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Electromagneticradiation
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Electromagneticradiation(EMradiationorEMR)isa
formofradiantenergyreleasedbycertainelectromagnetic
processes.Visiblelightisonetypeofelectromagnetic
radiation,otherfamiliarformsareinvisibleelectromagnetic
radiationssuchasXraysandradiowaves.

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Classically,EMRconsistsofelectromagneticwaves,which
aresynchronizedoscillationsofelectricandmagneticfields
thatpropagateatthespeedoflight.Theoscillationsofthe
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twofieldsareperpendiculartoeachotherandperpendicular
tothedirectionofenergyandwavepropagation,forminga
transversewave.Electromagnetic
wavescanbecharacterizedbyeither
thefrequencyorwavelengthoftheir
oscillationstoformthe
electromagneticspectrum,which
includes,inorderofincreasing
frequencyanddecreasing
Theelectromagneticwavesthatcomposeelectromagneticradiation
wavelength:radiowaves,
canbeimaginedasaselfpropagatingtransverseoscillatingwaveof
microwaves,infraredradiation,
electricandmagneticfields.Thisdiagramshowsaplanelinearly
visiblelight,ultravioletradiation,X
polarizedEMRwavepropagatingfromlefttoright.Theelectric
raysandgammarays.
fieldisinaverticalplaneandthemagneticfieldinahorizontal
plane.TheelectricandmagneticfieldsinEMRwavesarealwaysin

Electromagneticwavesareproduced
phaseandat90degreestoeachother.
wheneverchargedparticlesare
accelerated,andthesewavescan
subsequentlyinteractwithanychargedparticles.EMwavescarryenergy,momentumandangular
momentumawayfromtheirsourceparticleandcanimpartthosequantitiestomatterwithwhichthey
interact.EMwavesaremassless,buttheyarestillaffectedbygravity.Electromagneticradiationis
associatedwiththoseEMwavesthatarefreetopropagatethemselves("radiate")withoutthecontinuing
influenceofthemovingchargesthatproducedthem,becausetheyhaveachievedsufficientdistance
fromthosecharges.Thus,EMRissometimesreferredtoasthefarfield.Inthisjargon,thenearfield
referstoEMfieldsnearthechargesandcurrentthatdirectlyproducedthem,as(forexample)with
simplemagnets,electromagneticinductionandstaticelectricityphenomena.
Inthequantumtheoryofelectromagnetism,EMRconsistsofphotons,theelementaryparticles
responsibleforallelectromagneticinteractions.QuantumeffectsprovideadditionalsourcesofEMR,
suchasthetransitionofelectronstolowerenergylevelsinanatomandblackbodyradiation.The
energyofanindividualphotonisquantizedandisgreaterforphotonsofhigherfrequency.This
relationshipisgivenbyPlanck'sequationE=h,whereEistheenergyperphoton,isthefrequencyof
thephoton,andhisPlanck'sconstant.Asinglegammarayphoton,forexample,mightcarry~100,000
timestheenergyofasinglephotonofvisiblelight.
TheeffectsofEMRuponbiologicalsystems(andalsotomanyotherchemicalsystems,understandard
conditions)dependbothupontheradiation'spoweranditsfrequency.ForEMRofvisiblefrequenciesor
lower(i.e.,radio,microwave,infrared),thedamagedonetocellsandothermaterialsisdetermined
mainlybypowerandcausedprimarilybyheatingeffectsfromthecombinedenergytransferofmany
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photons.Bycontrast,forultravioletandhigherfrequencies(i.e.,Xraysandgammarays),chemical
materialsandlivingcellscanbefurtherdamagedbeyondthatdonebysimpleheating,sinceindividual
photonsofsuchhighfrequencyhaveenoughenergytocausedirectmoleculardamage.

Contents
1Physics
1.1Theory
1.1.1Maxwellsequations
1.1.2Nearandfarfields
1.2Properties
1.3Wavemodel
1.4Particlemodelandquantumtheory
1.5Waveparticleduality
1.6Waveandparticleeffectsofelectromagneticradiation
1.7Propagationspeed
1.8Specialtheoryofrelativity
2Historyofdiscovery
3Electromagneticspectrum
3.1Interactionsasafunctionoffrequency
3.1.1Radioandmicrowave
3.1.2Visiblelight
3.1.3Ultraviolet
3.1.4Xraysandgammarays
4Atmosphereandmagnetosphere
5Typesandsources,classedbyspectralband
5.1Radiowaves
5.2Microwaves
5.3Infrared
5.4Visiblelight
5.5Ultraviolet
5.6Xrays
5.7Gammarays
5.8Thermalradiationandelectromagneticradiationasaformofheat
6Biologicaleffects
7Derivationfromelectromagnetictheory
8Seealso
9References
10Furtherreading
11Externallinks

Physics
Theory
Maxwellsequations

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JamesClerkMaxwellfirstformallypostulatedelectromagneticwaves.Theseweresubsequently
confirmedbyHeinrichHertz.Maxwellderivedawaveformoftheelectricandmagneticequations,thus
uncoveringthewavelikenatureofelectricandmagneticfieldsandtheirsymmetry.Becausethespeed
ofEMwavespredictedbythewaveequationcoincidedwiththemeasuredspeedoflight,Maxwell
concludedthatlightitselfisanEMwave.
AccordingtoMaxwell'sequations,aspatiallyvaryingelectric
fieldisalwaysassociatedwithamagneticfieldthatchangesover
time.Likewise,aspatiallyvaryingmagneticfieldisassociated
withspecificchangesovertimeintheelectricfield.Inan
electromagneticwave,thechangesintheelectricfieldarealways
accompaniedbyawaveinthemagneticfieldinonedirection,
andviceversa.Thisrelationshipbetweenthetwooccurswithout
eithertypefieldcausingtheotherrather,theyoccurtogetherin
thesamewaythattimeandspacechangesoccurtogetherandare
interlinkedinspecialrelativity.Infact,magneticfieldsmaybe
viewedasrelativisticdistortionsofelectricfields,sotheclose
relationshipbetweenspaceandtimechangeshereismorethan
ananalogy.Together,thesefieldsformapropagating
electromagneticwave,whichmovesoutintospaceandneed
neveragainaffectthesource.ThedistantEMfieldformedinthis
waybytheaccelerationofachargecarriesenergywithitthat
"radiates"awaythroughspace,hencetheterm.

Showstherelativewavelengthsofthe
electromagneticwavesofthree
differentcoloursoflight(blue,green,
andred)withadistancescalein
micrometersalongthexaxis.

Nearandfarfields
Maxwell'sequationsestablishedthatsomecharges
andcurrents("sources")producealocaltypeof
electromagneticfieldnearthemthatdoesnothave
thebehaviourofEMR.Currentsdirectlyproducea
magneticfield,butitisofamagneticdipoletype
thatdiesoutwithdistancefromthecurrent.Ina
similarmanner,movingchargespushedapartina
conductorbyachangingelectricalpotential(suchas
inanantenna)produceanelectricdipoletype
electricalfield,butthisalsodeclineswithdistance.
ThesefieldsmakeupthenearfieldneartheEMR
source.Neitherofthesebehavioursareresponsible
forEMradiation.Instead,theycause
electromagneticfieldbehaviourthatonlyefficiently
transferspowertoareceiververyclosetothe
source,suchasthemagneticinductioninsidea
transformer,orthefeedbackbehaviourthathappens
closetothecoilofametaldetector.Typically,near
fieldshaveapowerfuleffectontheirownsources,
causinganincreasedload(decreasedelectrical
reactance)inthesourceortransmitter,whenever
energyiswithdrawnfromtheEMfieldbya
receiver.Otherwise,thesefieldsdonotpropagate

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Inelectromagneticradiation(suchasmicrowaves
fromanantenna,shownhere)thetermappliesonly
tothepartsoftheelectromagneticfieldthatradiate
intoinfinitespaceanddecreaseinintensitybyan
inversesquarelawofpower,sothatthetotal
radiationenergythatcrossesthroughanimaginary
sphericalsurfaceisthesame,nomatterhowfar
awayfromtheantennathesphericalsurfaceis
drawn.Electromagneticradiationthusincludesthe
farfieldpartoftheelectromagneticfieldarounda
transmitter.Apartofthe"nearfield"closetothe
transmitter,formspartofthechanging
electromagneticfield,butdoesnotcountas
electromagneticradiation.

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freelyoutintospace,carryingtheirenergyawaywithoutdistancelimit,butratheroscillate,returning
theirenergytothetransmitterifitisnotreceivedbyareceiver.
Bycontrast,theEMfarfieldiscomposedofradiationthatisfreeofthetransmitterinthesensethat
(unlikethecaseinanelectricaltransformer)thetransmitterrequiresthesamepowertosendthese
changesinthefieldsout,whetherthesignalisimmediatelypickedupornot.Thisdistantpartofthe
electromagneticfieldis"electromagneticradiation"(alsocalledthefarfield).Thefarfieldspropagate
(radiate)withoutallowingthetransmittertoaffectthem.Thiscausesthemtobeindependentinthesense
thattheirexistenceandtheirenergy,aftertheyhaveleftthetransmitter,iscompletelyindependentof
bothtransmitterandreceiver.Becausesuchwavesconservetheamountofenergytheytransmitthrough
anysphericalboundarysurfacedrawnaroundtheirsource,andbecausesuchsurfaceshaveanareathat
isdefinedbythesquareofthedistancefromthesource,thepowerofEMradiationalwaysvaries
accordingtoaninversesquarelaw.ThisisincontrasttodipolepartsoftheEMfieldclosetothesource
(thenearfield),whichvariesinpoweraccordingtoaninversecubepowerlaw,andthusdoesnot
transportaconservedamountofenergyoverdistances,butinsteadfadeswithdistance,withitsenergy
(asnoted)rapidlyreturningtothetransmitterorabsorbedbyanearbyreceiver(suchasatransformer
secondarycoil).
Thefarfield(EMR)dependsonadifferentmechanismforitsproductionthanthenearfield,andupon
differenttermsinMaxwellsequations.Whereasthemagneticpartofthenearfieldisduetocurrentsin
thesource,themagneticfieldinEMRisdueonlytothelocalchangeintheelectricfield.Inasimilar
way,whiletheelectricfieldinthenearfieldisduedirectlytothechargesandchargeseparationinthe
source,theelectricfieldinEMRisduetoachangeinthelocalmagneticfield.Bothprocessesfor
producingelectricandmagneticEMRfieldshaveadifferentdependenceondistancethandonearfield
dipoleelectricandmagneticfields.ThatiswhytheEMRtypeofEMfieldbecomesdominantinpower
farfromsources.Thetermfarfromsourcesreferstohowfarfromthesource(movingatthespeed
oflight)anyportionoftheoutwardmovingEMfieldislocated,bythetimethatsourcecurrentsare
changedbythevaryingsourcepotential,andthesourcehasthereforebeguntogenerateanoutwardly
movingEMfieldofadifferentphase.
AmorecompactviewofEMRisthatthefarfieldthatcomposesEMRisgenerallythatpartoftheEM
fieldthathastraveledsufficientdistancefromthesource,thatithasbecomecompletelydisconnected
fromanyfeedbacktothechargesandcurrentsthatwereoriginallyresponsibleforit.Nowindependent
ofthesourcecharges,theEMfield,asitmovesfartheraway,isdependentonlyupontheaccelerations
ofthechargesthatproducedit.Itnolongerhasastrongconnectiontothedirectfieldsofthecharges,or
tothevelocityofthecharges(currents).
IntheLinardWiechertpotentialformulationoftheelectricandmagneticfieldsduetomotionofa
singleparticle(accordingtoMaxwell'sequations),thetermsassociatedwithaccelerationoftheparticle
arethosethatareresponsibleforthepartofthefieldthatisregardedaselectromagneticradiation.By
contrast,thetermassociatedwiththechangingstaticelectricfieldoftheparticleandthemagneticterm
thatresultsfromtheparticle'suniformvelocity,arebothassociatedwiththeelectromagneticnearfield,
anddonotcompriseEMradiation.

Properties
Thephysicsofelectromagneticradiationiselectrodynamics.Electromagnetismisthephysical
phenomenonassociatedwiththetheoryofelectrodynamics.Electricandmagneticfieldsobeythe
propertiesofsuperposition.Thus,afieldduetoanyparticularparticleortimevaryingelectricor
magneticfieldcontributestothefieldspresentinthesamespaceduetoothercauses.Further,astheyare
vectorfields,allmagneticandelectricfieldvectorsaddtogetheraccordingtovectoraddition.For
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example,inopticstwoormorecoherentlightwavesmayinteractandbyconstructiveordestructive
interferenceyieldaresultantirradiancedeviatingfromthesumofthecomponentirradiancesofthe
individuallightwaves.
Sincelightisanoscillationitisnotaffectedbytravellingthroughstaticelectricormagneticfieldsina
linearmediumsuchasavacuum.However,innonlinearmedia,
suchassomecrystals,interactionscanoccurbetweenlightand
staticelectricandmagneticfieldstheseinteractionsinclude
theFaradayeffectandtheKerreffect.
Inrefraction,awavecrossingfromonemediumtoanotherof
differentdensityaltersitsspeedanddirectionuponenteringthe
newmedium.Theratiooftherefractiveindicesofthemedia
determinesthedegreeofrefraction,andissummarizedbySnell's
law.Lightofcompositewavelengths(naturalsunlight)disperses
intoavisiblespectrumpassingthroughaprism,becauseofthe
wavelengthdependentrefractiveindexoftheprismmaterial
(dispersion)thatis,eachcomponentwavewithinthecomposite
lightisbentadifferentamount.
EMradiationexhibitsbothwavepropertiesandparticle
propertiesatthesametime(seewaveparticleduality).Both
waveandparticlecharacteristicshavebeenconfirmedinmany
experiments.WavecharacteristicsaremoreapparentwhenEM
radiationismeasuredoverrelativelylargetimescalesandover
largedistanceswhileparticlecharacteristicsaremoreevident
whenmeasuringsmalltimescalesanddistances.Forexample,
whenelectromagneticradiationisabsorbedbymatter,particle
likepropertieswillbemoreobviouswhentheaveragenumberof
photonsinthecubeoftherelevantwavelengthismuchsmaller
than1.Itisnottoodifficulttoexperimentallyobservenon
uniformdepositionofenergywhenlightisabsorbed,however
thisaloneisnotevidenceof"particulate"behavior.Rather,it
reflectsthequantumnatureofmatter.[1]Demonstratingthatthe
lightitselfisquantized,notmerelyitsinteractionwithmatter,is
amoresubtleaffair.
Someexperimentsdisplayboththewaveandparticlenaturesof
electromagneticwaves,suchastheselfinterferenceofasingle
photon.[2]Whenasinglephotonissentthroughan
interferometer,itpassesthroughbothpaths,interferingwith
itself,aswavesdo,yetisdetectedbyaphotomultiplierorother
sensitivedetectoronlyonce.

Electromagneticwavescanbe
imaginedasaselfpropagating
transverseoscillatingwaveofelectric
andmagneticfields.This3D
animationshowsaplanelinearly
polarizedwavepropagatingfromleft
toright.Notethattheelectricand
magneticfieldsinsuchawavearein
phasewitheachother,reaching
minimaandmaximatogether

Analternateviewofthewaveshown
above.

Aquantumtheoryoftheinteractionbetweenelectromagnetic
radiationandmattersuchaselectronsisdescribedbythetheoryofquantumelectrodynamics.

Wavemodel

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Electromagneticradiationisatransversewave,meaningthatitsoscillationsareperpendiculartothe
directionofenergytransferandtravel.Theelectricandmagneticpartsofthefieldstandinafixedratio
ofstrengthsinordertosatisfythetwoMaxwellequationsthatspecifyhowoneisproducedfromthe
other.TheseEandBfieldsarealsoinphase,withbothreachingmaximaandminimaatthesamepoints
inspace(seeillustrations).AcommonmisconceptionisthattheEandBfieldsinelectromagnetic
radiationareoutofphasebecauseachangeinoneproducestheother,andthiswouldproduceaphase
differencebetweenthemassinusoidalfunctions(asindeedhappensinelectromagneticinduction,andin
thenearfieldclosetoantennas).However,inthefarfieldEMradiationwhichisdescribedbythetwo
sourcefreeMaxwellcurloperatorequations,amorecorrectdescriptionisthatatimechangeinonetype
offieldisproportionaltoaspacechangeintheother.ThesederivativesrequirethattheEandBfieldsin
EMRareinphase(seemathsectionbelow).
Animportantaspectoflight'snatureisitsfrequency.Thefrequencyofawaveisitsrateofoscillation
andismeasuredinhertz,theSIunitoffrequency,whereonehertzisequaltooneoscillationpersecond.
Lightusuallyhasmultiplefrequenciesthatsumtoformtheresultantwave.Differentfrequencies
undergodifferentanglesofrefraction,aphenomenonknownasdispersion.
Awaveconsistsofsuccessivetroughsandcrests,andthedistancebetweentwoadjacentcrestsor
troughsiscalledthewavelength.Wavesoftheelectromagneticspectrumvaryinsize,fromverylong
radiowavesthesizeofbuildingstoveryshortgammarayssmallerthanatomnuclei.Frequencyis
inverselyproportionaltowavelength,accordingtotheequation:

wherevisthespeedofthewave(cinavacuum,orlessinothermedia),fisthefrequencyandisthe
wavelength.Aswavescrossboundariesbetweendifferentmedia,theirspeedschangebuttheir
frequenciesremainconstant.
ElectromagneticwavesinfreespacemustbesolutionsofMaxwell'selectromagneticwaveequation.
Twomainclassesofsolutionsareknown,namelyplanewavesandsphericalwaves.Theplanewaves
maybeviewedasthelimitingcaseofsphericalwavesataverylarge(ideallyinfinite)distancefromthe
source.Bothtypesofwavescanhaveawaveformwhichisanarbitrarytimefunction(solongasitis
sufficientlydifferentiabletoconformtothewaveequation).Aswithanytimefunction,thiscanbe
decomposedbymeansofFourieranalysisintoitsfrequencyspectrum,orindividualsinusoidal
components,eachofwhichcontainsasinglefrequency,amplitudeandphase.Suchacomponentwaveis
saidtobemonochromatic.Amonochromaticelectromagneticwavecanbecharacterizedbyits
frequencyorwavelength,itspeakamplitude,itsphaserelativetosomereferencephase,itsdirectionof
propagationanditspolarization.
Interferenceisthesuperpositionoftwoormorewavesresultinginanewwavepattern.Ifthefieldshave
componentsinthesamedirection,theyconstructivelyinterfere,whileoppositedirectionscause
destructiveinterference.AnexampleofinterferencecausedbyEMRiselectromagneticinterference
(EMI)orasitismorecommonlyknownas,radiofrequencyinterference(RFI).
Theenergyinelectromagneticwavesissometimescalledradiantenergy.

Particlemodelandquantumtheory
Ananomalyaroseinthelate19thcenturyinvolvingacontradictionbetweenthewavetheoryoflight
andmeasurementsoftheelectromagneticspectrathatwerebeingemittedbythermalradiatorsknownas
blackbodies.Physicistsstruggledwiththisproblem,whichlaterbecameknownastheultraviolet
catastrophe,unsuccessfullyformanyyears.In1900,MaxPlanckdevelopedanewtheoryofblackbody
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radiationthatexplainedtheobservedspectrum.Planck'stheorywasbasedontheideathatblackbodies
emitlight(andotherelectromagneticradiation)onlyasdiscretebundlesorpacketsofenergy.These
packetswerecalledquanta.Later,AlbertEinsteinproposedthatlightquantaberegardedasreal
particles.Latertheparticleoflightwasgiventhenamephoton,tocorrespondwithotherparticlesbeing
describedaroundthistime,suchastheelectronandproton.Aphotonhasanenergy,E,proportionalto
itsfrequency,f,by

wherehisPlanck'sconstant, isthewavelengthandcisthespeedoflight.Thisissometimesknownas
thePlanckEinsteinequation.[3]Inquantumtheory(seefirstquantization)theenergyofthephotonsis
thusdirectlyproportionaltothefrequencyoftheEMRwave.[4]
Likewise,themomentumpofaphotonisalsoproportionaltoitsfrequencyandinverselyproportionalto
itswavelength:

ThesourceofEinstein'sproposalthatlightwascomposedofparticles(orcouldactasparticlesinsome
circumstances)wasanexperimentalanomalynotexplainedbythewavetheory:thephotoelectriceffect,
inwhichlightstrikingametalsurfaceejectedelectronsfromthesurface,causinganelectriccurrentto
flowacrossanappliedvoltage.Experimentalmeasurementsdemonstratedthattheenergyofindividual
ejectedelectronswasproportionaltothefrequency,ratherthantheintensity,ofthelight.Furthermore,
belowacertainminimumfrequency,whichdependedontheparticularmetal,nocurrentwouldflow
regardlessoftheintensity.Theseobservationsappearedtocontradictthewavetheory,andforyears
physiciststriedinvaintofindanexplanation.In1905,Einsteinexplainedthispuzzlebyresurrectingthe
particletheoryoflighttoexplaintheobservedeffect.Becauseofthepreponderanceofevidenceinfavor
ofthewavetheory,however,Einstein'sideasweremetinitiallywithgreatskepticismamongestablished
physicists.EventuallyEinstein'sexplanationwasacceptedasnewparticlelikebehavioroflightwas
observed,suchastheComptoneffect.
Asaphotonisabsorbedbyanatom,itexcitestheatom,elevatinganelectrontoahigherenergylevel
(onethatisonaveragefartherfromthenucleus).Whenanelectroninanexcitedmoleculeoratom
descendstoalowerenergylevel,itemitsaphotonoflightatafrequencycorrespondingtotheenergy
difference.Sincetheenergylevelsofelectronsinatomsarediscrete,eachelementandeachmolecule
emitsandabsorbsitsowncharacteristicfrequencies.Immediatephotonemissioniscalledfluorescence,
atypeofphotoluminescence.Anexampleisvisiblelightemittedfromfluorescentpaints,inresponseto
ultraviolet(blacklight).Manyotherfluorescentemissionsareknowninspectralbandsotherthanvisible
light.Delayedemissioniscalledphosphorescence.

Waveparticleduality
Themoderntheorythatexplainsthenatureoflightincludesthenotionofwaveparticleduality.More
generally,thetheorystatesthateverythinghasbothaparticlenatureandawavenature,andvarious
experimentscanbedonetobringoutoneortheother.Theparticlenatureismoreeasilydiscernedusing
anobjectwithalargemass.AboldpropositionbyLouisdeBrogliein1924ledthescientific
communitytorealizethatelectronsalsoexhibitedwaveparticleduality.

Waveandparticleeffectsofelectromagneticradiation
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Together,waveandparticleeffectsfullyexplaintheemissionandabsorptionspectraofEMradiation.
Themattercompositionofthemediumthroughwhichthelighttravelsdeterminesthenatureofthe
absorptionandemissionspectrum.Thesebandscorrespondtotheallowedenergylevelsintheatoms.
Darkbandsintheabsorptionspectrumareduetotheatomsinaninterveningmediumbetweensource
andobserver.Theatomsabsorbcertainfrequenciesofthelightbetweenemitteranddetector/eye,then
emittheminalldirections.Adarkbandappearstothedetector,duetotheradiationscatteredoutofthe
beam.Forinstance,darkbandsinthelightemittedbyadistantstarareduetotheatomsinthestar's
atmosphere.Asimilarphenomenonoccursforemission,whichisseenwhenanemittinggasglowsdue
toexcitationoftheatomsfromanymechanism,includingheat.Aselectronsdescendtolowerenergy
levels,aspectrumisemittedthatrepresentsthejumpsbetweentheenergylevelsoftheelectrons,but
linesareseenbecauseagainemissionhappensonlyatparticularenergiesafterexcitation.Anexampleis
theemissionspectrumofnebulae.Rapidlymovingelectronsaremostsharplyacceleratedwhenthey
encounteraregionofforce,sotheyareresponsibleforproducingmuchofthehighestfrequency
electromagneticradiationobservedinnature.
Thesephenomenacanaidvariouschemicaldeterminationsforthecompositionofgaseslitfrombehind
(absorptionspectra)andforglowinggases(emissionspectra).Spectroscopy(forexample)determines
whatchemicalelementscompriseaparticularstar.Spectroscopyisalsousedinthedeterminationofthe
distanceofastar,usingtheredshift.

Propagationspeed
Anyelectricchargethataccelerates,oranychangingmagneticfield,produceselectromagneticradiation.
Electromagneticinformationaboutthechargetravelsatthespeedoflight.Accuratetreatmentthus
incorporatesaconceptknownasretardedtime,whichaddstotheexpressionsfortheelectrodynamic
electricfieldandmagneticfield.Theseextratermsareresponsibleforelectromagneticradiation.
Whenanywire(orotherconductingobjectsuchasanantenna)conductsalternatingcurrent,
electromagneticradiationispropagatedatthesamefrequencyasthecurrent.Inmanysuchsituationsit
ispossibletoidentifyanelectricaldipolemomentthatarisesfromseparationofchargesduetothe
excitingelectricalpotential,andthisdipolemomentoscillatesintime,asthechargesmovebackand
forth.Thisoscillationatagivenfrequencygivesrisetochangingelectricandmagneticfields,which
thensettheelectromagneticradiationinmotion.
Atthequantumlevel,electromagneticradiationisproducedwhenthewavepacketofachargedparticle
oscillatesorotherwiseaccelerates.Chargedparticlesinastationarystatedonotmove,buta
superpositionofsuchstatesmayresultinatransitionstatethathasanelectricdipolemomentthat
oscillatesintime.Thisoscillatingdipolemomentisresponsibleforthephenomenonofradiative
transitionbetweenquantumstatesofachargedparticle.Suchstatesoccur(forexample)inatomswhen
photonsareradiatedastheatomshiftsfromonestationarystatetoanother.
Asawave,lightischaracterizedbyavelocity(thespeedoflight),wavelength,andfrequency.As
particles,lightisastreamofphotons.Eachhasanenergyrelatedtothefrequencyofthewavegivenby
Planck'srelationE=h,whereEistheenergyofthephoton,h=6.6261034JsisPlanck'sconstant,
andisthefrequencyofthewave.
Oneruleisobeyedregardlessofcircumstances:EMradiationinavacuumtravelsatthespeedoflight,
relativetotheobserver,regardlessoftheobserver'svelocity.(ThisobservationledtoEinstein's
developmentofthetheoryofspecialrelativity.)
Inamedium(otherthanvacuum),velocityfactororrefractiveindexareconsidered,dependingon
frequencyandapplication.Bothoftheseareratiosofthespeedinamediumtospeedinavacuum.
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Specialtheoryofrelativity
Bythelatenineteenthcentury,variousexperimentalanomaliescouldnotbeexplainedbythesimple
wavetheory.Oneoftheseanomaliesinvolvedacontroversyoverthespeedoflight.Thespeedoflight
andotherEMRpredictedbyMaxwell'sequationsdidnotappearunlesstheequationsweremodifiedina
wayfirstsuggestedbyFitzGeraldandLorentz(seehistoryofspecialrelativity),orelseotherwisethat
speedwoulddependonthespeedofobserverrelativetothe"medium"(calledluminiferousaether)
whichsupposedly"carried"theelectromagneticwave(inamanneranalogoustothewayaircarries
soundwaves).Experimentsfailedtofindanyobservereffect.In1905,Einsteinproposedthatspaceand
timeappearedtobevelocitychangeableentitiesforlightpropagationandallotherprocessesandlaws.
Thesechangesaccountedfortheconstancyofthespeedoflightandallelectromagneticradiation,from
theviewpointsofallobserverseventhoseinrelativemotion.

Historyofdiscovery
Electromagneticradiationofwavelengthsotherthanthoseofvisiblelightwerediscoveredintheearly
19thcentury.ThediscoveryofinfraredradiationisascribedtoastronomerWilliamHerschel,who
publishedhisresultsin1800beforetheRoyalSocietyofLondon.[5]Herschelusedaglassprismto
refractlightfromtheSunanddetectedinvisibleraysthatcausedheatingbeyondtheredpartofthe
spectrum,throughanincreaseinthetemperaturerecordedwithathermometer.These"calorificrays"
werelatertermedinfrared.
In1801,GermanphysicistJohannWilhelmRitterdiscoveredultravioletinanexperimentsimilarto
Hershel's,usingsunlightandaglassprism.Ritternotedthatinvisibleraysnearthevioletedgeofasolar
spectrumdispersedbyatriangularprismdarkenedsilverchloridepreparationsmorequicklythandidthe
nearbyvioletlight.Ritter'sexperimentswereanearlyprecursortowhatwouldbecomephotography.
Ritternotedthattheultravioletrays(whichatfirstwerecalled"chemicalrays")werecapableofcausing
chemicalreactions.
In18624JamesClerkMaxwelldevelopedequationsfortheelectromagneticfieldwhichsuggestedthat
wavesinthefieldwouldtravelwithaspeedthatwasveryclosetotheknownspeedoflight.Maxwell
thereforesuggestedthatvisiblelight(aswellasinvisibleinfraredandultravioletraysbyinference)all
consistedofpropagatingdisturbances(orradiation)intheelectromagneticfield.Radiowaveswerefirst
produceddeliberatelybyHeinrichHertzin1887,usingelectricalcircuitscalculatedtoproduce
oscillationsatamuchlowerfrequencythanthatofvisiblelight,followingrecipesforproducing
oscillatingchargesandcurrentssuggestedbyMaxwell'sequations.Hertzalsodevelopedwaystodetect
thesewaves,andproducedandcharacterizedwhatwerelatertermedradiowavesand
microwaves.[6]:286,7
WilhelmRntgendiscoveredandnamedXrays.Afterexperimentingwithhighvoltagesappliedtoan
evaccuatedtubeon8November1895,henoticedafluorescenceonanearbyplateofcoatedglass.In
onemonth,hediscoveredXrays'mainproperties.[6]:307
ThelastportionoftheEMspectrumwasdiscoveredassociatedwithradioactivity.HenriBecquerel
foundthaturaniumsaltscausedfoggingofanunexposedphotographicplatethroughacoveringpaperin
amannersimilartoXrays,andMarieCuriediscoveredthatonlycertainelementsgaveofftheseraysof
energy,soondiscoveringtheintenseradiationofradium.Theradiationfrompitchblendewas
differentiatedintoalpharays(alphaparticles)andbetarays(betaparticles)byErnestRutherfordthrough
simpleexperimentationin1899,buttheseprovedtobechargedparticulatetypesofradiation.However,
in1900theFrenchscientistPaulVillarddiscoveredathirdneutrallychargedandespeciallypenetrating
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typeofradiationfromradium,andafterhedescribedit,Rutherfordrealizeditmustbeyetathirdtypeof
radiation,whichin1903Rutherfordnamedgammarays.In1910BritishphysicistWilliamHenryBragg
demonstratedthatgammaraysareelectromagneticradiation,notparticles,andin1914Rutherfordand
EdwardAndrademeasuredtheirwavelengths,findingthattheyweresimilartoXraysbutwithshorter
wavelengthsandhigherfrequency,althougha'crossover'betweenXandgammaraysmakesitpossible
tohaveXrayswithahigherenergy(andhenceshorterwavelength)thangammaraysandviceversa.
Theoriginoftheraydifferentiatesthem,gammaraystendtobeanaturalphenomenaoriginatingfrom
theunstablenucleusofanatomandXraysareelectricallygenerated(andhencemanmade)unlessthey
areasaresultofbremsstrahlungXradiationcausedbytheinteractionoffastmovingparticles(suchas
betaparticles)collidingwithcertainmaterials,usuallyofhigheratomicnumbers.[6]:308,9

Electromagneticspectrum
EMradiation(the
designation'radiation'
excludesstaticelectric
andmagneticandnear
fields)isclassifiedby
wavelengthintoradio,
microwave,infrared,
visible,ultraviolet,X
raysandgammarays.
Arbitrary
electromagneticwaves
canbeexpressedby
Fourieranalysisin
termsofsinusoidal
monochromaticwaves,
Electromagneticspectrumwithvisiblelighthighlighted
whichinturncaneach
beclassifiedintothese
regionsoftheEMRspectrum.
ForcertainclassesofEMwaves,thewaveformismostusefullytreatedasrandom,andthenspectral
analysismustbedonebyslightlydifferentmathematicaltechniquesappropriatetorandomorstochastic
processes.Insuchcases,theindividualfrequencycomponentsarerepresentedintermsoftheirpower
content,andthephaseinformationisnotpreserved.Sucharepresentationiscalledthepowerspectral
densityoftherandomprocess.Randomelectromagneticradiationrequiringthiskindofanalysisis,for
example,encounteredintheinteriorofstars,andincertainotherverywidebandformsofradiationsuch
astheZeropointwavefieldoftheelectromagneticvacuum.
ThebehaviorofEMradiationdependsonitsfrequency.Lowerfrequencieshavelongerwavelengths,
andhigherfrequencieshaveshorterwavelengths,andareassociatedwithphotonsofhigherenergy.
Thereisnofundamentallimitknowntothesewavelengthsorenergies,ateitherendofthespectrum,
althoughphotonswithenergiesnearthePlanckenergyorexceedingit(fartoohightohaveeverbeen
observed)willrequirenewphysicaltheoriestodescribe.
Soundwavesarenotelectromagneticradiation.Atthelowerendoftheelectromagneticspectrum,about
20Hztoabout20kHz,arefrequenciesthatmightbeconsideredintheaudiorange.However,
electromagneticwavescannotbedirectlyperceivedbyhumanears.Soundwavesareinsteadthe
oscillatingcompressionofmolecules.Tobeheard,electromagneticradiationmustbeconvertedto
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pressurewavesofthefluidinwhichtheearis
located(whetherthefluidisair,wateror
somethingelse).

Interactionsasafunctionoffrequency
WhenEMradiationinteractswithmatter,its
behaviorchangesqualitativelyasitsfrequency
changes.
Radioandmicrowave
Atradioandmicrowavefrequencies,EMR
interactswithmatterlargelyasabulkcollection
ofchargeswhicharespreadoutoverlarge
numbersofaffectedatoms.Inelectrical
conductors,suchinducedbulkmovementof
charges(electriccurrents)resultsinabsorption
oftheEMR,orelseseparationsofchargesthat
causegenerationofnewEMR(effective
reflectionoftheEMR).Anexampleis
absorptionoremissionofradiowavesby
antennas,orabsorptionofmicrowavesbywater
orothermoleculeswithanelectricdipole
moment,asforexampleinsideamicrowave
oven.Theseinteractionsproduceeitherelectric
currentsorheat,orboth.InfraredEMRinteracts
withdipolespresentinsinglemolecules,which
changeasatomsvibrateattheendsofasingle
chemicalbond.Forthisreason,infraredis
reflectedbymetals(asismostEMRintothe
ultraviolet)butisabsorbedbyawiderangeof
substances,causingthemtoincreasein
temperatureasthevibrationsdissipateasheat.In
thesameprocess,bulksubstancesradiateinthe
infraredspontaneously(seethermalradiation
sectionbelow).
Visiblelight
Asfrequencyincreasesintothevisiblerange,
photonsofEMRhaveenoughenergytochange
thebondstructureofsomeindividualmolecules.
Itisnotacoincidencethatthishappensinthe
"visiblerange,"asthemechanismofvision
involvesthechangeinbondingofasingle
molecule(retinal)whichabsorbslightinthe
rhodopsinintheretinaofthehumaneye.
Photosynthesisbecomespossibleinthisrangeas
well,forsimilarreasons,asasinglemoleculeof
chlorophyllisexcitedbyasinglephoton.
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Legend:
=Gammarays
HX=HardXrays
SX=SoftXRays
EUV=Extremeultraviolet
NUV=Nearultraviolet
Visiblelight(coloredbands)
NIR=Nearinfrared
MIR=Moderateinfrared
FIR=Farinfrared
EHF=Extremelyhighfrequency(microwaves)
SHF=Superhighfrequency(microwaves)
UHF=Ultrahighfrequency(radiowaves)
VHF=Veryhighfrequency(radio)
HF=Highfrequency(radio)
MF=Mediumfrequency(radio)
LF=Lowfrequency(radio)
VLF=Verylowfrequency(radio)
VF=Voicefrequency
ULF=Ultralowfrequency(radio)
SLF=Superlowfrequency(radio)
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ELF=Extremelylowfrequency(radio)
Animalsthatdetectinfraredmakeuseofsmall
packetsofwaterthatchangetemperature,inan
essentiallythermalprocessthatinvolvesmanyphotons(seeinfraredsensinginsnakes).Forthisreason,
infrared,microwavesandradiowavesarethoughttodamagemoleculesandbiologicaltissueonlyby
bulkheating,notexcitationfromsinglephotonsoftheradiation.

Visiblelightisabletoaffectafewmoleculeswithsinglephotons,butusuallynotinapermanentor
damagingway,intheabsenceofpowerhighenoughtoincreasetemperaturetodamaginglevels.
However,inplanttissuesthatconductphotosynthesis,carotenoidsacttoquenchelectronicallyexcited
chlorophyllproducedbyvisiblelightinaprocesscallednonphotochemicalquenching,inorderto
preventreactionsthatwouldotherwiseinterferewithphotosynthesisathighlightlevels.Limited
evidenceindicatethatsomereactiveoxygenspeciesarecreatedbyvisiblelightinskin,andthatthese
mayhavesomeroleinphotoaging,inthesamemannerasultravioletA.[7]
Ultraviolet
Asfrequencyincreasesintotheultraviolet,photonsnowcarryenoughenergy(aboutthreeelectronvolts
ormore)toexcitecertaindoublybondedmoleculesintopermanentchemicalrearrangement.InDNA,
thiscauseslastingdamage.DNAisalsoindirectlydamagedbyreactiveoxygenspeciesproducedby
ultravioletA(UVA),whichhasenergytoolowtodamageDNAdirectly.Thisiswhyultravioletatall
wavelengthscandamageDNA,andiscapableofcausingcancer,and(forUVB)skinburns(sunburn)
thatarefarworsethanwouldbeproducedbysimpleheating(temperatureincrease)effects.This
propertyofcausingmoleculardamagethatisoutofproportiontoheatingeffects,ischaracteristicofall
EMRwithfrequenciesatthevisiblelightrangeandabove.ThesepropertiesofhighfrequencyEMRare
duetoquantumeffectsthatpermanentlydamagematerialsandtissuesatthemolecularlevel.
Atthehigherendoftheultravioletrange,theenergyofphotonsbecomeslargeenoughtoimpartenough
energytoelectronstocausethemtobeliberatedfromtheatom,inaprocesscalledphotoionisation.The
energyrequiredforthisisalwayslargerthanabout10electronvolts(eV)correspondingwith
wavelengthssmallerthan124nm(somesourcessuggestamorerealisticcutoffof33eV,whichisthe
energyrequiredtoionizewater).Thishighendoftheultravioletspectrumwithenergiesinthe
approximateionizationrange,issometimescalled"extremeUV."IonizingUVisstronglyfilteredbythe
Earth'satmosphere).
Xraysandgammarays
Electromagneticradiationcomposedofphotonsthatcarryminimumionizationenergy,ormore,(which
includestheentirespectrumwithshorterwavelengths),isthereforetermedionizingradiation.(Many
otherkindsofionizingradiationaremadeofnonEMparticles).Electromagnetictypeionizingradiation
extendsfromtheextremeultraviolettoallhigherfrequenciesandshorterwavelengths,whichmeansthat
allXraysandgammaraysqualify.Thesearecapableofthemostseveretypesofmoleculardamage,
whichcanhappeninbiologytoanytypeofbiomolecule,includingmutationandcancer,andoftenat
greatdepthsbelowtheskin,sincethehigherendoftheXrayspectrum,andallofthegammaray
spectrum,penetratematter.Thistypeofdamagecausesthesetypesofradiationtobeespeciallycarefully
monitored,duetotheirhazard,evenatcomparativelylowenergies,toalllivingorganisms.

Atmosphereandmagnetosphere

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MostUVandXraysareblockedbyabsorptionfirstfrommolecularnitrogen,andthen(forwavelengths
intheupperUV)fromtheelectronicexcitationofdioxygenandfinallyozoneatthemidrangeofUV.
Only30%ofthe
Sun'sultravioletlight
reachestheground,
andalmostallofthis
iswelltransmitted.
Visiblelightiswell
transmittedinair,as
itisnotenergetic
enoughtoexcite
nitrogen,oxygen,or
ozone,buttoo
energetictoexcite
molecularvibrational
frequenciesofwater
vapor.

RoughplotofEarth'satmosphericabsorptionandscattering(oropacity)ofvarious
wavelengthsofelectromagneticradiation

Absorptionbandsin
theinfraredareduetomodesofvibrationalexcitationinwatervapor.However,atenergiestoolowto
excitewatervapor,theatmospherebecomestransparentagain,allowingfreetransmissionofmost
microwaveandradiowaves.
Finally,atradiowavelengthslongerthan10metersorso(about30MHz),theairinthelower
atmosphereremainstransparenttoradio,butplasmaincertainlayersoftheionospherebeginstointeract
withradiowaves(seeskywave).Thispropertyallowssomelongerwavelengths(100metersor3MHz)
tobereflectedandresultsinshortwaveradiobeyondlineofsight.However,certainionosphericeffects
begintoblockincomingradiowavesfromspace,whentheirfrequencyislessthanabout10MHz
(wavelengthlongerthanabout30meters).

Typesandsources,classedbyspectralband
Seeelectromagneticspectrum

Radiowaves
Whenradiowavesimpingeuponaconductor,theycoupletotheconductor,travelalongitandinducean
electriccurrentontheconductorsurfacebymovingtheelectronsoftheconductingmaterialin
correlatedbunchesofcharge.Sucheffectscancovermacroscopicdistancesinconductors(includingas
radioantennas),sincethewavelengthofradiowavesislong.

Microwaves
Microwavesareaformofelectromagneticradiationwithwavelengthsrangingfromaslongasonemeter
toasshortasonemillimeterwithfrequenciesbetween300MHz(0.3GHz)and300GHz.

Infrared
Visiblelight
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NaturalsourcesproduceEMradiationacrossthespectrum.EMradiationwithawavelengthbetween
approximately400nmand700nmisdirectlydetectedbythehumaneyeandperceivedasvisiblelight.
Otherwavelengths,especiallynearbyinfrared(longerthan700nm)andultraviolet(shorterthan
400nm)arealsosometimesreferredtoaslight.

Ultraviolet
Xrays
Gammarays
Thermalradiationandelectromagneticradiationasaformofheat
Thebasicstructureofmatterinvolveschargedparticlesboundtogether.Whenelectromagneticradiation
impingesonmatter,itcausesthechargedparticlestooscillateandgainenergy.Theultimatefateofthis
energydependsonthecontext.Itcouldbeimmediatelyreradiatedandappearasscattered,reflected,or
transmittedradiation.Itmaygetdissipatedintoothermicroscopicmotionswithinthematter,comingto
thermalequilibriumandmanifestingitselfasthermalenergyinthematerial.Withafewexceptions
relatedtohighenergyphotons(suchasfluorescence,harmonicgeneration,photochemicalreactions,the
photovoltaiceffectforionizingradiationsatfarultraviolet,Xrayandgammaradiation),absorbed
electromagneticradiationsimplydepositsitsenergybyheatingthematerial.Thishappensforinfrared,
microwaveandradiowaveradiation.Intenseradiowavescanthermallyburnlivingtissueandcancook
food.Inadditiontoinfraredlasers,sufficientlyintensevisibleandultravioletlaserscaneasilysetpaper
afire.
Ionizingradiationcreateshighspeedelectronsinamaterialandbreakschemicalbonds,butafterthese
electronscollidemanytimeswithotheratomseventuallymostoftheenergybecomesthermalenergyall
inatinyfractionofasecond.Thisprocessmakesionizingradiationfarmoredangerousperunitof
energythannonionizingradiation.ThiscaveatalsoappliestoUV,eventhoughalmostallofitisnot
ionizing,becauseUVcandamagemoleculesduetoelectronicexcitation,whichisfargreaterperunit
energythanheatingeffects.
Infraredradiationinthespectraldistributionofablackbodyisusuallyconsideredaformofheat,since
ithasanequivalenttemperatureandisassociatedwithanentropychangeperunitofthermalenergy.
However,"heat"isatechnicalterminphysicsandthermodynamicsandisoftenconfusedwiththermal
energy.Anytypeofelectromagneticenergycanbetransformedintothermalenergyininteractionwith
matter.Thus,anyelectromagneticradiationcan"heat"(inthesenseofincreasethethermalenergy
termperatureof)amaterial,whenitisabsorbed.
Theinverseortimereversedprocessofabsorptionisthermalradiation.Muchofthethermalenergyin
matterconsistsofrandommotionofchargedparticles,andthisenergycanberadiatedawayfromthe
matter.Theresultingradiationmaysubsequentlybeabsorbedbyanotherpieceofmatter,withthe
depositedenergyheatingthematerial.
Theelectromagneticradiationinanopaquecavityatthermalequilibriumiseffectivelyaformofthermal
energy,havingmaximumradiationentropy.

Biologicaleffects

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BioelectromagneticsisthestudyoftheinteractionsandeffectsofEMradiationonlivingorganisms.The
effectsofelectromagneticradiationuponlivingcells,includingthoseinhumans,dependsuponthe
radiation'spowerandfrequency.Forlowfrequencyradiation(radiowavestovisiblelight)thebest
understoodeffectsarethoseduetoradiationpoweralone,actingthroughheatingwhenradiationis
absorbed.Forthesethermaleffects,frequencyisimportantonlyasitaffectspenetrationintothe
organism(forexample,microwavespenetratebetterthaninfrared).Initially,itwasbelievedthatlow
frequencyfieldsthatweretooweaktocausesignificantheatingcouldnotpossiblyhaveanybiological
effect.[8]
Despitethisopinionamongresearchers,evidencehasaccumulatedthatsupportstheexistenceof
complexbiologicaleffectsofweakernonthermalelectromagneticfields,(includingweakELFmagnetic
fields,althoughthelatterdoesnotstrictlyqualifyasEMradiation[8][9][10]),andmodulatedRFand
microwavefields.[11][12][13]Fundamentalmechanismsoftheinteractionbetweenbiologicalmaterialand
electromagneticfieldsatnonthermallevelsarenotfullyunderstood.[8]
TheWorldHealthOrganizationhasclassifiedradiofrequencyelectromagneticradiationasGroup2B
possiblycarcinogenic.[14][15]Thisgroupcontainspossiblecarcinogensthathaveweakerevidence,atthe
samelevelascoffeeandautomobileexhaust.Forexample,epidemiologicalstudieslookingfora
relationshipbetweencellphoneuseandbraincancerdevelopment,havebeenlargelyinconclusive,save
todemonstratethattheeffect,ifitexists,cannotbealargeone.
Athigherfrequencies(visibleandbeyond),theeffectsofindividualphotonsbegintobecomeimportant,
asthesenowhaveenoughenergyindividuallytodirectlyorindirectlydamagebiologicalmolecules.[16]
AllUVfrequenceshavebeenclassedasGroup1carcinogensbytheWorldHealthOrganization.
Ultravioletradiationfromsunexposureistheprimarycauseofskincancer.[17][18]
Thus,atUVfrequenciesandhigher(andprobablysomewhatalsointhevisiblerange),[7]
electromagneticradiationdoesmoredamagetobiologicalsystemsthansimpleheatingpredicts.Thisis
mostobviousinthe"far"(or"extreme")ultraviolet.UV,withXrayandgammaradiation,arereferred
toasionizingradiationduetotheabilityofphotonsofthisradiationtoproduceionsandfreeradicalsin
materials(includinglivingtissue).Sincesuchradiationcanseverelydamagelifeatenergylevelsthat
producelittleheating,itisconsideredfarmoredangerous(intermsofdamageproducedperunitof
energy,orpower)thantherestoftheelectromagneticspectrum.

Derivationfromelectromagnetictheory
Electromagneticwaveswerepredictedbytheclassicallawsofelectricityandmagnetism,knownas
Maxwell'sequations.InspectionofMaxwell'sequationswithoutsources(chargesorcurrents)resultsin
nontrivialsolutionsofchangingelectricandmagneticfields.BeginningwithMaxwell'sequationsinfree
space:

where
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isavectordifferentialoperator(seeDel).
Onesolution,

istrivial.
Foramoreusefulsolution,weutilizevectoridentities,whichworkforanyvector,asfollows:

Thecurlofequation(2):

Evaluatingthelefthandside:

simplifyingtheabovebyusingequation(1).
Evaluatingtherighthandside:

Equations(6)and(7)areequal,sothisresultsinavectorvalueddifferentialequationfortheelectric
field,namely

Applyingasimilarpatternresultsinsimilardifferentialequationforthemagneticfield:

Thesedifferentialequationsareequivalenttothewaveequation:

where
c0isthespeedofthewaveinfreespaceand
fdescribesadisplacement
Ormoresimply:
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where isd'Alembertian:

Inthecaseoftheelectricandmagneticfields,thespeedis:

Thisisthespeedoflightinvacuum.Maxwell'sequationsunifiedthevacuumpermittivity ,the
vacuumpermeability ,andthespeedoflightitself,c0.Thisrelationshiphadbeendiscoveredby
WilhelmEduardWeberandRudolfKohlrauschpriortothedevelopmentofMaxwell'selectrodynamics,
howeverMaxwellwasthefirsttoproduceafieldtheoryconsistentwithwavestravelingatthespeedof
light.
Theseareonlytwoequationsversustheoriginalfour,somoreinformationpertainstothesewaves
hiddenwithinMaxwell'sequations.Agenericvectorwavefortheelectricfield.

Here,

istheconstantamplitude, isanyseconddifferentiablefunction, isaunitvectorinthe

directionofpropagation,and isapositionvector.

isagenericsolutiontothewave

equation.Inotherwords

foragenericwavetravelinginthe direction.
Thisformwillsatisfythewaveequation.

ThefirstofMaxwell'sequationsimpliesthattheelectricfieldisorthogonaltothedirectionthewave
propagates.

ThesecondofMaxwell'sequationsyieldsthemagneticfield.Theremainingequationswillbesatisfied
bythischoiceof
.
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Theelectricandmagneticfieldwavesinthefarfieldtravelatthespeedoflight.Theyhaveaspecial
restrictedorientationandproportionalmagnitudes,
,whichcanbeseenimmediatelyfrom
thePoyntingvector.Theelectricfield,magneticfield,anddirectionofwavepropagationareall
orthogonal,andthewavepropagatesinthesamedirectionas
.Also,EandBfarfieldsinfree
space,whichaswavesolutionsdependprimarilyonthesetwoMaxwellequations,areinphasewith
eachother.Thisisguaranteedsincethegenericwavesolutionisfirstorderinbothspaceandtime,and
thecurloperatorononesideoftheseequationsresultsinfirstorderspatialderivativesofthewave
solution,whilethetimederivativeontheothersideoftheequations,whichgivestheotherfield,isfirst
orderintime,resultinginthesamephaseshiftforbothfieldsineachmathematicaloperation.
Fromtheviewpointofanelectromagneticwavetravelingforward,theelectricfieldmightbeoscillating
upanddown,whilethemagneticfieldoscillatesrightandleft.Thispicturecanberotatedwiththe
electricfieldoscillatingrightandleftandthemagneticfieldoscillatingdownandup.Thisisadifferent
solutionthatistravelinginthesamedirection.Thisarbitrarinessintheorientationwithrespectto
propagationdirectionisknownaspolarization.Onaquantumlevel,itisdescribedasphoton
polarization.Thedirectionofthepolarizationisdefinedasthedirectionoftheelectricfield.
Moregeneralformsofthesecondorderwaveequationsgivenaboveareavailable,allowingforboth
nonvacuumpropagationmediaandsources.Manycompetingderivationsexist,allwithvaryinglevels
ofapproximationandintendedapplications.Oneverygeneralexampleisaformoftheelectricfield
equation,[19]whichwasfactorizedintoapairofexplicitlydirectionalwaveequations,andthen
efficientlyreducedintoasingleunidirectionalwaveequationbymeansofasimpleslowevolution
approximation.

Seealso
Antenna(radio)
Antennameasurement
Bioelectromagnetism
Bolometer
Controlofelectromagneticradiation
Electromagneticfield
Electromagneticpulse
Electromagneticradiationandhealth
Electromagneticspectrum
Electromagneticwaveequation
Evanescentwavecoupling
Finitedifferencetimedomainmethod
Helicon
Impedanceoffreespace
Light
Maxwell'sequations
Nearandfarfield
Radiantenergy
Radiationreaction
Risksandbenefitsofsunexposure
Sinusoidalplanewavesolutionsoftheelectromagneticwaveequation

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(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20883261).
18. Saladi,RNPersaud,AN(January2005)."Thecausesofskincancer:acomprehensivereview".Drugsof
today(Barcelona,Spain:1998)41(1):3753.doi:10.1358/dot.2005.41.1.875777
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1358%2Fdot.2005.41.1.875777).PMID15753968
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15753968).
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(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15753968).
19. Kinsler,P.(2010)."Opticalpulsepropagationwithminimalapproximations".Phys.Rev.A81:013819.
arXiv:0810.5689(https://arxiv.org/abs/0810.5689).Bibcode:2010PhRvA..81a3819K
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvA..81a3819K).doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.013819
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.81.013819).

Furtherreading
Hecht,Eugene(2001).Optics(4thed.).PearsonEducation.ISBN0805385665.
Serway,RaymondA.Jewett,JohnW.(2004).PhysicsforScientistsandEngineers(6thed.).
BrooksCole.ISBN0534408427.
Tipler,Paul(2004).PhysicsforScientistsandEngineers:Electricity,Magnetism,Light,and
ElementaryModernPhysics(5thed.).W.H.Freeman.ISBN0716708108.
Reitz,JohnMilford,FrederickChristy,Robert(1992).FoundationsofElectromagneticTheory
(4thed.).AddisonWesley.ISBN0201526247.
Jackson,JohnDavid(1999).ClassicalElectrodynamics(3rded.).JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN0
47130932X.
AllenTafloveandSusanC.Hagness(2005).ComputationalElectrodynamics:TheFinite
DifferenceTimeDomainMethod,3rded.ArtechHousePublishers.ISBN1580538320.

Externallinks
Electromagnetism

Wikisourcehasoriginal
textrelatedtothisarticle:
PicturedElectro
MagneticWaves

(http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html)achapterfromanonline
textbook
ElectromagneticRadiation(http://www.learnemc.com/tutorials/Radiation/EM_Radiation.html)
anintroductionforelectricalengineers
ElectromagneticWavesfromMaxwell'sEquations
(http://www.physnet.org/modules/pdf_modules/m210.pdf)onProjectPHYSNET
(http://www.physnet.org).
Radiationofatoms?emwave,Polarisation,...
(http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html)
AnIntroductiontoTheWignerDistributioninGeometricOptics
(http://scripts.mit.edu/~raskar/lightfields/index.php?
title=An_Introduction_to_The_Wigner_Distribution_in_Geometric_Optics)
Thewindowsoftheelectromagneticspectrum,onAstronoo
(http://www.astronoo.com/articles/electromagneticSpectrumen.html)
Introductiontolightandelectromagneticradiation
(https://www.khanacademy.org/science/cosmologyandastronomy/universescaletopic/light
fundamentalforces/v/introductiontolight)coursevideofromtheKhanAcademy
Lecturesonelectromagneticwaves(http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/802scphysicsii
electricityandmagnetismfall2010/electromagneticwaves/)coursevideoandnotesfromMIT
ProfessorWalterLewin
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