D ESIGN A UDITS OF M ACHINERY:

R OTOR D YNAMICS

C. Hunter Cloud

Turbomachinerys overall reliability depends heavily on its underlying rotordynamic characteristics. This tutorial briefly reviews some of the important rotordynamic principles and phenomena. Case history examples are presented illustrating the influence of operating conditions on
machinery vibration performance.

Presented at:
Twenty-First Ethylene Producers Conference
AIChE Spring National Meeting
April 2009
Tampa, Florida

Published in:
Proceedings of the Twenty-First
Ethylene Producers Conference
EPC143761, Vol. 1, 2009

BRG Machinery Consulting, LLC

703 Highland Avenue
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 USA
Phone\Fax: (434) 2939926
www.BRGmachinery.com

Design Audits of MachineryRotor Dynamics

Introduction

The costs associated with critical machinery downtime in ethylene and other petrochemical plants continue
to increase. While machinery OEMs may guarantee their hardware, they do not guarantee these downtime
losses in the event the machine does not work reliably over the expected life. Therefore, the end-user bears
substantially greater costs and is the one most concerned with minimizing risks. To mitigate the risks of
such machinery downtime, there are many types of machinery design audits that can be performed: aerodynamic and thermodynamic performance, blade and impeller stresses, auxiliary system sizing, coupling
sizing and rotordynamic performance [2].
The fundamental objective of all such audits is to identify problems before manufacturing to avoid
delays during shop testing and downtime in the field. If a rotordynamic problem is encountered after
manufacturing begins, the end-user may have to deal with delays in machine delivery. If the problem is
not identified until after field commissioning, the implications include reduced production due to restricted
operating range (speed, pressure, power, flow, etc.), poor long term reliability/performance reducing time
between outages, or even failure threatening life and environment.
Given these implications, it is important to perform rotordynamics audits for not only new machines
but also for any modification of existing machines in critical applications. Debottlenecking projects that
may involve gas composition or speed changes can adversely affect a machines rotordynamics just as much
as a bearing, seal or coupling design upgrade.
Fluid dynamics determine how a particular fluid will move through and over surfaces. A machines
rotordynamics determine how the rotating shaft will move or vibrate as it spins and works with the
process fluid. For petrochemical turbomachinery, the vibrations of primary concern are the shafts lateral
and torsional motions. As shown in Figure 1, lateral vibrations involve the radial or whirling movement of
the shaft. Large lateral vibrations can threaten stationary components with tight clearances such as the
bearings and seals. Torsional vibration results in twisting of the shaft, where repeated stresses can cause
fatigue failure of the shaft.
This paper will focus primarily on rotordynamics involving lateral vibrations. After discussing a few
of the key vibration principles and phenomena, the aspects of rotordynamics analysis will be reviewed
with specific considerations involving some ethylene plant machinery. A more comprehensive and detailed
tutorial on rotordynamics is provided by the American Petroleum Institute (API) [1].

LATERAL

TORSIONAL

Figure 1: Lateral versus torsional shaft vibrations

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Design Audits of MachineryRotor Dynamics

Vibration Principles and Phenomena

Throughout a machines operating range and life (between turnarounds), maintaining small rotor vibration
amplitudes is our basic desire. Small rotor vibrations result in low stresses on the shaft, bearings and
surrounding equipment. Furthermore, when lateral vibrations are kept at low levels, machine designers
are able to implement tighter seal clearances yielding better thermodynamic efficiency of the machine.
Though numerous vibration phenomena threaten these benefits, two deserve the most attention, resonance
and instability.

2.1

Resonance

Resonances are a concern because small excitations can be amplified to yield very large vibrations. Strictly
speaking, a resonance condition occurs when an excitations frequency nearly coincides with a system
natural frequency. An opera singer breaking a wine glass is a classic example of resonance, where the
singers pitch nearly equals the natural frequency of the glass. Even though the force of the sound waves
is very small, their frequency causes large vibrations in the glass that eventually cause it to crack.
Just like wine glasses, guitar strings and tuning forks, shafts and machine structures have frequencies
where they naturally prefer to oscillate when excited. These natural frequencies are dependent on various
properties of the system. For a simple weight hung from a spring, its natural frequency, n , equals:
r
k
n =
m

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE

where k is the springs stiffness and m is the weights mass. A turbomachine will have many natural
frequencies, not just one, that are also dependent on its stiffness and mass properties.
As mentioned earlier, the recipe for resonance demands not only a natural frequency, but also the
presence of an excitation source with a similar frequency. The biggest excitation source of concern within
turbomachinery is shaft unbalance. Just like an unbalanced washing machine load or an unbalanced tire,
shaft unbalance occurs when the center of mass is not coincident with the center of rotation. Caused by
material imperfections within the shaft, manufacturing tolerances and anything that affects the rotational
mass distribution (such as fouling), unbalance can never be totally eliminated.
The excitation force produced by unbalance has the same frequency as the rotor speed. Therefore,
any natural frequency from zero to trip speed can be excited by shaft unbalance. As shown in Figure 2,
whenever the rotor speed coincides with a natural frequency, the lateral vibration amplitudes can increase
dramatically. These resonance situations are called critical speeds.

Operating Speed
Range

1st Critical
Speed

2nd Critical
Speed

n1

ROTOR SPEED

n2

Figure 2: Bode plot of vibrations versus rotor speed

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Vibration Amplitude

Whether or not a critical speed will cause large vibrations is highly dependent on damping in the
system. Adding wine to the glass makes it more difficult, if not impossible, for the singer to crack the
glass. Relative to the glass material by itself, the wine has very large damping helping to decay any
vibrations quickly. The oil film within the journal bearings provides the main source of damping for many
turbomachines. However, for pumps, the main source of damping comes from the process fluid within the
close clearance wear rings.
Figure 3 shows how increasing the bearings damping can reduce vibrations when going through a
critical speed. However, bearings have a limit to how much damping they can provide and this may not be
enough to restrict critical speed vibration levels. When this is the case, the critical speed must be avoided
through startup procedures (quickly accelerating through it) as well as by ensuring adequate separation
margin with the operating speed range. As shown in Figure 2, the first critical speed often has less damping
than the second critical speed. Most large compressors and turbines are designed to operate between their
first and second critical speeds.

Increasing
Damping
Rotor Speed

Figure 3: Bearing dampings influence on critical speed amplification

2.2

Instability

Resonances and critical speeds are phenomena falling into the class of forced vibration problems. Without
the presence of an excitation source like unbalance, the vibration would not occur. Another class of
vibration problems exists, however, which are self-induced or self-excited in nature. Self-excited implies
that the forces causing the vibration are controlled by the vibration itself. Turbomachines can experience
these self-excited vibrations through a phenomenon called rotor instability [4].
A common example of self-excited instability is the unpleasant squeal sometimes heard to due feedback
within a microphone-amplifier-speaker system. The frequency of the squeal is actually the natural frequency
of the sound system, and it is so loud because the system has no damping allowing the squeal to grown
uncontrollably. Eliminating the squeal is accomplished by reducing the amount of feedback by either
turning down the volume, moving the speakers, or using a directional microphone.
Acting just like feedback mechanisms, various components within a turbomachine produce forces whose
magnitude and direction are functions of the rotors motion. Their strength is often dependent on rotor
speed and the process fluids pressure and density. Figure 4 shows how these destabilizing mechanisms
encourage vibration by acting tangential to the rotors whirling motion. Battling against these destabilizing
forces is damping. When the damping forces are larger than the destabilizing forces, the vibrations remain
stable.
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PATH OF ROTOR
VIBRATION

IN
ER
TI
A

F
IF
ST

NG
ZI
LI ISM
I
AB AN
ST C H
E
D ME

N
ES
S
NG

L
A
G
U
IF E
T R RC
EN F O

PI

M
DA

Figure 4: Forces battling over rotor stability

Figure 5 shows how rotor vibrations can grow when destabilizing forces win the battle. For this experiment on an actual rotor, the destabilizing mechanism could be manually turned on or off. When turned
on, the rotor vibrations grew uncontrollably to very large levels until 3.2 seconds when the mechanism was
turned off and stable vibration returned. Unfortunately, its difficult to simply turn off these destabilizing
mechanisms on industrial turbomachines.
3

Unstable Growth
of Shaft Vibration

Shaft Displacement (mils)

-1

-2

Destabilizing Mechanism
Turned Off
-3

Time (sec)

Figure 5: Vibrations of an unstable rotor

Unstable vibrations are able to reach such large levels because of the immense energy available within
the spinning rotor. Like a flywheel which stores energy, the spinning motion of a turbomachines rotor
creates a large kinetic energy reservoir. The whirling vibration of the shaft is a separate reservoir that is
hopefully small. Destabilizing mechanisms provide a pipeline between these two energy sources, stealing
rotational energy and pumping it into whirling vibration energy [3]. When the energy injected into the
whirling vibration exceeds the energy dissipated by damping, the rotor vibrations become unstable and
large because their source, rotational energy, is so large.

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Another reason rotor instability can lead to large vibrations is because the rotors natural frequency
is excited. Figure 6 shows the typical situation when a compressor experienced instability. Each line
represents the frequency spectrum at a particular rotor speed. At 6,500 rpm, the only vibration present
was due to unbalance with a frequency component at 108 Hz (equal to 6500 cpm). As speed increased,
however, destabilizing forces began winning the battle over damping causing the rotor to also vibrate at its
natural frequency near 70 Hz. When the rotor speed reached 9,500 rpm, the rotor instability generated very
large vibrations at the natural frequency. Unable to reach its maximum continuous speed of 10,000 rpm,
operation of the compressor was limited to 9,000 rpm to avoid the damaging nature of this instability.

VIBRATION DUE TO INSTABILITY

FREQUENCY n
VIBRATION DUE TO UNBALANCE
FREQUENCY = ROTOR SPEED

Figure 6: Vibrations due to rotor instability versus unbalance

Restriction of the operating speed range is just one of the costly implications possible with resonance
and instability vibration problems. Other restrictions may be imposed such as limiting the machines inlet
flow or the discharge pressure. The vibrations, in some cases, may be such that the machine is essentially
inoperable. In other extreme cases, the machine can be completely destroyed before there is even time
to shut it down. Developing an accurate model of the rotors dynamics allows the design to be audited,
helping to avoid these collateral problems.

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Rotordynamic Modeling and Auditing Aspects

Predicting or simulating the vibrations of a turbomachine involves transforming the physical system into
a mathematical representation. This is accomplished by modeling all the various components within the
machine (rotor, bearings, seals, coupling, etc.) as a combination of masses, springs or dampers. Various
engineering disciplines are necessary to develop these component models. Solid mechanics principles are
applied to transform the shaft into a series of masses interconnected by springs. Modeling the stiffness
and damping properties of the fluids within the bearings and seals relies heavily on fluid dynamic and
heat transfer principles [6]. Once all the components are modeled, their masses, springs and dampers are
assembled together into a rotordynamic system like that shown in Figure 7.
To develop this rotordynamic model requires extensive design information from the machinery manufacturer. Maintaining the highly proprietary and confidential nature of this information is essential for
the end-user or independent party conducting the audit. For the rotor, this information includes detailed
dimensions across the entire length as well as the weights and locations of all mounted components such
as impellers and couplings. Journal bearing design information needs include dimensions, clearances, as
well as material and lubricant properties. API provides a detailed listing of the necessary information.
ROTOR ASSEMBLY
A SYSTEM OF SPRINGS AND MASSES

m1
k1

kb1

mn

m2
k2

kn

cb1

kb2

cb2

JOURNAL BEARINGS
SPRINGS AND DAMPERS

Figure 7: Dynamic model of rotor system

Once the rotordynamic model is completed, it is used in various analyses to predict how the machine
will vibrate during operation. The main lateral rotordynamic analyses required by API are unbalance
response and stability. These two analyses address the two largest vibration threats that were highlighted
earlier, resonance and instability.

3.1

Unbalance Response Analysis

Unbalance response analysis involves applying known unbalance(s) to the rotordynamic model and simulating startup/shutdown of the machine. This analysis predicts whether or not the following design objectives
will be achieved:
Avoid resonance situations with respect to the operating speed range (maintain an adequate separation margin away from lightly damped critical speeds),
Maintain low vibrations (much smaller than the smallest clearance) in the operating range that are
robust to balance degradation over time (such as due to fouling, up to a certain practical limit),

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Ensure vibrations do not cause damage during startup and trip (no reduction in efficiency/performance
due to rubbing/wear of seals).
Figure 8 presents the results of an unbalance response analysis of a 40,000 hp (30 MW) propylene
refrigeration compressor. The first critical speed occurs at 1,545 rpm with a large vibration peak. Within
the operating speed range, the vibration is much lower than the API limit of 0.001 inch (25.4 m) p-p
which is very desirable for long term operation. No resonance problems are present, since both the first and
second critical speeds are well separated from the operating speed range. API requires a certain amount
of separation margin depending on the critical speeds level of amplification (the peaks sharpness).
Response Location
St 43 rotor 1 Cplg End Probe
Probe Angle= 45.00 degrees

Unbalance information
St 24:2nd Stage Impeller
39.780 oz.in at 0.00

1.2

Operating Speed
Range
Displacement Magnitude (Mils p-p)

First Critical Speed

1,545 rpm

Second Critical Speed

5,045 rpm

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Speed (rpm)

Figure 8: Propylene refrigeration compressor unbalance response

Manufacturing tolerances exist within the journal bearings, and oil supply conditions may change.
These potential variations must be also examined to ensure the vibration design objectives are maintained.
Even though the propylene refrigeration compressors vibrations are low in the operating speed range
of Figure 8, they become much larger when going through the first critical speed. During startup, these
vibrations at the first critical speed will be avoided by quickly accelerating through this speed. However,
during a coastdown, the deceleration rate may be very slow allowing these vibration levels to threaten the
tight clearances within the machine.
A rub check analysis is conducted to assess whether or not rubbing will occur. Figure 9 presents the
deflected shape of the rotor at the first critical speed. It is important to notice that vibrations at the five
impellers within the machine are much larger than those near the bearings, where vibration measurements
are typically acquired. These vibrations at the impellers must be compared against the impellers seal
clearances to make sure that rotor-seal contact will not occur, damaging the seals and reducing compressor
performance. Many compressors are designed with abradable seals that allow for some limited contact/wear
without loss of performance.

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Major Axis
Y-Z Ampl

Rotor Speed = 1,545 rpm

Bearing

Bearing

25
20

Displacement (mils 0-p)

15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Length (in)

Figure 9: Vibration levels along propylene refrigeration compressors rotor at first critical speed

3.2

Stability Analysis

To avoid the rotor instability phenomenon discussed earlier, stability analysis becomes another vital part
of the rotordynamic audit process. Unlike the unbalance response analysis which is conducted across the
entire speed range, stability analysis is typically only conducted at maximum continuous speed. Two levels
of stability analysis are conducted, where the first consists of a screening analysis to assess:
Stability level with an empirical estimate of the destabilizing forces present,
Stability robustness, and
Stability relative to industrial experience (centrifugal compressors only).
If the screening analysis reveals a marginal machine, a second analysis level is required involving stateof-the-art, detailed modeling of seals and other potentially destabilizing components. API provides specific
screening and acceptance criteria for both of these levels of analysis [1].
The stability sensitivity curve is one of the main products of the stability screening analysis. Figure 10
presents this curve for the propylene refrigeration compressor discussed earlier. As the level of destabilizing
force is increased, stability decreases until it reaches the threshold and unstable vibrations would occur.
Because of the uncertainty in the actual bearing condition, this sensitivity analysis is conducted for the
extremes of the bearing tolerances. Figure 10 shows that, at minimum clearance bearing conditions, the
compressor is less robust to destabilizing forces than under maximum clearance conditions.
The estimated level of destabilizing force in Figure 10 is determined based on the speed as well as suction
and discharge gas densities at rated compressor operating conditions. Because operating conditions can
change, it is important that the machine be robust enough to resist the resulting variations in destabilizing
forces. Figure 10 indicates this propylene refrigeration compressor will not be able to handle a large increase
in destabilizing forces if the bearings are at their minimum clearance.

3.3

Specific Concerns with Ethylene Plant Machinery

During the audit of critical ethylene plant machinery, there are several rotordynamic concerns that typically arise. The rotors within modern cracked gas and refrigeration trains tend to be very large and heavy.
This causes their first critical speeds to be very amplified with large vibrations, threatening bearing and
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Design Audits of MachineryRotor Dynamics

0.15

3,800 rpm (MCS)

Estimated Level of
Destabilizing Force
at Rated Conditions

API Minimum

Stability Level ()

0.1

Bearings at
Min Clearance

Bearings at
Max Clearance

0.05

UNSTABLE
-0.05

40000

80000

120000

Destabilizing Force

Figure 10: Stability sensitivity curve for the propylene refrigeration compressor
seal clearances during startup and shutdown. These heavy rotors also often lead to the machines supporting pedestals becoming important dynamically. Therefore, rotordynamic analyses need to consider these
pedestal dynamics in addition to those of the shaft and bearings [10].
Today, many cryogenic turboexpanders are being designed with active magnetic bearings in place of
fluid film bearings. Active magnetic bearings have many attractive mechanical and operational features,
but also add significant complexity to the rotordynamic auditing process. The rotor, magnetic bearings,
as well as their electronic controls must all be modeled and combined into a single system for the dynamic
analyses [9].

3.4

Shop Testing versus Analytical Auditing

Some may argue that rotordynamic auditing is not necessary since their machine will be tested in the
manufacturers shop before shipment. Shop testing is certainly an important measure for avoiding field
vibration problems. Such testing usually consists of the following:
A mechanical run test where the machine achieves full speed, but under essentially no load conditions,
A performance test using an inert gas mixture at reduced speeds and pressures.
Mechanical run tests are useful for identifying critical speed or resonance problems. Unfortunately,
neither type of test does a good job of uncovering stability problems because the level of destabilizing
forces is not present. An alternative performance test at full speed, power and gas density can be conducted
exposing the machine to realistic levels destabilizing forces. However, the high costs associated with this
alternative type of performance testing often preclude it from many projects.
Regardless of the shop testing conducted, field conditions can never be totally replicated in the manufacturers shop. This reality, combined with the fact that any problem identified during shop testing
will likely cause a delay in the machines delivery, makes auditing during the design process a worthwhile
initiative. Furthermore, rotordynamic auditing provides the flexibility to examine the machines robustness
to various situations that are likely in field operation, but may not be practical for shop testing. These
include variations in gas molecular weight, process fluid density, bearing oil supply temperature, as well as
additional unbalance due to fouling.

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Case Histories

To demonstrate some of these rotordynamic principles, several case histories will now examined. Two
of these cases illustrate how rotordynamic auditing during the design phase could have easily avoided
subsequent vibration problems.

4.1

Cryogenic Turboexpander

In 1939, Kapitza [7, 8] introduced a radial inflow, expansion turbine for cryogenic air separation, a design
that would become the father of modern turboexpanders used in ethylene plants. Figure 11 presents a cross
section of the Nobel laureates turboexpander. During the development of this turboexpander, Kapitza
encountered what is likely the first documented case of a turbomachines process fluid (in this case, air)
acting like a destabilizing mechanism and causing rotor instability.

Figure 11: Kapitzas cryogenic expansion turbine [7]

To achieve the high thermal efficiency desired, the turboexpanders seal clearances had to be very
small (approximately 0.006 inch (0.15 mm)) between the stator and rotor spinning at 40,000-50,000 rpm.
Therefore, the rotors vibrations had to be kept sufficiently small in order to avoid mechanical contact with
these tight seal clearances.
With room temperature air supplied to the turboexpander, no vibration problems were encountered.
However, at the low air temperatures required for air liquefaction, the turboexpander could not operate
at full speed because of large rotor vibrations damaging the seals. Figure 12 illustrates the type of shaft
vibrations observed by Kapitza. The shafts orbital motion grew with each cycle eventually making contact
with the stationary seals. The small, higher frequency oscillations present in Figure 12 are due to unbalance.
Kapitza correctly identified the cause of this instability to be the increased air density, which was three
to five times higher than that at room temperature. Recognizing the need for damping to win the battle
against airs destabilizing force (see Figure 4), Kapitza implemented a squeeze film damper that eliminated
the instability. The turboexpander was then able to achieve normal operating speed and efficiency because
its seals were not being damaged. Such squeeze film dampers are commonly employed in modern jet
aircraft engines.
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Shaft Rotational
Direction

Figure 12: Unstable orbital shaft motion observed by Kapitza

Kapitzas turboexpander provides a good example of the implications when a rotordynamic vibration
problem is encountered. Until a time-intensive design solution could be implemented, the machines operation was limited and his development project delayed. The stakes are raised, however, when a vibration
problem occurs on a machine critical to a modern petrochemical plant. Such was the case on a rerated
cracked gas compressor.

4.2

Cracked Gas Compressor

During commissioning of the rerated 11-stage cracked gas compressor, a surge event occurred causing large
shaft vibrations that wrecked the machine before it could be shutdown. Figure 13 presents the orbital
motion at one of the compressors bearings an instant before failure. The amplitude of vibration was over
twelve times the normal level.

Figure 13: Large shaft vibrations on cracked gas compressor

Using spare parts, the compressor was rebuilt and improvements were made to the surge control system.
However, upon restart, the compressor surged wrecking the entire compressor once again. While not
desirable in centrifugal compressors, surge does not typically lead to large radial or lateral vibrations of
the shaft like those experienced here. Surge, in this case, acted as a catalyst or trigger for the underlying
cause of the high vibrations, rotor instability.
Post-mortem rotordynamic analyses by the manufacturer and end-user confirmed that the machine
was prone to instability problems. Like Kapitza, more damping in the bearing system was required and
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0.7

Estimated Level of
Destabilizing Force

0.6

Stability Level ()

0.5

Modified Machine

0.4
0.3

Original Machine
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1

UNSTABLE
REGION

-0.2
-0.3

10000

20000

30000

40000

Destabilizing Force

Figure 14: Stability sensitivity curves for original and modified cracked gas compressor at
minimum (solid line) and maximum (dashed) bearing clearance conditions
a squeeze film damper design was implemented. Figure 14 presents the resulting improvement in the
machines stability characteristics.
Until the machines design could be modified, the entire ethylene plants startup was delayed by one
month due to this vibration problem. The root cause of this problem was eventually attributed to a simple
human error in the manufacturers original stability analysis. Furthermore, no design audit had been
performed by the end-user. If such an audit had been performed, it would have likely avoided the millions
of dollars in production losses. A simple benefit-cost ratio calculation for this audit would be on the order
1000 to 1. In other words, every dollar invested in the rotordynamic audit would have avoided $1000 in
production losses.

4.3

Ethylene Product Pump Motor

During shop no-load testing, high vibrations were measured on a vertical 1,200 hp (895 kW) induction
motor spinning at 3,600 rpm. This new motor was being purchased to replace the pumps existing motor
with a higher power model. No rotordynamic design audit had been conducted by the end-user.
Figure 15 presents the motors vibrations measured during coastdown. At running speed, vibration
levels are shown to exceed 0.2 in/sec (5 mm/sec) 0-peak, well above the specified limit. The manufacturer
attributed the peak at approximately 1,200 rpm to be the motors first critical speed, but could not explain
the large increase in vibration as speed was increased.
The manufacturer had conducted no rotordynamic analysis on this motor design. Therefore, models
of the motors stator casing and rotor were developed and coupled into a single dynamic system. Figure
16 presents a schematic of this model. Unbalance response analysis identified the vibration problem to be
caused by a critical speed separation margin problem. The motors running speed and a critical speed at
3,700 rpm were in a state of resonance.
The analysis also identified the 1,200 rpm peak to be associated with a natural frequency where the
entire motor housing is pivoting about its bottom mounting flange. Commonly referred to as a reed
critical frequency [5], this natural frequency is not associated with the rotors critical speed as thought
by the motor manufacturer.

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Figure 15: Motor vibration level versus speed

Rotor Assembly Model

(Lamination Stack not Shown)

Radial Bearing
Locations

Motor Housing Model

(Stator Lamination
Stack not Shown)

Mounting Flange to
Pump Casing

Figure 16: Schematic of motors casing and rotor models

Major shaft modifications were required to correct the resonance problem with the rotors critical speed.
These modifications delayed motor shipment by three months.

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Summary and Recommendations

A turbomachines underlying rotordynamic characteristics determine how its shaft will vibrate. Two vibration phenomena, resonance and instability, are the greatest threats to the turbomachine being delivered
on time, achieving the processs performance requirements, and running reliably between planned outages.
Independent rotordynamic audits during the design phase can help identify these problematic vibration
phenomena before they cause shipment delays or downtime in the field.
One of many types of design audits that can be performed, rotordynamic auditing should especially
be considered for critical, non-spared machinery as well as for new machine designs without significant
experience. Auditing is also highly recommended for machine rerates and any modifications to the rotor
assembly, bearings, seals and coupling(s).
Even as modeling and design tools improve, the threat of poor rotordynamic performance will always
be a concern. Several realities drive this continued threat. First, continuing improvements and increasing
demands of industrial processes require machinery to operate at higher speeds, pressures and power levels.
Second, competitive pressures force OEMs to push existing designs beyond their proven envelopes.

References
[1] API, API Standard Paragraphs Rotordynamic Tutorial: Lateral Critical Speeds, Unbalance Response,
Stability, Train Torsionals, and Rotor Balancing, 2nd ed. American Petroleum Institute, August
2005, no. RP 684.
[2] H. P. Bloch and F. K. Geitner, An Introduction to Machinery Reliability Assessment, 2nd ed. Houston,
Texas: Gulf Publishing Co., 1994.
[3] S. H. Crandall, The physical nature of rotor instability mechanisms, in Rotor Dynamical Instability,
vol. 55. ASME, Applied Mechanics Division, 1983, pp. 118.
[4] F. F. Ehrich and D. W. Childs, Self-excited vibration in high-performance turbomachinery, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 106, no. 5, pp. 6679, May 1984.
[5] W. R. Finley, M. M. Hodowanec, and W. G. Holter, An analytical approach to solving motor vibration
problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 14671480, 2000.
[6] M. He, C. H. Cloud, and J. M. Byrne, Fundamentals of fluid film journal bearing operation and modeling, in Proceedings of the Thirty-Fourth Turbomachinery Symposium. Texas A&M University,
2005, pp. 155175.
[7] P. L. Kapitza, Expansion turbine producing low temperatures applied to air liquefaction, Journal
of Physics USSR, vol. 1, p. 7, 1939.
[8] , Influence of friction forces on the stability of high-speed rotors, Journal of Physics USSR,
vol. 1, p. 29, 1939.
[9] E. E. Swanson, E. H. Maslen, G. Li, and C. H. Cloud, Rotordynamic design audits of AMB supported machinery, in Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Turbomachinery Symposium. Texas A&M
University, 2008, pp. 133158.
[10] J. A. Vazquez, L. E. Barrett, and R. D. Flack, A flexible rotor on flexible bearing supports: Stability
and unbalance response, ASME Journal of Vibrations and Acoustics, vol. 123, no. 2, pp. 137144,
2001.

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