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CASTING
Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into a cavity that has the desired shape. Upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mould, but experiences some shrinkage. The
moulds are typically made out of sand, steel (die casting), or ceramic (investment casting).
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Is the part a complex 3D geometry?
Casting is often used when the component is so complicated that other methods of manufacture
would be impractical. For parts of low complexity, there is often a more economical method.
Is there evidence of machining operations that are required to remove risers and
runners?
Removal of the risers (feeds molten metal to the solidifying metal) and runners (where the
molten metal is enters the cavity) is required, usually by machining. Unless other surface
finishing operations have been performed, then it should be simple to spot these areas.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Are dendrites present?
During solidification, the solid phase grows in a tree like manner, called dendrites. These can
usually be easily identified in the microstructure.
3D view (left) and polished section (right) of dendrites in a cast aluminiuim. Source: ASM Metals Handbook vol 9.
Porosity (black phase) in Al castings: (a) spherical gas pore, (b) shrinkage pores (the dendritic structure
of the aluminium (white phase) is also clearly visible) and (c) cluster of shrinkage pores. Source: ASM
Metals Handbook vol 9.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Is there a significant difference in the size of the grains in areas that have been
deformed?
Due to the recrystallization that occurs during the hot forming operation, it can be difficult to
find any evidence of parts that have hot formed. However, recrystallization tends to cause refine
(reduce) the grain size and therefore the areas that have undergone the plastic deformation can
have a smaller grain size than other areas.
Is there a significant difference in the shape of the grains in areas that have been
deformed?
For cold worked parts, the deformation of the grains is usually quite evident, especially in areas
that have undergone a large amount of plastic deformation. The flow of material causes the
grain structure to become aligned in the direction of the deformation.
Machining
Machining can include one of more of a variety of different operations including milling, turning,
drilling, etc.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
All machining operations tend to leave marks on the surface which is characteristic of the
processes.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Smearing of the surface grains can sometime occur during machining operations. Formation of
burrs is can also occur, especially when the tool becomes worn.
Powder Metallurgy
This process typically involves pressing of metal powder in a rigid steel die followed by a furnace
cycle in which the component is heated to a temperature below its melting point, known as
sintering. During the sintering cycle, diffusional processes results in the formation of metallurgical
bonds between the particles, which improve the mechanical properties. There may also be a small
amount of liquid (<20%) present during sintering, which accelerates the diffusion rate.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Is the part reasonably complex, but only in two dimensions?
Due to the need to compact the powder in a rigid die, P/M parts almost always have a uniform
cross-section in the direction of pressing. This produces a uniform pressed density and allows
simple ejection of the part from the die
Does the part have scratch like features on the plane parallel to the likely pressing
direction?
During ejection, it is common for the surfaces of the part that slide along the die surface to
become slightly marked.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Does the microstructure contain irregular pores?
During sintering full density is not usually attained. Consequently, there are almost alway pores
present (which appear black). These are typically irregular in shape and located at the
intersection of prior particles.