Physics

Question: Law of motion Newton

Newton's First Law of Motion:

I. Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain
in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to
it.

This we recognize as essentially Galileo's concept of inertia, and this is often termed simply
the "Law of Inertia".

Newton's Second Law of Motion:

II. The relationship between an object's mass m, its
acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma.
Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their
symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in this law the
direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of
the acceleration vector.

This is the most powerful of Newton's three Laws, because it allows quantitative
calculations of dynamics: how do velocities change when forces are applied. Notice the
fundamental difference between Newton's 2nd Law and the dynamics of Aristotle:
according to Newton, a force causes only a change in velocity (an acceleration); it does not
maintain the velocity as Aristotle held.
This is sometimes summarized by saying that under Newton, F = ma, but under Aristotle F
= mv, where v is the velocity. Thus, according to Aristotle there is only a velocity if there is a
force, but according to Newton an object with a certain velocity maintains that velocity
unless a force acts on it to cause an acceleration (that is, a change in the velocity). As we
have noted earlier in conjunction with the discussion of Galileo, Aristotle's view seems to be
more in accord with common sense, but that is because of a failure to appreciate the role
played by frictional forces. Once account is taken of all forces acting in a given situation it
is the dynamics of Galileo and Newton, not of Aristotle, that are found to be in accord with
the observations.

Newton's Third Law of Motion:

III. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

This law is exemplified by what happens if we step off a boat onto the bank of a lake: as we
move in the direction of the shore, the boat tends to move in the opposite direction (leaving
us facedown in the water, if we aren't careful!).

Question: Trajectory motion

Freefall
In the absence of frictional drag, an object near the surface of the earth will fall with the constant
acceleration of gravity g. Position and speed at any time can be calculated from the motion
equations.
Illustrated here is the situation where an object is released from rest. It's position and speed can
be predicted for any time after that. Since all the quantities are directed downward, that direction
is chosen as the positive direction in this case.

Vertical Trajectory
Vertical motion under the influence of gravity can be described by the basic motion equations.
Given the constant acceleration of gravity g, the position and speed at any time can be calculated
from the motion equations:

Horizontal Launch
All the parameters of a horizontal launch can be calculated with the motion equations, assuming
a downward acceleration of gravity of 9.8 m/s2.

General Ballistic Trajectory

The motion of an object under the influence of gravity is determined completely
by the acceleration of gravity, its launch speed, and launch angle provided air
friction is negligible. The horizontal and vertical motions may be separated and
described by the general motion equations for constant acceleration. The initial
vector components of the velocity are used in the equations. The diagram shows
trajectories with the same launch speed but different launch angles. Note that the
60 and 30 degree trajectories have the same range, as do any pair of launches at
complementary angles. The launch at 45 degrees gives the maximum range.

Index
Trajectory
concepts
Calculatio
n

HyperPhysics***** Mechanics

Go Back
R Nave

Will it clear the fence?

The basic motion equations can be solved simultaneously to express y in terms of x.

Where will it land?

The basic motion equations give the position components x and y in terms of the
time. Solving for the horizontal distance in terms of the height y is useful for
calculating ranges in situations where the launch point is not at the same level as

the landing point.

Where will it land?

The basic motion equations give the position components x and y in terms of the time. Solving
for the horizontal distance in terms of the height y is useful for calculating ranges in situations
where the launch point is not at the same level as the landing point.

Launch Velocity
The launch velocity of a projectile can be calculated from the range if the angle of launch is
known. It can also be calculated if the maximum height and range are known, because the angle
can be determined.

Launch Velocity
The launch velocity of a projectile can be calculated from the range if the angle of launch is
known. It can also be calculated if the maximum height and range are known, because the angle
can be determined.

Angle of Launch
Variation of the launch angle of a projectile will change the range. If the launch velocity is
known, the required angle of launch for a desired range can be calculated from the motion
equations.

Question: Momentum
Momentum

The sports announcer says, "Going into the all-star break, the Chicago White
Sox have the momentum." The headlines declare "Chicago Bulls Gaining
Momentum." The coach pumps up his team at half-time, saying "You have
the momentum; the critical need is that you use that momentum and bury
them in this third quarter."
Momentum is a commonly used term in sports. A team that has the
momentum is on the move and is going to take some effort to stop. A team
that has a lot of momentum is really on the move and is going to be hard to
stop. Momentum is a physics term; it refers to the quantity of motion that
an object has. A sports team that is on the move has the momentum. If an
object is in motion (on the move) then it has momentum.
Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All objects have mass; so if
an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has its mass in motion. The
amount of momentum that an object has is dependent upon two variables:
how much stuff is moving and how fast the stuff is moving. Momentum
depends upon the variables mass and velocity. In terms of an equation, the
momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object times the velocity
of the object.
Momentum = mass velocity
In physics, the symbol for the quantity momentum is
the lower case "p". Thus, the above equation can be
rewritten as
p=mv
where m is the mass and v is the velocity. The equation illustrates that
momentum is directly proportional to an object's mass and directly
proportional to the object's velocity.
The units for momentum would be mass units times velocity units. The
standard metric unit of momentum is the kgm/s. While the kgm/s is the
standard metric unit of momentum, there are a variety of other units that
are acceptable (though not conventional) units of momentum. Examples

include kgmi/hr, kgkm/hr, and gcm/s. In each of these examples, a mass

unit is multiplied by a velocity unit to provide a momentum unit. This is
consistent with the equation for momentum.
Momentum is a vector quantity. As discussed in an earlier unit, a vector
quantity is a quantity that is fully described by both magnitude and
direction. To fully describe the momentum of a 5-kg bowling ball moving
westward at 2 m/s, you must include information about both the magnitude
and the direction of the bowling ball. It is not enough to say that the ball has
10 kgm/s of momentum; the momentum of the ball is not fully described
until information about its direction is given. The direction of the momentum
vector is the same as the direction of the velocity of the ball. In a previous
unit, it was said that the direction of the velocity vector is the same as the
direction that an object is moving. If the bowling ball is moving westward,
then its momentum can be fully described by saying that it is 10 kgm/s,
westward. As a vector quantity, the momentum of an object is fully
described by both magnitude and direction.
From the definition of momentum, it becomes
obvious that an object has a large momentum if
either its mass or its velocity is large. Both
variables are of equal importance in determining
the momentum of an object. Consider a Mack truck and a roller skate
moving down the street at the same speed. The considerably greater mass
of the Mack truck gives it a considerably greater momentum. Yet if the Mack
truck were at rest, then the momentum of the least massive roller skate
would be the greatest. The momentum of any object that is at rest is 0.
Objects at rest do not have momentum - they do not have any "mass in
motion." Both variables - mass and velocity - are important in comparing the
momentum of two objects.
The momentum equation can help us to think about how a change in one of
the two variables might affect the momentum of an object. Consider a 0.5kg physics cart loaded with one 0.5-kg brick and moving with a speed of 2.0
m/s. The total mass of loaded cart is 1.0 kg and its momentum is 2.0
kgm/s. If the cart was instead loaded with three 0.5-kg bricks, then the
total mass of the loaded cart would be 2.0 kg and its momentum would be
4.0 kgm/s. A doubling of the mass results in a doubling of the momentum.

Similarly, if the 2.0-kg cart had a velocity of 8.0 m/s (instead of 2.0 m/s),
then the cart would have a momentum of 16.0 kgm/s (instead of 4.0
kgm/s). A quadrupling in velocity results in a quadrupling of the
momentum. These two examples illustrate how the equation p = mv serves
as a "guide to thinking" and not merely a "plug-and-chug recipe for algebraic
problem-solving."

Question: Kirchoffs current law and Kirchoffs voltage law

Question; Ohms law
Question: Energy released by in heating
Q = m x C x T.
Where....
Q = Quantity of Heat (Released or Absorbed). Joules, calories or Btu.
m = Mass (grams) of substance being heated, cooled or changing state.
C = Specific Heat Capacity (J/g/C; cal/g/C; Btu/lb/F).
(Also, Molar C = Molar Heat Capacity J/mol.K (or C).
T = Difference in Temperature.(TC; or TF).
When ice falls from the height it kinetic energy in converterted in melting up if part of weight of Ice
1/2mV2 =- mCt

Question: Heating and cooling

Question: Molar eqaution and avagadros constant
Do chapter 7 practice test pdf/My documents

Question: Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are two different types of energy-releasing
reactions in which energy is released from high-powered atomic bonds between the
particles within the nucleus. The main difference between these two processes is that
fission is the splitting of an atom into two or more smaller ones while fusion is the
fusing of two or more smaller atoms into a larger one.

Comparison chart</> Embed this chart

Nuclear Fission
Fission is the splitting of a large
Definition atom into two or more smaller
ones.
Natural
occurrence of
the process

Byproducts of
the reaction

Fusion is the fusing of two or

more lighter atoms into a larger
one.

Fission reaction does not

normally occur in nature.

Fusion occurs in stars, such as

the sun.

Fission produces many highly

radioactive particles.

Few radioactive particles are

produced by fusion reaction, but
if a fission "trigger" is used,
radioactive particles will result
from that.

Critical mass of the substance

Conditions and high-speed neutrons are
required.

Energy
Requirement

Nuclear Fusion

Takes little energy to split two

atoms in a fission reaction.

High density, high temperature

environment is required.

Extremely high energy is

required to bring two or more
protons close enough that
nuclear forces overcome their
electrostatic repulsion.

The energy released by fission is

a million times greater than that
Energy Released released in chemical reactions,
but lower than the energy
released by nuclear fusion.

The energy released by fusion is

three to four times greater than
the energy released by fission.

One class of nuclear weapon is a

fission bomb, also known as an
Nuclear weapon
atomic bomb or atom bomb.

One class of nuclear weapon is

the hydrogen bomb, which uses
a fission reaction to "trigger" a
fusion reaction

Fission and Fusion

Table of Contents
1.

1. Introduction

2.

2. Fission

1.

2.1. Critical Mass

3.

3. Fusion

4.

4. Outside links

5.

5. References

6.

6. Contributers

The energy harnessed in nuclei is released in nuclear reactions. Fission is the splitting of a heavy
nucleus into lighter nuclei and fusion is the combining of nuclei to form a bigger and heavier
nucleus. The consequence of fission or fusion is the absorption or release of energy.
1.

1. Introduction

2.

2. Fission

1.

2.1. Critical Mass

3.

3. Fusion

4.

4. Outside links

5.

5. References

6.

6. Contributers

Introduction
Protons and neutrons make up a nucleus, which is the foundation of nuclear science.
Fission and fusion involves the dispersal and combination of elemental nucleus and
isotopes, and part of nuclear science is to understand the process behind this
phenomenon. Adding up the individual masses of each of these subatomic particles
of any given element will always give you a greater mass than the mass of the
nucleus as a whole. The missing idea in this observation is the concept called
nuclear binding energy. Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to keep the
protons and neutrons of a nucleus intact, and the energy that is released during a

nuclear fission or fusion is nuclear power. There are some things to consider
however. The mass of an element's nucleus as a whole is less than the total mass
of its individual protons and neutrons. The difference in mass can be attributed to
the nuclear binding energy. Basically, nuclear binding energy is considered as mass,
and that mass becomes "missing". This missing mass is called mass defect, which is
the nuclear energy, also known as the mass released from the reaction as neutrons,
photons, or any other trajectories. In short, mass defect and nuclear binding energy
are interchangeable terms.

To calculate the energy released during mass destruction in both nuclear fission and fusion, we
use Einsteins equation that equates energy and mass:

E=mc

with m=mass (kilograms), c=speed of light (meters/sec) and E=energy (Joules).

Example

Find the energy available in 0.2500 kg of hydrogen gas.

E=mc

E=(0.2500 kg)(299 792 458 m / s)2

E=2.247X1016 Joules
Note it is impossible to acquire 100% of the potential energy available in the nucleus of the
hydrogen atom unless the same amount of antimatter(positron) is reacted with the hydrogen. The
result is the complete annihilation of the hydrogen and the release of 2.247X10 16 Joules of
energy. In the nuclear reations, m becomes m, which is the difference of the end and start mass
of the nucleus. The difference in mass is the mass lost and energy released during a nuclear
reaction. Note that the energy released from a nuclear fusion or fission is not the same as an
entire molecule being annihilated so the energy released is much smaller, but is still significantly
larger than the energy released from the average chemical oxidation reaction.

Binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes.

Fission
Fission is the splitting of a nucleus that releases free neutrons and lighter nuclei. The fission of
heavy elements is highly exothermic which releases about 200 million eV compared to burning
coal which only gives a few eV. The amount of energy released during nuclear fission is millions
of times more efficient per mass than that of coal considering only 0.1 percent of the original
nuclei is converted to energy. Daughter nucleus, energy, and particles such as neutrons are
released as a result of the reaction. The particles released can then react with other radioactive
materials which in turn will release daughter nucleus and more particles as a result, and so on.
The unique feature of nuclear fission reactions is that they can be harnessed and used in chain
reactions. This chain reaction is the basis of nuclear weapons. One of the well known elements
used in nuclear fission is Uranium-235. When Uranium-235 is bombarded with a neutron, the
atom turns into Uranium-236 which is even more unstable, resulting in the nucleus splitting into
daughter nuclei such as Krypton-92 and Barium-141 and free neutrons. The resulting fission
products are highly radioactive, commonly undergoing beta-minus decay.

Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into nuclei of lighter atoms,
accompanied by the release of energy, brought on by a neutron bombardment. The original
concept of this nuclei splitting was discovered by Enrico Femi in 1934who believed
transuranium elements might be produced by bombarding uranium with neutrons, because the
loss of Beta particles would increase the atomic number. However, the products that formed did
not correlate with the properties of elements with higher atomic numbers than uranium (Ra, Ac,
Th, and Pa). Instead, they were radioisotopes of much lighter elements such as Sr and Ba. The
amount of mass lost in the fission process is equivalent to an energy of 3.20 x 10-11 J.
Example

Consider the neutron bonbardment

235 92

U+

0 1

236 92

Ufissionproducts

which releases 3.20 x 10-11 J per 235U atom.

How much energy would be released if 1.00g of

235

U were to undergo fission.

1.00g

235

U x 1 mole
235 g

235

235

U x 6.022 x 1023 atoms

1 mole

235

235

U x 3.20 x 10-11 J = 8.20 x 1010 J

1 atom

235

So, as you can see, fission of a small amount of atoms can produce an enormous amount of
energy, in the form of warmth and radiation (gamma waves). When an atom splits, each of the
two new particles contains roughly half the neutrons and protons of the original nucleus, and in
some cases a 2:3 ratio.

Critical Mass

The explosion of a bomb only occurs if the chain reaction exceeds its critical mass. The critical
mass is the point at which a chain reaction becomes self-sustaining. If the neutrons are lost at a
faster rate than they are formed by fission, the reaction will not be self-sustaining. The
spontaneous nuclear fission rate is the probability per second that a given atom will fission
spontaneously--that is, without any external intervention. In nuclear power plants, nuclear fission
is controlled by a medium such as water in the nuclear reactor. The water acts as a heat transfer
medium to cool down the reactor and to slow down neutron particles. This way, the neutron
emission and usage is a controlled. If nuclear reaction is not controlled because of lack of
cooling water for example, then a meltdown will occur.

Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two nuclei to form a heavier nuclei. The reaction is followed
either by a release or absorption of energy. Fusion of nuclei with lower mass than iron releases
energy while fusion of nuclei heavier than iron generally absorbs energy. This phenomenon is
known as iron peak. The opposite occurs with nuclear fission.
The power of the energy in a fusion reaction is what drives the energy that is released from the
sun and a lot of stars in the universe. Nuclear fusion is also applied in nuclear weapons,
specifically, a hydrogen bomb. Nuclear fusion is the energy supplying process that occurs at
extremely high temperatures like in stars such as the sun, where smaller nuclei are joined to
make a larger nucleus, a process that gives off great amounts of heat and radiation. When
uncontrolled, this process can provide almost unlimited sources of energy and an uncontrolled
chain provides the basis for a hydrogen bond, since most commonly hydrogen is fused. Also, the
combination of deuterium atoms to form helium atoms fuel this thermonuclear process. For
example: 2H + 3H 4He + 1n + energy.

However, a controlled fusion reaction has yet to be fully demonstrated due to many problems
that present themselves including the difficulty of forcing deuterium and tritium nuclei within a
close proximity, achieving high enough thermal energies, and completely ionizing gases into
plasma. A necessary part in nuclear fusion is plasma, which is a mixture of atomic nuclei and
electrons that are required to initiate a self-sustaining reaction which requires a temperature of
more than 40,000,000 K. Why does it take so much heat to achieve nuclear fusion even for light
elements such as hydrogen? The reason is because the nucleus contain protons, and in order to
overcome electrostatic repulsion by the protons of both the hydrogen atoms, both of the
hydrogen nucleus needs to accelerate at a super high speed and get close enough in order for the
nuclear force to start fusion. The result of nuclear fusion releases more energy than it takes to
start the fusion so G of the system is negative which means that the reaction is exothermic. And

because it is exothermic, the fusion of light elements is self-sustaining given that there is enough
energy to start fusion in the first place.
Note that scientists have yet to find a method for controlling fusion reactions. Fission reactions
on the other hand is the type used in nuclear power plants and can be controlled. Atomic bombs
and hydrogen bombs are examples of uncontrolled nuclear reactions.

What Is A Nuclear Reactor?

All nuclear reactors are devices designed to maintain a chain reaction producing a steady flow of
neutrons generated by the fission of heavy nuclei. They are, however, differentiated either by
their purpose or by their design features. In terms of purpose, they are either research reactors or
power reactors.
Research reactors are operated at universities and research centres in many countries, including
some where no nuclear power reactors are operated. These reactors generate neutrons for
multiple purposes, including producing radiopharmaceuticals for medical diagnosis and therapy,
testing materials and conducting basic research.
Power reactors are usually found in nuclear power plants. Dedicated to generating heat mainly
for electricity production, they are operated in more than 30 countries (see Nuclear Power
Reactors). Their lesser uses are drinking water or district water production. In the form of smaller
units, they also power ships.
Differentiating nuclear reactors according to their design features is especially pertinent when
referring to nuclear power reactors (see Types of Nuclear Power Reactors).

Nuclear Power Reactors

There are many different types of power reactors. What is common to them all is that they
produce thermal energy that can be used for its own sake or converted into mechanical energy
and ultimately, in the vast majority of cases, into electrical energy.
In these reactors, the fission of heavy atomic nuclei, the most common of which is uranium-235,
produces heat that is transferred to a fluid which acts as a coolant. During the fission process,
bond energy is released and this first becomes noticeable as the kinetic energy of the fission
products generated and that of the neutrons being released. Since these particles undergo intense
deceleration in the solid nuclear fuel, the kinetic energy turns into heat energy.
In the case of reactors designed to generate electricity, to which the explanations below will now
be restricted, the heated fluid can be gas, water or a liquid metal. The heat stored by the fluid is
then used either directly (in the case of gas) or indirectly (in the case of water and liquid metals)
to generate steam. The heated gas or the steam is then fed into a turbine driving an alternator.

Since, according to the laws of nature, heat cannot fully be converted into another form of
energy, some of the heat is residual and is released into the environment. Releasing is either
direct e.g. into a river or indirect, into the atmosphere via cooling towers. This practice is
common to all thermal plants and is by no means limited to nuclear reactors which are only one
type of thermal plant.

Types of Nuclear Power Reactors

Nuclear power reactors can be classified according to the type of fuel they use to generate heat.

Uraniumfuelled Reactors
The only natural element currently used for nuclear fission in reactors is uranium. Natural
uranium is a highly energetic substance: one kilogram of it can generate as much energy as 10
tonnes of oil. Naturally occurring uranium comprises, almost entirely, two isotopes: U238
(99.283%) and U235 (0.711%). The former is not fissionable while the latter can be fissioned by
thermal (i.e. slow) neutrons. As the neutrons emitted in a fission reaction are fast, reactors using
U235 as fuel must have a means of slowing down these neutrons before they escape from the
fuel. This function is performed by what is called a moderator, which, in the case of certain
reactors (see table of Reactor Types below) simultaneously acts as a coolant. It is common
practice to classify power reactors according to the nature of the coolant and the moderator plus,
as the need may arise, other design characteristics.
Reactor Type

Coolant

Moderator Fuel

Pressurised water
reactors (PWR,
VVER)

Light water

Light
water

Enriched
uranium

Boiling water reactors Light water

(BWR)

Light
water

Enriched
uranium

Pressurised heavy
Heavy water Heavy
water reactor (PHWR)
water

Natural
uranium

Gas-cooled reactors
(Magnox, AGR,
UNGG)

CO2

Natural or
enriched
uranium

Light water graphite

reactors (RBMK)

Press-urised Graphite
boiling water

Graphite

Enriched
uranium

Comment
Steam gener-ated in
secondary loop
Steam from boiling
water fed to turbine

Soviet design

PWRs and BWRs are the most commonly operated reactors in Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. VVERs, designed in the former Soviet Union,
are based on the same principles as PWRs. They use light water, i.e. regular water (H2O) as
opposed to heavy water (deuterium oxide D2O). Moderation provided by light water is not
sufficiently effective to permit the use of natural uranium. The fuel must be slightly enriched in
U235 to make up for the losses of neutrons occurring during the chain reaction. On the other
hand, heavy water is such an effective moderator that the chain reaction can be sustained without
having to enrich the uranium. This combination of natural uranium and heavy water is used in
PHWRs, which are found in a number of countries, including Canada, Korea, Romania and
India.
Graphite-moderated, gas-cooled reactors, formerly operated in France and still operated in Great
Britain, are not built any more in spite of some advantages.
RBMK-reactors (pressure-tube boiling-water reactors), which are cooled with light water and
moderated with graphite, are now less commonly operated in some former Soviet Union bloc
countries. Following the Chernobyl accident (26 April 1986) the construction of this reactor type
ceased. The operating period of those units still in operation will be shortened.

Plutonium-fuelled Reactors
Plutonium (Pu) is an artificial element produced in uranium-fuelled reactors as a by-product of
the chain reaction. It is one hundred times more energetic than natural uranium; one gram of Pu
can generate as much energy as one tonne of oil. As it needs fast neutrons in order to fission,
moderating materials must be avoided to sustain the chain reaction in the best conditions. The
current Plutonium-fuelled reactors, also called fast reactors, use liquid sodium which displays
excellent thermal properties without adversely affecting the chain reaction. These types of
reactors are in operation in France, Japan and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Light Water Reactors

The Light Water Reactors category comprises pressurised water reactors (PWR, VVER) and
boiling water reactors (BWR). Both of these use light water and hence enriched uranium. The
light water they use combines the functions of moderator and coolant. This water flows through
the reactor core, a zone containing a large array of fuel rods where it picks up the heat generated
by the fission of the U235 present in the fuel rods. After the coolant has transferred the heat it has
collected to a steam turbine, it is sent back to the reactor core, thus flowing in a loop, also called
a primary circuit.
In order to transfer high-quality thermal energy to the turbine, it is necessary to reach
temperatures of about 300 C. It is the pressure at which the coolant flows through the reactor

core that makes the distinction between PWRs and BWRs.

In PWRs, the pressure imparted to the coolant is sufficiently high to prevent it from boiling. The
heat drawn from the fuel is transferred to the water of a secondary circuit through heat
exchangers. The water of the secondary circuit is transformed into steam, which is fed into a
turbine.
In BWRs, the pressure imparted to the coolant is sufficiently lower than in a PWR to allow it to
boil. It is the steam resulting from this process that is fed into the turbine.
This basic difference between pressurised and boiling water dictates many of the design
characteristics of the two types of light water reactors, as will be explained below.
Despite their differing designs, it must be noted that the two reactor types provide an equivalent
level of safety.

Pressurised Water Reactors

The fission zone (fuel elements) is contained in a reactor pressure vessel under a pressure of 150
to 160 bar (15 to 16 MPa). The primary circuit connects the reactor pressure vessel to heat
exchangers. The secondary side of these heat exchangers is at a pressure of about 60 bar (6 MPa)
- low enough to allow the secondary water to boil. The heat exchangers are, therefore, actually
steam generators. Via the secondary circuit, the steam is routed to a turbine driving an alternator.
The steam coming out of the turbine is converted back into water by a condenser after having
delivered a large amount of its energy to the turbine. It then returns to the steam generator. As the
water driving the turbine (secondary circuit) is physically separated from the water used as
reactor coolant (primary circuit), the turbine-alternator set can be housed in a turbine hall outside
the reactor building.

Nuclear power plant with pressurized water reactor

Boiling Water Reactors

The fission zone is contained in a reactor pressure vessel, at a pressure of about 70 bar (7 MPa).
At the temperature reached (290 C approximately), the water starts boiling and the resulting
steam is produced directly in the reactor pressure vessel. After the separation of steam and water
in the upper part of the reactor pressure vessel, the steam is routed directly to a turbine driving an
alternator.
The steam coming out of the turbine is converted back into water by a condenser after having
delivered a large amount of its energy to the turbine. It is then fed back into the primary cooling
circuit where it absorbs new heat in the fission zone.
Since the steam produced in the fission zone is slightly radioactive, mainly due to short-lived
activation products, the turbine is housed in the same reinforced building as the reactor.

Principle of a nuclear power plant with boiling water reactor

Question: Gravitational force

Gravity
Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces, yet it is the dominant force in the universe
for shaping the large scale structure of galaxies, stars, etc. The gravitational force between two
masses m1 and m2 is given by the relationship:

This is often called the "universal law of gravitation" and G the universal gravitation constant. It
is an example of an inverse square law force. The force is always attractive and acts along the
line joining the centers of mass of the two masses. The forces on the two masses are equal in size
but opposite in direction, obeying Newton's third law. Viewed as an exchange force, the massless
exchange particle is called the graviton.
The gravity force has the same form as Coulomb's law for the forces between electric charges,
i.e., it is an inverse square law force which depends upon the product of the two interacting
sources. This led Einstein to start with the electromagnetic force and gravity as the first attempt

to demonstrate the unification of the fundamental forces. It turns out that this was the wrong
place to start, and that gravity will be the last of the forces to unify with the other three forces.
Electroweak unification (unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces) was demonstrated
in 1983, a result which could not be anticipated in the time of Einstein's search. It now appears
that the common form of the gravity and electromagnetic forces arises from the fact that each of
them involves an exchange particle of zero mass, not because of an inherent symmetry which
would make them easy to unify.
gravitational force - (physics) the force of attraction between all masses in the universe; especially the
attraction of the earth's mass for bodies near its surface; "the more remote the body the less the gravity";
"the gravitation between two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them"; "gravitation cannot

Question: Kinetic energy

Kenetic energy = mv2, Momemntum =mv
Question: Temperature conversion- degree, faregnhit and kelvin
00C = 273K, Temperature in degree Celciuc = (Temperature in Farenhight -32) 5/9
Temperature in degree Celciuc = (Temperature in Farenhight -32) 5/9
= (104 -32)5/9= 72x 5/9 =40 degree celcius

Question: Series and parralel resistance, Power

In series resistances are added R= r1 + r2
In parallel 1/R = 1/r1 +1/r2
Power in the resistive circuit P

=VI=I 2R=V2/R

Question: heat required to melt ice falling from height

Heat Required to Melt a Solid

The heat required to melt a solid can be calculated as
q = Lm m (1)
where
q = required heat (J, Btu)
Lm = latent heat of melting (J/kg, Btu/lb)

m = mass of subsance (kg, lb)

If Ice fall the work done by ice in falling =mgh and then same is converted into heat
for melting the amount of ice.
Example - Required Heat to melt Ice (Water)
The heat required to melt 10 kg of water can be calculated as
q = Lm m
= 334 103 (J/kg) 10 (kg)
= 3340000 (J)
= 3340 (kJ)

Chemistry
Question: Isomers
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different chemical structures are called
isomers. Remember isomerism is a property between a pair (or more) of molecules, i.e. a
molecule is an isomer of another molecule.
Question: ore of aluminium

Bauxite is main ore of aluminium. It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and
turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium or iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire,
respectively.

In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic
element and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). [15]
Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost never found in the elemental
state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of
minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only
be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the
interiors of certain volcanoes.[16] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps
in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea and Chen et al. (2011)
[17]
have proposed a theory of its origin as resulting by reduction from
tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4 to metallic aluminium by bacteria.
Question: Maximum density gas
A mole of a gas has same volume under same volume so gas with highest mol. wt. has greatest
mass/volume (density).
Mol. wt. He = 4
Cl2 = 35.5*2 = 71
CH4 = 12+4*1 = 16
NH3 = 14+3*1 = 15
Similarly

mol. Weight of O2 = 16x2=32

Mol weight of N2= 14x2 =28

Therefore the clorine gas which has highest molar weight therefore it has highest density.
Question: Amphoteric oxide

Amphoteric Substance
An amphoteric substance is one which has both acidic and basic properties and which can
behave as a weak base or a weak acid under different experimental conditions.

Amphoteric Oxides
Amphoteric oxides are the oxides of weakly electropositive metals. Thus, the oxides of
aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, and tin oxide are amphoteric oxides. These amphoteric oxides react
as basic oxides with acids and as acidic oxides with bases.
Aluminium oxide reacts with acids
Al2O3

6 HCl

==>

Aluminium oxide reacts with bases

2 AlCl3 +

3 H2O

Al2O3

2 NaOH +

H2O

==>

2 NaAl(OH)4

H2O

NH3

NH4(+)

OH(-)

H2O

Water is also an amphoteric oxide

HCl

<==>

<==>

H3O(+)

Cl(-)

Question: Alloy of steel and other alloy

Alloys of Iron
A number of steels are the important alloys of iron, which include,
Steel
Stainless Steel
Chromium Steel
Tungsten Steel

Alloy
An alloy is a solid solution of one metal in another. It is an example of a mixture, as no chemical
bonding exists between the constituent elements in the alloy.

Common examples of alloys include

Brass (an alloy of copper and zinc, and sometimes other metals, known since
Roman Times and widely used in industry, for ornament and decoration ),

Bronze (an alloy of copper and Tin used for tools, weapons, machine parts
and marine hardware),

Stainless steel (an alloy of iron, chromium and nickel used for cutlery and
industrial components where corrosion resistance is required),

Duralium (an alloy of aluminium, copper, magnesium, manganese and silicon

used in aircraft construction) and

Solder (an alloy of lead and tin used in making electrical connections).

Allotrope
An allotrope of an element is one of the forms in which the element can exist.
For example, carbon can exist in several different forms, including graphite and diamond (which
are pure forms of carbon that have different crystal structures) and charcoal, coke and lampblack
(which are impure forms of carbon that are amorphous).

Sulphur can exist as five different allotropes and they are S2, S3, S4 (DISULPHUR,
TRISULPHUR, TETRA SULPHUR)
Question: Acid and base

Acid
An Acid is defined as a substance which contains hydrogen that can be displaced by a metal with
the liberation of hydrogen gas and the formation of a salt.
An understanding of the chemical mechanisms that give rise to the properties of acids evolved
from a number of different theories of the nature of acids.

Arrhenius proposed the Arrhenius Concept of Bases that an acid is a

substance which provides hydrogen ions as a result of dissociation and
ionization in aqueous solution.

Lewis proposed the Lewis Theory of Acids that there is a reciprocal

relationship between acids and bases, and he introduced the concept of
Lewis Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs.

Bronsted and Lowry proposed the Bronsted Lowry Theory of Acids that acids
are proton donors and that bases are proton acceptors.

Question: 4g of clacium react with HCL to form molecules of H2

Ca + 2HCl = CaCl2 + H2
1 mole of ca required for one mole of H2
Therefore number of moles n = mass(m)/Molar mass = 4/40=0.1 for Calcium
For Hydrogen n = 0.1
Molecules of hydrogen = 0.1x 6.02 x 1023= 6.02x 1022
Question: Anealing

Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /colour and then
allowed to cool slowly. This softens the metal which means it can be cut and shaped more easily.
Mild steel, is heated to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly. However, metals such as
aluminium will melt if heated for too long.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Annealed metals are relatively soft and can be cut and shaped more
easily. They bend easily when pressure is applied. As a rule they are heated and allowed to cool
slowly.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Hardened metals are difficult to cut and shape. They are very
difficult if not impossible to bend. As a rule they are heated and cooled very quickly by
quenching in clean, cold water.
Question: Which substances which acts as both oxidizing and reducing agents
Any substance containing an atom that it is at an intermediate oxidation level compared to all its possible
oxidation states.
For example in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) oxygen is at the -1 state. However oxygen can be also at 0 or
-2.
Thus under proper conditions H2O2 acts a reducing agent and thus it oxidises to O2 (0 oxidation number)
or as an oxidising agent and thus it gets reduced to O with an oxidation number -2
Hydrogen gas is a reducing agent when it reacts with non-metals and an oxidising agent when it reacts
with metals.
Oxidising agent:
2Li(s) + H2(g) -->2LiH(s) hydrogen acts as an oxidizing agent because it accepts an electron donation
from lithium, which causes Li to be oxidized.
Reducing agent:
H2(g) + F2(g) --> 2HF(g) hydrogen acts as a reducing agent because it donates its electrons to fluorine,
which allows fluorine to be reduced.
Question: Isotones

isotone, any of two or more species of atoms or nuclei that have the same number of neutrons. Thus, chlorine37 and potassium-39 are isotones, because the nucleus of this species of chlorine consists of 17 protons and 20
neutrons, whereas the nucleus of this species of potassium contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons.

Question: Reagents
Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to
bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." [1] Some
reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made
of chemical compounds.
Question: Trend in periodic table

Periodic Trends
Table of Contents
1.

1. Electronegativity Trends

2.

2. Ionization Energy Trends

3.

3. Electron Affinity Trends

4.

4. Atomic Radius Trends

5.

5. Melting Point Trends

6.

6. Metallic Character Trends

7.

7. Outside Links

8.

8. Problems

9.

9. Solutions

10.

10. References

11.

11. Contributors

Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table, which illustrate
different aspects of a certain element, including its size and its properties with electrons. The
main periodic trends include: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic
radius, melting point, and metallic character. The periodic trends that arise from the arrangement
of the periodic table provide chemists with an invaluable tool to quickly predict an element's
properties. These trends exist because of the similar atomic structure of the elements within their
respective group families or period and the periodic nature of the elements.

Electronegativity Trends
Electronegativity can be understood as chemical property describing an atom's ability to attract
and bind to electrons. Because electronegativity is a qualitative property, there is not a
standardized method for calculating electronegativity. However, the scale that most chemists use
in quantifying electronegativity is the Pauling Scale, named after the chemist Linus Pauling. The
numbers assigned by the Pauling scale are dimensionless due to electronegativity being largely
qualitative. Electronegativity values for each element can be found on certain periodic tables. An
example is provided below.

Figure 1. Periodic Table of Electronegativity values

Electronegativity measures an atom's strength to attract and form bonds with electrons. This
property exists due to the electronic configuration of atoms. Most atoms prefer to fulfilling the
octet rule (having the valence, or outer, shell comprise of 8 electrons). Since elements on the left
side of the periodic table have less than a half-full valence shell, the energy required to gain
electrons is significantly higher compared to the energy required to lose electrons. As a result, the
elements on the left side of the periodic table generally lose electrons in forming bonds.
Conversely, elements on the right side of the periodic table are more energy-efficient in gaining
electrons to create a complete valence shell of 8 electrons. This effectively describes the nature
of electronegativity: the more inclined an atom is to gain electrons, the more likely that atom will
pull electrons toward itself.

As you move to the right across a period of elements, electronegativity

increases. When the valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires
less energy to lose an electron than gain one and thus, it is easier to lose an
electron. Conversely, when the valence shell is more than half full, it is easier
to pull an electron into the valence shell than to donate one.

As you move down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because the

atomic number increases down a group and thus there is an increased
distance between the valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic
radius.

Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases, lanthanides,
and actinides. The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not
usually attract electrons. The lanthanides and actinides possess a more
complicated chemistry that does not generally follow any trends. Therefore,
noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides do not have electronegativity values.

As for the transition metals, while they have values, there is little variance
among them as you move across the period and up and down a group. This is

because of their metallic properties that affect their ability to attract

electrons as easily as the other elements.

With these two general trends in mind, we can deduce that the most electronegative element is
fluorine, which weighs in at a hefty 3.98 Pauling units.

Figure 2. Periodic Table showing Electronegativity Trend

Ionization Energy Trends

Ionization Energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in
its gaseous phase. Conceptually, ionization energy is considered the opposite of electronegativity.
The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom becomes a cation. Therefore, the higher this
energy is, the more unlikely the atom becomes a cation. Generally, elements on the right side of
the periodic table have a higher ionization energy because their valence shell is nearly filled.
Elements on the left side of the periodic table have low ionization energies because of their
willingness to lose electrons and become cations. Thus, ionization energy increases from left to
right on the periodic table.
Another factor that affects ionization energy is electron shielding. Electron shielding describes
the ability of an atom's inner electrons to shield its positively-charged nucleus from its valence
electrons. When moving to the right on a period of elements, the number of electrons increases

and the strength of shielding increases. As a result, it is easier for valence shell electrons to
ionize and thus the ionization energy decreases when going down a group. In certain texts,
electron shielding may also be known as screening.

The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases

from left to right. This is due to valence shell stability.

The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases

from top to bottom. This is due to electron shielding.

The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full
valence shell as indicated in the graph. Note that Helium has the highest
ionization energy of all the elements.

Figure 3. Graph showing the Ionization Energy of the Elements from Hydrogen to Argon
Some elements can have several ionization energies, so we refer to these varying energies as the
first ionization energy, the second ionization energy, third ionization energy, etc. The first
ionization energy is to the energy needed to remove the outermost, or highest, energy electron
and the second ionization energy is the energy required to remove any subsequent high-energy
electron from a gaseous cation. Below are the formulas for calculating the first and second
ionization energies.
First Ionization Energy:

(g)

+ (g)

+e

Second Ionization Energy:

+ (g)

2+ (g)

+e

Generally, any subsequent ionization energies (2nd, 3rd, etc.) follow the same periodic trend as
the first ionization energy.

Figure 4. Periodic Table Showing Ionization Energy Trend

Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increase. This observation is affected by n (the
principle quantum number) and Z eff (based on the atomic number and shows how many
protons are seen in the atom) on the ionization energy (I). Given by the following equation:

I=R

2 eff

/n

Going across a period, the Zeffincreases and n (principal quantum number)

remains the same, so that the ionization energy increases.

Going down a group, the n increases and Zeffincreases slightly, the ionization
energy decreases.

Electron Affinity Trends

Like the name suggests, electron affinity describes the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity is a quantitative measure that measures the energy
change that occurs when an electron is added to a neutral gas atom. When measuring electron
affinity, the more negative the value, the more of an affinity to electrons that atom has.
Electron affinity generally decreases down a group of elements because each atom is larger than
the atom above it (this is the atomic radius trend, which will be discussed later in this text). This
means that an added electron is further away from the atom's nucleus compared to its position in
the smaller atom. With a larger distance between the negatively-charged electron and the
positively-charged nucleus, the force of attraction is relatively weaker. Therefore, electron
affinity decreases. Moving from left to right across a period, atoms become smaller as the forces
of attraction become stronger. This causes the electron to move closer to the nucleus, thus
increasing the electron affinity from left to right across a period.

Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused by
the decrease in atomic radius.

Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused
by the increase in atomic radius.

Figure 5. Periodic Table showing Electron Affinity Trend

Atomic Radius Trends

For atoms, the atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms is (just like
a radius is half the diameter of a circle). However, this idea is complicated by the fact that not all
atoms are normally bound together in the same way. Some are bound by covalent bonds in
molecules, some are attracted to each other in ionic crystals, and others are held in metallic
crystals. Nevertheless, it is possible for a vast majority of elements to form covalent molecules in
which two like atoms are held together by a single covalent bond. The covalent radius of these
molecules is often referred to as the atomic radius. This distance is measured in picometers.
Going through each of the elements of the periodic table, patterns of the atomic radius can be
seen.
Atomic size gradually decreases from left to right across a period of elements. This is because,
within a period or family of elements, all electrons are being added to the same shell. But, at the
same time, protons are being added to the nucleus, making it more positively charged. The effect
of increasing proton number is greater than that of the increasing electron number; therefore,
there is a greater nuclear attraction. This means that the nucleus attracts the electrons more
strongly, having the atom's shell pulled closer to the nucleus. The valence electrons are held
closer towards the nucleus of the atom. As a result, the atomic radius decreases.
Going down a group, it can be seen that atomic radius increases. The valence electrons occupy
higher levels due to the increasing quantum number (n). As a result, the valence electrons are
further away from the nucleus as the n increases. Electron shielding prevents these outer
electrons from being attracted to the nucleus; thus, they are loosely held and the resulting atomic
radius is large.

Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a period. This is caused by
the increase in the number of protons and electrons across a period. One
proton has a greater effect than one electron; thus, a lot of electrons will get
pulled towards the nucleus, resulting in a smaller radius.

Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused by
electron shielding.

Figure 6. Periodic Table showing Atomic Radius Trend

Melting Point Trends

Melting points are the amount of energy required to break a bond(s) to change the solid phase of
a substance to a liquid. Generally, the stronger the bond between the atoms of an element, the
higher the energy requirement in breaking that bond. Since temperature is directly proportional
to energy, high bond dissociation energy correlates to a high temperature. Melting points are
varied and don't generally form a distinguishable trend across the periodic table. However,
certain conclusions can be drawn from the following graph.

Metals generally possess a high melting point.

Most non-metals possess low melting points.

The non-metal carbon possesses the highest boiling point of all the elements.
The semi-metal boron also possesses a high melting point.

Figure 7. Chart of Melting Points of Various Elements

Metallic Character Trends

The metallic character of an element can be defined as how readily an atom can lose an electron.
As you move from right to left across a period, metallic character increases because the attraction
between valence electron and the nucleus is weaker, thus enabling an easier loss of electrons.
Metallic character increases as you move down a group because the atomic size is increasing.
When the atomic size increases, the outer shells are farther away. The principle quantum number
increases and average electron density moves farther from nucleus. The electrons of the valence
shell have less of an attraction to the nucleus and, as a result, can lose electrons more readily,
causing an increase in metallic character.

Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across a period. This is

caused by the decrease in radius (above it is stated that Zeff causes this) of
the atom which allows the outer electrons to ionize more readily.

Metallic characteristics increase down a group. Electron shielding causes the

atomic radius to increase thus the outer electrons ionizes more readily than
electrons in smaller atoms.

Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons, and nonmetallic

character relates to the ability to gain electrons.

Another easier way to remember the trend of metallic character is that as

you move from left and down towards the bottom-left corner of the periodic
table, metallic character increases because you are heading towards Groups
1 and 2, or the Alkali and Alkaline metal groups. Likewise, if you move up and
to the right to the upper-right corner of the periodic table, metallic character
decreases because you are passing by to the right side of the staircase,

which indicate the nonmetals. These include the Group 8, the noble gases,
and other common gases such as oxygen and nitrogen.
o

In other words:

Move left across period and down the group: increase metallic
character (heading towards alkali and alkaline metals)

Move right across period and up the group: decrease metallic character
(heading towards nonmetals like noble gases)

Figure 8. Periodic Table of Metallic Character Trend

Problems
The following series of problems will review your general understanding of the
aforementioned material.

1.) Based on the periodic trends for ionization energy, which do you expect to have the highest
ionization energy?
1. A.) Fluorine (F)
2. B.) Nitrogen (N)
3. C.) Helium (He)

2.) Nitrogen has a larger atomic radius than Oxygen.

1. A.) True
2. B.) False

3.) Which do you expect to have more metallic character, Lead (Pb) or Tin (Sn)?
4.) Which element do you expect to have the higher melting point: chlorine (Cl) or bromine
(Br)?
5.) Which element do you expect to be more electronegative, sulfur (S) or selenium (Se)?
6) Why is the electronegativity value of most noble gases equal to zero?
7) Arrange these atoms in accordance to decreasing effective nuclear charge by the valence
electrons: Si, Al, Mg, S
8) Rewrite the following list in order of decreasing electron affinity: Fluorine (F), Phosphorous
(P), Sulfur (S), Boron (B).
9) An atom with an atomic radius smaller than that of Sulfur (S) is __________.
1. A.) Oxygen (O)
2. B.) Chlorine (Cl)
3. C.) Calcium (Ca)
4. D.) Lithium (Li)
5. E.) None of the above

10) A nonmetal will have a smaller ionic radius when compared to a metal of the same period.
1. A.) True B.) False

11) Which one of the following has the lowest first ionization energy?

1. A. Element A
2. B. Element B

3. C. Element C
4. D. Element D
Question: Carborundum
Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum /krbrndm/, is a
compound of silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the
extremely rare mineral moissanite,
In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in modern lapidary due to the
durability and low cost of the material. In manufacturing, it is used for its hardness
in abrasive machining processes such as grinding, honing, water-jet cutting and
sandblasting. Particles of silicon carbide are laminated to paper to create
sandpapers and the grip tape on skateboards.[3
Silicon carbide is used as a support and shelving material in high temperature kilns
such as for firing ceramics, glass fusing, or glass casting. SiC kiln shelves are
considerably lighter and more durable than traditional alumina shelves.

Gapped SiC lightning arresters were used as lightning-protection tool and sold under GE and
Westinghouse brand names, among others. The gapped SiC arrester has been largely displaced
by no-gap varistors that use columns of zinc oxide pellets.[40]
SiC is still one of the important LED components it is a popular substrate for
growing GaN devices, and it also serves as a heat spreader in high-power LEDs.
SIC also used in astronomy, thin filament pyrometry, heating element, nuclear fuel
particle, Nuclear fuel cladding, jewelary, steel production, catalyst support
carborundum print making and graphene production.
Question: Freon

A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine, and
fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane. They are also commonly
known by the DuPont brand name Freon. The most common representative is
dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants,
propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. The manufacture of such compounds has been
phased out (and replaced with products such as R-410A) by the Montreal Protocol because they
contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere.
The most important reaction of the CFCs is the photo-induced scission of a C-Cl bond:
CCl3F CCl2F. + Cl.
The chlorine atom, written often as Cl., behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule
(Cl2). The radical Cl. is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of

ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy
radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts, hence
brominated CFCs are also regulated.
Question: Permanent hardness in water
Permanent hardness

stalna tvrdoa

Permanent hardness in water is hardness due to the presence of the chlorides, nitrates and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium, which will not be precipitated by boiling. The lime scale
can build up on the inside of the pipe restricting the flow of water or causing a blockage. This
can happen in industry where hot water is used.

Temporary Hardness is due to the bicarbonate ion, HCO 3-, being

present in the water. This type of hardness can be removed by
boiling the water to expel the CO 2, as indicated by the following
equation:

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Permanent hardness is due to calcium and magnesium nitrates,
sulphates, and chlorides etc. This type of hardness cannot be
eliminated by boiling.

Brinell hardness

Brinellova tvrdoa

Brinell hardness is a scale for measuring the hardness of metals introduced around 1900 by
Swedish metallurgist Johan Brinell (1849-1925). A small chromium steel ball is pressed into the
surface of the metal by a load of known weight. The loading force is in the range of 300 N to
30 000 N. The ratio of the mass of the load in kilograms to the area of the depression formed
in square millimetres is the Brinell Hardness Number.

18.3.1 - State and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous
solutions. Examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of
strong and weak acids and bases. The effect of the charge density of the cations in
groups 1, 2, 3 and d-block elements should also be considered, eg [Fe(H 2O)6]3+
[Fe(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H+ .

Question: Which of these salts will not suffer hydrolysis

Usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a

substance. Sometimes this addition causes both substance and water molecule to split
into two parts. In such reactions, one fragment of the target molecule (or parent
molecule) gains a hydrogen ion.

Salt hydrolysis

Salts are ionic, this means that they dissociate 100% in solution to give free aqueous
ions
NaCl

Na+ + Cl-

When both ions come from strong acid and bases they have no interactions with
the ions formed by the dissociation of water (hydrogen and hydroxide ions),
however if the ions come from weak acids and bases then they interact with the ions
from water establishing equilibria.
Hence salts of ethanoic acid produce free ethanoate ions in solution that can interact
with the hydrogen ions from the water.
Example: Sodium ethanoate solution
sodium ethanoate is 100% dissociated into ions:CH3COONa

CH3COO- + Na+

Sodium ions are from a strong base (sodium hydroxide) and do not
interact with the water ions.
However, the ethanoate ions do interact with the hydrogen ions
from the water equilibrium (H2O
CH3COO- + H+

H+ + OH-)
CH3COOH

We know that this last equilibrium lies to the side of the ethanoic
acid (to the right), removing the hydrogen ions from the solution.
As [H+] decreases the pH rises.
Hence a solution of sodium ethanoate has a pH greater than 7. We

say that it is basic by hydrolysis.

Example: Ammonium chloride solution
Ammonium chloride dissociates 100% into ions in solution
NH4Cl

NH4+ + Cl-

The ammonium ions interact with the hydroxide ions from the
water removing them from the solution (equilibrium lies to the
right)
NH4+ + OH-

NH3 + H2O

This increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (as [H+] x [OH-]

is constant) increasing the acidity of the solution (decrease pH)
We say that a solution of ammonium chloride is acidic by
hydrolysis.
General rules

When the negative ion is from a weak acid then the salt is basic by
hydrolysis

When the positive ion is from a weak base then the salt is acidic by
hydrolysis

If the salt is formed from a strong acid and strong base then it is neutral

If the salt is formed from a weak acid and weak base then its hydrolysis is
determined by the relative Ka and Kb values

Salts involving ions with a high charge density

Solvation
Ionic compounds dissociate 100% into ions in solution. These ions become solvated
by the water molecules (the water molecules bond to the ions - this is one of the
driving forces behind dissolution). The polar water molecules use the lone pairs on the
oxygen of the water to coordinate to the positive metal ion. The ions are then enclosed

by a 'cage' of water molecules usually in an octahedral arrangement.

Octahedral arrangement of water molecules around a

positive ion (in this case a 3+ ion)

Charge density
This means the charge to size ratio of the ion.
charge density = ionic charge/ionic size

When the ion has a charge of 3+ or when it is very small this charge to size ratio is
enough to polarise the water molecules surrounding the ion in solution. This results in
a weakening of the O-H bonds within the water molecules allowing hydrogen ions to
be released into the solution. Hence the solutions are acidic.
This effect is typified in aluminium salts (the aluminium ion has a charge of 3+) which
are very acidic in solution

The aluminium hexaaqua ion

Aluminium ions are surrounded by six water molecules in an octahedral arrangement.

This is called the aluminium hexaaqua ion. The high charge density of the aluminium
ion polarises the water molecules and hydrogen ions are released into solution. The
solution is so acidic that it releases carbon dioxide from sodium carbonate (this
reaction is used in some fire extinguishers to produce foam in conjunction with
detergent)
[Al(H2O)6]3+

[Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+

[Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H+

[Al(OH)2(H2O)4]+ + H+

Transition metals

As the transition metals have variable oxidation states the ions that are formed with
high charges (high oxidation state) also produce acidic solutions. A good examle of

this is the Iron III ion. Salts such as iron III sulphate are acidic in solution.

[Fe(H2O)6]3+

[Fe(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H+

Question: How many atoms present in 4g of NaOH

First put your grams into moles:
4g NaOH x 1 mol NaOH/ 39.99g (molar mass) NaOH = 0.1 mol NaOH
*Note: unit of grams cancel*
Then find the number of molecules using Avogadro's number:
0.1 mol NaOH x 6.02 x 10^23 molecules NaOH/ 1 mol NaOH
*Note: unit of moles cancel*
= 6.02 x 10^22 molecules NaOH

There three atoms in NaOH therefore Numbers of atoms in NaOH = 3 x 6.02 x

1022=1.8 x 1023
Question: Concentration of (H+) in water is 10-4M. This shows that pH is

We could describe the relative strengths of dilute

solutions of acids and bases by listing the molarity of
H+ for acidic solutions and the molarity of OH- for
basic solutions. There are two reasons why we use
the pH scale instead. The first reason is that instead
of describing acidic solutions with [H+] and basic
solutions with [OH-], chemists prefer to have one
scale for describing both acidic and basic solutions.
Because the product of the H+ and OHconcentrations in such solutions is always 1.01 10-14
at 25 C, when we give the concentration of H+, we
are indirectly also giving the concentration of OH-. For
example, when we say that the concentration of H+ in
an acidic solution at 25 C is 10-3 M, we are indirectly
saying that the concentration of OH- in this same
solution is 10-11 M. When we say that the
concentration of H+ in a basic solution at 25 C is 10-10
M, we are indirectly saying that the OH- concentration
is 10-4 M. The pH concept makes use of this

relationship to describe both dilute acid and dilute

base solutions on a single scale.
The next reason for using the pH scale instead of H+
and OH- concentrations is that in dilute solutions, the
concentration of H+ is small, leading to the
inconvenience of measurements with many decimal
places, such as 0.000001 M H+, or to the potential
confusion associated with scientific notation, as with
1 10-6 M H+. In order to avoid such inconvenience
and possible confusion, pH is defined as the negative
logarithm of the H+ concentration.
pH = -log[H+]
Instead of saying that a solution is 0.0000010 M H+
(or 1.0 10-6 M H+) and 0.000000010 M OH- (or 1.0
10-8 M OH-), we can indirectly convey the same
information by saying that the pH is 6.00.
pH = -log[H+] = -log(1.0 10-6) =
6.00
When taking the logarithm of a number, report the
same number of decimal positions in the answer as
you had significant figures in the original value.
Because 1.0 10-6 has two significant figures, we
report 6.00 as the pH for a solution with 1.0 10-6 M
H+. The table below shows a range of pH values for
dilute solutions of acid and base.
pH of Dilute Solutions of Acids and Bases at 25 C
[H+]

[OH-]

pH

1.0

1.0 10 14

0.00

1.0 10-1

1.0 10 13

1.00

1.0 10-2

1.0 10 12

2.00

1.0 10-3

1.0 10 11

3.00

1.0 10-4

1.0 10 10
-

4.00

1.0 10-5

1.0 10

-9

5.00

1.0 10-6

1.0 10

-8

6.00

1.0 10-7

1.0 10

-7

7.00

1.0 10-8

1.0 10

-6

8.00

1.0 10-9

1.0 10

-5

9.00

1.0 10-10

1.0 10

-4

10.00

1.0 10-11

1.0 10

-3

11.00

1.0 10-12

1.0 10

-2

12.00

1.0 10-13

1.0 10

-1

13.00

1.0 10-14

1.0

14.00

Question: 8 g of gas occupies 5.6 liter at NTP. This shows molecular weight of the
gas is
8/moleculat wieght = 5.6/22.4
Molecular wieght of gas is 8 x 22.4/5.6 = 32

1. Calculate the number of moles of each gas that are present for each.
Give volume at STP.

a) 8 liters of N2

x=

= .36 moles

b) 134.4 liters of H2

x=

= 6 moles

x=

= .25 moles

x=

= 3 moles

c) 5.6 liters of CO

d) 67.2 liters of N2O4

e) 89,600ml of NO2

89,600ml= 89.6

x=

= 4 moles

2. Find the number of molecules present in exercises 1 a), b), and c).

a) N2

# N2 molecules = (.36 moles)(6 x 1023 molecules/mole)

= 2.16 x 1023 molecules

b) H2

# H2 molecules = (6 moles)(6 x 1023 molecules/mole)

= 36 x 1023 molecules = 3.6 x 1024 molecules

c) CO

# CO molecules = (.25 moles)(6 x 1023 molecules/mole)

= 1.5 x 1023 molecules

3. Four moles of N2O5 gas will occupy what volume at STP.

x=

= 89.6

4. 1.5 moles of NH3 gas will occupy what volume at STP.

x=

= 33.6

5. How many grams of Cl2 gas are present in 11.2 liters of gas at STP?

x=
= .5 moles
MW Cl2 = 2(35.5) = 71 g/mole
#g Cl2 = (MW)(moles) = (71 g/mole)(.5 moles) = 35.5g

6. How many grams of NH3 gas are present in 44.8 liters of the gas at STP?

x=
= 2 moles
MW NH3 = 14 + 3(1) = 17 g/mole
#g NH3= (MW)(moles) = (17 g/mole)(2 moles) = 34g

7. 2.5g of a gas occupies 4 liters at STP. Find the molecular weight of the
gas.

x=

= 14g = MW

8. 1.25g of a gas occupies 2.5 liters at STP. Find the molecular weight of the
gas.

x=

= 11.2g = MW

9. A gas has a density of 1.75g/l at STP. Find its molecular weight.

x=

= 39.2g = MW

10. A gas has a density of 2.75g/l at STP. Find its molecular weight.

x=

= 61.6g = MW

11. Calculate the density of the following gases at STP:

a) SO2

b) O3

c) PCl5

MW SO2 =
= 64 g/mole
1 mole = 22.4
D = 64g/22.4 = 2.9 g/

MW = O3 =
= 48 g/mole
D = 48g/22.4 = 2.1 g/

MW PCl5 =
= 208.5 g/mole
D = 208.5g/22.4 = 9.3 g/

12. Calculate the volume (in liters and milliliters) occupied by each of the
following gases at STP:

a) 14g of N2

MW N2 = 2(14) = 28 g/mole

x=
x = 11.2 = 11,200ml

b) 528g of UF6

MW UF6 =

= 352 g/mole

x=
x = 33.6 = 33,600ml

c) 90g of H2O

MW H2O =

= 18 g/mole

x=
x = 112 = 112,000ml
Question: Gas can not be liquified if it is

All real gases can be liquefied. Depending on the gas this might require compression and/or
cooling. However, there exists for each gas a temperature above which the gas cannot be
liquefied. This temperature, above which the gas cannot be liquefied, is called the critical
temperature and it is usually symbolized by, TC . In order to liquefy a real gas the temperature
must be at, or below, its critical temperature.
There are gases, sometimes called the "permanent gases" which have critical temperatures below
room temperature. These gases must be cooled to a temperature below their critical point, which
means below room temperture, before they can be liquefied. Examples of "permanent gases"
include, He, H2, N2, O2, Ne, Ar, and so on. Many substances have critical temperatures above
room temperature. These substances exist as liquids (or even solids) at room temperature. Water,
for example, has a critical temperature of 647.1 K, much higher than the 298.15 K standard room
temperature. Water can be liquefied at any temperature below 647.1 K (although above 398.15 the normal boiling point of water - you would have to apply a pressure higher than atmospheric
temperature in order to keep it liquid.

Question: 20 g of limestone after heating gave 4.4 g CO2. The % of CaCO3 in the
is
CaCo3= CO2 + CaO
20/(40+12+48) n= 4.4/(12+32)
20/100n=4.4/44
1/5n=1/10
N=5/10=(5/10)x 100=50%
Question: H3PO4 + 2NaOH =Na2PO4 + 2H2O. Molecular weight of H3PO4 is 120.
The equivalent weight of He3PO4 for the given reaction is

EQUIVALENT MASSES AND NORMALITY

All volumetric analysis problems can be solved in the usual manner, on the basis of the mole,
molarsolutions and balanced chemical equations. There is however, another method, based on
equivalents and normal solutions which does not require the use of any balanced chemical
equations. In this method equivalents are used rather than moles. The definition of an equivalent
is based on the fact that one equivalent of a given reactant will react with exactly one equivalent
of another reactant.
There are two types of reactions for which equivalents are defined: (1) acid-base reactions and,
(2) oxidation-reduction reactions. In CHEM 1110 we will deal with acid-base reactions. You will
encounter equivalents for oxidation-reduction reactions next semester in CHEM 1210
(hopefully!!). For acid-base reactions, equivalent weights or equivalent masses are based on the
fact that one H+(aq) ion reacts with one OH-(aq) ion. One equivalent of an acid is the mass of the
acid that supplies one mole of H +(aq) ions, and one equivalent of a base is the amount of the
base which supplies one mole of OH-(aq) ions. The equivalent weight or equivalent mass is
therefore given by the general equation,
equivalent mass = molar mass/a where "a" for an acid is the number of moles of H +(aq) supplied
by one mole of acid in the reaction taking place, and for a base "a" is the number of moles of
OH-(aq) supplied by one mole of base in the reaction taking place.
EXAMPLES: (1) HCl + NaOH H NaCl + H2O
Equivalent mass HCl = Molar mass HCl = 36.5 g
Equivalent mass NaOH = Molar mass NaOH = 40.0 g
(2) H2SO4 + 2NaOH H Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Equivalent mass NaOH = Molar mass NaOH = 40.0 g
Equivalent mass H2SO4 = (Molar mass H2SO4)/2 = 49.0 g
(3) H3PO4 + 3NaOH H Na3PO4 + 3H2O
Equivalent mass NaOH = Molar mass NaOH = 40.0 g
Equivalent mass H3PO4 = (Molar mass H3PO4)/3= 32.7 g
(4) H3PO4 + 2NaOH H Na2HPO4 + 2H2O
Equivalent mass NaOH = Molar mass NaOH = 40.0 g
Equivalent mass H3PO4 = (Molar mass H3PO4)/2= 49.0 g
The concentration unit "normality, (N)" of a solution is the number of equivalents of solute
dissolved in one liter of solution, that is Normality = (equivalents of solute)/Liter of solution

The concentration units of normality and molarity are related by the simple relationship:
N = aM -10NOTE: Since the number of H+(aq) per mole of acid and OH-(aq)per mole of base is at least
one, the normality can never be smaller than the molarity; it must always be either the same as
the molarity or a whole number multiple of the molarity.
EXAMPLES: (1) HCl + NaOH H NaCl + H2O
1.0 M HCl = 1.0 N HCl
(2) H2SO4 + 2NaOH H Na2SO4 + 2H2O
1.0 M H2SO4 = 2.0 N H2SO4
(3) H3PO4 + 3NaOH H Na3PO4 + 3H2O
1.0 M H3PO4 = 3.0 N H3PO4
(4) H3PO4 + 2NaOH H Na2HPO4 + 2H2O
1.0 M H3PO4 = 2.0 N H3PO4
Now that equivalent masses and normality have been discussed and shown to depend on the
reaction between the acid and base, we can proceed to see how normality can be used in
volumetric analysis.
From the definition of normality we can write:
# equivalents of A = (Volume of A)x(Normality of A)
At the equivalence point of an acid-base titration the equivalents of acid equals the equivalents of
base: equivalents of acid = equivalents of base
VacidNacid = VbaseNbase
The use of normality this simplifies solution stoichiometry problems since a balanced chemical
equation is not needed because the stoichiometric coefficients have already been accounted for
by using equivalents instead of moles.
EXAMPLE: 10.0 mL of an unknown acid required 20.0 mL of 0.125 N NaOH to reach the
equivalencepoint.
(a) Calculate the normality of the unknown acid.
(b) What is the molarity of the unknown acid if one mole of acid reacts two moles of base
in the neutalization process?
Answer: (a) equivalents of acid = equivalents of base
VacidNacid = VbaseNbase
Therefore Nacid = (20.0 mL)(0.125 N)/(10.0 mL) = 0.250 N
(b) Macid = 0.250 N/2 = 0.125 M
Notice that in solving this problem no use was made of any balanced chemical equation for the
reaction between the acid and the base. The reason is that by making use of normality the
stoichiometry is "built in".
-11QUESTIONS DEALING WITH EQUIVALENT MASSES AND NORMALITY
1. Calculate the equivalent mass of the triprotic acid, citric acid (C6H8O7).
2. Calculate the equivalent mass of aluminum hydroxide.
3. If 900.4 mg of the diprotic acid, oxalic acid (H 2C2O4) is exactly neutralized by 24.10 mL of
NaOH solution. Calculate the normality of the NaOH solution.
4. If 3.12 mmol of Bi(OH)3 are completely neutralized by 25.00 mL of H2SO4 solution. Calculate
the normality and the molarity of the H2SO4 solution.
5. 294.0 mg of an unknown acid was neutralized by exactly 28.30 mL of 0.3180 N NaOH
solution.

(a) Calculate the equivalent mass of the unknown acid.

(b) Calculate the molar mass of the unknown acid if it is monoprotic (i.e. HA).
(c) Calculate the molar mass of the unknown acid if it is diprotic (i.e. H2A).
(d) Calculate the molar mass of the unknown acid if it is triprotic (i.e. H3A).
ANSWERS TO ABOVE QUESTIONS
1. 64.05 g/equivalent
2. 26.00 g/equivalent
3. 0.8299 N
4. 0.3744 N and 0.1872 M
5. (a) 32.67 g/equivalent
(b) 32.67 g/mol
(c) 65.34 g/mol
(d) 98.01 g/mol
Question: The acqueous solution of NACl on electrolysis gives
The Electrolysis of Aqueous NaCl
The figure below shows an idealized drawing of a cell in which an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride is electrolyzed.

Once again, the Na+ ions migrate toward the negative electrode and the Cl - ions migrate toward
the positive electrode. But, now there are two substances that can be reduced at the cathode:
Na+ ions and water molecules.

Cathode (-):
Na+ + e- Na
2 H2O + 2 e- H2 + 2 OH-

Eored = -2.71 V
Eored = -0.83 V

Because it is much easier to reduce water than Na+ ions, the only product formed at the cathode
is hydrogen gas.

Cathode (-):

2 H2O(l) + 2 e-

H2(g) + 2 OH-(aq)

There are also two substances that can be oxidized at the anode: Cl - ions and water molecules.

Anode (+):
2 Cl- Cl2 + 2 e2 H2O O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e-

Eoox = -1.36 V
Eoox = -1.23 V

The standard-state potentials for these half-reactions are so close to each other that we might
expect to see a mixture of Cl2 and O2 gas collect at the anode. In practice, the only product of
this reaction is Cl2.

Anode (+):

2 Cl-

Cl2 + 2 e-

At first glance, it would seem easier to oxidize water (Eoox = -1.23 volts) than Cl- ions (Eoox =
-1.36 volts). It is worth noting, however, that the cell is never allowed to reach standard-state
conditions. The solution is typically 25% NaCl by mass, which significantly decreases the
potential required to oxidize the Cl- ion. The pH of the cell is also kept very high, which decreases
the oxidation potential for water. The deciding factor is a phenomenon known as overvoltage,
which is the extra voltage that must be applied to a reaction to get it to occur at the rate at
which it would occur in an ideal system.
Under ideal conditions, a potential of 1.23 volts is large enough to oxidize water to O2 gas. Under
real conditions, however, it can take a much larger voltage to initiate this reaction. (The
overvoltage for the oxidation of water can be as large as 1 volt.) By carefully choosing the
electrode to maximize the overvoltage for the oxidation of water and then carefully controlling
the potential at which the cell operates, we can ensure that only chlorine is produced in this
reaction.
In summary, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride doesn't give the same products
as electrolysis of molten sodium chloride. Electrolysis of molten NaCl decomposes this compound
into its elements.

electrolysis

2 NaCl(l)

2 Na(l) + Cl2(g)

Electrolysis of aqueous NaCl solutions gives a mixture of hydrogen and chlorine gas and an
aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.

electrolysis

2 NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

2 Na+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)

Because the demand for chlorine is much larger than the demand for sodium, electrolysis of
aqueous sodium chloride is a more important process commercially. Electrolysis of an aqueous
NaCl solution has two other advantages. It produces H2 gas at the cathode, which can be
collected and sold. It also produces NaOH, which can be drained from the bottom of the
electrolytic cell and sold.

The dotted vertical line in the above figure represents a diaphragm that prevents the Cl 2
produced at the anode in this cell from coming into contact with the NaOH that accumulates at
the cathode. When this diaphragm is removed from the cell, the products of the electrolysis of
aqueous sodium chloride react to form sodium hypo-chlorite, which is the first step in the
preparation of hypochlorite bleaches, such as Chlorox.

Cl2(g) + 2 OH-(aq)

Cl-(aq) + OCl-(aq) + H2O(l)

The Electrolysis of Molten NaCl

An idealized cell for the electrolysis of sodium chloride is shown in the figure below. A source of
direct current is connected to a pair of inert electrodes immersed in molten sodium chloride.
Because the salt has been heated until it melts, the Na+ ions flow toward the negative electrode
and the Cl- ions flow toward the positive electrode.

When Na+ ions collide with the negative electrode, the battery carries a large enough potential to
force these ions to pick up electrons to form sodium metal.

Negative electrode (cathode):

Na+ + e-

Na

Cl- ions that collide with the positive electrode are oxidized to Cl 2 gas, which bubbles off at this
electrode.

Positive electrode (anode):

2 Cl-

Cl2 + 2 e-

The net effect of passing an electric current through the molten salt in this cell is to decompose
sodium chloride into its elements, sodium metal and chlorine gas.

Electrolysis of NaCl:
Cathode (-):
Anode (+):

Na+ + e- Na
2 Cl- Cl2 + 2 e-

The potential required to oxidize Cl- ions to Cl2 is -1.36 volts and the potential needed to reduce
Na+ ions to sodium metal is -2.71 volts. The battery used to drive this reaction must therefore
have a potential of at least 4.07 volts.
This example explains why the process is called electrolysis. The suffix -lysis comes from the
Greek stem meaning to loosen or split up. Electrolysis literally uses an electric current to split a
compound into its elements.

electrolysis

2 NaCl(l)

2 Na(l) + Cl2(g)

This example also illustrates the difference between voltaic cells and electrolytic cells. Voltaic
cells use the energy given off in a spontaneous reaction to do electrical work. Electrolytic cells
use electrical work as source of energy to drive the reaction in the opposite direction.
The dotted vertical line in the center of the above figure represents a diaphragm that keeps the
Cl2 gas produced at the anode from coming into contact with the sodium metal generated at the
cathode. The function of this diaphragm can be understood by turning to a more realistic drawing
of the commercial Downs cell used to electrolyze sodium chloride shown in the figure below.

Chlorine gas that forms on the graphite anode inserted into the bottom of this cell bubbles
through the molten sodium chloride into a funnel at the top of the cell. Sodium metal that forms
at the cathode floats up through the molten sodium chloride into a sodium-collecting ring, from
which it is periodically drained. The diaphragm that separates the two electrodes is a screen of
iron gauze, which prevents the explosive reaction that would occur if the products of the
electrolysis reaction came in contact.
The feed-stock for the Downs cell is a 3:2 mixture by mass of CaCl 2 and NaCl. This mixture is
used because it has a melting point of 580oC, whereas pure sodium chloride has to be heated to
more than 800oC before it melts.
Electrolysis of Water
A standard apparatus for the electrolysis of water is shown in the figure below.

electrolysis

2 H2O(l)

2 H2(g) + O2(g)

A pair of inert electrodes are sealed in opposite ends of a container designed to collect the H 2 and
O2 gas given off in this reaction. The electrodes are then connected to a battery or another
source of electric current.
By itself, water is a very poor conductor of electricity. We therefore add an electrolyte to water to
provide ions that can flow through the solution, thereby completing the electric circuit. The
electrolyte must be soluble in water. It should also be relatively inexpensive. Most importantly, it
must contain ions that are harder to oxidize or reduce than water.

2 H2O + 2 e2 H2O

H2 + 2 OH-

O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e-

Eored = -0.83 V
Eoox = -1.23 V

The following cations are harder to reduce than water: Li +, Rb+, K+, Cs+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Na+,
and Mg2+. Two of these cations are more likely candidates than the others because they form
inexpensive, soluble salts: Na+ and K+.
The SO42- ion might be the best anion to use because it is the most difficult anion to oxidize. The
potential for oxidation of this ion to the peroxydisulfate ion is -2.05 volts.

2 SO42-

S2O82- + 2 e-

Eoox = -2.05 V

When an aqueous solution of either Na2SO4 or K2SO4 is electrolyzed in the apparatus shown in
the above figure, H2 gas collects at one electrode and O2 gas collects at the other.

What would happen if we added an indicator such as bromothymol blue to this apparatus?
Bromothymol blue turns yellow in acidic solutions (pH < 6) and blue in basic solutions (pH >
7.6). According to the equations for the two half-reactions, the indicator should turn yellow at
the anode and blue at the cathode.

Cathode (-):
Anode (+):

2 H2O + 2 e- H2 + 2 OH2 H2O O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e-

Faraday's Law
Faraday's law of electrolysis can be stated as follows. The amount of a substance consumed
or produced at one of the electrodes in an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to
the amount of electricity that passes through the cell.
In order to use Faraday's law we need to recognize the relationship between current, time, and
the amount of electric charge that flows through a circuit. By definition, one coulomb of charge is
transferred when a 1-amp current flows for 1 second.
1 C = 1 amp-s
Example: To illustrate how Faraday's law can be used, let's calculate the number of grams of
sodium metal that will form at the cathode when a 10.0-amp current is passed through molten
sodium chloride for a period of 4.00 hours.
We start by calculating the amount of electric charge that flows through the cell.

Before we can use this information, we need a bridge between this macroscopic quantity and the
phenomenon that occurs on the atomic scale. This bridge is represented by Faraday's constant,
which describes the number of coulombs of charge carried by a mole of electrons.

Thus, the number of moles of electrons transferred when 144,000 coulombs of electric charge
flow through the cell can be calculated as follows.

According to the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs at the cathode of this cell, we get
one mole of sodium for every mole of electrons.

Cathode (-):

Na+ + e-

Na

Thus, we get 1.49 moles, or 34.3 grams, of sodium in 4.00 hours.

The consequences of this calculation are interesting. We would have to run this electrolysis for
more than two days to prepare a pound of sodium.
Question: Which reaction will evolve the maximum heat..