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Overview map of states committed to greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the rst Kyoto Protocol period (200812):[6]
Black = Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG
emissions below their individual base year levels (see denition
in this article)
Grey = Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Pale grey = Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or
Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions
to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not
ratied the Kyoto Protocol
For specic emission reduction commitments of Annex I Parties,
see the section of the article on 2012 emission targets and exible mechanisms.
The European Union as a whole has in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol committed itself to an 8% reduction. However, many
member states (such as Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have
not committed themselves to any reduction while France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0% reduction).[7]
Kyoto Parties with rst period (200812) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets, and the percentage change in their carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990 and
2009. For more detailed country/region information, see Kyoto
Protocol and government action.
extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State
Parties to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, based on
the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) manmade CO2 emissions have caused it. The Kyoto Protocol
was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and
entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 Parties (Canada withdrew eective December 2012)[4] to the Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to ght global
warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere to 'a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system' (Art.
2). The Protocol is based on the principle of common but
dierentiated responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current
levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw
from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.[8] Japan, New Zealand
and Russia have participated in Kyotos rst-round but
have not taken on new targets in the second commitment
period. Other developed countries without second-round
targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratied the Protocol). As of July 2015, 36 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states.
Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a
post-Kyoto legal framework that would obligate all major
polluters to pay for CO2 emissions. China, India, and the
United States have all signaled that they will not ratify
any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2
emissions.
2 OBJECTIVES
Background
1.1
Chronology
2 Objectives
1995 Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specic targets on emissions.
1997 In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad
outlines of emissions targets.
2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the
UNFCCC bringing the treaty into eect on 16 February
2005.
2011 Canada became the rst signatory to announce its Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse
gases.
withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.[14]
3
2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG.[24] Stabilizing the concentration of CO
2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the eective elimination of anthropogenic CO
2 emissions.[23]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The
main feature of the Protocol[25] is that it established
legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was
a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the
Protocol.[26][27]:290
For each of the dierent anthropogenic GHGs, dierent levels of emissions reductions would be required to
meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentra- Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have comtions).[23] Carbon dioxide (CO
mitted themselves to national or joint reduction targets
FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS
(formally called quantied emission limitation and reduction objectives (QELRO) Article 4.1).[30] Parties
to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the Convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income
developing countries,[31]:4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism
(explained below).[20]
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions from sources and removals from sinks under
UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a designated national authority)
to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specically the CDM process. This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for
accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
Flexibility mechanisms
4.1 International Emissions Trading
4.1
5
4.1.4 Oceania
Asia
Europe
quired under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no ocial about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder didenition of the term.[49]
vided up roughly equally between the Ukraine and the
Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting that EUs New Member States. Emission savings include cuts
the development of its economy will not exhaust its Ky- in methane, HFC, and N2 O emissions.
oto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units
(AAUs) to another Party. The proceeds from the AAU
sales should be greened, i.e. channeled to the develop- 5 Stabilization of GHG concentrament and implementation of the projects either acquiring
tions
the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening)
or building up the necessary framework for this process
As noted earlier on, the rst-round Kyoto emissions lim(soft greening).[44]:25
itation commitments are not sucient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emis4.1.7 Trade in AAUs
sions reductions after the end of the rst-round Kyoto
[20][22]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank commitment period in 2012.
(2011)[50]:53 reported that Latvia has stopped oering
AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia
5.1
was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the
Czech Republic and Poland.[50]:53
Background
Between 2001, which was the rst year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered,
and 2012, the end of the rst Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 e) in emission reductions.[53] Most of these reductions are through
renewable energy commercialisation, energy eciency,
and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012,
the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated
in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs
produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up
15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
4.1.9
Joint Implementation
6.1
Negotiations
given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions land use can have an eect on the climate,[66] and indeed
reductions later on.[58]
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes Special
The rst period Kyoto emissions limitations can be Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry estiof global warming has been
viewed as a rst-step towards achieving atmospheric sta- mates that since 1750 a third
[67]
caused
by
land
use
change.
Particular criteria apply to
[19]
bilization of GHGs. In this sense, the rst period Kythe
denition
of
forestry
under
the Kyoto Protocol.
oto commitments may aect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved.[59]
5.2
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming
should be limited below 2C relative to the pre-industrial
temperature level.[60] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO
2- eq.[61] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated
with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 C target.[62]
6.1 Negotiations
See also: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Commentaries
on negotiations
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized
countries to "[take] the lead in reducing emissions.[69]
The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize
their emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000.[69] The
failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments.[69]
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations an associate.[72] It has since become a member.[73]
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol
adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, in that developing countries were not subject to emission
which did not set any legally binding limitations on emis- reduction commitments in the rst Kyoto commitment
sions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the period.[70] However, the large potential for growth in deUNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The veloping country emissions made negotiations on this isKyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the sue tense.[74] In the nal agreement, the Clean DevelConference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 opment Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in
in Kyoto, Japan.
developing countries, but in such a way that developing
National emission targets specied in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto
Parties can use land use, land use change, and forestry
(LULUCF) in meeting their targets.[65] LULUCF activities are also called sink activities. Changes in sinks and
8
6.1.1
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77
and China were in favour of strong uniform emission
cuts across the developed world.[75] The U.S. originally
proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto
commitments to follow the negotiations of the rst.[76]
In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to
open no later than 2005.[76] Countries over-achieving in
their rst period commitments can bank their unused
allowances for use in the subsequent period.[76]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included {{CO2 }}, CH
4, and N
2O with other gases such as HFCs regulated
separately.[75] The EU also wanted to have a bubble
commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their
emissions, while others cut theirs.[75]
The most vulnerable nations the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) pushed for deep uniform cuts by
developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.[75] Countries that
had supported dierentiation of targets had dierent
ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many dierent indicators were proposed.[77] Two examples include
dierentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and dierentiation based on energy intensity
(energy use per unit of economic output).[77]
6.5 Enforcement
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I
country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation,
then that country is required to make up the dierence
during the second commitment period plus an additional
30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from
making transfers under an emissions trading program.[86]
7.2
Withdrawal of Canada
Ratication process
9
China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US economy.[95] The Tyndall Centre for
Climate Change Research reported in 2001 that, This
policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that
was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and
regret. [...] Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan,
South Africa, Pacic Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bushs decision. Bushs response that, I
was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got
a real problem when it comes to energy was, it said, an
overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this
policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which
has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen.[96]
The US accounted for 36% of emissions in
1990, and without U.S. ratication, only an
EU+Russia+Japan+small party coalition could place the
treaty into legal eect. A deal was reached in the Bonn
climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001.[97]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratied the agreement,
representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from
Annex I countries.[90] One of the 191 ratifying states
Canadahas denounced the protocol.
col. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observers Palestine and the Holy See. Although
the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol
for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratication for Aruba, Curaao, Sint Maarten or
the Caribbean Netherlands.[102] The United Kingdom did
10
not extend its ratication to Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Turks and Caicos Islands or
the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while
Denmark excluded application to the Faroe Islands[103]
8.1.1 Projections
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and
forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and
soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including
8.2
8.1.2
Non-Annex I
11
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the USA, have a target of reducing their GHG
emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 20082012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is
1990.[105]:24 According to Olivier et al. (2011),[105]:24
the Kyoto Parties will comfortably exceed their collective target, with a projected average reduction of 16% for
2008-2012. This projection excludes both LULUCF and 8.2
credits generated by the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM).[105]:24
As noted in the preceding section, between 19901999,
there was a large reduction in the emissions of the
EITs.[105]:25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the USA.[105]:25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 19902006,
followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease
from 2007 onwards.[105]:25 The emissions reductions in
the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since
joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its
collective Kyoto target.[105]:25
Non-Annex I
12
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information
reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[31] Most nonAnnex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with
very few classied as middle-income.[31]:4 Most Parties
included information on policies relating to sustainable
development. Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care.[31]:6
Many non-Annex I Parties are making eorts to amend
and update their environmental legislation to include
global concerns such as climate change.[31]:7
10
13
to developing countries to assist them in reducing their ing countries.[138]
emissions and adapting to climate change.[123]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on
the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[27] 11 Conference of the Parties
This has particularly centred on the balance between the
low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing
Further information: United Nations Climate Change
world to climate change, compared to high emissions in
conference
the developed world.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is the only game in town, and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction
commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 9).[125] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratication of
the Protocol represented a small but essential rst step
towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.[126] Some environmentalists and scientists
have criticized the existing commitments for being too
weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5).[127]
The ocial meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties. It is held every
year as part of the United Nations Climate Change conference, which also serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. The rst Meetings of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (MOP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with the
eleventh Conferences of parties to UNFCCC. Also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol
can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers.
The rst conference was held in 1995 in Berlin, while the
2013 conference was held in Warsaw. Future COPs will
The United States (under former President George W. be held in Lima, Peru in 2014 and in Paris, France in
Bush) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Min- 2015.
ister John Howard) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty.[128]
According to Stern (2006),[128] their decision was based
on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for
emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards sec- 12 Amendment and possible suction). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin
cessors
Rudd, has since ratied the treaty,[129][130] which took effect in March 2008.[131]
Main article: PostKyoto Protocol negotiations on
greenhouse gas emissions
10.1
14
14 NOTES
riod under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand conrmed that it would not.[146]
New Zealands climate minister Tim Groser said the 15year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New
Zealand was ahead of the curve in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations.[147] Nonprot environmental organisations such as the World
Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealands decision to pull
out.[148]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United
Nations Climate Change Conference, an agreement was
reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a
date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more
information).[149] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package.The Kyoto second commitment
period applies to about 15% of annual global emissions of
greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include
a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015
which includes all countries.[150] At the Doha meeting of
the parties to the UNFCCCC on 8 December 2012, the
European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur RungeMetzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27
European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending
an internal ratication procedure.
Ban Ki Moon, Secretary General of the United Nations,
called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN
General Assembly[151] on 23 September 2014 in New
York. UN member states have been negotiating a future
climate deal over the last ve years. A preliminary calendar was adopted to conrm national contributions to
the reduction of CO2 emissions by 2015 before the UN
climate summit which will be held in Paris 2015 United
Nations Climate Change Conference.
13
See also
14 Notes
[1] Status of ratication. UNFCC Homepage. Retrieved 5
June 2012.
[2] http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf
[3] http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/
items/2613.php
[4] 7 .a Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. UN Treaty Database.
Retrieved 27 November 2014.
[5] 7 .c Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol. UN
Treaty Database. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[6] Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Annex B. United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. n.d. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
[7] KOM(2007) nal edition page 2
[8] Figueres, C. (15 December 2012), Environmental issues:
Time to abandon blame-games and become proactive Economic Times, The Economic Times / Indiatimes.com
(Times Internet), retrieved 2012-12-18
[9] US National Research Council (2001). Summary.
Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: National Academy
Press. p. 3.
[10] US National Research Council (2008). Understanding
and Responding to Climate Change (PDF). Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, US National Academy
of Sciences. p. 2.
[11] IPCC (2007). 3. Projected climate change and its impacts. In Core Writing Team et al. (eds.). Summary
for Policymakers. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press.
[12] Temperatures are measured relative to the average global
temperature averaged over the years 1980-1999, with the
projected change averaged over 20902099.
15
[26] Depledge, J. (August 1999 August 2000), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Technical paper: Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article Textual History (PDF),
UNFCCC, p. 6
[18] Grubb, M. (2004). Kyoto and the Future of International Climate Change Responses: From Here to Where?"
(PDF). International Review for Environmental Strategies
5 (1): 2 (PDF version).
[19] Gupta, S. et al. (2007). 13.3.1 Evaluations of existing
climate change agreements. In (book chapter): Policies,
instruments, and co-operative arrangements.. In B. Metz
et al. Eds. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC
website. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
[20] Grubb & Depledge 2001, p. 269
[21] Article 2. The United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change. Retrieved 15 November 2005. Such
a level should be achieved within a time-frame sucient to
allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to
ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable
economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner
[22] 7.32 Question 7, Stabilizing atmospheric concentrations
would depend upon emissions reductions beyond those
16
14 NOTES
17
[66] Baede, A.P.M. (ed.), Annex II, Glossary: Land use and
Land-use change, in IPCC AR4 SYR 2007
[67] Robert T. Watson, Ian R. Noble, Bert Bolin, N. H. Ravindranath, David J. Verardo and David J. Dokken (editors),
2000, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry,
Cambridge University Press, UK
[88] European Union raties the Kyoto Protocol (Press release). European Union. 31 May 2002. Retrieved 13
February 2010.
[94] http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/George_W__Bush_
Energy_+_Oil.htm#56
18
14 NOTES
[103] Status of Ratication of the Kyoto Protocol. United [118] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2011), CO2 EmisNations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Resions from Fuel Combustion 2011 - Highlights (PDF),
trieved 15 August 2011.
Paris, France: IEA, p. 13
[104] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate [119] PBL (16 October 2009). Industrialised countries will
Change (UNFCCC) (2011), Compilation and synthesis of
collectively meet 2010 Kyoto target. Netherlands Envifth national communications. Executive summary. Note
ronmental Assessment Agency (PBL) website. Retrieved
by the secretariat. (PDF), Geneva (Switzerland): United
3 April 2010.
Nations Oce at Geneva
[120] Barker, T. et al. (2007). Mitigation costs across sectors
[105] Olivier, J. G. J. et al. (21 September 2011), Long-term
and macro-economic costs. In Metz, B.; Davidson, O.
trend in global CO
R.; Bosch, P. R.; Dave, R.; Meyer, L. A. Technical sum2 emissions; 2011 report (PDF), The Hague, Nethermary. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution
lands: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report
Agency; Institute for Environment and Sustainability
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Print
(IES) of the European Commissions Joint Research
version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Centre (JRC), ISBN 978-90-78645-68-9 PBL publicaKingdom and New York, NY, USA. This version: IPCC
tion number 500253004. JRC Technical Note number
website. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Retrieved 16 April
JRC65918.
2011.
[106] Emissions data given in this table may not fully reect [121] Gupta, S. et al., Chapter 13: Policies, instruments,
progress towards the rst-round Kyoto targets. This is beand co-operative arrangements, Executive Summary , in
cause of the implicit trading of targets under the EU ETS
IPCC AR4 WG3 2007
(see Kyoto Protocol#Intergovernmental Emissions Trading), possible eects of trade in AAUs (see Kyoto Proto- [122] International Energy Agency (IEA). CO2 Emissions from
Fuel Combustion - 2011 Highlights (PDF). Paris, France:
col#Trade in AAUs), and the use of dierent emissions
IEA. p. 12.
base years for some Parties (see Kyoto Protocol#2012
emission targets and exible mechanisms).
[123] 5. Integrating development into a global climate regime
(PDF), in World Bank 2010, p. 233
[107] UNFCCC 2011, p. 7
[108] Aggregate emissions of the Kyoto basket of GHGs [124] 5. Integrating development into a global climate regime
(PDF), in World Bank 2010, p. 248
(see Kyoto Protocol#2012 emission targets and exible
mechanisms), measured in carbon dioxide equivalent,
and including changes in emissions due to carbon sinks [125] Aldy, J. E. et al. (9 September 2003). Thirteen
Plus One: A Comparison of Global Climate Pol(land use, land use change, and forestry)
icy Architectures. Climate Policy 3 (3): 373397.
doi:10.1016/j.clipol.2003.09.004. Retrieved 2 April
[109] Aggregate emissions of the Kyoto basket of GHGs
2010.
(see Kyoto Protocol#2012 emission targets and exible
mechanisms), measured in carbon dioxide equivalent,
and excluding changes in emissions due to carbon sinks [126] The joint-statement was made by the Australian Academy
of Science, the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium
(land use, land use change, and forestry)
for Science and the Arts, the Brazilian Academy of
Sciences, the Royal Society of Canada, the Caribbean
[110] IEA 2011, p. 13
Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sci[111] {{CO2 }} emissions from fuel combustion only. Estimates
ences, the French Academy of Sciences, the German
applying the Kyoto targets to International Energy Agency
Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, the Indian Na(IEA) data suggest the overall Kyoto target is equivalent to
tional Science Academy, the Indonesian Academy of Sciabout 4.7% on an aggregate basis for {{CO2 }} emissions
ences, the Royal Irish Academy, Accademia Nazionale
from fuel combustion
dei Lincei (Italy), the Academy of Sciences Malaysia,
the Academy Council of the Royal Society of New
[112] StarTribune - Canada formally pulls out of Kyoto Protocol
Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and
on climate change Retrieved 4 May 2012.
the Royal Society (UK). Joint statement by 17 national
science academies (17 May 2001), The Science of Cli[113] In 2011, Canada withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol
mate Change (PDF), London, UK: Royal Society, ISBN
0854035583. Statement website at the UK Royal Soci[114] For the region encompassing the European Union, Croatia
ety. Also published as: The Science of Climate Change
and Iceland
(editorial)", Science 292 (5520), 18 May 2001: 1261,
doi:10.1126/science.292.5520.1261
[115] Monacos CO2 emissions from fuel combustion are included with Frances.
[127] Grubb, M. (April 2000). The Kyoto Protocol: An Economic Appraisal. FEEM Working Paper No. 30 2000.
[116] EEA 2012, p. 7
SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.229280. SSRN 229280.
[117] Vaughan, A (13 December 2011). What does Canadas
withdrawal from Kyoto protocol mean?". The Guardian. [128] 22. Creating a global price for carbon (PDF), in Stern
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2006, p. 478
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[129] Govt still not serious about climate change: Labor. ABC [144] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
News Online. 26 October 2006. Retrieved 30 October
(November 2012), The Emissions Gap Report 2012
2006.
(PDF), Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, pp. 1418 Executive
summary in other languages
[130] Rudd takes Australia inside Kyoto. BBC News. 3 De[145] Murray, James (16 May 2012). Bonn climate talks: EU
cember 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2007.
plays down talk of Kyoto protocol rift. The Guardian.
[131] Australias Rudd sworn in as PM. BBC News (BBC). 3
Retrieved 21 November 2012. A number of large emitDecember 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
ters, including the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada, have
signalled they will not sign up to Kyoto or to a sec[132] Toth et al. summarize the arguments for and against exiond commitment period of Kyoto, while large emerging
bility: Toth, F. L. et al., Ch 10: Decision-making Frameeconomies will only sign up to an agreement that does not
works, Sec 10.4.4. Where Should the Response Take
impose binding emission reduction targets on them.
Place? The Relationship between Domestic Mitigation and
the Use of International Mechanisms, in IPCC TAR WG3 [146] Harvey, Fiona (9 November 2012). Kyoto protocol:
Australia signs up to second phase. The Guardian. Re2001
trieved 21 November 2012.
[133] Banuri, T. et al., Ch 1: Setting the Stage: Climate Change
and Sustainable Development, Sec 1.3.3 How Has Global [147] Groser defends quitting Kyoto Protocol. 3 News NZ. 3
December 2012.
Climate Policy Treated Equity?, in IPCC TAR WG3 2001
[134] Part III: How good (or bad) are the Mechanisms?, in [148] NZs climate reputation 'nosedive'". 3 News NZ. 10 December 2012.
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16 FURTHER READING
Grubb, M. (JulySeptember 2003), The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol, World Economics 4
(3), CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.163.1719
UNEP (November 2012), The Emissions Gap Report 2012 (PDF), Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Executive summary in other languages
UNFCCC (6 June 1995), FCCC/CP/1995/7/Add.1:
Report of the Conference of the Parties on its rst session, held at Berlin from 28 March to 7 April 1995.
Addendum. Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its rst session (PDF), Geneva,
Switzerland: United Nations Oce. Available as a
PDF in the ocial UN languages.
UNFCCC (25 October 2005), Sixth compilation and
synthesis of initial national communications from
Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention.
Note by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document code FCCC/SBI/2005/18, Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Oce
UNFCCC (2011), Compilation and synthesis of fth
national communications. Executive summary. Note
by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat (PDF), Geneva,
Switzerland: United Nations Oce
UNFCCC (28 March 2012), Annex I national communications (NC5), UNFCCC
UNFCCC (2 October 2012), Reports on in-depth reviews of national communications of Annex I Parties,
UNFCCC
UNFCCC (22 January 2013), Non-Annex I national
communications, UNFCCC
World Bank (2010), World Development Report
2010: Development and Climate Change, Washington DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
16 Further reading
Ekardt, F./von Hvel, A.: Distributive Justice, Competitiveness, and Transnational Climate Protection.
In: Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 3., 2009,
p. 102114.
Katy Longden, Roshni Pabari, Munir Hassan, and
Dalia Majumder-Russel, "Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation (A Legal Guide). Advocates
for International Development (June 2012)
21
Romain Morel, and Igor Shishlov, "Ex-post evaluation of the Kyoto Protocol : Four key lessons for
the 2015 Paris Agreement. CDC Climat Research
(May 2014)
Economics
Weyant, J. P., ed. (May 1999). The Costs of the
Kyoto Protocol: A Multi-Model Evaluation. Energy Journal (Special issue). Retrieved 8 August
2009. From this issue:
Manne, A. S.; Richels, R. The Kyoto Protocol: A Cost-Eective Strategy for Meeting Environmental Objectives?" (PDF). Retrieved 8
August 2009.
Nordhaus, W. D.; Boyer, J. G. Requiem for
Kyoto: An Economic Analysis of the Kyoto
Protocol (PDF). Retrieved 8 August 2009.
17
External links
22
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Original
artist:
Kyoto_Protocol_Committed_to_reduction_2008-
File:Projected_global_carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fossil_and_other_industrial_sources_between_2000-2100_using_
MiniCAM_emissions_scenarios_from_Clarke_et_al_2007.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/
Projected_global_carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fossil_and_other_industrial_sources_between_2000-2100_using_MiniCAM_
emissions_scenarios_from_Clarke_et_al_2007.png License: Public domain Contributors: Clarke, L., et al., 2007: Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Atmospheric Concentrations, p.20. Sub-report 2.1A of Synthesis and Assessment Product 2.1 by the U.S.
Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Department of Energy, Oce of Biological &
Environmental Research, Washington, DC., USA. Original artist: Clarke, L., J. Edmonds, H. Jacoby, H. Pitcher, J. Reilly, R. Richels
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