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Seismic Techniques

Seismic Refraction Profiling

Seismic Reflection Profiling
Continuous Surface-Wave System (CSWS)
Downhole Seismic Surveys
Crosshole Seismic Surveys
Crosshole Seismic Tomography

Seismic Refraction
Profiling
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
The seismic refraction method is based on
the measurement of the travel time of
seismic waves refracted at the interfaces
between subsurface layers of different
velocity. Seismic energy is provided by a
source ('shot') located on the surface.
Energy radiates out from the shot point,
either travelling directly through the upper
layer (direct arrivals), or travelling down to
and then laterally along higher velocity
layers (refracted arrivals) before returning
to the surface. This energy is detected on
surface using a linear array of geophones.
Observation of the travel-times of the
refracted signals provides information on
the depth profile of the refractor.

DETAIL
The seismic refraction method is based on
the measurement of the travel time of
seismic waves refracted at the interfaces
between subsurface layers of different
velocity. Seismic energy is provided by a
source ('shot') located on the surface. For
shallow applications this normally
comprises a hammer and plate, weight drop
or small explosive charge (blank shotgun
cartridge). Energy radiates out from the
shot point, either travelling directly through
the upper layer (direct arrivals), or
travelling down to and then laterally along
higher velocity layers (refracted arrivals)
before returning to the surface. This energy
is detected on surface using a linear array
(or spread) of geophones spaced at regular
intervals. Beyond a certain distance from
the shot point, known as the cross-over
distance, the refracted signal is observed as
a first-arrival signal at the geophones
(arriving before the direct arrival).
Observation of the travel-times of the direct
and refracted signals provides information
on the depth profile of the refractor.
Shots are deployed at and beyond both
ends of the geophone spread in order to
acquire refracted energy as first arrivals at
each geophone position.
Data are recorded on a seismograph and
later downloaded to computer for analysis
of the first-arrival times to the geophones
from each shot position. Travel-time versus
distance graphs are then constructed and
velocities calculated for the overburden and
refractor layers through analysis of the
direct arrival and T-minus graph gradients.
Depth profiles for each refractor are
produced by an analytical procedure based
on consideration of shot and receiver
geometry and the measured travel-times
and calculated velocities. The final output

comprises a depth profile of the refractor

layers and a velocity model of the
subsurface.
The primary applications of seismic
refraction are for determining depth to
bedrock and bedrock structure. Due to the
dependence of seismic velocity on the
elasticity and density of the material
through which the energy is passing,
seismic refraction surveys provide a
measure of material strengths and can
consequently be used as an aid in assessing
rippability and rock quality. The technique
has been successfully applied to mapping
depth to base of backfilled quarries, depth
of landfills, thickness of overburden and
the topography of groundwater.

RESULTS
During data acquisition individual shot
records are displayed as variable area
wiggle traces displaying travel time
against distance (see right above).
These enable an initial calculation of
overburden and refractor apparent
velocities and provide an important
check on the quality of the
data.Following acquisition wiggle
traces are used to display the data
during picking of the first-arrivals for
each geophone position and shot.
The processed data is normally
presented as a series of three plots;
time-distance graphs for the picked
first-arrivals on each shot, a true depth
profile for the identified refractors and a
velocity profile for the overburden and
refractors. Any existing ground truth
information such as borehole and trial
pit logs, is overlain on the depth profile
in order to help calibrate the seismic

results and then provide an indication of

the level of correlation along the survey
line. The refractor depth is displayed as
a series of overlapping arcs that
represent the solutions for each
geophone in the array. The refractor can
lie anywhere on the arcs below the
intersections with adjacent arcs (right).

Seismic Reflection
Profiling
Outline | Detail |

OUTLINE
Seismic reflection profiling involves the
measurement of the two-way travel time of
seismic waves transmitted from surface and
reflected back to the surface at the
interfaces between contrasting geological
layers. Reflection of the transmitted energy
will only occur when there is a contrast in
the acoustic impedance (product of the
seismic velocity and density) between these
layers. The strength of the contrast in the
acoustic impedance of the two layers
determines the amplitude of the reflected
signal. The reflected signal is detected on
surface using an array of high frequency
geophones. As with seismic refraction, the
seismic energy is provided by a 'shot' on
surface. For shallow applications this will
normally comprise a hammer and plate,
weight drop or explosive charge.

DETAIL
Seismic reflection profiling involves the
measurement of the two-way travel time of
seismic waves transmitted from surface and
reflected back to the surface at the
interfaces between contrasting geological
layers. Reflection of the transmitted energy
will only occur when there is a contrast in
the acoustic impedance (product of the
seismic velocity and density) between these
layers. The strength of the contrast in the
acoustic impedance of the two layers
determines the amplitude of the reflected
signal. The reflected signal is detected on
surface using an array of high frequency
geophones (typically 48-96). As with
seismic refraction, the seismic energy is
provided by a 'shot' on surface. For shallow
applications this will normally comprise a
hammer and plate, weight drop or
explosive charge. In most reflection
surveys shots are deployed at a number of
different positions in relation to the
geophone array in order to obtain
reflections from the same point on the
interface at different geophones in the
array. Each common point of reflection is
termed a common mid-point (CMP) and
the number of times each one is sampled
determines the 'fold coverage' for the
survey. Traces relating to the same CMP
are stacked together to increase the signalto-noise ratio of the survey before being
combined with other CMP's stacked traces
to produce a reflection profile. In order to
stack related CMP traces a stacking
velocity is applied to each trace. This
accounts for the difference in two-way
travel time between the normal incidence
reflection (vertical travel path below the
shot) and those at increasing offsets from
the shot (known as the normal moveout or
NMO). The stacking velocity will vary
down the trace to take account of the
increase in velocity with depth for each

reflection event.
The simplest form of seismic reflection
profiling is the constant-offset method.
This technique uses a single geophone
offset from the source by a fixed distance.
The two are moved along the survey line in
equal steps with a single trace being
recorded at each position. The main
advantage of this technique is the limited
amount of processing that needs to be
applied to the data due to the almost
vertical orientation of each raypath.
However, in order to avoid problems with
interference from groundroll and the shot
airwave, the offset distance has to be
selected with care.

Continuous Surface-Wave
System (CSWS)
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
The continuous surface-wave method
utilises a specific type of seismic wave,
known as the Rayleigh wave, in order to
determine in situ shear modulus-depth
profiles to depths of between 8m to 20m.
The velocity of a Rayleigh wave is related
to the shear modulus (G) and density of
the ground through which it propagates.
Unlike crosshole seismic methods, which
are routinely used to determine
geotechnical parameters such as the shear
modulus (and additionally Poisson's
ratio), the CSW technique require no
boreholes. The system comprises a
portable frequency-controlled vibrator and
an array of low frequency geophones

arranged co-linearly with the source.

Rayleigh waves are generated at
frequencies of between 5Hz and 100Hz in
0.1-5Hz increments in order to build up a
comprehensive stiffness-depth profile.

DETAIL
The continuous surface-wave method
utilises a specific type of seismic wave,
known as the Rayleigh wave, in order to
determine in situ shear modulus-depth
profiles to depths of between 8m to 20m
below surface. The velocity of a Rayleigh
wave is related to the shear modulus (G)
and density of the ground through which
it propagates. Unlike crosshole seismic
methods, which are routinely used to
determine geotechnical parameters such
as the shear modulus (and additionally
Poisson's ratio), the CSW technique
require no boreholes.
Rayleigh waves are constrained to
propagate within a zone approximately 1
wavelength in depth, such that increasing
the wavelength (decreasing the frequency)
of the transmitted energy will result in an
increase in the depth of investigation. The
wavelength and phase-velocity of the
Rayleigh waves generated at a particular
frequency are calculated by determining
the phase shift between the transmitted
and measured signals at each geophone
location.
Phase-velocities are measured over a
range of frequencies in order to build up a
dispersion spectrum for the ground below
the spread. This is then inverted to
determine a velocity-depth profile and
finally a stiffness-depth profile.The
system comprises a portable frequencycontrolled vibrator and an array of low

frequency geophones arranged co-linearly

with the source. A laptop computer
controls both the vibrator and data
acquisition. Rayleigh waves are generated
at frequencies of between 5Hz and 100Hz
in 0.1-5Hz increments in order to build up
a comprehensive stiffness-depth profile.
For further information on the
Continuous Surface-Wave System see 'The
Continuous Surface-Wave System: A
Modern Technique for Site Investigation',
Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (1996);
Special Lecture: Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Madras, December 11-14th
1996.

RESULTS
Raw results are initially presented as a
dispersion curve of phase velocity against
depth. Inversion of the curve results in a
stiffness-depth profile (shear modulusdepth) for the sampling location (see
above) that can be compared directly to
the results of other methods such as
seismic cone penetration (SCPT). Each
test takes approximately 2 hours and
provides about 50 stiffness measurements
at different depths. A preliminary
stiffness-depth profile can normally be
computed on site using an empirical
wavelength /depth inversion routine.

Downhole Seismic
Surveys
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Downhole seismic surveys are the
simplest and cheapest method in the suite
of borehole seismic techniques, as they
require only a single borehole. Seismic
energy is generated on surface at a fixed
distance from the top of the borehole. The
travel times of the first-arrival seismic
waves are measured at regular intervals
down the hole using a string of
hydrophones or, in the case of S-wave
surveys, a single clamped triaxial
geophone that is gradually moved down
the hole. The P- and S-wave arrival times
for each receiver location are combined to
produce travel-time versus depth curves
for the complete hole. These are then used
to produce total velocity profiles from
which interval velocities and the various
elastic moduli can be calculated (in
conjunction with density data from
geophysical logging of the borehole).

DETAIL
Downhole seismic surveys are the
simplest and cheapest method in the suite
of borehole seismic techniques requiring
only a single borehole. Seismic energy is
generated on surface at a fixed distance
from the top of the borehole. The travel
times of the first-arrival seismic waves are
measured at regular intervals down the
hole using a string of hydrophones or, in
the case of S-wave surveys, a single
clamped triaxial geophone that is
gradually moved down the hole.

P-wave energy is normally provided by a

hammer and plate or weight drop similar
to shallow seismic reflection and
refraction profiling surveys. Polarised Swaves are generated using a shear wave
hammer. This comprises two hammers
connected to either end of a plank that is
held to the ground using a vehicle or
heavy weight. Collecting both positive
and negative polarised (so called A and B)
S-waves using the two hammers
separately, enables the S-wave arrivals on
the receiver shot records to be
distinguished from those of P-waves and
coherent noise.

RESULTS

Crosshole Seismic
Surveys
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Crosshole seismic surveys involve
measurement of the travel time of seismic
energy transmitted between two or more
boreholes in order to derive information
on the elastic properties of the intervening
materials. One hole is used to deploy the
source whilst the other hole(s) are used to
detect the arrival of the seismic energy.
The travel times of the seismic waves are
derived from the first-arrivals identified
on the seismic trace for each shot-receiver
position and are used with the known
distance(s) between the shot/receiver
boreholes to calculate the apparent
velocities (P and S) for each depth
interval. This data is then used to derive a
vertical profile of the various elastic
moduli.

DETAIL
The relationship between the velocity of
seismic waves and the density and elastic
properties of the materials through which
they are travelling means that seismic
techniques can be utilised to provide
information on various geotechnical
properties of the subsurface, such as
Poisson's ratio and the shear modulus. The
most common method of measuring these
properties in engineering studies is
through the use of crosshole seismic
surveys.
Crosshole seismic surveys involve
measurement of the travel time of seismic
energy transmitted between two or more
boreholes. One hole is used to deploy the
source whilst the other hole(s) are used to
detect the arrival of the seismic energy. In
order to obtain properties such as
Poisson's ratio, both P-wave
(compressional) and S-wave (shear) data
has to be acquired. This normally requires
the use of two separate sources. P-wave
energy is detected using a string of
between 10-24 hydrophones suspended in
water in the borehole. As shear waves are
unable to travel through water or air they
are detected using a single triaxial
geophone clamped to the inside of the
borehole using a hydraulic system. Data is
collected at fixed intervals down the hole
(normally 0.5-2m) by moving the shot and
detector(s) in parallel. In the case of an
array of hydrophones the string is kept
fixed until the shot has passed below the
depth of the last hydrophone.
The travel times of the P and S waves are
derived from the first-arrivals identified
on the seismic trace for each shot-receiver
position and used with the known
distance(s) between the shot/receiver
boreholes to calculate the apparent

velocities (P and S) for each depth

interval. This data is then used to derive a
vertical profile of material stiffness
properties. Where the borehole separation
is small the calculated apparent velocities
will equate to the true velocities for each
depth, as the energy travels direct from
source to receiver. However, where a
refracted or reflected wave arrives at the
receiver first (first-arrival), this will not be
the case, leading to spurious calculations
of the material stiffness properties. Where
refraction/reflection is considered to be a
problem computer modelling of the
raypaths should be utilised to help derive
true interval velocities.

RESULTS
First arrival times for the P- and Swave data are picked in a similar
manner to conventional surface
seismic techniques and other borehole
methods using wiggle traces.
Identification of the S-wave arrivals is
aided by the collection of opposite
polarity shots during data acquisition.
During picking the shot record pairs
are initially viewed side by side.
Subtraction of one record from the
other results in cancellation of Pwaves and stacking of the S-wave
data.
Following picking of the arrival time
data for each shot-receiver location
and calculation of velocity (based on
the borehole separation) the data is
displayed as a plot of velocity against
depth (above). Calculation of the
various elastic moduli is carried out
using additional information on the
density of the various geological strata
in the holes. This is normally obtained

from geophysical logging of the

boreholes. Final results are generally
displayed as tables or profiles of the
calculated moduli such as Poisson's
ratio and the bulk shear modulus.

Crosshole Seismic
Tomography
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Borehole seismic tomography involves
the measurement of the travel times of
seismic raypaths between two or more
boreholes in order to derive an image of
seismic velocity in the intervening
ground. Data is collected using one hole
for the seismic source (normally a
sparker) and measuring first-arrival times
using strings of hydrophones in the others.
Travel times are collected at regular
intervals (usually 0.5m to 2m) all the way
down the hole(s) for each shot position.
This results in a network of overlapping
raypaths that can then be used to model
the velocity profile. The resulting velocity
image is termed a tomogram and enables
identification of anomalous velocity zones
lying between the boreholes as well as
imaging individual velocity layers.

DETAIL
Borehole seismic tomography involves
the measurement of the travel times of
seismic raypaths between two or more
boreholes in order to define an image of
seismic velocity in the intervening
ground.
Data is collected in a similar manner to
crosshole seismic surveys by using one
hole for the seismic source (normally a
sparker) and measuring first-arrival times
using strings of hydrophones in the others.
However, unlike crosshole, travel times
are collected at regular intervals (usually
0.5m to 2m) all the way down the hole(s)
for each shot position.
Measurement of arrival times for each
shot, at each position in the receiver
borehole, results in a network of
overlapping raypaths which can then be
used to model the velocity profile (see
figure). The plane separating the source
and receiver holes is divided into a mesh
of grid cells known as finite elements.
Each element in the mesh is assigned a
starting velocity and the synthetic travel
time for the portion of each raypath
passing through it is calculated. In this
way the total travel time for each raypath
is built up and then compared to the
measured travel time. The velocities
assigned to the various elements are then
adjusted iteratively until the calculated
and measured travel times for the raypaths
are the same. As many of the cells are
intersected by a number of raypaths the
process can result in very accurate
estimates of the velocity for each cell.
The resulting velocity image is termed a
tomogram and enables identification of
anomalous velocity zones lying between
the boreholes as well as imaging

individual velocity layers. The primary

application of borehole seismic
tomography is in engineering studies for
the identification of features such as fault
zones and voids. When combined with an
S-wave survey, the data can additionally
be used to provide information on
material stiffness properties (see crosshole
seismic surveys).

RESULTS
During data acquisition individual shot
records are displayed as variable area
wiggle traces indicating travel time
against downhole distance for each shot
position. Following acquisition wiggle
traces are used to pick the first-arrivals for
each source/receiver pair. The image
displays a shot gather for 40 receiver
locations down a hole.
Following picking the raw travel-time
data is input into the modelling software
and the ray coverage between the two
holes is displayed as a ray density profile
(right). This provides an initial indication
of the amount of data within different
sections of the profile and helps illustrate
the resolution of the final model.

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