Ancient Greek Art and Literature

The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. | 2015 | Copyright

Ancient Greek literature, the writings of the ancient Greeks. The Greek Isles
are recognized as the birthplace of Western intellectual life.
Early Writings
The earliest extant European literary works are the Iliad and the Odyssey,
both written in ancient Greek probably before 700 BC, and attributed to
Homer. Among other early epic poems, most of which have perished, those
of Hesiod, the first didactic poet, remain. The poems dealing with
mythological subjects and known as the Homeric Hymns are dated 800300
BC Only fragments survive of the works of many early Greek poets, including
the elegiasts Tyrtaeus, Theognis, Solon, Semonides of Amorgos, Archilochus,
and Hipponax. The most personal Greek poems are the lyrics of Alcaeus,
Sappho and Anacreon. The Dorian lyric for choral performance, developed
with Alcman, Ibycus, and Stesichorus, achieved perfection in Pindar,
Simonides of Ceos, and Bacchylides.
The Classical Period
Greek drama evolved from the song and dance in the ceremonies honoring
Dionysus at Athens. In the 5th cent. BC tragedy was developed by three of
the greatest dramatists in the history of the theater, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides. Equally exalted was the foremost exponent of Attic Old
Comedy, Aristophanes. Other writers who developed this genre included
Cratinus and Eupolis, of whom little is known. The rowdy humor of these
early works gave way to the more sedate Middle Comedy and finally to New
Comedy, which set the form for this type of drama. The best-known writer of
Greek New Comedy is Menander.
The writing of history came of age in Greece with the rich and diffuse work of
Herodotus, the precise and exhaustive accounts of Thucydides, and the
rushing narrative of Xenophon. Philosophical writing of unprecedented
breadth was produced during this brief period of Athenian literature; the
works of Plato and Aristotle have had an incalculable effect in the shaping of
Western thought.
Greek oratory, of immense importance in the ancient world, was perfected at
this time. Among the most celebrated orators were Antiphon, Andocides,
Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Lycurgus, Aeschines, and, considered the greatest

of all, Demosthenes. "Classical" Greek literature is said to have ended with

the deaths of Aristotle and Demosthenes (c.322 BC). The greatest writers of
the classical era have certain characteristics in common: economy of words,
direct expression, subtlety of thought, and attention to form.
Later Greek Literature
The next period of Greek literature reached its zenith in Hellenistic
Alexandria, where a number of major philosophers, dramatists, poets,
historians, critics, and librarians wrote and taught. New genres such as
bucolic poetry emerged during the Hellenistic period, a time also
characterized by scholarly editions of classics from earlier periods. The
poems of Callimachus, the bucolics of Theocritus, and the epic of Apollonius
Rhodius are recognized as major works of world literature.
The production of literary works at the time of the establishment of Roman
control of the Mediterranean was enormous, a vast heterogeneous mixture
ranging from the sublime to the pedantic and turgid. A great portion of the
works produced have been lost. With the Roman political subjugation of
Greece, Greek thought and culture, introduced largely by slave-tutors to the
Roman aristocracy, came to exert enormous influence in the Roman world.
Among the greatest writers of this period were the historians Polybius,
Josephus, and Dio Cassius; the biographer Plutarch; the philosophers Philo
and Dio Chrysostom; and the novelist Lucian. One great Roman work
produced under Greek influence was the philosophical meditations of Marcus
Aurelius.
With the spread of Christianity, Greek writing took a new turn, and much of
the writing of the Greek Fathers of the Church is eloquent. Religion
dominated the literature of the Byzantine Empire, and a vast treasury of
writing was produced that is not generally well known to the West The most
notable exception is the work of some historians (e.g., Procopius, Anna
Comnena, George Acropolita, and Emperor John VI) and some anthologists
(e.g., Photius).
The Pergamon altar (180-160BC)

Classical Greek art changed rapidly as Greece itself went through wars
and imperial transformations. In what is called the Hellenistic age it became
much more emotional, sensual and even sensationalist. The furious
sculptures on the Pergamon altar which can be seen in its own museum in
Berlin are full of passion and
psychological drama.
The Siren vase (480-470BC)
In Homer's Odyssey, one of the
founding
epics
of
Greek
literature,
Odysseus longs to hear the seductive yet
dangerous song of the sirens that lure
sailors to their deaths. So all his crew plug
their ears, and Odysseus has himself
lashed to the mast. This powerful painting captures the tension as Odysseus
strains at his bonds, his whole body agonized, his head raised in rapt
listening.
Philosophers from Greece

Heraclitus was
a
rich
man
from Ephesus and lived c.500, during
the Persian occupation of his home
town. His philosophical work consists of
a series of cryptical ,pronouncements
that
force
a
reader
to
think.
Unfortunately, a great part of his work
is lost, which makes it very difficult to
reconstruct Heraclitus' ideas. It seems
certain, however, that he thought that
the basic principle of the universe was
the logos, i.e. the fact that it was
rationally organized and therefore

understandable. Bipolar oppositions are one form of organization, but the

sage understands that these oppositions are just aspects of one reality. Fire
is the physical aspect of the perfect logos.

We know almost nothing about Thales of Miletus. Later generations told many
anecdotes about this wise man, but it is difficult to verify the reliability of these
stories. What seems certain, however, is that he predicted the Solar eclipse of 28 May
585,
which
was
remembered
because
the Lydian king Alyattes and
the Median leader Cyaxares were fighting a battle on that day. Another reliable bit of
information is that he did geometrical research, which enabled him to measure the
pyramids. However, his most important contribution to European civilization is his
attempt to give rational explanations for physical phenomena. Behind the phenomena
was not a catalogue of deities, but one single, first principle. Although his
identification of this principle with water is rather unfortunate, his idea to look for
deeper causes was the true beginning of philosophy and science. Thales died after
547.
Difference of Geography of Greece and Egypt
Greece
1 It is surrounded by water on three
sides.
2 Heavily Mountainous
3 Plenty of natural harbors
4 Relatively green

5 Timber for ship building

6 Had a lot of earthquakes
Egypt
1 dependent upon flow of the Nile
River
2 Only one natural harbor in north

3 Water on north and southeast side

4 Green in river delta

5 Mostly desert
6 Flooded every year

2 UNESCO HERITAGE SITE IN GREECE

Acropolis, Athens

The Acropolis of Athens and its monuments are universal symbols of

the classical spirit and civilization and form the greatest architectural and
artistic complex bequeathed by Greek Antiquity to the world. In the second
half of the fifth century bc, Athens, following the victory against the Persians
and the establishment of democracy, took a leading position amongst the
other city-states of the ancient world. In the age that followed, as thought
and art flourished, an exceptional group of artists put into effect the
ambitious plans of Athenian statesman Pericles and, under the inspired
guidance of the sculptor Pheidias, transformed the rocky hill into a unique
monument of thought and the arts. The most important monuments were
built during that time: the Parthenon, built by Ictinus, the Erechtheon, the
Propylaea, the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, designed by Mnesicles
and the small temple Athena Nike.
Archaeological Site of Olympia

Olympia bears exceptional testimony to the ancient civilizations of

Peloponnesos, in terms of both duration and quality. The first human
settlements date back to prehistoric times; the Middle Helladic and
Mycenaean periods are represented at the site. Consecrated to Zeus, the
Altis is a major sanctuary from the 10th century BC to the 4th century AD
corresponding to the zenith of Olympia. A Christian settlement survived for a
time at the site of the ruins of the great Pan-Hellenic sanctuary.
In north-western Peloponnesos the archaeological site of Olympia at
the foot of the Kronion Hill stretches over a triangular alluvial terrace at the
confluence of the Alpheios and the Kladeos. In this area of very ancient
settlement, religious centres of worship succeeded one another during the
Hellenic period: those to Kronos, Gala, and other Chtonian divinities, those to
Pelops, the hero who gave his name to Peloponnesus, and those to
Hippodamia, whose hand Pelops won in a chariot race against Oenomaos,
her father. Olympia became a centre of worship to Zeus in the 10th century
BC.
The name Olympia, which described the wooded valley where the site
was located, referred to the sacred mountain of Olympus, the habitual
residence of Zeus. Placed under the protection of the cities of Pisa and later
Elis, the Olympian sanctuary experienced an enormous renown in the 8th
century BC, with the Pan-Hellenic games which were held every fifth year.
Beginning in 776 BC, the games regularly brought together athletes. Later,
orators, poets and musicians also came to celebrate Zeus.
2 City States in Greece
Sparta

Sparta was a powerful city-state in ancient Greece. Sparta was ruled by

a small group of retired warriors. This type of government is called an
oligarchy. The Spartans spoke Greek. They thought of themselves as Greeks.
But Sparta was very different from the other Greek city-states.
All citizens in ancient Greece were warriors. But the Spartans were the
best warriors in all of Greece. There was no argument about that. The citystate of Sparta was basically a well-trained army. In other city-states,
children entered military school at age 18. In Sparta, they entered at age 6.
The girls were taught how to fight as well. Their school was separate from
the boys' school. It was not as brutal, perhaps. But still, the girls learned how
to fight and steal and lie and kill - skills that could save their lives in times of
war.
The Spartans were tough. Men and male children, from the age of 6,
lived in the soldiers' barracks until they retired from military service. The
men were often off fighting. The women were left behind to guard their
homes. Perhaps because of this, women in ancient Sparta had a great deal of
freedom. They ran businesses. They were free to move around and visit
neighbors without asking their husbands permission.
But not everyone who lived in Sparta was a citizen of Sparta. To be a
citizen with full rights of fair trial, the men had to pay to prove they were the
ancestors of the original people who lived in Sparta. If they couldn't prove it,
or couldn't afford to pay for the search, they were not citizens. Citizens had
many rights like the right to a fair trial and the right to be educated to be a
good warrior and to live in the barracks. Non-citizens could be killed for no
reason at all.
The other Greek city-states had no desire to be Spartans. Many
thought they were military fanatics, but they admired their strength. Most
wanted Sparta on their side. No incredible works of art were created in
Sparta as they were in other Greek city-states. But Spartans were good
friends to have in times of war.
Athens
Athenians thought of themselves as the best city-state in all of ancient
Greece. They recognized that other city-states had value and were Greek,
but they were the best. Ask any ancient Athenian and they would tell you
that Athens had the best literature, the best poetry, the best drama, the best
schools - and truly, they were a leading city-state.

Many other city-states compared themselves to Athens. You'd hear

people from other city-states say things like, "Our schools are good as those
in Athens." Athens was the measuring stick. There was one exception - the
city-state of Sparta. No other city-state in ancient Greece was like Sparta.
Whereas Athens was famous for their arts and sciences, Sparta was famous
for their military strength.
The ancient Greeks believed that each city-state had one or two gods
keeping a special eye on that city-state. The god in charge of Athens was
Athena, goddess of wisdom. Education was very important in Athens. From
their mothers, girls learned how to cook and sew and run a home, and how
to be a good wife and mother.
Boys went to school. They memorized poetry and learned to play a
musical instrument, usually the lyre. They studied public speaking and
drama and reading and writing. Sons of nobles went to high school - four
more years of learning about the sciences and the arts and politics and
government.
Each city-state in ancient Greece had their own form of government.
Most city-states were ruled by kings. Some were ruled by councils, a small
group of people. But in Athens, for about 100 years, Athens was ruled by
direct democracy! It was an experiment. It didn't last long, but a form of
democracy was invented in Athens, one more gift we received from the
ancient Greeks.
Citizens of Athens had many rights, including the right to stand trial
and the right (when Athens was a direct democracy) to vote. But not all
people in ancient Athens were citizens. Originally, a free maile would be a
citizen if his father was a citizen. But Pericles changed that rule in 450 BCE.
The new law stated that both father and mother be Athenians for a child to
be an Athenian. Out of the Athenians, only men had full citizenship. Women
had partial citizenship, which basically meant they had few if any rights.
Pericles changed this rule to give Athenian women more status. It worked.
Even though Athenian women had no power of their own, their status made
them more likely to contract a good marriage.
Question: Why is Philip of Macedonian able to conquer Greece?
The Greeks had a history of disunity. Athens had been defeated by
Sparta, and Sparta was in turn defeated by Thebes which was the leading
political power in Greece to oppose Philip. Demosthenes of Athens spoke

against the threat from Macedonia to Greek autonomy. If the Greeks had
been able to ally more strongly as they had done earlier against Persia, they
might have preserved their autonomy.
Also, while the Greeks may have had an advantage in quality, Philip
had a greater advantage in numbers. The Macedonian Army was larger and
more modern. The phalanx infantry formation used by the Thebans to defeat
Sparta was improved by the Macedonians with longer spears and ranks of
sixteen instead of eight. After an enemy had been broken up by the
Macedonian phalanx, the Macedonian heavy cavalry charged in for the kill.
Factors that contributes Alexanders Greatness
1. Trained in Philosophy by Aristotle Out of all the intellectuals at the
prestigious Academy in Athens, Alexander's father, Philip, chose
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) to instruct his 13-year-old son. Aristotle, who
had been the student of Plato, was offered a handsome salary to move
to the town of Mieza, deep in the Macedonian countryside. In the
nearby Temple of the Nymphs, Aristotle taught the young prince
geography, zoology, politics and medicine.
2. Tamed the horse Bucephalus. Philip, Alexander's father, bought a horse
called Bucephalus for the exorbitant price of 13 talents (1 talent = 27
kg of gold), but the rambunctious animal bucked all comers. Watching
the futile attempts, Alexander noticed that the animal was frightened
by its own shadow. He bet his father that he could mount the horse. By
turning Bucephalus toward the sun so its shadow was behind it,
Alexander was able to climb into the saddle and gallop around
triumphantly. To which his father said: "My boy, you must find a
kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedonia is too small for
you." Bucephalus remained Alexander's faithful steed until it died in
what is now present-day Pakistan, fighting elephant-mounted brigades.
3. Assumed Father's Throne in Timely, but Ruthless, Manner. Alexander's
father, Philip, was stabbed by one of his bodyguards in 336 B.C. at a
wedding banquet. Although few scholars think that Alexander was
directly involved in the assassination, he wasted no time dispatching
any possible rivals - even instructing his mother, Olympians, to execute
the infant son of Philip's last wife.
4. Perfected Macedonian Military Style, the Phalanx. The most distinctive
element of the Macedonian war machine was the phalanx. Developed
by Alexander's father, the phalanx was a tight formation of soldiers usually 16 by 16 - carrying shields and sarisses, which were 20-foot-

long spears made of cornel-wood. The back rows of the phalanx held
their sarisses upright, hiding the movement of forces behind the lines,
while the front rows kept the enemy at bay with an impenetrable wall
of sharp pikes. On flat terrain, the phalanx proved unbeatable.
Alexander also had at his disposal light auxiliaries, archers, a siege
train, and a cavalry. Thanks to his father, Alexander's army was largely
a professional one.
5. Crossed the Hellespont. After solidifying his rule of Macedonia and
Greece, Alexander looked east to Asia and the Persian Empire, which
was led by Darius III. Alexander assembled an allied Greek army of
5,000 cavalry and 32,000 infantry to avenge the Persian invasion of
Greece in 490 B.C. With 60 naval vessels, Alexander crossed the
Hellespont (a narrow strait separating Europe and Asia - now called the
Dardanelles) in 334 B.C. From his ship, Alexander threw his spear onto
the shore. As he took his first steps in Asia, he pulled his weapon from
the sand and declared that these lands would be won by the spear.
The Fall of Alexander the Great
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different
versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in
each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14days before his death,
Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next
day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious
about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently
waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that
Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed
wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did
not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned
this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,
foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch,
Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was
poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning
conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus
and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of
completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in
designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at

odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his
summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of
Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander
to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.
There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.
It is claimed that the strongest argument against the poison theory is
the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and
his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.
However, in 2003 Dr Leo Schep From The New Zealand National
Poisons Centre proposed in a BBC documentary investigating his death
that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album) may have been used
to poison Alexander. In 2014 Dr Leo Schep published this theory in the
peer-reviewed medical journal Clinical Toxicology; in this journal article
it was suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, a
plant known to the Ancient Greeks, which produces poisoning
symptoms that match the course of events as described in the
Alexander Romance. Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged
course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum
album offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation
was put forward in 2010, it was proposed that the circumstances of his
death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx
(Mavroneri) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound
produced by bacteria.
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including
malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of
Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel
perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested
pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the symptoms,
including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural-cause theories
also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in
general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The
anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have
contributed to his declining health.