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AS
Unit 1
Quantum Phenomena
Student Copy
Name: __________________________
Richard Howland
Page 1 of 60
22 May 2013
Contents
Lesson
Page Number
Contents
Lesson 1
3 11
Lesson 2
12 - 15
Stopping Potential
Lesson 3
16 - 25
Energy Levels
Lesson 4
26 - 30
Lesson 5
31 - 38
Wave-Particle Duality
Lesson 6
39 - 42
Fluorescent Tubes
Lesson 7
43 - 48
p. 49
p. 50
Appendix 3: Prefixes
p. 51
pp. 52 54
pp. 55 59
p. 60
Richard Howland
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A year later (1888), the physicist Wilhelm Hallwachs (assistant to Hertz) did
additional research and stated that:
Negatively Charged Zinc Plates lose their charge when illuminated by Ultra
Violet light but there is no effect if the plates are Positively Charged.
He concluded that UltraViolet light causes the plates to emit negative
charges.
In 1899, physicist Philipp Lenard showed that negative charges in the Photo
Electric Effect are electrons.
UltraViolet light
Richard Howland
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+ KEmax
Where:
E = The Energy absorbed from the EM Radiation.
= Work Function (this is the Minimum Energy needed to escape from the Zinc).
KEmax = the extra energy the electrons need to actually move away from the metal
(There is a range of Kinetic Energy since the electrons can lose energy in
collisions while trying to leave the metal. The Maximum KE is where the
electron doesnt lose any energy in trying to leave.)
The Work Function is always the same for Zinc since it is a property of Zinc and not
the electrons or EM Radiation. So Lenard measured the Maximum KE of the emitted
electrons (since this was the dependent variable).
If the laws of Classical Physics are correct, then the following results would be
expected:
The more time that elapses, the more EM Radiation is absorbed.
Eventually electrons should be released.
The Maximum KE of the electrons should not depend on the frequency of the
EM Radiation (in Classical Physics, frequency is not a factor of the EM
Radiations energy).
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The electrons were only emitted when UV Radiation was shone on the Zinc
Plate and they were emitted instantly.
The electrons were not emitted for any Intensity of Visible Light regardless to
how long it was shining.
The Photoelectric effect defied the laws of physics for the following reasons:
The intensity of UV light only affected the number of emitted electrons and
not their Kinetic Energy.
KEY POINTS
Lenard showed with real data that the known laws of physics did not work.
The Photoelectric effect defied the laws of Classical Physics since it suggested
that the colour of light determined its energy in Classical Physics all EM Radiation
had the same energy.
This experiment is showing that the FREQUENCY of EM Radiation determines its
energy.
It also tells us that there is no continuous absorption of energy otherwise the
electrons would eventually gain enough energy to leave the Zinc.
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In the Classical World of Physics, you would eat the chocolate piece by piece
(or if you were really hungry/greedy all at once). Your body would then break
the chocolate down into individual atoms and molecules and process them.
In the Quantum World of Physics, you would eat the chocolate and instantly
have all the atoms and molecules exactly where they should be. No time would
be required for this to happen. It would be instant or you would never be able
to eat the chocolate.
+ KEmax
Becomes:
hf =
+ KEmax
Where:
E = hf = the Energy of the EM Radiation
= Work Function = the Minimum Energy required to emit the electron from the
metal
KEmax = the Maximum excess energy of the electron when it leaves the metal
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hf =
+ KEmax
Rearrange the
equation
KEmax = hf
Gradient = y / x = h
f / Hz
f0
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(which is the
22 May 2013
Point 6: Questions
Question 1
Define the following:
a) Quanta:
b) Photon:
c) Work Function:
d) KEmax:
Question 2
The frequency of the incident radiation = 1.8x1015 Hz, Maximum KE of electrons = 3.3
eV. Calculate the Work Function of the Metal (in Joules and eV).
[6.6x10-19 J,4.1 eV]
Question 3
The frequency of the incident radiation = 6.2x1014 Hz, Work Function of the Metal =
2.4 eV. Calculate the Maximum KE of the emitted electrons (in Joules and eV).
[3.0x10-20 J,0.2 eV]
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Question 4
The Work Function of the Metal = 4.8 eV. Calculate the minimum frequency of the
incident EM Waves to release the electrons.
[1.2x1015 Hz]
Question 5
Each photon has the same energy (frequency is constant). So why is there a range of
Kinetic Energy (up to a maximum)? [Hint: Where is the energy going?]
Question 6
The wavelength of the incident radiation = 700 nm, the Work Function of the Metal =
7.1x10-19 J. By performing a calculation, explain why electrons would not be emitted
from the material.
[2.84x10-19 J]
If the classical wave theory was correct, then after a period of time, the electrons
would have continuously absorbed enough energy to be released. If the light was
shone onto each atom of the metal at a rate of 2 photons per second, how long would
it take (through continuous absorption) for the electrons to get enough energy to
leave the metal?
[1.25 s]
Richard Howland
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Question 7
Explain why the Classical Laws of Physics do not explain the Photo-Electric Effect
but the Quantum Laws of Physics (E = hf) do explain the Photo-Electric Effect.
(Your answer should also include the key observations of the experiment).
Richard Howland
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Classical Physics:
Controls: Temperature and Time.
Set the temperature and then wait an appropriate amount of time for the
chicken to cook.
The higher the temperature you set, the more waves are sent into the oven and
the chicken will cook faster.
The longer you leave the chicken in the oven, the more waves of energy that
are absorbed and the more the chicken is cooked.
But the Chicken isnt cooking.
No matter how long the chicken is left in the oven, nothing happens.
No matter how hot the oven is, nothing happens. Ever!
Below a certain FREQUENCY, the chicken never cooks no matter how long it is
in the oven.
Once a certain (THRESHOLD) FREQUENCY is reached, the chicken cooks
INSTANTLY!
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- -
cathode
anode
Electrons can
only flow this
way
DIODE
Power
Supply
As the electrons leave the Cathode, they hit the anode and create a Current. The
Potential Difference generated between the Cathode and Anode can be measured.
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The technique used is to apply a REVERSE Potential Difference. If the same size
reverse Potential Difference is applied, no electrons will move, so the Current will be
zero. We can record the value of this reverse voltage (Stopping Potential) and from
this find the Work Function, Fundamental Frequency and a value for Plancks
constant. We want the REVERSE Potential Difference to JUST STOP the electrons.
E = eV
The Stopping Potential is the Voltage needed to JUST STOP the electrons from
moving. When this is multiplied by e (charge on an electron) we have the Kinetic
Energy of the electrons (in Joules).
So:
eV = KEmax
So all we do is multiply the Voltage reading on the Power Supply by the charge on 1
electron.
For example, if the Voltage (Stopping Potential) is 1.2 V,
Richard Howland
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Point 4: Questions
1) Which part of the EM Spectrum causes the Photo-electric Effect?
7) If the Reverse Potential Difference is larger than the energy supplied by the
UV photons, will the electrons travel in the opposite direction in the circuit?
Explain your answer.
Richard Howland
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Point 5: Graph
frequency / 1015 Hz
Stopping Potential / V
1.05
0.03
1.10
0.24
1.15
0.44
1.20
0.65
1.25
0.86
1.30
1.06
1.35
1.27
1.40
1.48
5) How can you use this value for the Gradient to obtain a value for Plancks
Constant? Clearly show your working.
6) How does your value for Plancks constant compare to the published value?
8) Use your graph and calculated values to obtain a value for the Work Function
of the metal (in J and eV). Clearly show your working.
Richard Howland
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The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to ancient India in the
6th century BCE. The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of
how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).
The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose
student, Democritus, systemized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus
coined the term tomos, which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle
of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek
concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained
the name coined by Democritus.
Summary
Everything is made up of an indivisible particle: the atoma
Point 2: Alchemy
The following is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals
into gold (called chrysopoeia). Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation
of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body (Saturn or
lead) into Solar energy (gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. This is described
as Internal Alchemy. Starting with the Middle Ages, Arabic and European alchemists
invested much effort in the search for the "philosopher's stone", a legendary
substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those
goals. Alchemists were alternately persecuted or supported through the centuries.
Summary
The key for alchemists was that they believed that you could chemically change one
element into another because they believed that everything was made of the SAME
ELEMENT. Even Sir Isaac Newton tried this (for a while) and failed. No-one was able
to change one element into another through chemical change.
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In 1803, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of
atoms to explain why elements always react in a ratio of small whole numbers: the
law of multiple proportions, and why certain gases dissolve better in water than
others. He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and
that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds.
Summary
There are different types of atoms. Gold is made from Gold Atoms and Silver is made
from Silver atoms. This explained why the Alchemists had failed to turn one element
into another.
Gold
Silver
The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered
the electron and its subatomic nature, which destroyed the concept of atoms as being
indivisible units. Thomson believed that the electrons were distributed throughout
the atom, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive
charge (the plum pudding model).
Summary: The Plum Pudding Model
The atom has a large positive charge and electrons are stuck on top of this object.
Large centre of
positive charge
Richard Howland
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In 1909, Ernest Rutherford published results on work that his team of researchers
had been doing at the Physics Laboratories at Manchester University. The team fired
alpha particles at a piece of Gold Leaf and then measured how many alpha particles
were detected at different places around the Gold Leaf.
The results showed something that was completely unexpected:
Result: The Majority of the Alpha Particles went straight through.
Explanation: Most of the Gold Leaf is empty space: so the Atoms must be far apart.
Result: A few of the Alpha Particles were deflected.
Explanation: Centre of the Atoms was the same charge as Alpha Particles (Positive).
Result: 1 or 2 Alpha Particles came straight back.
Explanation: High concentration of material in the Nucleus.
Tiny negative charge at a
distance of 10-10 m away
from the nucleus
Tiny positive charge
(about 10-15 m in diameter)
This meant that the Plum Pudding Model of the atom had to be wrong. The alpha
particles couldnt travel through the atoms if atoms were solid!
Richard Howland
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Large centre of
positive charge
The charges are touching each other, so none of the 2 laws of electromagnetism are
broken.
With Rutherfords Model
The 2 opposite charges are separated. Both these charges are attracted to each
other, so they should move towards each other. But that would mean that they cant
stay apart which is what every experiment was showing.
Richard Howland
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Richard Howland
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1.5 eV
3.4 eV
13.6 eV
Ground State (n = 1)
Electron is in the lowest Energy Level
1.5 eV
3.4 eV
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Ground State
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1.5 eV
3.4 eV
13.6 eV
Ground State
Absorption of Energy
Emission of Energy
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Richard Howland
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5) How many Energy Levels are there between the Ground State and Ionisation?
What can you say about the Energy Gap between these levels as you approach
Ionisation?
6) When the electrons are given or lose energy (in the form of an absorbed or
emitted photon), how does the electron actually get from one Shell to another
if it is not allowed to exist between Shells?
7) Explain how a light bulb shines when electricity is passed through it. Also
explain why the light bulb appears white.
Richard Howland
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Richard Howland
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Point 3: Questions
1) What is meant by the term Spectrum?
6) What are the (theoretical) objects called that emit a Continuous Spectrum of
Photons?
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The following is a series of photographs taken from a variety of elements that are
emitting photons.
Website link: Strasbourg Astronomical Observatory
http://astro.u-strasbg.fr/~koppen/discharge/index.html
Hydrogen
Carbon
Oxygen
Sodium
Iron
Silicon
You can clearly see that each element has its own unique bands of emission lines.
Sodium has a very distinctive YELLOW line which can be clearly seen with older
street lamps.
Hydrogen has distinctive Purple, Cyan and Red lines which can be clearly seen in
Nebula in space.
When you see a fireworks display, all the different colours correspond to
different metallic elements which have their electrons excited. When the
electrons jump down Energy Levels, photons with the above colours are emitted
in random directions.
Richard Howland
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Important note
These lines are darker and not black! There are photons there, but far less than
non-absorbed photons from the rest of the continuous spectrum.
This diagram is taken from: Oglethorpe University
http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~m_rulison/Astronomy/Chap%2004/Light%20an
d%20Matter%20II.htm
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Point 6: Questions
1) Explain how an Absorption Spectrum is produced.
2) Explain why:
a. A star produces a Continuous Spectrum
Richard Howland
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Particle Behaviour
Non-Localised
(not fixed in a particular place)
Localised
(In a fixed position)
No mass
No charge
Collisions
(Cant pass through each other)
No Diffraction
(Objects stays fixed in shape)
N/A
As can be seen from the table, Wave behaviour and Particle Behaviour are exactly
opposite.
=h/p
/ m: The associated wavelength of the object.
h / J s: Plancks constant (6.63 x 10-34 J s).
p / kg m s-1: momentum of the particle (p = mass x velocity).
His interpretation was that every moving particle has an associated wave. He called
this a MATTER-WAVE. From this, a new branch of physics emerged: Quantum
Mechanics. De Broglie received the Nobel Prize in 1929 for his contributions to
Quantum Physics.
Richard Howland
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Point 3: Questions
For the following particles, calculate the associated wavelength of the matterwave:
1) Mass of electron = 9.11x10-31 kg, velocity = 3.00x107 m s-1
[ = 2.43 x 10-11 m]
[ = 2.80 x 10-12 m]
[ = 1.32 x 10-14 m]
[ = 6.63 x 10-11 m]
[ = 1.03 x 10-35 m]
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Electron
going into 1
gap of the
Double Slit
Electron hits
the screen
Particle Behaviour
If the electron behaves like a particle throughout the experiment, then it will hit the
screen in any location. If we record the position that the electron hits the screen
then the majority should hit the screen opposite each gap.
Wave Behaviour
If the electron behaves like a wave, then it will interfere with itself and there will be
an interference pattern produced on the screen. The electron will not appear on some
parts of the screen because it will destructively interfere. There will be a series of
light and dark patches on the screen corresponding to a Double-Slit interference
pattern for waves.
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Wave
behaviour
Particle
behaviour
Electron going
into 1 gap of the
Double Slit
Richard Howland
Particle
behaviour
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Point 4: Questions
1. Why does a current flow across the electrodes in the tube?
Richard Howland
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7. What happens to the electrons in the gaseous Mercury atoms when the freeelectrons hit them?
10. What two types of photons are being (mainly) emitted when the electrons
return to the ground state? How do you know this?
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Richard Howland
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Point 4: Observation
1) What is a wave anyway?
The Wave Equations for particles involve the MATHEMATICAL letter i. This is
a COMPLEX NUMBER i is the IMAGINARY SQUARE ROOT of -1!
This means that Matter-Waves are Imaginary and not real. And you are made of
these matter-waves! So what are we?
2) What is the difference between a Particle and a Wave?
The key is OBSERVATION. If an observation takes place, then you have
PARTICLE behaviour. If there is not an observation, you have WAVE behaviour.
3) I have no friends what am I?
If no-one observes you then you will be a wave. The reality is that you are made of
many particles so the chances are that in any given time some observations will
take place. But if you dont find friends soon then you will always be a wave. And
then you could re-appear anywhere at any time! (Unless you can observe
yourself).
4) Psychic electrons they know what the other is thinking
In a Helium atom, 2 electrons orbit in the first Energy Level. Each electron has a
property called SPIN. Each electron must have the opposite spin to the other. So
one has an UP SPIN and the other has a DOWN SPIN.
If you then bash this atom and both electrons fly off into space, neither electron
is SPIN UP or DOWN until they are OBSERVED. And when ONE of them is
observed, the other INSTANTLY takes the opposite value even though there is no
time for a message to be passed between them!
5) Schrdingers Cat
Schrdingers created a thought experiment to highlight the absurdity of the
Wave-Particle situation.
A cat, radioactive isotope, a Geiger Detector and a poison are placed inside a box
(as you do). If any particles decay from the isotope, the Geiger Detector will
detect it and the poison will be released which will then kill the cat (a bit harsh
but thats life really).
Richard Howland
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The question is: After 1 half-life (time for HALF the particles to decay), is the
cat dead or alive?
Since the decay of a nucleus is governed by probability, then you cannot say that
the cat is DEAD or ALIVE until you OBSERVE it. Until then, the cat is a wave and
is neither DEAD or ALIVE.
6) If a tree falls in a wood, does it make a sound?
For many years this philosophical question kept some people occupied in
intellectual debates. And physicists just said Yes.
But now we realise that unless there is an observer, then all that exists is a
Probability Wave and no answer is real. Once an observer arrives, then the
Probability Wave collapses to a single answer yes or no. Until that point
there are no answers.
7) What is an Observer?
An Observer is something that makes the Probability Wave collapse to a single
value. In other words, it causes the Wave behaviour to change to Particle
Behaviour.
8) When did the Universe become real?
This is a difficult question, and it depends on what is allowed for an Observer. If
an Observer is ANYTHING, then the Universe became REAL once an observation
took place. If an Observer has to be a Conscious Being then the Universe only
became REAL once the Conscious Being observed it!
9) Orbitals Why can electrons break laws of physics in Orbitals?
When an electron absorbs or emits a photon, there is an interaction this is
particle behaviour. When the electron is on its own there is no observation so it
behaves like a wave. If we plot where the electron is observed each time, then we
trace out the path of an orbital.
The question: How can electrons travel in circles without losing energy? is the
wrong question. Between observations, the electron behaves as a wave and isnt
travelling or moving its an imaginary wave. Its only when it is observed that it
has an actual place. Electrons dont orbit or stand still they simply appear when
observed!
Richard Howland
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Mass
1 tonne = 1000 kg
1 gram = 0.001 kg
Time
1 year = 365.24 days
1 year = 3.16 x 107 seconds
1 milli-second = 0.001 seconds
Area
1 cm2 = 1 cm x 1 cm
= 0.01 m x 0.01 m
= 10-2 m x 10-2 m
= 10-4 m2
1 mm2 = 1 mm x 1 mm
= 0.001 m x 0.001 m
= 10-3 m x 10-3 m
= 10-6 m2
Volume
1 cm3 = 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
= 0.01 m x 0.01 m x 0.01 m
= 10-2 m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
= 10-6 m3
1 mm3 = 1 mm x 1 mm x 1 mm
= 0.001 m x 0.001 m x 0.001 m
= 10-3 m x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
= 10-9 m3
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Appendix 3 Prefixes
Name
Symbol
Standard Form
Yotta
1024
Zeta
1021
Exa
1018
Peta
1015
Tera
1012
Giga
109
Mega
106
kilo
103
100
milli
10-3
micro
10-6
nano
10-9
pico
10-12
femto
10-15
atto
10-18
zepto
10-21
yocto
10-24
You need to know the symbols for 10-9 to 109 and how to use them.
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Scientist
1666
Isaac Newton
1678
Christiaan Huygens
1704
Isaac Newton
1768
Leonard Euler
1801
Thomas Young
1816
Jean Fresnel
1850
Jean Foucalt
1873
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Scientist
1800
1801
1865
1873
1887
1895
In 1899, what does the EM Spectrum contain? What is missing?
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A Black Body absorbs all the radiation that falls onto it.
Black bodies radiate energy which is only dependent on their temperature.
The radiation emitted from a Black Body is called Black Body Radiation.
From experiment, a graph of Black Body Radiation can be plotted.
Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)
Wavelength / m
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Every possible frequency of radiation can exist inside the walls of the Cavity.
These EM Waves will be continuously reflected inside the Cavity and will
interfere with themselves.
Following the laws of the Interference of Waves, Standing Waves will be
generated inside the Cavity.
Clearly, the shorter the wavelengths (higher frequencies) the more modes
(think of nodes and anti-nodes) that can fit inside the Cavity.
It was believed that each mode carried energy, so the more modes, the more
energy in the standing wave.
Clearly, the higher the frequency of the EM Waves, the more modes so the
more energy it contained.
From this scientists Rayleigh and Jeans formulated an equation to calculate the
Intensity of the EM Waves being released.
I is Intensity
2, ,c,k are all constants
T is Temperature
is the Wavelength of the Radiation
If the Temperature rises, the Intensity of the Radiation given out rises
(makes sense the hotter something is the more heat energy it gives out).
If EM Waves have a wavelength of less than 1 metre, the Intensity will
increase, and as the wavelengths approach 0 metres, the Intensity approaches
INFINITY!
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I = 2ck T / 4
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Comparison to Theory
From the Rayleigh-Jeans law:
Objects emit electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths and the Intensity of
the radiation depends on its wavelength.
The shorter the wavelength the more energy it emits.
Therefore, the graph for a Black Body would look something like this
Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)
RayleighJeans Radiator
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Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)
Intensity goes to
zero
Wavelength / m
The Catastrophe
According to all the Classical laws in Physics, the RaleighJeans law should
work, but clearly it cant and doesnt.
It is called the UltraViolet Catastrophe because any object would emit an
infinite amount of electromagnetic radiation at any time.
No object emits an infinite amount of energy.
So clearly, the Classical Laws of physics are wrong.
And the understanding in Classical Physics is wrong.
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E = hf
E = hf
The implications are that on the atomic scale, Classical Physics can not be
applied.
On the atomic scale, Energy is quantised.
This means that in the Atomic World things will work in a completely different
way to the Macroscopic World.
This was the birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS.
Richard Howland
I=
2hf3
c2
ehf/kT - 1
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1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Another way to think of the Electron-Volt is from ELECTRICITY:
Potential Difference = Work done per Coulomb of Charge
In Symbols:
V=E/Q
Re-arranging:
E=QV
Since:
Then:
E = 1 eV = 1.6x10-19 C x 1 V = 1.6x10-19 J
Hence:
1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J
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