Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
FIBER OPTICS
3.1
Introduction
3.2
3.3
The refractive index of the core (n1) must be greater than the
refractive index of the cladding (n2).
2.
Note :
3.4
Consider an optical fiber into which light enters form one end as
shown in Fig. 3.3. Let n1 be the refractive index of the core and n2 be the
refractive index of the cladding. i.e., n1>n2. Let n0 be the refractive index
of the medium from which light is launched into the fiber. Let the ray
enter the fiber at an angle i to the axis of fiber. This ray refracts at an
angle r and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle .
sin i / sin r =
n1 / n 0
3.5
2.
3.
Based on the materials used for the optical fiber, they are classified
into
Plastic fiber
Glass fiber
When the optical fiber is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides and
silica glasses, then they are known as glass fibers.
The difference of refractive index between core and cladding is
achieved in glass fibers by doping them with suitable materials.
Plastic fiber
There fibers are made of plastics and are of low cost. They exhibit
greater signal attenuation. Plastic fibers can be handled easily due to its
toughness and durability.
Examples
Multimode fiber
Multimode fiber
The refractive indices of the core and cladding very like a step and so
it called as step index fiber. Both single mode and multimode signals can be
propagated through this fiber. For easy handling and to reduce the
susceptibility to microbending, the thickness of the cladding is made 10
times as that of the core radius.
In this type of fiber, the refractive index of the core varies radially
from the fiber axis. The refractive index is maximum at the centre and
gradually decreases so that it is minimum at the core-cladding interface.
The variation of the refractive index of the core (n) with radius (x),
measured from the centre of the core is given by
= n1-n2 / n1
p grading profile index number.
Multimode fiber
through the fiber, then it is said can propagate through the fiber,
to be single mode fiber.
2.
The single mode fiber has smaller Generally in multimode fiber the
core diameter (10m) and the code diameter and the relative
difference between the refractive refractive index difference are
indices
of
the
core
and
no
during
degradation
traveling
of
through
fiber).
4.
5.
these fibers.
6.
cheap.
3.5.5 Difference between step index fiber and graded index fiber.
The
refractive
of
cladding, and core very step by is high at the centre of the core
step.
interface
2.
The diameter of the core is about The diameter of the core is about
50-200m
in
the
case
The
light
rays
propagating The
light
rays
propagating
rays
which
cross the fiber axis during every not cross the fiber axis at any
reflection at the core-cladding time and are propagating around
boundary and are propagating in the fiber axis in a helical (or)
a zig-zag manner
4.
spiral manner.
5.
Attenuation
is
more
3.6
materials. In the case of glass fibers silica is the major raw material. Among
the common plastic fibers polysterene is used as core material.
1.
2.
3.
In double crucible method the fiber is drawn from the molten state of
the purified component material. The glass rods for the core and cladding
materials are made separately by melting mixtures of purified powders to
make the appropriate glass composition.
These core and cladding rods which are in rod form are fed into the
two
concentric
platinum
crucibles.
The
platinum
crucible
avoid
contamination. The core is in the inner crucible while the cladding in the
outer crucible. The crucibles are kept in a muffle furnace capable of melting
the glass rods to a temperature between 800 and 1200C.
The fibers are drawn from the molten state through the orifices in
the bottom of the two concentric crucibles in a continuation production
process. This method is more suitable for step - index of all plastic fiber. The
index grading is achieved through the diffusion of mobile ions across the
core-cladding interface within the molten glass.
Advantages
1.
2.
Limitation
Fibers with same characteristics are not produced always.
3.7.
Joining of Fibers
Increasing the length of the fiber or joining a broken fiber is an
essential requirement. The fiber optic system uses many means of inter
connecting or joining lengths of fibers with low insertion loss, high strength
and simplicity. The various ways of connecting fibers are
Splice
Connector
Coupler
3.7.1 Splicing
1.
2.
Mechanical splicing
Fusion splicing
The two fiber ends are viewed through a microscope and butted
together using micropositioners. When the two ends of the fiber are
alligned an electric arc is struck across the joint. This causes the two
fiber ends to melt. As they come to contact, surface tension forces help
the two fibers to self-align.
An average loss per splice of 0.1 dB or less can be obtained for
well-matched fibers. Fusion eliminates reflection at the interface and if
done properly will result in a strong permanent connection.
Mechanical splicing provides greater flexibility and is used for
short and medium haul routes. The various types of aligning
configuration are
(i)
V-grove
(ii)
Precision sleeve
(iii)
(iv)
Rod sleeve
V- Grove
Figure 3.10 shows the V-grove. The fibers to be joined are placed in
the groove. In this method the alignment of the fiber can be well controlled.
The two fibers are made to slide in the groove and epoxied when they touch.
In this method the errors are very minimal.
Precision sleeve
In this method the fibers are inserted through the central hole of the
sleeve. The epoxy applied at the fiber ends enhance the joining.
undergoes loss of signal. The two factors which affect the transmission of
Attenuation and
2.
Dispersion
3.8.1 Attenuation
If an input power Pin results in an output power P out then the loss in
decibel. The ratio of power depends on particular wavelength of optical
source. The basic attenuation mechanism in a fiber are absorption,
scattering and radiative losses of the optical energy.
a.
a.
Intrinsic absorption
b.
Atomic defect
c.
Extrinsic absorption
Intrinsic absorption
An absolute pure optical fiber has little intrinsic absorption due
b.
C.
drastically.
Hydroxyl
ions
absorb
the
light
in
these
wavelengths.
Scattering Losses
Scattering losses occur when a wave interacts with a particle on
its way and removes energy in the direction of propagation and
transverse it in the other direction. The scattering losses are classified
into two types namely,
a.
b.
i.
i.
ii.
Mie scattering
Rayleigh Scattering
Mie scattering
The imperfections of fiber such as irregularities in the core-
Non-linear scattering
Brillouin scattering
Raman scattering
Brillouin scattering
The Brillouin scattering may be regarded as the modulation of
light through thermal molecular vibrations within fiber. In this
scattering process, the incident photon produces a photon of frequency 'f'
called acoustic frequency. This produces an optical frequency shift
causing loss in transmission.
c.
Unlike
Brillouin
scattering,
stimulated
Raman
scattering
Optical fibers suffer radiation losses when there are small bend in
the fiber or variations in the surface of the core of the fiber by
environment. These variations are known as micro bends. A small
change (bend) in the shape of the fiber core causes micro bend losses.
The light ray incident on the core cladding interface will change its
angle due to micro bends and refracts through the cladding surface
rather than to reflect into the core.
Micro bend losses can also be caused when the fiber is subjected
to strain. Micro bends in the core-cladding interface is shown in Fig.
3.12.
Macro bend losses occur when the fiber bend is larger than its
diameter. Bending losses can be minimized by keeping the fiber straight
at length.
3.8.2 Dispersion Losses
When an optical signal is sent into the fiber the pulase spreads /
broaden as it propagates through the fiber. This is know as dispersion.
The dispersion losses are of three types namely,
i.
Modal dispersion
ii.
iii.
Modal Dispersion
Modal dispersion occurs in fibers that have more than one mode
of propagation. r When many modes of light ray travels through the
fiber, they differ in the path line (i.e) some rays will reach the core end
before the another. The information transmitted is stretched out. If the
pulse stretch is much, they begin to overlap each other and may reach a
point with delay between them.
Material Dispersion
Material dispersion occurs due to the variation of refractive index
of the material and wave length of light used.
Wave guide dispersion occurs only in the fibers with single mode.
This is caused due to the shape of the fiber core and its chemical
composition. As frequency is a function of wavelength the group
velocity of light in a fiber varies with frequency. Since the cladding has
lower refractive index than the core, the light will reach the end of the
fiber fast than the light travels in the core.
major units.
1.
2.
3.
or video signal.
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
2.
The
light
emitted
must
be
intense
enough
so
that
4.
5.
3.10.1 LED
The two main types of LED most often used in fiber optical
systems are the surface etched well emitter (S-LED) and the edge
emitter (E-LED). They are designed for more efficient coupling into
optical fibers. In the S-LED, a well is etched into the top of a planar
LED structure. This enables the fiber end to be kept as close as
possible to the light emitting region. In S-LED the current is confined
to a smaller circular region of the surface. This area is typically 20 to
50 m in diameter. The fiber is held in position by the use of a
transparent epoxy resin as shown in Fig 3.16.
3.11 Photodetectors
At the output end of an optical transmission line there must be a
receiving device which interprets the information contained in the
optical signal. The first element of this receiver is a photodetector which
senses the luminescent power falling upon it and converts the variation
of this optical power into a correspondingly varying electric current.
Since the optical signal is generally weakend and distorted when it
emerges from the end of the fiber, the photodetector must meet very
pyroelectric
detectors,
and
semiconductor-based
The high electric field present in the depletion region causes the
carriers to separate and to be collected across the reverse-biased junction.
This gives rise to a current flow in an external circuit, with one electron
flowing for every carrier pair generated. This current flow is known as
photocurrent.As the charge carriers flow through the material, some
electron-hole pair will recombine and hence disappear. On an average, the
charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for electrons and holes,
respectively. This distance is known as the diffusion length.
term
"reach-through"
arises
from the
photo
diode
operation.
In
fiber
sensors,
the
optical
wave
is
the
1.
2.
3.
Fiber optic sensors are free from the risk of sparks since
they are made of silica.
4.
5.
6.
2.
Extrinsic Sensors
In extrinsic sensors, the interaction between the light and the
measuring parameter (the quantity under measurement) takes place
outside the fiber.
In this type of sensors, the fiber acts merely as a wave guide. This
type of sensors has a sensor head and the sensed optical signal will be
transferred to the measurement point with low attenuation and
incresed mechanical stability for signal processing.
Intrinsic Sensors
3.13
Endoscope
In medicine, optical fibers are used to study ~he interior of the
lungs, liver and other parts of the human body by using endoscope. The
fiber endoscope uses a bundle of flexible fibers
Types of endoscope:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.14
S.No
1.
Laser diodes
LED
2.
recombination rate is
is more
5.
power output.