)<0
a<x<b
a
ii. (x-a)(x-b) 0
a xb
iii. (x-a)(x-b)>0 x does not lie between a and VARIABLES:(Dependent and Independent):
Let f :X Y defined by y=f(x). The variable
b
i.e. either x<a or x>b
x X=Df is called independent variable and the
iv. (x-a)(x-b) 0 either
variable y Y=Rf is called dependent variable.
xa or xb
VALUE OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT: The value
v. |x|<a
-a<x<a
obtained by actually putting x=a in the given function is
vi.
xa axa
called the value of the function at x=a and is denoted by
vii. |x|>a
either x>a or x<-a
f(a).
viii. xa
either xa or x a
ix. For a>0, x2 <a2
-a<x<a
PREPARED , DTP, BY KHV

-DEFINITIONS OF SOME STANDARD REAL FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS:

GRAPH OF A FUNCTION: Graph of a function 'f' denoted by G(f) or Gf is the set of all ordered pairs (x, f(x))
where x Df . Symbolically, G(f)={(x, f(x)), x Df}
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION: A function f(x)=ax or
f(x)=ex (e, a>0, x R)satisfying the laws a1 =a and
ax.ay =ax+y is called the exponential function
The exponential function ex is defined as
ex = 1

x x2
x 23!......... , x R
1! 2 !

f(x)=ex is always positve for all x.

GRAPH OF LOGERITHEMIC FUNCTION:

logx is not defined for zero or negative (i.e for
x0 )
Df =(0, )
Also y=logx
x=ey
x 0 when y
and x when y

(1,0)
GRAPH OF EXPONETIAL FUNCTION ex :

x
Graph of e :
Range of f= , i.e.
Domain of f=R and Also y=ex
x=logey is
R Also x=1 y=log1=0 ,
defined only for x>0. Range f=(0, )
Therefore the curve lies to the right of y-axis.
where x=0, f(0)=e0=1
Therefore f(x) is an increasing curve and it cuts x axis
Y
y=ex (a>1)
at (1,0).
curve cuts y-axis at (0,1).
The curve is asymptotic to y axis. logax decreases if
Since f(x)>0 for all x, the
(0,1)
0<a<1 and increases if a>1
graph lies above x axis and
X Note: ex and logx are inverse to one another and hence
f(x)=ex is increasing curve
O
their graphs are reflections w.r.t the line y=x(Identity
and is asymptotic to x axis.
function)
Note:
1.General logarithmic function is defined by
LOGERITHEMIC FUNCTION:
y=f(x) =logax where a#1 and a>0.
The function f(x)=logx for x>0 is called the
logarithmic function. (The inverse of exponential
Here Df = (0, ) and Rf =
, and the
function is called the logarithmic function.)
point (1,0) lies on the graph.
If y=ax (a>0, a#1, x R,y>0) then x=logay is called
If a>1
logax<0 if 0<x<1. logax =0 if x=1
Logarithmic function.
and logax >0 if x>1
If 0<a<1
logax >0 if 0<x<1 and logax<0 if x>1

6 KHV

INTEGRAL PART FUNCTION: [GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTION] OR [STEP FUNCTION]

-3.2
2.7
Definition:A function f:R R defined by
f(x)=[x] = greatest integer x for all x R
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
[x] means the greatest integer not greater than x.
Thus [x]=x, if x is integer and
[x]=an integer immediately to the left of x, if x is not an integer.
For example:
f(3)=[3]=3; f(2.7)=[2.7]=2; f(-3.2)=[-3.2]=-4 f(3/2)=[3/2]=1, [-1/2] =-1
[22/7]= 3 [ 2 ]=1
On the number line , the integer to the left or equal
to the given number gives the greatest integer.
In general [ x ]x[ x ]1 for all x R
Table of values:

x
y=[x]

x=2
2

2 x1 1x0
-2

0x1

1x 2

-1

GRAPH OF GREATEST INTEGERFUNCTION: are broken

parallel lines, parallel to x-axis.
Domain of [x]=R, [ [x] is defined for all x R]
Range of [x]=Z=set of integers ; [ By defn [x] =integer]
It is many one function; It is not periodic function.

2x3
2

Y
y=2

-2
|
|
|
|
Important facts about the function f(x)=[x]:
i. [x]=x when x is integer
ii. [x]<x when x is not integer. ]
iii. [x]=0 when 0x1
iv. [x]=K(Integer) when K x K1

|
y=1 |
1 |
|
|
|

|
|
|
|

-1
|
1
|y=-1 -1
|
|

y=-2

-2

vi.
[x+y]=[x]+[y], iff at least one of x and y is an
integer.
vii. [x+y]=[x]+y for all x R and y I (set of
Integers)

X R
v. [x] x<[x]+1 i.e. K x-[x]<1
MODULUS FUNCTION:
f(x)=|x| in R means f(x)=-x when x<0 ;
f(x)=x when x0

e.g.: f(x)=|2x+3| in R means f(x)=-(2x+3) when 2x+3<0 i.e. when x<

3
2

f(x)=2x+3 when

2x30

GRAPH OF MODULUS FUNCTION:

Domain of f=R(Since |x| is unique non negative real number for all x R )
Range of f=(0, ) =non negative real numbers
For x0 , y=x which is a line through the origin with
slope 1. so that its inclination with x axis is 450 .
For x0 , y=-x which is a line through origin with slope -1
and hence its inclination with x-axis is 1350 . since f(x)=|x| is non negetive ,
the graph lies above x axis. Hence the graph consists of two rays as shown
in the figure and it is symmetrical w.r.t y axis.

7 KHV

y=

-x

y=
x

i.e.x -3/2

450

Important facts about the modulus function:

i. |x| is always in non-negative i.e. positive or
vii. |x/y|=|x|/|y|; y#0
zero
viii. |x+y| |x|+|y|
ii. |x| =0 only if x=0 i.e. |0|=0
ix. |x-y| |x|+|y|
iii. |x|=
x. |x-y| | |x|-|y| | and |x+y| | |x|-|y| |
x 2 (Another Defn)
xi. |x|=|-x|
iv. |x|=Maximum {-x, x} =x (e.g. |-5|=max{-5,5}
xii. |x|2 =|-x|2 =x2
=5; |5|=max{5,-5}=5
v. Modulus function is also called Absolute value
xiii. xK K x K
function.
xiv. xK xK or xK
vi. |xy|=|x||y|
FRACTIONAL PART FUNCTION**: The function f defined by f(x)=x-[x] is called fractional part function,
where [x] is gretest integer x
0x[ x ]1 for x R Df =R and Rf =[0,1)
Since [x] x<[x]+1
e.g.: e=2.718...... [e]=2 and [-e]=[-2.718]=-3

Table of values:

x
y=x[x]

3x2 2 x1 1x0
x+3

x+2

x+1

Now trace the lines y=x-K , where K= 0, 1, 2, 3

All these lines are parallel with slope 1 i.e. they make angle
of 450 with +ve x axis.
Also Rf =[0,1)
0 y1 .
The set of lines given by y=x-K do not cross y=0
i.e. x-axis and the line y=1.
Note: It is many one function, It is not periodic function .

0x1

1x 2

x-1
Y

2x3
x-2
y=1

-3

-2

-1

THE SIGNUM FUNCTION(sgn)**: The singnum function, denoted by sgn x, is defined as

x
for x#0
1 when x>0
(0,1)
f(x)=
0, when x=0
x
-1 when x<0
sgn(x)=
OR
0
for x=0
The domain of this function is R. The range of this function is the set {-1, 0. 1}
Above is the graph of the function y=sgn(x). It consists of two line segments
y=1 for x>0. y=-1 for x<0 and the origin (0,0). The points A(0,1) , B(0,-1) do
not lie on the graph.

y=0
X

y=1, x>0

y=-1, x<0 (0,-1)

CONSTANT FUNCTION: If the range of a function f consists of only one number

then f is called constant function f(x)=c where c is a constant number
is a constant function. It is all to one correspondence.
Here Df =R and Rf =C for all x R,
Contant function is many one and its graph is a straight line parallel to x axis. It is above x axis if c>0 and below
x axis if c<0. It coincides with x axis if c=0

**********************
8 KHV

xA

Y
f(x
)=
x

IDENTITY FUNCTION: The function f:A B defined by f(x)=x for every

is called the identity of A and is denoted by IA .
Here Df =R=Rf .
The graph of identity function is a straight line passing through origin
and having slope 1 i.e. the line is inclined at an angle of 450 with positive x axis

450