Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
(KT 300, 1-3), her "beautiful fine hair smells of the rainy season" (AN
198, 5; 208. 23-24), "her brow smells of honey" (Nar. 62, 6) or of
"newly-opened cool-smelling kfmtal flowers that have opened their
delicate buds" (AN 238, 16-18) or of "white kadamba flowers,
yielding perfume" (Nar. 20, 3) etc. She is
Like a splendid garland, woven of fresh stems of
Jasmine, kantal flowers and sweet-smelling lilies,
Is her body;
It is more tender than a shoot and is sweet for embrace. (KT 62)
Floral motifs in a description of the woman serve to
symbolize the life-giving power of vegetation, are related to
the feminine energy and accentuate its auspicious aspect. The
awakening of this force, which is signified by puberty, is understood
as a natural process (of growth) and is directly perceived as a
blossoming of bodily beauty: "the buds of your breasts are ripe,
your teeth are shining, you have put on a skirt made of leaves" (AN
7, 1-2); "The buds of her breasts have blossomed, the soft thick hair
falls from her head, the compact rows of her white teeth are full,
since she has lost her baby teeth, and a few spots (cunariku) have
appeared on her body" (KT 337, 1-2; 4). These spots, (curzariku),
golden, like a young vaikai flower (AN 319, 8-9),13 are likened to
flower pollen. One of the meanings of the word cunanku, "signs of
puberty" indicates that the body of the young girl is filled with
ananku (cf. "fair spots have appeared where apariku dwells," the
poem crvakacinta-mani, 10th century, A.D.14). Ananku was thought
to be concentrated in certain parts of a female body: her shoulders
2
(Nar. 39, 11; also AN 295, 20); her breasts (AN 177, 19; Nar. 9, 5-6)
and her alkul, loins (Mons Veneris). Adding these details to the
portrait of a young woman common to ancient Tamil poetry, the
poets supply it with sexual attractiveness and, simultaneously,
emphasize the idea of fertility.
Colours
Floral associations in the female portrait are interspersed with
certain colour symbols, as colours are significant in creating this
portrait, with the dominant dark-blue colour (nilam) associated with
rain clouds, the sea, a sapphire, peacock, mango tree. This colour
symbolizes fertility in Indian culture, through its link with the colour
of rain clouds: thus, dark-blue is the colour of Tirumal Krsna, his
invariable attribute; it is also the colour of the goddess Korravai in
her beneficial aspect (Cf. nili, "dark-blue," "dark"). In the Tamil love
poetry this colour is inherent in the heroine who is referred to as
mayg, "dark," her body being likened to dark shoots of mango
(amnia rani, Nar. 134, 7; mantai kavin, "mango-like beauty," Ain.
454, 4; KT 27, 5), 16 a kuririci flower (Nar. 301, 2), a sapphire (AN
172, 17), a peacock (AN 158, 5), her eyes painted with kohl
(maiyurzkan), they are like a dark kuvalai lily (AN 62, 5; Nar. 77, 12);
her hair is sapphire-coloured (AN 3, 10), or like the dark river sand
(AN 142, 18; 162, 10), or like the darkness of the night (Nar. 155, 4).
The heroine's dark hair in poetry descriptions is fairly meaningful as
well, in view of the established association between hair and "the
vital forces and fertility" (see for example [Heesterman 1957: 215;
Yalman 1964: 136; Hallpike 1969]).
In contrast to the dark tonality of the heroine her brow sparkles,
"glittering with immaculate whiteness, like the new moon" (AN 192,
3
generally associated with the sun) and ritually, since the white
colour serves to symbolize, in the South-Indian ritual practice, the
sacred energy in its beneficial, "cooled," controlled state.
Correspondingly, the white colour is employed in the appropriate
stages of South-Indian ritual [Beck 1969: 557].
Heroine imagery
Thus the imagery employed to describe the heroine, with a constant
nomenclature of details in the portrait and plant and colour
metaphors, unmistakably reveals prominent fertility semantics in
the image of the heroine: a poetical representation of nature's
procreative force. In the poetry this image is permeated with
sensual concreteness to become an embodiment of gentleness,
sweetness, coolness and moisture; all these qualities project
beneficial influence on the male hero: "The water-like sweetness of
the broad-shouldered daughter of a huntsman from a small village
4
brought some food for Valli (honey, millet flour, sweet potatoes,
milk) and Murukan assumed the form of a tree vetikai.
When Nampi and his company disappeared, the god reappeared in
a hu-man form, approached Valli and told her that he would like to
love her. Valli silently lowered her head and then answered that it
was not proper for him to love a woman from the low tribe of
hunters. At that moment they heard the sound of approaching
music. Valli warned Murukan that the hunters are wild and angry
men and the god transformed himself into a very old Saivite
devotee. Nampi and his hunters asked his blessings and returned
home.
The old man asked Valli for food, and she gave him some millet flour
mixed with honey. When he had eaten, he wanted to drink, and he
followed the girl to the small forest pond, where he quenched his
thirst. Then he told her: "You have satisfied my hunger and
quenched my thirst. Now I suffer from the fever of love, and only
you can cure me." Valli reproached him, and wanted to return to her
fields.
At that moment, Murukan invoked the help of his brother Vinayaka
who appeared behind Valli in the shape of a frightening elephant.
The tenor-stricken girl rushed into the arms of the Saiva ascetic,
who dragged her into a thicket and, while embracing her, assumed
his real form, with six heads, twelve arms, and seated on his
peacock. Carried away by this vision, Valli prostrated at his feet and
worshipped him as her god. He told her that she was, in fact, the
daughter of Tirumal, and that she should return to her millet fields,
where he would follow her. Valli complied with his wish.
8
10
had lain with Murukan7" (Nar. 82, 3-4). In one way or another the
Valli-Murukan story could have served as a model, a prototype for
ideal human behaviour,26 but it seems to me that the specific links
between the poetry and the myth lie in another sphere.
Apart from semantic likeness between the core of the myth and the
main subject of the kurifici theme there is the underlying common
concept: the basic concept of fertility, of sexual intercourse to
ensure it and to attain control over the female sacred force,
represented, in nature, by vegetation. Approached from this angle,
both the poetry subject and the actual tribal relationships as a
social background against which the subject is set, become no less
mythologized than the puranic version of the story: each of them
should be treated as a variant or, more precisely, as a means of
realizing one basic mythologeme, while the differences are manifest
merely in their formal structure.
In this context the figures of the main characters in the love poetry
acquire mythological significance. Thus the heroine symbolizes the
natural force of fertility. Plant symbolism links her directly with the
mythological figure of Valli; the link becomes still more prominent
when we consider a meaningful detail in the portrait of a woman
created in the poetry: her hair arranged in five strands (Nar. 140, 3;
160, 6; AN 8, 10; 152, 3 etc.).27 The custom to part hair in this
particular way may have originated in the desire of unmarried girls
to copy Valli, since she, on her part, was identified with the plant
known to have five petals (IP, p. 582). The same explanation can be
provided for another custom of young girls from mountain villages
who called themselves koticci (e.g. in AN 58, 5; 102, 5; and in Nar.
276, 4), the word being derived from the root
12
13
Thus drawn into the aura of Murukan, the hero is portrayed using a
minimum of poetic devices; as a matter of fact, only one detail is
sufficient to create his portrait: it is his breast, "cool, smelling of
14
sandal wood" (KT 161, 1; 321, 1; Nar. 168, 10), or "broad" (AN 22,
3), or "strong, like mountain slopes" (KT 76, 2; AM. 220, 3). Sweetsmelling, adorned with garlands, indeed the hero's chest provides
a parallel to a mountain overgrown with blossoming trees, a symbol
of affluent vegetation, strength, firmness and stability; the hero's
chest serves as a versatile symbol of his merits: his procreative
power and his unshakable strength. It is the hero's chest that
draws the heroine's passionate feelings and thoughts; it is also the
source of her pangs of love: "When I think of the broad chest of the
highlander, anointed with sandalwood paste, the pain inside me
grows" (KT 150, 3-5); "the chest of the highlander brings torture
(anatiku)" (Nar. 17, 12); "his broad sweet-smelling chest causes me
pain of worry" (AN 72, 2-3). At the same time the chest of the
beloved is capable of alleviating the pangs of passion in the
heroine: "It was sweet when I pressed myself to your chest" (AN 58,
9); "pressing (myself) to the chest of the highlander cools me" (AN
98, 5). For the heroine "there is no medicine like the chest [of the
beloved]" (KT 68, 4); his chest gives her protection ("friend's
protection," AN 35, 13). Notably, in the panegyrical poetry, as well,
the warrior's chest is the most notable detail of his portrait (PN 59,
1; 88, 4; 96, 1).
In search for mythico-ritual sources of the character of the hero it
should be borne in mind that he is, as it were, lighted, "animated"
by Murukan. In this vein it would be interesting to draw attention to
a custom familiar to Indian cul-ture, to represent a god by a stone or
stone slab. A stone is a common symbol of a mountain,
representing it in miniature form (cf. for example the cult of a black
stone, symbolically representing the mountain and its lord, Krsna.
15
16
interpretation is innal, "she is like that," that is, "the way I represent
her," which is quite meaningful). The paraphernalia employed: bells,
bones and, particularly, the avirai and the erukku are commonly
known symbols of the palai region (AN 301, 11; 14), the domain of
the goddess. Disclosing his beloved to the community in such a way
the hero possibly wishes to draw attention to the dangerous aspect
of the sacred force inherent in her; the force which is at the moment
(out of wedlock) in an uncontrolled state. It is also possible that the
motif of bareness (no doubt, socially meaningful) is emphasized in
the rite by the hero's mounting a thorny branch: it is also plausible
that this unpleasant procedure suggests castration.
The subject of the palmyra stem horse ride is, as a matter of fact,
connected with the subject of the kurifici theme formally related to
the peruntinai theme ("ill-matched love") which represents excesses
of love passion and is not included by the authors of the treatises
into the five-fold classification of titzai-themes. Yet despite its
unusual character, stepping aside from the ideal of harmonious
love, the motif did find reflexion in a number of poems. Moreover, it
was fixed in the tradition and constituted the subject matter of
chapter 114 in the tirukkural, to become later one of the favourite
themes of the bhakti poets (the matal theme; see [Hardy 1983:
396]) which, in itself, is suggestive of the ritual meaning and of the
cult significance of the situation.
I have tried to trace down the principles according to which the
main characters of the kurinci theme are structured. Let us now
examine other techniques which could be employed by the poets
for artistic expression of the basic stages of love situations.
22
Murukan has acquired, plucks a few leaves and makes a skirt for
herself; then, pressing her breasts to the tree, she embraces it like a
liana [Shulman 1980: 280-281]. Some poems contain reminiscences
of this episode. Thus, in Nar. 269, 7 and in AN 52, 1-2 a liana valli is
mentioned, climbing a verikai tree. Any creeper in a poetic
description, which embraces a tree can be perceived as a metaphor
of love union.
These symbolic descriptions of nature in the context of the kurinci
theme are subtle poetic hints used by the poet to imply that the
heroes have entered the stage of secret love.
Generally, references to the verikai and its blossoms have obvious
erotic overtones in the poem: a seemingly innocent and true to life
picture in which "a stream of water with verikai flowers fallen into it
washes the roots of a mango tree" (Par. VII, 14-15), viewed from the
standpoint of Tamil culture, has erotic connotations.32
[[32 A flow of water, with flowers, fruit or aromatic pollen fallen into
it are images commonly employed by poets and very much
favoured by them. See a description of a mountain stream in the
first chapter of the present study. Such a stream clearly symbolizes
semen. In the light of this metaphor the meaning of the bathing of
maidens in streaming waters becomes apparent.]]
The kantal (or tonri) is another traditionally employed symbol of
Murukan. This plant is an aromatic Malabar lily with a strong sweet
smell. Its yellow petals, long and curvy, resemble the tongues of
fire; therefore, in the poetry the flower is called "a forest oil-lamp"
(Nar. 69, 6) or "a flame" (AN 218, 20). Interestingly, it is compared
to a woman's lacquer-painted palm of hand (KT 167, 1; MPK 95).
26
Like the verikai, the red kantal in the kurifici theme is associated
with its main characters and has explicitly erotic connotations:
O friend! Do live! To my mother
The higher world will be a small [reward]
She did not scold me when I,
[Taking] a tender-petalled shoot of the [bright-coloured] kantal
Brought in the morning by the sweet-smelling waters
Of yesterday's rain on the mountain top,
Pressed it to my heart [so hard] that [the leaves] withered
And then planted it in front of my house. (KT 361)
If the verikai and the kantal represent the erotic aspect of Murukan
and, corre-spondingly, of the hero of the poetry, the sandalwood
tree, another representative of mountain flora, symbolizes their
strength (sandalwood is very hard) and, also, the idea of cooling
and attaining control over the sacred force (the cooling effect of
sandal paste is commonly known). Besides, sandalwood is reddish
in colour (See KT 321, 1), which further strengthens its symbolic link
with Murukan. In the poems the hero is frequently described with
his chest covered with sweet-smelling sandal paste (KT 150, 3; 161,
6; 321, 1 etc.), thus mountain associations, in one way or another
employed in the poetry, are used to the best effect:
O dweller of high mountains! I am tired of your promises!
You came at night, defying the dangers
Of stone paths amidst the bamboo,
27
28
29
poems (Nar. 116. 11; 268, 3; 301, 1; AN 308, 16; KT 3,3; PN 374, 8;
MK 301).
The kurifici is a honey-bearing flower. The honey of this particular
flower is considered the sweetest in the mountains [Samy 1955:
137]. Not unnaturally, this quality of the flower is projected on to
the heroine: she is frequently associated with honey: "her brow
smelling of honey" (Nar. 62, 6); "her mouth full of honey" (KT 300, 2)
or with flower pollen which attracts bees. The famous verse, KT 2, is
built upon this association:
O beautiful-winged bee, you spend your life in studying pollen.
Tell me honestly: have you seen,
Among the flowers known to you, him, who would be more fragrant
Than the hair of the maiden with strong teeth, who is like a
peacock,
By whom I am loved and who is close to me?
In the poem KT 3, in which the hero is called a "dweller of the
country rich in the honey of the kurinci flowers," the image
conveyed by this description is complex: implying the heroine's
puberty, her readiness to receive love and her willingness to give in
to the hero, lord of the kurinci country.
Honey is an ambivalent symbol, also representing, in some
instances, the hero's sexual prowess: similarly, in ancient Indian
ritual and mythology honey is associated with semen [Dange 1971:
206]. Poets sometimes employ images of sexual union in which
honey symbolically represents manhood: "His love is like a
30
Level
anthropomorphic
mythological
vegetable
millet
the peacock, the
zoological
parrot
Streams, running
mountain lakes 35
(theriomorphic)
landscape
The plants, flowers, birds and animals listed above, recurring in the
a poetry situation become semantically loaded within the given
context. At the same time they remain distinctive and beautiful
details of the kurifici landscape. The harmony of this landscape with
the love situation follows from their essential unity and their basic
mythological affinity. Likewise, this affinity forms the foundation on
which the subject matter of the kurifici theme becomes tightly
bound up with significant events in the world of nature: the ripening
of millet or the flowering of the kurifici. Thus, the various elements
of the kuririci theme, constituting the canon: the situational
(uripporul), the landscape-temporal (mutalporul) and, as it were, the
environmental (karupporul), each at its functional level, enter into a
complex interplay.
It is upon this unity that symbolic imagery develops, while the
descriptions, more or less extensive depending on the length of
the poem serve to express, in a codified form, certain ideas
connected with the poetry situation. These descriptions are
frequently included into a peculiar attributive phrase to describe the
hero: for example, malai neitan, "a dweller of the mountain
country," or, more precisely, "he who is related to the mountains,"
followed by a description of a mountain landscape. This
construction is a rather impressive poetic figure which brings out, in
the kurinci theme, the functional similarity of the hero to Murukan,
thus characterizing the hero from the standpoint of his "function."
Scenes of mountain landscape convey associations with the hero's
firmness and strength (comparing him to the firmness and strength
of mountain slopes), the sumptuousness of mountain forests, the
coolness of vegetation and mountain streams (to render the hero's
32
yet, at the same time, contain a hint that the beloved who caused
her pain and suffering is still her support and consolation.
Sometimes the elements of the landscape are scarce in the poems,
yet even a single detail, being fixed to a particular tinai-theme, is
capable of representing this theme in full, bringing to the reader's
mind the whole complex of associations, motifs, images and ideas
inherent in it:
When the flowers of the venkai tree, whose trunk is black, are falling
down onto the dam stone,
It looks like a cub of a large tiger.
To the secret night mission of the one
Who is walking across the forest
You are merciless, white Moon! (KT 47)
That this poem represents the kurinci theme leaves no doubt: the
vaikai is men-tioned already in the first line, yet the message of this
miniature landscape goes far beyond the establishment of this
thematic link: implicit is the idea that the heroes' romance has
reached a certain stage, the time is ripe for marriage. The
realization of this implication is twofold: the falling verikai flowers
indicate the arrival of the season of marriages, while the mention of
a tiger carries a warning to the hero of the danger of further
nocturnal trysts and, consequently, pushes him to bring the love
affair to a matrimonial finale
34