STORAGE AND MATERIAL TRANSFER

Raw material and in-process storage tanks often represent a major portion of the
risk of a chemical plant. Hazardous material transfer lines can also be a signi
ficant hazard. Attention to the design of storage and transfer equipment can red
uce hazardous material inventory.
Storage
Storage tanks for raw material and intermediates are often much larger than real
ly necessary, usually because this makes it "easier" to operate the plant. The o
perating staff can pay less attention to ordering raw materials on time, or can
accept downtime in a downstream processing unit, because upstream production can
be kept in storage until the downstream unit is back on line.
This convenience in operation can come at a significant cost in risk of loss of
containment of the hazardous materials being stored. The process design engineer
s must question the need for all intermediate hazardous material storage, and mi
nimize quantities where such storage is really needed. SimilarIy, hazardous raw
material storage should also be minimized, with greater attention being given to
"just in time" supply. Inventory reduction can also result in lower inventory c
osts, as well as increasing the inherent safety of the manufacturing facility. T
he reduction in inventory resulting from greater attention to plant operations a
nd design of unit interactions can be extremely largeFor example:
An acrylonitrile plant eliminated 500,000 pounds (-277,000 kg) of inprocess stor
age of hydrogen cyanide by accepting a shutdown of the entire unit when the prod
uct purification area shut down. This applied pressure to the plant to solve the
problems that caused shutdown of the
purification area.
Another acrylonitrile plant supplied by-product hydrogen cyanide to various othe
r units. An inventory of 350,000 pounds (-159,000 kg) of hydrogen cyanide was el
iminated by having the other units draw directly from the acrylonitrile plant. T
his required considerable work to resolve
many issues related to acrylonitrile purity and unit scheduling.
A central bulk chlorine system with large storage tanks and extensive piping was
replaced with a number of small cylinder facilities local to the individual chl
orine users. Total inventory of chlorine was reduced by over 100,000 pounds.
MATERIAL STORAGE
Storage areas in the plant usually contain the largest volumes of hazardous mate
rials. Frequently storage areas contain flammable liquids or liquefied gases. Th
e main concern in the design of storage installations for such liquids is to red
uce the hazard of fire by reducing the amount of spillage, controlling the spill
, and controlling fire.
Minimizing storage quantities also reduces the potential for large spills and fu
rther damage. Pipeline feeds from a reliable source can eliminate the requiremen
t for large storage areas. Solid chemicals may be stored in bulk in bins, hopper
s, piles or containers. Liquid chemicals may be stored in tanks, reservoirs or s
pecified shipping containers. Gases may be stored in low pressure gas holders, i
n high pressure tanks or cylinders; or in liquid form in tanks or containers und
er pressure, refrigeration or both. Pressure and temperature of storage greatly
affects dispersion/emission of liquid or vapor in case containment is lost.
Whether intended for use at atmospheric, low pressure, or high pressure conditio
ns, the primary considerations of tank design are stresses, both pressure and th
ermal, including fire exposure. The objective is to maintain working pressure wi
thin permissible limits by providing pressure relief (outbreathing) and vacuum r
elief (inbreathing).
TYPES OF STORAGE

The main types of storage tanks and vessels for liquids and liquefied gases are
1.atmospheric storage tank
2.low pressure storage tank
3.pressure or refrigerated pressure storage vessels
4.refrigerated storage tanks
1.Atmospheric storage:
There are horizontal cylindrical tank having flat ends,vertical cylindrical tank
s with coned or domed roof,fixed roof tank and floating roof tank. Atmospheric t
anks are designed to withstand an internal pressure /vacuum of not more than 1 p
sig.
Horizontal cylindrical tanks have a relatively small capacity.Domed roof tank go
upto 60 ft diameter.Coned roof tank are built upto 250ft diameter and 60ft heig
ht.Floating roof tank may be 250ft in dia and 72 ft in height.
The two main types of large tanks (50,000 gallons) used for storing liquids at n
ear atmospheric conditions are the welded vertical flat bottom tank with a fixed
cone, flat, or domed roof, and the welded vertical tank with a floating roof in
place of the cone roof .Both types can be used to store hazardous materials. Th
e fixed tank is normally preferred in applications where it is desirable to coll
ect and treat all emissions from the tank or where an inert gas is used to reduc
e the possibility of fire, explosion, or chemical reaction. Floating roof tanks
are typically used where the vapor pressure of the stored fluid would be excessi
ve for a cone roof tank or where collection of emissions from the tank is not re
quired but it is still desirable to minimize them. It should be recognized that
a drain can be provided, but drains can plug up and the roof could then flood an
d sink. For environmental emissions controls, domed or cone roof tanks with inte
rnal floaters are also now common. For many types of materials, particularly for
organics, the type of tank that may be used will be governed by the EPA or by s
tate environmental authorities. The material's vapor pressure (VP) is the main d
etermining factor.
Most organics with a VP below 1.5 psia can be stored in fixed roof tanks; materi
als with a VP between 1.5 and 11 psia must be stored in at least a floating roof
tank; and for organics with a VP over 11 psia tank emissions must be recovered
for reuse or destruction. For some specific compounds, these regulations may be
stricter.
For smaller near-atmospheric tanks, horizontal tanks, at ground level on saddles
or on legs or vertical tanks on legs or skirts are used. These are normally cyl
indrical tanks with various combinations of heads For materials such as butane
or ammonia that are normally stored as pressurized liquids, pressure spheres are
normally used. These spheres may be insulated; pressure is normally maintained
by recompressing the tank vapor and returning the liquid to the tank after cooli
ng it. For liquids or gases requiring high pressure storage horizontal tanks on
saddles are used. These tanks are cylindrical with elliptical or domed pressure
heads.
2.Low pressure storage
This include horizontal cylindrical tank with dished ends, vertical cylindrical
hemispheroidal tank.Low pressure tanks are designed to withstand internal pressu
re in the range 0.5 -15 psig. The design of low pressure tank is governed by API
Std 620. Low pressure tanks are suitable for the storage of liquids which are t
oo volatile for for atmospheric storage.Gasoline is stored in this manner.
3. Pressure or refrigerated pressure storage vessels
Pressure storage vessels are regular pressure vessel and can be designed to high
pressures as required.The lower end of scale for pressure storage is 15 psig.Ho
rizontal cylindrical vessels have a limited capacity and for large quantities sp
heres are used.Spherical pressure vessels have a number of advantages.The surfa
ce to volume ratio is minimal and only 88% of that of vertical cylindrical tank,
which reduces heat leak.The foundation structure is simpler and there is no dan
ger of soil freezing.Pressure storage tanks are suitable for the storage of liqu

efied gases such as LPG and ammonia.

4.Refrigerated storage tanks
This is a doomed roof ,flat bottomed tank.It is essentially an atmospheric tank
,with a design pressure below 1 psig.Low pressure tanks may also be used for ref
rigerated storage.
Safety Considerations for Atmospheric Storage Tanks
Hazards associated with atmospheric tanks (ambient pressure to 15 psig) include
overpressure and underpressure, vapor generation, spills, tank rupture, fire and
product contamination.
Overpressure and Underpressure. Internal deflagration is a concern because of th
e presence of a flammable organic/air mixture in the presence of an ignition sou
rce. This mixture can occur during filling, emptying, or mixing in tanks that co
ntain vapors of organics near their flash point. The mixture may also occur in s
tored products containing impurities or light gases such as hydrogen in petroleu
m fractions as a result of an upset in an upstream process unit. A peripheral ra
iling and walkway, if attached to the top of the wall and to the outer portion o
f the roof, make the wall-to-roof joint too strong relative to the strength of t
he wall-tofloor joint. The result is that overpressure may cause the bottom to c
up up and tear loose from the wall, instead of tearing off the roof. This is a c
ritical concern for tanks with a diameter less than 10 m (30 feet). Weak seam ta
nks for storing toxic materials are generally discouraged since a tank rupture w
ould release the material to the atmosphere. Additional pressure relief devices,
directing the hazardous material to a safe area, are used to protect the tank.
Underpressure (vacuum) in fixed roof tanks can be caused when material is rapidl
y withdrawn or when a sudden drop in temperature or pressure, usually caused by
weather conditions, reduces the volume of the vapor in the tank. The underpressu
re protection should be sized to handle the maximum withdrawal rate plus the max
imum temperature/ volume reduction occurring simultaneously. The vacuum relief d
evice should be located at, or near, the highest point in the tank. In addition,
differential pressure measurement relative to local ambient conditions must be
provided.
Excessive Vapor Generation. Excessive vapor generation is the result of a deviat
ion of temperature or routing of products more volatile than the design fluid. F
or tanks provided with internal heaters, adequate level should be maintained abo
ve the surface of the heater so as not to overheat the tank contents and cause v
apor generation or reach the autoignition temperature.
The polymerization of materials in a tank can yield sudden high overpressure com
bined with elevated temperatures in the tank. In this situation standard pressur
e relief valves may not be enough, both because very large two-phase flows may b
e involved, and because solid, polymerized materials may plug the relief valve.
In these cases rupture discs with ducting leading to the atmosphere may be used,
with the relief effluent being directed to a safe area of the plant. If the pol
ymerization of the tank can yield potentially hazardous materials, the safe area
may include an isolation or containment tank or sump for the hazardous material
.
Tank Spills. Common causes of spills are:
overfilling due to operator error or high level alarm failure (vehicular as
well as stationary tanks)
withdrawal of water from the tank bottom without operator attention
mechanical failure of tank support causing collapse of roof
accumulation of a large volume of water, snow or ice on the tank roof causing co
llapse and subsequent exposure of liquid surface

Tank Rupture. A tank rupture is the sudden loss of tank integrity over a relativ
ely large area of the tank structure, causing a large loss of contents. It can b
e caused by any of several conditions: overfilling, overpressure due to an inter
nal chemical reaction or material boiling due to a constant exposure to heat, co
ntinued impingement of flame over an area of the tank, loss of wall integrity du
e to corrosion, or loss of wall weld integrity.
The chances of tank rupture can be reduced by attention to several design featur
es:
the proper use and sizing of overflow piping and pressure relief safety valves a
nd rupture disks.
the installation of the appropriate high level alarms and flow shutoffs to preve
nt overfilling
the installation of water sprays to protect exposed tank walls during a fire
the diked area should be sloped to a sump within the diked area
the proper specification of tank materials and thickness, including corrosion al
lowances
the inspection of tank welding during and after construction and the pressure te
sting of the tank prior to use.
Fire. When flammable materials are being stored, fire is the greatest hazard nor
mally addressed in the design of the storage system. Design items that should be
addressed in this area are given below.
Protection against electrostatic charges which can cause ignition. This may incl
ude the bonding and grounding of the tank, piping, and other ancillary equipment
and the use of bottom or dip-pipe loading to minimize material splashing in the
tank.
Fire fighting facilities applicable to the type of tank protected. This can incl
ude fire loops with hydrants and monitors in the storage area, foam systems for
the individual tanks, and deluge spray systems to keep the exposed surfaces of t
anks cool in case of fire in an adjacent tank.
Foam systems usually consist of a foam storage tank, an incoming firewater line,
a mixing fixture, foam / water piping up the side of the tank, and foam/water a
pplicator nozzles. The systems for fixed roof tanks are designed to create a foa
m layer over the flammable material in the tank.
The systems for floating roof tanks are designed to cover the space immediately
over the seal area, but if an internal floating roof is constructed of lightweig
ht materials, the foam system should be designed as if the tank were a cone roof
type.
Adequate spacing between tanks.
Install flame arresters on atmospheric vents to prevent impinging fire on the ou
tside of the tank from reaching the vapor space inside the tank
Do not use air to mix flammable materials.
Provide fire resistant insulation for critical vessels, piping, outlet valves on
tanks, valve actuators, instruments lines, and key electrical facilities.
Provide remote controlled, automatic, and fire-actuated valves to stop loss of t
ank contents during an emergency; provide fire protection to these valves. Valve
s should be close-coupled to the tank, and must be resistant to corrosion or oth
er deleterious effects of spilled fluids.
Contamination of Product. The contamination of material in tanks by the introduc
tion of incompatible materials or material of the wrong temperature can cause ru
naway reactions, polymerization, high temperature excursions, or underpressuriza
tion of the tank. To avoid potential contamination of products or routing wrong
materials to tanks, piping valves and manifolds to the tank should be clearly ma
rked, operating procedures should be simple and well-defined, and periodic opera
tor training should be provided. Plant upsets or emergency shutdowns can affect
the quality of product routed to tankage. The designer must evaluate the potenti
al effects of these events and mitigate them. Protection features can be incorpo
rated into the design of process units that can reduce or eliminate hazards in t
ank storage areas. Two such features are:

Monitor streams routed to tankage for deviations from product specifications.

Emergency rundown coolers for hot streams routed from a process unit to tankage
in the event of downstream unit shutdown, if the fluid temperature exceeds the a
cceptable tank temperature.
Safety Considerations for Bin Storage
The safety considerations for the bin storage of powdered or pelleted materials
is similar to that for fixed roof tanks. The primary danger in the bins comes fr
om dust in the vapor space above the material creating an explosive or ignitable
condition. Ignition sources should be minimized and dust conditions reduced by
the use of filters or baghouses. A safety vent or rupture disk should be include
d to prevent overpressurization in case the filter bags clog during operations.
Care should be taken during the design of the bin to reduce horizontal surfaces
inside the bin where material can remain and create a hazard when the bin is ope
ned for maintenance; the air above such areas has been known to explode while wo
rk inside the bins was being performed during normal repairs. Additionally, the
bin can be inerted in a manner similar to that used for atmospheric storage tank
s (NFPA 68 and 69). The pneumatic transfer of solids can also be preformed using
an inert or a low-oxygen gas with a closed loop return to the sending tank.
Safety design considerations are:
Pressure/vacuum relief valves (including conservation vents for atmospheric tank
s) and relief discharge venting
Fire relief and protection, including fire loops and monitors, protective sprays
, foam application, and flame arresters
Foundations, fabrication techniques and anchorages
Materials of construction and corrosion
Design considerations for related pipework and fittings including stresses due t
o movement, expansion/contraction, vibration, connections, valves, and layout.
Selection of ancillary equipment including pumps, compressors, vaporizers, etc.
Consideration of the range of operations as well as nonoperational periods such
as commissioning, decommissioning, unit shutdowns, and tank cleaning.
Safety Considerations for Container Storage
The primary additional safety concern when hazardous materials are stored in con
tainers is the large amount of vehicle and employee traffic associated with cont
ainers combined with the hazard caused by constant handling. Storage areas shoul
d be designed to allow the smooth flow of traffic without the need to constantly
maneuver a forklift or truck. The storage area should be arranged to allow pers
onnel access to inspect all containers for leakage or other damage on a regular
basis. The storage of compressed gases should meet all the requirements specifie
d in the applicable OSHA standards, while flammable materials storage should mee
t those specified in NFPA 30. It is recommended that the warehouse storage areas
of hazardous liquids include secondary containment similar to that required for
liquid hazardous wastes in 40 CFR 264 an area with an impermeable liner that can
contain at least 10% of the total volume of the containers or the largest contai
ner, whichever is larger.
Incompatible materials should be kept separated so that any spills cannot mix. T
he storage of containers in rack areas may require specialized fire control syst
ems such as individual sprinkler lines to deliver water or foam directly to each
rack level. The placement of drums in processing area for the dispensing of the
contents may not need to meet the same stringent storage specifications, but it
will still be necessary to meet all pertinent safety requirements. The process
drums area may include safety barriers to prevent traffic from hitting the drums
, portable drum sumps to contain any spills, a ventilation system to control fum
es, and double valving or a valve and plug to minimize drum leakage.
STORAGE LAYOUT

Layout of hazardous materials storage areas requires careful attention. Typicall

y a far larger quantity of material is held in storage than in process. Some of
the important aspects of storage layout are:
Storage tanks should be arranged in groups so that common dike and fire fighting
equipment can be used for each group.
Tanks should be located downwind of other areas to prevent flammable materials r
eaching ignition sources, should a leak develop in a tank.
It is essential to keep storage tanks away from process areas since a fire or ex
plosion in a process unit may endanger the large inventory of the storage tank.
Storage tanks should be diked in accordance with NFPA 30. Piping, valves and fla
nges should be kept to a minimum when located within dikes. Valves, manifolds, a
nd piping should be installed outside dikes or impounding areas.
The effect of intensity of thermal radiation from an adjacent tank on fire shoul
d be considered in spacing the tanks. Tolerance of tanks to thermal radiation ca
n be increased by insulating or fireproof ing the tank shell, and providing wate
r cooling arrangements.
Segregation:
The segragation and separation of materials within the storage area is largely
based on classification of materials stored,on secondary containment on hazardou
s area classification and on fire protection measures.
Separation distances:
Minimum recommended separation distances for storage are given in various codes
and other publications.The separation distances for petroleum products given in
the IP Refining safety code .
Secondary containment:
Some types of liquid storage tank are normally surrounded by a bund,dike,or prov
ided with a pit to retain any spillage of liquid.Bunds are made of earth or con
crete.The bunding is done to retain the liquid so that it can be dealt with in a
controlled manner, by evaporation from a specially designed catchment /evaporat
ion area ,by foam blanketing or other measures.
The spacing is given as a tank shell-to-shell separation distance and is a funct
ion of the largest tank diameter. Additional spacing may be required depending u
pon accessibility, fire water supply, fire fighting facilities, and drainage.
Spacing requirements will vary depending on whether storage tanks are classified
as pressurized, refrigerated or atmospheric. Separation distances depend on the
shape of the tank, the size of the tank, the distance between tanks and groups
of tanks, the number of tanks in a group, the type of roof (dome or floating), i
nsulation on the tank, and the tank contents. Consult the codes for specifics be
cause many exceptions and limitations exist. Many aspects of storage and piping
system design require special attention to reduce seismic risks. Tanks can tip o
ver or slide due to inadequate bracing or anchorage. Tank movement can cause att
ached piping to fail, resulting in release of toxic or flammable liquids. Unanch
ored tanks may be anchored and flexibility provided in attached piping to ensure
it moves independently of the tank during an earthquake. Proper design and loca
tion of pipe supports will ensure that severe stresses at nozzles do not occur d
uring seismic shake. Tank foundation problems may be reduced by designing for as
ymmetric pressures from sloshing of vessel contents and the sliding and overturn
ing loads at the vessel anchorage.
ATMOSPHERIC VENTING
Ventilation
For environmental control of airborne toxic material the most common method of c
hoice is ventilation, for the following reasons:
Ventilation can quickly remove dangerous concentrations of flammable and toxic m
aterials.
Ventilation can be highly localized, reducing the quantity of air moved and the

equipment size.
Ventilation equipment is readily available and can be easily installed.
Ventilation equipment can be added to an existing facility.
The major disadvantage of ventilation is the operating cost. Substantial electri
cal energy may be needed to drive the potentially large fans, and the cost to he
at or cool the large quantities of fresh air can be large. These operating costs
need to be considered when evaluating alternatives.
Ventilation is based on two principles: (1) dilute the contaminant below the tar
get concentration, and (2) remove the contaminant before workers are exposed.
Ventilation systems are composed of fans and ducts. The fans produce a small pre
ssure drop (less than 0.1 psi) that moves the air. The best system is a negative
pressure system, with the fans located at the exhaust end of the system, pullin
g air out. This ensures that leaks in the system draw air in from the workplace
rather than expel contaminated air from the ducts into the workplace. There are
two types of ventilation techniques: local and dilution ventilation
Local Ventilation
The most common example of local ventilation is the hood. A hood is a device tha
t either completely encloses the source of contaminant and/or moves the air in s
uch a fashion as to carry the contaminant to an exhaust device. There are severa
l types of hoods:
An enclosed hood completely contains the source of contaminant.
An exterior hood continuously draws contaminants into an exhaust from some dista
nce away.
A receiving hood is an exterior hood that uses the discharge motion of the conta
minant for collection.
A push-pull hood uses a stream of air from a supply to push contaminants toward
an exhaust system.
The most common example of an enclosed hood is the laboratory hood.Fresh air is
drawn through the window area of the hood and is removed out the top through a d
uct. The airflow profiles within the hood are highly dependent on the location o
f the window sash. It is important to keep the sash open a few inches, minimally
, to ensure adequate fresh air. Likewise, the sash should never be fully opened
because contaminants might escape. The baffle at the rear of the hood ensures th
at contaminants are removed from the working surface and the rear lower corner
Another type of laboratory hood is the bypass hood. For this design bypass air i
s supplied through a grill at the top of the hood. This ensures the availability
of fresh air to sweep out contaminants in the hood. The bypass air supply is re
duced as the hood sash is opened.
The advantages of enclosed hoods are that they completely eliminate exposure to
workers, require minimal airflow, provide a containment device in the event of f
ire or explosion, and provide a shield to the worker by means of a sliding door
on the hood. The disadvantages of hoods are that they limit workspace and can be
used only for small, bench-scale or pilot plant equipment.
Dilution Ventilation
If the contaminant cannot be placed in a hood and must be used in an open area o
r room, dilution ventilation is necessary. Unlike hood ventilation, where the ai
rflow prevents worker exposure, dilution ventilation always exposes the worker b
ut in amounts diluted by fresh air. Dilution ventilation always requires more ai
rflow than local ventilation; operating expenses can be substantial For exposure
s to multiple sources the dilution air requirement is computed for each individu
al source. The total dilution requirement is the sum of the individual dilution
requirements.
The following restrictions should be considered before implementing dilution ven
tilation:
1.The contaminant must not be highly toxic.
2.The contaminant must be evolved at a uniform rate.

3.Workers must remain a suitable distance from the source to ensure proper dilut
ion of the
contaminant.
4.Scrubbing systems must not be required to treat the air before exhaust into th
e environment.
A fixed roof atmospheric storage tank is connected to the atmosphere by some for
m of vent,generally either a simple free flow atmospheric vent or pressure/vacuu
m valve.Vents for atmospheric storage tanks are dealt within BS 2654.Since atmos
pheric tanks can withstand pressure/vacuum of only few inches,it is essential th
at atmospheric vents should remain free.Blockage can occur accidentally due to d
ebris, solids formation, polymerization etc.
A flame arrestor at the end of a vent also serves to keep out debris.If there is
no arrestor, a coarse wire mesh guard is usually provided.
The tank may also suffer overpressure or underpressure if the capacity of vent i
s not sufficient.Situations in which tank failure tend to occur due to accidenta
l blockage or deliberate sealing off of a vent or to lack of capacity in the ven
t.

Safe Storage and handling of Chemicals

Storage procedures
When keeping chemicals in storage, the following precautions should be observed:
The quantities of hazardous chemicals shall be kept to a minimum, commensurate w
ith their usage and shelf life. Some chemicals degrade in storage and can become
more hazardous e.g. chloroform can produce phosgene from prolonged storage. Suc
h chemicals shall be identified and managed appropriately.
Ensure chemical containers and their seals or stoppers are appropriate for the t
ype and quantity of chemical stored. As far as is practicable, chemicals should
be stored in the containers in which they are supplied.
All packages in storage shall be labeled to allow unmistakable identification of
the contents. All labels should comply with the relevant regulations (see UQ OH
&S Guideline for the Labelling of substances).
Storage of chemicals, including wastes, shall be based on the properties and mut
ual reactivities of the chemicals. Incompatible chemicals shall be kept segregat
ed from one another, e.g. by fire isolation in a chemical storage cabinet or seg
regation in space. A separate spill catchment shall be provided for each incompa
tible liquid.
Opening of packages, transferring of contents, dispensing of chemicals or sampli
ng shall not be conducted in or on top of a cabinet or a cupboard for storing ch
emicals unless it is specifically designed for this purpose and appropriate proc
edures and equipment are used.
Packages shall be inspected regularly to ensure their integrity. Leaking or dama
ged packages shall be removed to a safe area for repacking or disposal. Labels s
hall be reattached or replaced, as necessary, to clearly identify the contents o
f the package.

The relevant requirements concerning avoidance of ignition sources shall be comp

lied with in situations other than those where the ignition source is controlled
and is necessary for experimental purposes, such as the use of a Bunsen burner.
Electrical equipment shall comply with AS 3000
Electrical Installations if inst
alled or other appropriate standards if portable..
Hazard zoning assessments should be conducted for all new laboratories storing a
nd using chemicals, in accordance with the provisions of AS 60079
Procedures shall be established to deal with clean up and safe disposal of spill
ages. Supplies and materials needed to control the spillages shall be readily ac
cessible.
Substances which are unstable at ambient temperature shall be kept in a controll
ed temperature environment set to maintain an appropriate temperature range. Rel
iable alternative safety measures shall be provided for situations when utilitie
s, such as power, fail. Substances that can present additional hazards on heatin
g shall be clearly identified.
Sunlight can affect some plastic containers or the chemical contents. Containers
or chemicals that can be affected shall not be stored in a laboratory where the
y can be exposed to direct sunlight.
Regularly review the chemicals held in storage and correctly dispose of those no
longer required using the University chemical waste procedures
Storage of time sensitive chemicals
Time-sensitive chemicals are those chemicals that, when stored for prolonged per
iods or under poor storage conditions, can develop hazards that were not present
in the original formulation. There are four general categories of time-sensitiv
e chemicals loosely based on those unsafe properties that can develop, being:
1. peroxide formers,
2. peroxide formers that can undergo hazardous polymerization,
3. materials that become shock or friction sensitive upon the evaporation of a s
tabilizer, and
4. materials that generate significant additional hazards by undergoing slow che
mical reactions.
It should be noted that time-sensitive chemicals can be pure reagents or they ca
n be commercial mixtures formulated as cleaners, adhesives and other products.
All time-sensitive chemicals should be immediately marked with an expiration dat
e upon receipt and listed on the laboratory chemical inventory to ensure timely
disposal. The Safety Data Sheet for the chemical will state whether it is unstab
le under certain conditions or after a period of time in storage, and this infor
mation should be highlighted in the risk assessment.
Containers should be inspected periodically to verify their condition. Signs of
peroxide formation include: crystal formation in the container, discoloration of
liquids, or a mossy appearance around the cap. If suspect materials are recognize
d, do not handle the container. Particularly, do not attempt to remove the cap.
If explosive crystals have formed around the cap, the friction created by the un
screwing of the cap may be enough to detonate the compounds.
Chemical storage room requirements
All chemical storage rooms must be purpose built and comply with the requirement
s of Section 5 of AS2243.10. This standard allows for the storage of chemicals i
n quantities that exceed the quantities permitted to be kept on laboratory shelv
es or in chemical storage cabinets in the laboratory.
All 500L flammable stores must be designed and constructed to AS1940 and license

d by Brisbane City Council. Stores may be located above ground floor only by exc
eption where a risk assessment shows an acceptable risk, in accordance with AS22
43.10.
Storage of chemicals in refrigerators
Where flammable substances are to be stored in refrigerators, a pharmaceutical f
ridge or freezer with a spark proof interior must be purchased. Refer to the Gui
deline for the Storage of flammable substances in refrigerators
Safe Storage and handling of Industrial gases
The handling of compressed gases must be considered more hazardous than the hand
ling of liquid and solid materials because of the following properties unique to
compressed gases: pressure, low flash points for flammable gases, low boiling p
oints, and no visual and/or odor detection of many hazardous gases. Hazards may
arise as a result of equipment failure and leakage from systems that are not pre
ssuretight. Also, improper pressure control may cause unsafe reaction rates due
to poor flow control. Diffusion of leaking gases may cause rapid contamination o
f the atmosphere, giving rise to toxicity, anesthetic effects, asphyxiation, and
rapid formation of explosive concentrations of flammable gases. The flash point
of a flammable gas under pressure is always lower than ambient or room temperat
ure. Leaking gas can therefore rapidly form an explosive mixture with air.
The procedures adopted for the safe handling of compressed gases are mainly cent
ered on containment of the material, to prevent its escape to the atmosphere, an
d proper control of pressure and flow.
Some general precautions for handling, storing, and using compressed gases follo
w.
1.Never drop cylinders or permit them to strike each other violently.
2. Cylinders may be stored in the open, but should be protected from the ground
beneath to prevent rusting.
Cylinders may be stored in the sun, except in localities where extreme temperatu
res prevail; in the case of certain gases, the supplier s recommendation for shadi
ng should be observed. If ice or snow accumulates on a cylinder, thaw at room te
mperature.
3. The valve-protection cap should be left on each cylinder until it has been se
cured against a wall or bench, or placed in a cylinder stand, and is ready to be
used.
4. Avoid dragging, rolling, or sliding cylinders, even for a short distance. The
y should be moved by using a suitable hand truck.
5. Never tamper with pressure relief devices in valves or cylinders.
6. Do not store full and empty cylinders together.
7. Do not have full and empty cylinders connected to the same manifold. Reverse
flow can occur when an empty cylinder is attached to a pressurized system.
8. No part of a cylinder should be subjected to a temperature higher than 125F. A
flame should never be permitted to come in contact with any part of a compresse
d gas cylinder.
9. Cylinders should not be subjected to artificially created low temperatures (40F or lower), since many types of steel will lose their ductility and impact str
ength at low temperatures. Special stainless steel cylinders are available for l
ow temperature use.
10. Do not place cylinders where they may become part of an electric circuit. Wh
en electric arc-welding, precautions
must be taken to prevent striking an arc against a cylinder.
11. Bond and ground all cylinders, lines, and equipment used with flammable comp
ressed gases.
12. Use compressed gases only in a well ventilated area. Toxic, flammable, and c
orrosive gases should be carefully handled in a hood. Proper containment systems
should be used and minimum quantities of these products should be kept on-site.
13. Cylinders should be used in rotation as received from the supplier. Storage
areas should be set up to permit proper inventory rotation.

Filling
Nonliquefied gases may be filled to the service pressure marked on a cylinder. T
hese markings will appear on the shoulder of the cylinder, Liquefied gases, on t
he other hand, must be filled to a filling density. This filling density represe
nts the maximum weight of the material permitted in the cylinder, as a percentag
e of the water capacity of the cylinder.
Transportation
When cylinders are being moved from a storage area into the laboratory or plant,
the valve-protection cap should be left in place. The cylinder should then be t
ransported by means of a suitable hand truck. Such a hand truck should be provid
ed with a chain or belt for securing the cylinder on the truck. If a large numbe
r of cylinders must be moved from one area to another, a power device, such as a
fork truck equipped with a special container and provided with some means of se
curing the cylinder, can be used. Do not lift cylinders by the cap. Avoid draggi
ng or sliding cylinders. Use hand trucks even for short distances.
Cylinder Hand Trucks
Pressure Relief Devices
Pressure relief devices are incorporated in most DOT compressed gas cylinders, e
xcept those containing poison or toxic gas, where the risk of exposure to fumes
is considered more hazardous than that of a potential cylinder failure. Pressure
relief devices are incorporated in the cylinder valve, in plugs in the cylinder
itself, or both.
Leak Detection
Check cylinders and all connections under pressure for leaks prior to using the
contents. When using toxic gases, it is
advisable that some device be used to warn of the presence of toxic concentratio
ns.
There are numerous monitoring devices available for detection of dangerous conce
ntrations of gases in the atmosphere
There are also appropriate chemical procedures for detecting leaks in lines and
equipment and for determining dangerous concentrations of gases in the atmospher
e. The user of gases should become familiar with suitable control procedures for
the determination of such dangerous concentrations. Instructions are usually su
pplied in the Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) associated with the particular
gas being used.
SAFE DISPOSAL METHODS
Three principal methods are used for the disposal of fluids released by pressure
release devices:
1. by discharge to the atmosphere;
2. by burning;
3. by disposal to a lower-pressure system.
This includes the use of separators to collect released liquids and special chem
ical scrubbers to prevent the release of highly toxic gases and vapours to the a
tmosphere.
Factors to be considered when deciding on the method of disposal include toxicit
y, odour, smoke, particulate matter, noise, heat, reliability and ease of mainte
nance
The pipework of disposal systems must be designed and supported to withstand the
thermal strains resulting from the entry of hot and cold fluids, and the shock
loading resulting from the sudden release of compressible fluids and slugs of li
quid. If compressed liquefied gases are relieved, flash evaporation will occur a
t the release device subjecting the pipework to very low temperatures. It is the
n essential to choose an alloy which does not suffer embrittlement at the lowest
temperature which may be reached, and to provide adequate bends in the pipework
to cater for contraction. If solid materials (such as rubbers and polymers) are
liable to be released into or formed in the pipework, adequate flanged joints m

ust be provided to allow it to be cleaned and inspected

lso be provided (e.g. locks on valves or line blind for
k after installation and maintenance.
If liquid is liable to be present in the discharge, the
aining into an adequately sized knockout pot before the
ubber, and effective means of removing liquid collected

internally. Means must a

leak testing the pipewor
piping should be self-dr
vent stack, flare or scr
must be provided.

Discharge to the atmosphere

This is usually the cheapest method and is commonly used not only for air and st
eam and other gases of low toxicity but also for flammable gases and vapours. In
dividual vent pipes near the equipment relieved are generally used. The levels o
f noise and atmospheric toxicity to which nearby workers and members of the publ
ic are liable to be subjected by the discharge should be evaluated and be within
accepted limits for the chosen location. Mist is generally only a problem with
steam discharges since most saturated vapours superheat on passing through a rel
ief valve. In the case of flammable gases, these must leave the vent at a suffic
iently high velocity to entrain enough air to reduce its concentration to below
the lower explosive limit before the energy of the jet has dissipated. Hydrocarb
on gases and vapours are generally diluted to below their lower flammability lim
it [10.1] at a distance from the vent exit equal to 120 times its diameter. When
the cross-sectional area of the vent exit is equal to that of the full valve op
ening, this condition is usually met so long as the valve is passing gas only an
d is at least 25% open. This applies to pop-open relief valves which close positiv
ely when the pressure in the equipment relieved falls below the set pressure. Th
e vent should be located on the top of a tall structure and so directed that the
jet does not impinge on any solid object which would cause a stable flame if ig
nition occurred. The vent should preferably point upwards, and be adequately sup
ported against reaction from the jet discharge. A small drain hole is needed at
the bottom of the vent pipe to ensure drainage of rain-water. This should be arr
anged so that a little air is sucked into the vent pipe by the momentum of the g
as rather than allowing gas to escape through it at low level.
There is always some risk of ignition when flammable gases are discharged to the
atmosphere, especially if the relief device opens as a result of fire. This hap
pened in the FCzin disaster of 1966, when the gas released ignited, causing a huge
flame which radiated heat back onto the LPG spheres and was a major factor in c
ausing their disastrous rupture. The consequences of radiation from burning gas
at the vent exit must therefore be considered when deciding its position. Possib
le causes of ignition include lighting, static electricity and iron oxide partic
les. The risk of ignition increases if the gas contains molecular hydrogen. The
exit of the vent can be designed to reduce the chance of static ignition when hy
drogen-containing gases are vented, and also to ensure that any flame which tend
s to form is blown out by the jet. There should be no risk of forming an explosi
ve vapour cloud with a properly designed vent discharge since the concentration
of flammable gas is only momentarily within explosive limits in the jet itself.
Considerations of jet dispersion favour separate elevated vents for each pressur
e-relief valve rather than manifolding several discharge lines together into a c
ommon stack. For similar reasons, process vents of flammable gases should be kep
t separate from pressure-relief vents.
Disposal by burning
Disposal of combustible gases by burning is generally accomplished in elevated f
lares which can be a nuisance to local communities, especially at night-time. Fl
are stacks and burners are best designed by, obtained from and installed by spec
ialist firms. This is because of the difficult problems of ensuring positive pil
ot ignition, flame stability and acceptable levels of noise, thermal radiation a
nd luminosity. Smokeless operation generally requires considerable quantities of
steam, high-pressure waste gas or forced-draught air. Carbon deposited on the l
ip of the burner presents an ignition hazard, since red-hot particles may be det
ached and travel considerable distances in the air, with the risk of igniting po
ckets of flammable vapour, e.g. above floating roof tanks. Another potential haz

ard of flare stacks is that of explosion within the stack resulting from air ent
ering it when no gas is flowing through it. Care should be taken to avoid holes
in the piping, knockout vessel and stack through which air could enter, and a sm
all continuous flow of inert gas through the system is recommended to prevent ba
ck diffusion of air through the burner. If space permits, a ground-level flare h
as the advantage of facilitating maintenance and allowing a light shield to be c
onstructed which obscures visible flames under all conditions other than major r
eleases. When continuous flaring is necessary, smokeless combustion can be achie
ved through the use of a number of small burners at ground-level without the nee
d for steam or forced-draught air. Combustible liquids released by pressure-reli
ef valves can where space is available be discharged to a burning pit in which a
fire is maintained continuously.
Disposal to a lower pressure system
For this method to be safe the lower-pressure system must have adequate capacity
to take the maximum amount of fluid liable to be discharged from the higher-pre
ssure system without itself becoming overpressurised. This method might be used
in an LPG storage terminal with spheres and a considerable amount of pipework wh
ich requires thermal expansion relief for liquid LPG trapped between closed valv
es. Here the small amount of liquid LPG relieved could generally be routed to a
storage sphere provided all possible hazards are checked.
Treatment of toxic gas and hot fluid discharges
Properly engineered systems for dealing with releases of highly toxic and hot fl
uids are essential. Highly toxic gases must be treated in adequately sized tower
s with liquid absorbent or solid adsorbent, or catalytically to form non-toxic c
ompounds. Companies and industries which have these problems usually develop the
ir own methods and codes for dealing with them, such as BCISC s chlorine code.
Even where an adequate system is installed, the fact that it may not be needed f
or a long time may induce managements to question its need and allow it to lapse
into a state of disrepair, as appeared to happen at Bhopal. The rate of dischar
ge which such systems may have to deal with in an emergency must also be properl
y appreciated when they are designed. The high cost of an adequate system is a t
emptation to provide a 'cosmetic' but inadequate solution.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION
Lightning protection systems are intended to minimize damage to facilities that
may be subject to atmospheric stroke. The damage caused by lightning may be ther
mal (fire), electrical (flashover) and/or mechanical (torsional forces). The ene
rgy in a lightning stroke can ignite flammable vapors and damage the equipment a
nd structures by the flow of lightning discharge current through any resistance
in its path. In process plants, electrical equipment, all equipment containing h
azardous liquids and gases, outdoor metal structures, vessels or other tall equi
pment subject to lightning strokes should be properly grounded. In addition, bui
ldings or structures made of nonmetallic materials, those normally occupied by p
ersonnel, or those that if seriously damaged could result in a major loss either
to the structure itself or from the effect on other facilities, also require li
ghtning protection systems.
Lightning Phenomena Theory
Lightning is the discharge of electricity from a charged cloud to another cloud
or the ground. An atmospheric discharge to ground is shown in fig. The last part
of the distance travelled by the downward leader is the most critical for a lig
htning protection, because at that point the stroke may be influenced to take a
specific path which provides protection to a given structure. The current that m
ay be discharged during a lightning stroke varies widely between 2 and 200 kiloa
mperes, with some exceptional cases as high as 300 kA . Any lightning protection

system will have to deal with large currents draining to earth in a very short
period of time. However, it must be pointed out that the probability of occurren
ce of thunderstorms also influences design of a lightning protection system. Sta
tistics have been compiled for this probability and are presented on a map by is
okeraunic lines that designate geographic areas of equal frequency of thundersto
rm activity . The value read from the isokeraunic line is the number of days per
year that thunder was heard in that particular region. Isokeraunic levels are p
articularly useful for transmission line design.

NOTE: A storm cloud produces a charge of one polarity distributed within the ba
se of the cloud and a corresponding, but opposite, charge distributed on the sur
face of the earth under the cloud. The process starts with a downward corona-lik
e streamer from the cloud defined as a stepped leader. This leader transports th
e electric charge from the cloud to the earth
following several unpredictable paths depending on atmospheric ionization of the
air in a series of hesitating steps. As the top streamer approaches earth, anot
her upward stream of electric charge builds up almost instantaneously aimed at e
ncountering the top streamer. If a plasma channel is established within property
ionized air the two streamers meet and lightning occurs, establishing a path fo
r conduction of a large electric current, defined as the return stroke, which eq
ualizes the charge between the two equipotential planes. The total elapsed time
for a leader to complete its path from cloud to earth is less than 10 millisecon
ds.
Lightning Protection Systems
The basic theory of protection against direct lightning strikes is to provide te
rminals projecting into the air above the highest parts of a given structure wit
h interconnecting grounding conductors that provide a path of minimum resistance
to earth. The tallest structure in a group is the likeliest target and it deter
mines the degree of protection for lower structures. Lightning strokes, which mi
ght otherwise fall inside the zone, are attracted to the mast. In a petrochemica
l plant, taller structures like splitters, strippers, absorbers, and fractionati
ng columns shield lower structures like reactors or drums.
A well-designed lightning protection system protects against direct lightning st
rikes as well as induced lightning voltages. Protection against direct strikes m
ay be accomplished in buildings, cooling towers, and stacks by the use of air te
rminals (lightning rods) connected into the grounding system in addition to meta
l ground bonds. Steel process towers are by nature lightning rods and do not req
uire additional air terminals. Suppression of induced lightning voltages is achi
eved by means of lightning arresters and surge capacitors at strategic locations
particularly if a bare aerial power distribution line is exposed to direct ligh
tning stroke. The protected zone for structures is determined by spanning a 100foot arc, as shown in Figure 12-3 both for a single mast and for a rig of four m
asts with overhead ground wires. In both cases the striking distance radius is t
he same. It is at this distance that the upward streamer is formed and the downw
ard leader is attracted to the mast.
Conventional steel structures, at least 3/16 inch in thickness, such as process
columns, vessels, steel storage tanks and steel stacks of petroleum and petroche
mical processing plants, will not be damaged by direct lightning strokes. Still,
it is necessary to adequately ground the structures to prevent damage to the fo
undation, dissipate the energy and to provide a zone of protection for electrica
l apparatus and other equipment in the vicinity. Grounded tanks containing flamm
able liquids or liquified petroleum gas under pressure do not require specific l
ightning protection since they are inherently self-protecting if adequately grou
nded. Structures, cooling towers, or buildings made entirely of nonconductive ma
terials and located outside of the zone of protection of another structure requi
re full lightning protection as indicated in NFPA 78. Incoming utility substatio

ns, as well as outdoor pumping stations, that have a large number of major elect
rical apparatus and which provide extremely important process functions also req
uire lightning protection.
Masts or steel lattice extensions to provide cones of protection to the equipmen
t within the substation. The shield angle fora single mast is 30, but increases t
o 60 for a shielding angle that lies within the masts.
Overhead static wires on incoming transmission to protect phase conductors. The
static wire(s) should be connected to one of the masts or lattice extensions wit
hin the substation.
Messenger cable grounded at frequent intervals to provide protection to aerial c
ables.
Metallic conduits and metal sheaths need to be grounded and bonded at each end.
Feeders in metallic conduits or with metal sheaths are essentially self-protecti
ng.
Lightning arresters will also be required to protect electrical equipment connec
ted to a distribution system exposed either directly or indirectly to lightning
strokes. A lightning arrester is a device that drains to ground high currents at
surge voltages just like the ones created by an atmospheric discharge. Lightnin
g arrester applications are covered in IEEE
Standard 242.
Grounding of electric power systems and equipment is necessary in order to limit
voltage disturbances due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact wi
th higher voltage sources, and to provide safe return paths to the power source
during ground fault conditions. Grounding is a conducting connection, intentiona
l or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth.

RELIEF SYSTEMS
The relief system is composed of the relief device and the associated downstream
process equipment to safely handle the material ejected.
The method used for the safe installation of pressure relief - The first step in
the procedure is to specify where relief devices must be installed. Definitive
guidelines are available. Second, the appropriate relief device type must be sel
ected. The type depends mostly on the nature of the material relieved and the re
lief characteristics required. Third, scenarios are developed that describe the
various ways in which a relief can occur. The motivation is to determine the mat
erial mass flow rate through the relief and the physical state of the material (
liquid, vapor, or two phases). Next, data are collected on the relief process, i
ncluding physical properties of the ejected material, and the relief is sized.
Pressure relief systems are required for the following reasons:
to
to
to
to
to
to

protect personnel from the dangers of overpressurizing equipment

minimize chemical losses during pressure upsets
prevent damage to equipment
prevent damage to adjoining property
reduce insurance premiums, and
comply with governmental regulations.

Definitions that are commonly used within the chemical industry to describe reli
efs are given below
.
Set pressure: The pressure at which the relief device begins to activate.
Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP): The maximum gauge pressure~ermissible
a t the top of a vessel for a designated temperature. This is sometimes called t
he design pressure.
Operating pressure: The gauge pressure during normal service, usually 10% below
the MAWP.
Overpressure: The pressure increase in the vessel over the set pressure during t
he relieving process. Overpressure is equivalent to the accumulation when the se

t pressure is at the MAWP. It is expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.

Backpressure: The pressure at the outlet of the relief device during the relief
process resulting from pressure in the discharge system.
Relief system: The network of components around a relief device, including the p
ipe to the relief, the relief device, discharge pipelines, knockout drum, scrubb
er, flare, or other types of equipment that assist in the safe relief process.
The procedure for specifying the location of reliefs requires the review of ever
y unit operation in the process and of every process operating step. The enginee
r must anticipate the potential problems that may result in increased pressures.
Pressure relief devices are installed at every point identified as potentially
hazardous, that is, at points where upset conditions create pressures that may e
xceed the MAWP.
Relief Types
Specific types of relief devices are chosen for specific applications, such as f
or liquids, gases, liquids and gases, solids, and corrosive materials; they may
be vented to the atmosphere or vented to containment systems (scrubber, flare, c
ondenser, incinerator). In engineering terms the type of relief device is specif
ied on the basis of the details of the relief system, process conditions, and ph
ysical properties of the relieved fluid.
There are two general categories of relief devices (spring-operated and rupture
discs) and two major types of spring-operated valves (conventional and balancedbellows) On spring-operated valves the adjustable spring tension offsets the inl
et pressure. The relief set pressure is usually specified at 10% above the norma
l operating pressure. To avoid the possibility of an unauthorized person changin
g this setting, the adjustable screw is covered with a threaded cap. For a conve
ntional spring-operated relief, the valve opens based on the pressure drop acros
s the valve seat; that is, the set pressure is proportional to the pressure drop
across the seat. Thus, if the backpressure downstream of the valve increases, t
he set pressure will increase and the valve may not open at the correct pressure
. In addition, the flow through the conventional relief is proportional to the d
ifference in pressure across the seat. The flow through the relief, therefore, i
s reduced as the backpressure increases.
For the balanced-bellows design the bellows on the backside of the valve seat en
sures that the pressure on that side of the seat is always atmospheric. Thus the
balanced-bellows valve will always open at the desired set pressure. However, t
he flow through the balanced-bellows relief is proportional to the difference in
pressure between the inlet and the outlet of the valve. Therefore the flow is r
educed as the backpressure increases.
Rupture discs are specially designed to rupture at a specified relief set pressu
re. They usually consist of a calibrated sheet of metal designed to rupture at a
well-specified pressure. They are used alone, in series, or in parallel to spri
ng-loaded relief devices. They can be made from a variety of materials, includin
g exotic corrosion-resistant materials.
An important problem with rupture discs is the flexing of the metal as process p
ressures change. Flexing could lead to premature failure at pressures below the
set pressure. For this reason some rupture disc systems are designed to operate
at pressures well below the set pressure. In addition, vacuum service may cause
rupture disc failure if the relief system is not specifically designed for this
service. Another problem with rupture disc systems is that once they open, they
remain open.
This may lead to the complete discharge of process material. It may also allow a
ir to enter the process, leading to a possible fire and/or explosion. In some ac
cidents discs were ruptured without the process operator being aware of the situ
ation. To prevent this problem, rupture discs are available with embedded wires
that are cut when the disc ruptures; this can activate an alarm in the control r
oom to alert the operator. Also, when rupture discs rupture, pieces of the disc
may become dislodged, creating potential downstream plugging problems. Recent ad
vances in rupture disc design have minimized this problem.

Rupture discs are available in much larger sizes than spring-operated relief val
ves, with commercial sizes available up to several feet in diameter. Rupture dis
cs typically cost less than equivalently sized spring-operated relief valves.
Rupture discs are frequently installed in series to a spring-loaded relief (1) t
o protect an expensive spring-loaded device from a corrosive environment, (2) to
give absolute isolation when handling extremely toxic chemicals (spring-loaded
reliefs may weep), (3) to give absolute isolation when handling flammable gases,
(4) to protect the relatively complex parts of a springloaded device from react
ive monomers that could cause plugging, and (5) to relieve slurries that may plu
g spring-loaded devices.
.
SIZING OF RELIEF-CALCULATIONS
Physical property data and sometimes reaction rate characteristics are required
for making relief sizing calculations. Data estimated using engineering assumpti
ons are almost always acceptablewhen designing unit operations because the only
result is poorer yields or poorerquality. In the relief design, however, these t
ypes of assumptions are not acceptable because an error may result in catastroph
ic and hazardous failures.
After the relief type has been chosen and the relief size computed, the engineer
takes the responsibility for completing the design of the relief system, includ
ing deciding how to install the relief in the system and how to dispose of the e
xiting liquids and vapors. Regardless of how carefully the relief is sized, spec
ified, and tested, a poor installation can
result in completely unsatisfactory relief performance.
A designer of relief systems must be familiar with governmental codes, industria
l standards, and insurance requirements. This is particularly important because
local government standards may vary. Codes of particular interest are published
by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Petroleum Institut
e, and the National Board of Fire Underwriters.It is recommended that relief des
igners carefully consider all codes and, where feasible, select the one that is
most suited to the particular installation.
In most cases a relief is first discharged to a knockout system to separate the
liquid from the vapor; here the liquid is collected and the vapor is discharged
to another treatment unit. This subsequent vapor treatment unit depends on the h
azards of the vapor; it may include a condenser, scrubber, incinerator, flare, o
r a combination of them.
Knockout drums are sometimes called catch tanks or blowdown drums, this horizont
al knockout drum system serves as a vapor-liquid separator as well as a holdup v
essel for the disengaged liquid. The two-phase mixture usually enters at one end
, and the vapor leaves at the opposite end. Inlets may be provided at each end,
with a vapor exit in the center to minimize vapor velocities. When space within
a plant is limited, a tangential knockout drum is used. The design method for si
zing this type of system was published by Grosse18 and in API 521.9 The method i
s based on the maximum allowable velocity for minimizing liquid entrainment.
The dropout velocity of a particle in a stream is
where
u, is the dropout velocity,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
d, is the particle diameter,
p, is the liquid density,
p, is the vapor density, and
Cis the drag coefficient given by Figure 8-14.
The abscissa of Figure 8-14 is
where

v is the vapor viscosity in centipoise

C(Re)2 is unitless.
Flares
Flares are sometimes used after knockout drums. The objective of a flare is to b
urn the combustible or toxic gas to produce combustion products that are neither
toxic nor combustible. The diameter of the flare must be suitable to maintain a
stable flame and to prevent a blowout (when vapor velocities are greater than 2
0% of the sonic velocity).
The height of a flare is fixed on the basis of the heat generated and the result
ing potential damage to equipment and humans. The usual design criterion is that
the heat intensity at the base of the stack is not to exceed 1500 Btulhrlft2. U
sing the fundamentals of radiation, we know that the heat intensity q at a speci
fic point is a function of the heat generated by the flame Q,, the emissivity E,
and the distance R from the flame:
Assuming a flame height of 120df, an emissivity E = 0.048m, and a heating value
of 20,000 Btullb, Equation (8-3) can be algebraically modified to give the flare
height Hi(i n ft) as a function of the flare stack diameter df (in ft) and the
desired heat intensity qf (in ~tu/hr/ft') at a distance Xf from the base of the
flare (in ft) for a burning fuel with a molecular weight M
and a vapor rate Q, (in lblhr):
Sizing of Relief Valves
It is recommended that designers consider using personal computer programs to ai
d in valve sizing when a vendor has been chosen. Consult the ASME Code and API R
P 520, along with vendor technical information.
Vapor Service
The ASME Code is the primary reference for pressure relief device sizing require
ments. API RP 520 recommends formulas for calculating the discharge area of a re
lief valve for gas or vapor, for low pressure steam exhaust.
Liquid Service
Liquid capacity certification is required for pressure relief valves designed fo
r liquid service .The procedure for obtaining capacity certification includes de
termining the coefficient of discharge for the design of liquid relief valves at
10% overpressure. Valves that require a capacity in accordance with the ASME Co
de maybe sized using the equation given in API RP 520, Section 4.5. Where liquid
-full equipment can be blocked-in and continued heat input cannot be avoided, a
pressure relief device shall be provided. The rate of expansion depends primaril
y on the rate of heat input and the liquid properties. Liquid expansion rates fo
r the sizing of relief devices that protect heat exchangers, condensers, and coo
lers against thermal expansion of trapped liquids can be approximated using an e
quation from API RP 520
Relief Valve Inlet and Outlet Sizing
The inlet line of a relief valve must be designed using the criteria given in th
e codes and standards. the proper operation of a relief device depends upon prop
er installation including line sizing. Consult the ASME Code for basic requireme
nts for pipe sizing and limitations. The outlet line size of a relief valve disc
harging to atmosphere is generally dictated by back pressure, velocity limitatio
ns and environmental considerations. Sizing of relief valves discharging into a
closed system, for example, a
flare, is impacted primarily by back pressure considerations. Design guidelines
for sizing outlet lines are also given in the aforementioned design codes and st
andards.
TEMPERATURE RELIEF
The temperature safety relief valves limit the temperature of water in multi-fue
l or solid fuel boilers with either a boiler incorporated or an emergency heat e
xchanger. When the temperature reaches 95C, the valve starts to discharge the nec
essary amount of water to keep the boiler temperature within the safety limits.

Operating principle
When the temperature rises, the fluid contained within the sensor (1) undergoes
a change of state from liquid to gas. The consequent volume increase creates a m
echanical movement causing the expandable bellows (2), inside the valve, to push
on the obturator and lift it up.
Construction details
Redundant expansion system
The entire expansion system has a built-in redundancy (1)-(2) to ensure maximum
safety, so if one part of the sensor system fails the other part will perform th
e same functions as the entire sensor.
Pocket and capillary tubes-The size of the pocket is such that it is always in c
ontact with the sensors, which improves heat transmission and keeps thermal iner
tia to a minimum. The capillary tubes are protected by a galvanized sheath.
Bellows holder support
The bellows holder support is made of acetalic resin and can be repositioned by
loosening the knurled lock nut.
Drain -The lower part of the valve contains a button in order to drain the syste
m
Installation-The sensor should be mounted at the top of the boiler or on the out
let piping upstream of any isolating device and at a maximum distance of 0,5 m.
1. After mounting the valve on the pipe, according to the flow direction indicat
ed on the valve body, place the part connected to the sensor in its seat.
2. Loosely tighten the knurled lock nut.
3. Position the sheath outlet that connects the probe by turning the black cap.
Completely tighten the knurled lock nut
.
COLOUR CODING OF PIPELINES
Identification and colour coding for the pipelines is essential to avoid potenti
al hazards, accidents. Giving a colour code and maintaining the uniformity for c
olour coding in industrial piping will eliminate accidental chances, reduces ope
rational errors. Moreover it enhances the safety aspects.
Colour coding or the colouring scheme is to know, identify which fluid is flowin
g inside the pipelines. This can be applicable to building piping, process pipin
g, industrial piping, chemical or process plants. Complete piping systems includ
ing valves, fittings are to be painted accordingly.
Paints and paint shades selected should conform to the governing standard prior
to provision.
Colour Coding to Pipelines (Ground Colour and Colour Bands)
Giving a base or ground colour to pipelines based on fluid flowing, the line ide
ntification is done. Further colour bands are provided accordingly. The base/gro
und colour gives the basic nature of the flowing fluid (i.e. water, air, gases e
tc.).
Typically ground colours are provided on the full pipe section or minimum 300 mm
length portion or by attaching the label.
Ground colour Fluid flow inside the pipe
Green Water
Sky Blue
Air
Yellow Gases
Aluminum
Steam
Over and above the base colour or ground colour to the pipeline, colour bands ar
e provided to differentiate and identify the application of the basic fluid.

Example:
(1)Fluid:Water
Groundcolourcode:Green
Cooling water: Sea green (ground colour) and application is for cooling hence a
further colour band of French blue is provided.
(2) Fluid: Air
Ground colour code: Sky blue
Plant air: Sky blue (ground colour) and application is for supplying the plant a
ir hence a further colour band of silver grey is provided.
Colour Bands
As stated earlier, colour bands in single or double over the ground colour on th
e pipeline, and the ground colour on the entire or partial length of the pipelin
e is provided. These colour bands are provided at suitable locations such as:
At the beginning and termination points
For yard piping around 50 to 60 m distances
At change in flow direction points and flow diversion locations.
At locations where the pipe enters the building or exits from the building
Typical Practices Followed for the Provision of Ground Colour and Colour Bands o
n the Pipelines
(1) If colour bands are provided over the ground colour, then the ground colour
should extend on both sides of the colour bands.
(2) When double colour bands exist on the pipeline, then a proportional width of
4:1 to the next colour band is provided.
(3) Minimum colour band width to be 25 mm.
(4) Generally below 80 NB piping width of the colour band is 25 mm.
(5) For piping 100 NB to 150 NB width of the colour band is 50 mm.
(6) Valves and piping accessories to be painted with the same colour as that of
the pipe ground colour.
(7) For insulated pipes, non-ferrous pipes, S.S. pipe ground colour to be given
for minimum 1.5 m length.
(8) For uninsulated piping above 100 Degree C, generally colour bands are not pr
ovided (only ground color Aluminum). If bands are to be provided then they shoul
d be of Teflon tape.
(9) Flow direction, arrows to be marked at suitable intervals along the line. Li
ne carrying fluid, the fluid name should be written in the white box on the grou
nd colour provided for the line.
Arrow sizes, dimensions differ w.r.t. company standards.
Example:
Below 200 NB line arrow dimensions are given below.

Lettering size for fluid name is also based on the pipe diameter
Examples:
100 NB Pipe ---------------Legend Size is 30 mm

50 NB Pipe -----------------Legend Size is 25 mm

200 NB Pipe ---------------Legend Size is 50 mm
(10) Visibility of Marking: It should be such that the operator can see if it is
at the normal height. If lines are above the operator's head (may be along the
roof, or side wall or through the rack), then the lettering is to be done below
or towards the bottom side of the pipe.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IN LABORATORY

Layout
Laboratory space should be physically separate from personal desk space, meeting
space and eating areas. Workers should not have to go through a laboratory spac
e where hazardous materials are used in order to exit from non-laboratory areas.
Consider making visible separation between lab and non-lab space, for instance
with different flooring.
Fire-rated hallway doors should have magnetic hold-open features, such that the
door will close in the event of an alarm.
Doors to laboratories should not be fire-rated unless necessary.
Entryways should have provisions for mounting emergency information posters and
other warning signage immediately outside the laboratory (e.g., on the door).
Each door from a hallway into a lab should have a view panel to prevent accident
s from opening the door into a person on the other side and to allow individuals
to see into the laboratory in case of an accident or injury.
Laboratory areas with autoclaves should have adequate room to allow access to th
e autoclave and clearance behind it for maintenance. There should also be adequa
te room for temporary storage of materials before and after processing. Autoclav
e drainage should be designed to prevent or minimize flooding and damage to the
floor.
For laboratories using radioactive materials:
Eating and drinking areas should be physically separate and conveniently located
.
Allow for security of laboratory and materials.
Consider designing the lab to allow separation of radioactive materials use from
other laboratory activities.
Furniture and Fixtures
Work surfaces should be chemical resistant, smooth, and readily cleanable, such
as chemical-grade Formica.
Work surfaces, including computer areas, should incorporate ergonomic features,
such as adjustability, appropriate lighting and equipment layout.
Benchwork areas should have knee space to allow room for chairs near fixed instr
uments, equipment or for procedures requiring prolonged operation.
Handwashing sinks for particularly hazardous chemicals or biological agents may
need elbow or electronic controls.
Wet chemical laboratories and darkrooms should have solvent resistant coved floo
ring using sheet goods rather than tile, particularly in areas where fume hoods
are located.
Do not install more sinks or cupsinks than are necessary. Unused sinks may devel
op dry traps, resulting in odor complaints.
Sink faucets and hose bibs that are intended for use with attached hoses are pro
vided with back siphon prevention devices.
Storage
Cabinets for chemical storage should be of solid, sturdy construction. Hardwood
or metal shelving is preferred. Some may require ventilation.
Materials of construction should be carefully considered where corrosive materia
ls will be stored, e.g., corrosive-resistant liners or trays on shelves, locatio
n away from copper fittings, etc.
Allow space within the building for any central chemical and biological or radio
active waste storage needs.

Wall shelving should have heavy-duty brackets and standards and should be attach
ed to studs or solid blocking. For office spaces, bookcases are preferable to wa
ll-mounted shelving.
Flammable liquid storage needs should be defined in advance so that the laborato
ry may have space for a suitable number of flammable storage cabinets. Per the U
niform Fire Code, quantities greater than 10 gallons of flammable liquids must b
e stored in a flammable liquid storage cabinet, unless safety cans are used. No
more than 25 gallons of flammable liquids in safety cans may be stored outside a
flammable liquid storage cabinet.
Flammable liquid storage is not allowed below grade or near a means of egress, p
er the Uniform Fire Code.
Flammable storage cabinets should not be vented unless there is a significant od
or or vapor control concern.
Laboratories using corrosive liquids should have ample storage space low to the
floor, preferably in low cabinets, such as under fume hoods.
Allow space for the variety of waste collection containers needed. Depending on
the laboratory, these may include laboratory trash, broken glass, sharps, recycl
able containers, used oil, medical waste, and/or radioactive waste.
Laboratories using compressed gases should have recessed areas for cylinder stor
age and be equipped with devices to secure cylinders in place.
All laboratories should have storage space for supplies and combustible material
s, e.g., boxes of gloves, spill kits, boxes of centrifuge tubes, etc.
Laboratory Ventilation
Laboratory ventilation rates should ensure 8-10 air changes per hour minimum for
occupied spaces and 6 air changes per hour minimum when unoccupied.
Bypass style fume hoods should be used. Auxiliary air hoods should not be used.
Fume hoods should have recessed work surfaces to control spills.
The location of fume hoods, supply air vents, operable windows, laboratory furni
ture and pedestrian traffic should encourage horizontal, laminar flow of air int
o the face of the hood, perpendicular to the hood opening. Hoods should be place
d away from doors and not where they would face each other across a narrow isle.
Hoods may have a face velocity of 100-125 linear feet per minute with the sash f
ully open or at its standard configuration (e.g., at the stopper height).
Each hood must have a continuous monitoring device, such as a magnehelic gauge.
The device should display either air velocity or static pressure, rather than on
ly an audible alarm.
Supply air vents should be placed away from or directed away from fume hoods to
avoid interference. Air velocity caused by supply vents should not exceed 25 fee
t per minute at the face of the hood.
Noise from the fume hood should not exceed 65 dBA at the face of the hood.
Use hard ducting for the positive side of exhaust ducting for all internal (pent
house) fans to prevent contaminant leakage into work areas.
Fume hood exhaust ducts must not contain fire dampers.
Unless otherwise specified (e.g., clean rooms), air pressure in the laboratory s
hould be negative with respect to the outer hallways and non-laboratory areas.
Consider the need for vented chemical storage areas or cabinets for chemicals wi
th low odor thresholds.
Semi-conductor and other hazardous gases (e.g., silane, hydrogen fluoride, chlor
ine, etc.) must be placed in vented gas cabinets
Hoods for perchloric acid require stainless steel construction and a wash-down s
ystem and a dedicated, isolated fan.
Hoods requiring filters (such as those for some radioisotopes or biological mate
rials) should be designed and located such that filters may be accessed and chan
ged easily.
Provisions should be made for local exhaust of instruments, gas cabinets, vented
storage cabinets or other operations requiring local ventilation.
Single vertical sliding sashes are preferred over horizontal or split sashes.
Debris screens should be placed in the ductwork leading from the hood.
Emergency Equipment
Laboratories using hazardous materials must have an eyewash and safety shower wi

thin 100 feet or 10 seconds travel time from the chemical use areas.
Drench hoses support, but do not replace, safety showers and eyewashes.
Eyewashes and safety showers should have plumbed drains.
Eyewashes and safety showers should be standardized at least within a laboratory
building.
Flooring under safety showers should be slip-resistant.
Safety showers may have privacy curtains, particularly in large laboratories or
teaching laboratories.
Fire extinguishers, safety showers and eyewashes should be conspicuously labeled
, particularly if recessed.
Fire extinguishers appropriate for the chemicals and equipment in use should be
placed near the entrance of each laboratory, mechanical and electrical room.
Some chemical operations (e.g., distillation hoods) may benefit from hood fire s
uppression systems.
Windowless laboratories and environmental chambers should have emergency lightin
g.
Alarm enunciator panels should be descriptive of the area where the alarm has ac
tivated.
Materials Handling
Loading docks should be equipped with dockboards and should have enough room to
maneuver pallets safely.
Cryogenic liquid tanks should be placed in such a manner that their controls cou
ld not accidentally be manipulated and such that they may be secured to prevent
unauthorized access.
Cryogenic liquid tanks should be placed away from below grade areas where dense
vapors may collect and away from glass doors or windows.
A phone should be placed near any loading area.
Utilities
Utility shut-off controls should be located outside the laboratory.
Laboratories should have an abundant number of electrical supply outlets to elim
inate the need for extension cords and multi-plug adapters.
Electrical panels should be placed in an accessible area not likely to be obstru
cted.
Ground fault circuit interrupters should be installed near sinks and wet areas.
Environmental chambers where evacuation or other alarms cannot be heard should b
e equipped with strobe lighting or additional alarms.
Central vacuum systems should not be used, since they are vulnerable to contamin
ation. Local vacuum pumps are preferable.
All vacuum lines should have cold traps or filters to prevent contamination.
Chilled water loops should be available for equipment in need of cooling. Loops
help to avoid excessive wastewater.
Laser laboratories should have an emergency cut-off switch installed near the en
trance of the laboratory to turn off the laser remotely. Many lasers require wat
er-cooling systems requiring ground-fault circuit interrupters.
Other
Laboratories using highly toxic gases should be equipped with alarmed vapor sens
ors, preferably with automatic shutdown systems.
Gas lines from highly toxic gases should use coaxial tubing for double containme
nt.
Animal care and use areas must meet Association for Assessment and Accreditation
of Laboratory Animal Care International standards.
Laboratories classified as Security Protection Level 2 (high value equipment or
security-sensitive materials) may require additional security measures.
PIPELINE TRANSPORT- TRANSPORT HAZARDS
For a pipeline carrying flammable gas,some principal hazard are jet fire and fla
mmable vapour cloud, leading to a flash fire or vapour cloud explosion ,whilst f
or one transporting liquid,the scenario is the liquid spillage leading to a pool
fire or flowing liquid fire.The main hazard scenario for a pipeline carrying to
xic gas or liquid is a toxic vapour cloud.
Most people associate pipes with the hot and cold water they see in their houses.

Also, most of us will have seen the plastic pipes laid under our streets and roa
ds to locally distribute natural gas. But what many people do not know is that t
here are hundreds of thousands of kilometres of very large pipelines crossing our
nations and oceans delivering ( transmitting ) huge quantities of crude oil, oil pro
ducts, and gas.Crude oil is often transported between continents in large tanker
s, but oil and natural gas is transported ( transmitted ) across continents by pipel
ines. These pipelines are very large diameter diameters up to 1422mm), and can b
e over 1000km in length.
The oil and gas are transported in these large transmission pipelines to refiner
ies, power stations, etc., and converted into energy forms such as gasoline for
our automobiles, and electricity for our homes. Oil and gas provides most of the
world with its energy. The fuels providing the world with its primary energy ne
eds are:
?? Oil = 34%
?? Coal = 24%
?? Gas = 21%
Nuclear = 7%
?? Hydro = 2%
?? Other = 12%
These pipelines are also very safe forms of transporting energy:
?? Pipelines are 40 times safer than rail tanks, and 100 times safer than road t
anks for transporting energy;
Oil pipelines transport liquid petroleum products from one point to another. Th
ere are generally three types of oil pipelines.
1.Gathering lines: travel short distances, collect unprocessed oil products from
wells and deliver them to oil storage tanks. Pipes range from 4 to 12 inches in
diameter. There are more than 250,000 kilometers of these lines in Western Cana
da.
2. Feeder lines move product from oil storage tanks and processing plants to the
transmission pipelines. They are generally bigger than gathering lines, but sma
ller than transmission lines. There are more than 25,000 kilometers of feeder li
nes.
3. Transmission lines can be up to 48 inches in diameter and transport oil and a
ssociated products from producing to consuming areas, including across provincia
l and international boundaries. The oil is piped to refineries where it is refin
ed into petroleum products.
The main features of an oil pipeline are:
Storage tanks to accumulate oil for injection and to accept deliveries.
Injection stations: where the product is injected into the pipe.
Pump stations: located along the line to keep the product moving.
Intermediate delivery stations: allow product to be delivered to clients along t
he way.
Block valve stations: allow a section of the pipeline to be closed for maintenan
ce, or to isolate a leak or spill. These can be operated manually, or remotely.
Final delivery station: where the remainder of the product is distributed to the
client.
Most transmission pipelines are buried in the ground and are made of carbon stee
l. External corrosion is caused by electrochemical interaction between the pipe
and the surrounding environment (soil in the case of buried pipes). The process
is similar to the reactions in a battery, where electrons flow between anodic (p
ositive terminal) and cathodic (negative terminal) sites on metals. Operators tr
y to prevent external corrosion by coating the pipe with a corrosion resistant m
aterial (such as epoxy) and by applying an external voltage source to keep the p
ipe cathodic (cathodic protection).
Although all pipelines are coated and under cathodic protection, corrosion can s
till occur. This may occur through a process called cathodic disbondment
the loo
sening of the coating from the pipe. Internal corrosion can also occur,
however it usually occurs only when there is significant water content mixed in
with the fuel flowing through the pipe. Corrosion inside pipelines usually only

occurs in areas where deposits of sludge build up. Sludge is comprised of *sedim
ent and* bacteria that can grow in the small pockets of water. Some sludges are
more corrosive than others, and research is currently underway to better underst
and how to prevent these sludges from forming.
Pipelines are required to be monitored by the National Energy Board (below). The
pipeline right-of-way is monitored through weekly, bi-weekly or monthly inspect
ion. Pipeline operators may fly over the lines, drive along side where
possible, and conduct investigative digs around the line. Internal inspection of
the pipe is generally carried out on a five to ten year basis by high-resolutio
n inspection tools (known as intelligent pigs
see below) that can detect damage.
The transport of hazardous materials may present a hazard to1. the transporter
2. The crew 3. The public.
The relative importance of these varies between the different modes of transport
.The hazards presented by the transport of chemicals are:
1.
Fire
2.
Explosion
3.
Toxic release-conventional toxic substances,ultrasonic substances
Mode of transport such as road ,rail, waterway, pipelinecan give rise to release
of flammable vapour or gas,which may result in a flash fire or vapour cloud exp
losion or of a flammable liquid which may lead to pool fire.Flammable liquid can
spread and then ignite giving rise to a flowing fire.Jet flame may occur on the
containers.The contained material may undergo a BLEVE(Boiling Liquid Expanding
Vapour Explosion) or other form of explosion.In general a flammable liquid is mo
re likely to give rise to fire than to explosion.
An explosion hazard also exist with substances that are to some degree unstable.
If the material is toxic, release may result in a toxic gas cloud.Toxic or corro
sive materials may also spread as liquids.
With waterway or sea tranport , the release of vapourizable materials onto the w
ater is liable to give rise to very rapid vapourization, resulting in large vapo
ur cloud.
Transport accidents are liable to cause pollution,since material spilled is ofte
n not recovered,but is dispersed into the environment.
The initiating factor in atransport accident may be 1. Cargo 2. Transporter 3. O
perations
The cargo may catch fire, explode or corrode the tank.The transporter may be inv
olved in a crash or derailment or fire.the perations such as charging and discha
rging may be wrongly executed.
Thus the events which can give rise to hazards include particularly
Container failure
Accident impact
Loading and unloading operations.
SAFETY PROVISIONS -LEVEL AND FLOW INDICATORS
Flow
The most common method of measuring flow rate uses an element inserted into a fl
owing stream that will generate a differential pressure (d/p) that is proportion
al to the flow. The differential pressure is then measured by instruments that a
re calibrated in terms of flow rate. Each d/p type device requires sufficient up
stream and downstream piping in order to produce a fully developed flow velocity
profile and an accurate and repeatable differential pressure that can be measur
ed and read in terms of flow rate. Some sources of information on d/p type flow
elements are: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook and "Orifice Metering of Nat
ural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids.'
Orifice plates are commonly used and are relatively easy to apply, but their ran

ge is limited. For certain applications, caution must be exercised. A vapor stre

am may cany a considerable amount of entrained liquid or ambient conditions may
cause condensation which can collect on the bottom of the pipe. A liquid stream
may cany entrained gases which collect on the top of the pipe in horizontal mete
r runs. These conditions will cause inaccurate flow measurement because the geom
etry of the entering fluid stream is affected by the collection of liquid or gas
on the inlet face of the orifice plate. However, the adverse effects on accurat
e measurement can be minimized by correct installation. Installing the meter run
in a vertical line, with vapor flow down or liquid flow up, is one solution. Th
e use of one of the other differential flow
elements which do not have a buildup problem may be a better solution. As a last
resort, weep holes will allow the liquid or vapor accumulation to pass down the
line and not build up behind the orifice plate
Other flow devices include load cells, mass flow meters, positive displacement m
eters, variable area meters (rotameters), turbine meters, vortex meters, doppler
effect meters and magnetic flow meters. Some of these devices, particularly the
positive displacement meter and the turbine meter can offer high accuracy and r
eliability. Other meters, such as the doppler effect and nuclear meters are plac
ed on the surface of the pipe being monitored. This makes them extremely safe, b
ut at the cost of lower accuracy and more difficult calibration. Additionally so
me materials may not register with the nonintrusive types of flow meters. The ch
oice of the flow meter used in a particular application will depend upon a set o
f tradeoffs involving the material being measured, the flow range, the pressure
drop, the accuracy required, and the
safety required. Avoid meters with glass tubes in hazardous or high pressure ser
vice; rotameters should be of all metal construction.
Flow Instruments
On line, flow meters should generally be one of the following types:
1. Turbine (or nutating disk); 2. Magnetic; and 3. Ultrasonic (Doppler).
All of these types of instruments can be equipped to provide both flow rate and
flow total measurements.
Price, line size, flowrate, flow range, required accuracy and water quality will
dictate the election of the type of instrument. The following are some general
guidelines:
1. Where considerable silt is present (as in many raw waters), either a magnetic
or a Doppler-type ultrasonic meter should be used. Turbine meters will wear rap
idly and are not practical. Transit-time meters may not operate properly if ther
e is considerable silt (consult the manufacturer).
2. An ultrasonic meter is generally more economical than a magnetic type on line
s of 300 mm diameter and larger.
3. For, on lines of very low flowrate (less than 0.3 m/sec), turbine or magnetic
flow meter is recommended. Where chemicals are present in the water, check with
the manufacturer to ensure that the meter will not suffer damage.
4. Corrosion and abrasion resistant linings should be considered for these appli
cations. Regardless of the meter type, the minimum flow velocity should be withi
n the specified range of the meter.
5. For, on lines of high flow velocity (higher than 5 m/sec), magnetic or ultras
onic flow meter is recommended. Regardless of the meter type, the maximum flow v
elocity should be within the specified range of the meter.
6. Where the water is free of solids and bubbles (as is the case on a potable di
stribution line), Doppler-type ultrasonics will not operate; a transit-time type
should be used.
1.Turbine Flow Meters
Turbine flow meters determine the flowrate by reading the rotating speed of the
turbine, which is immersed in the fluid. A flow totalizer is almost always inclu
ded, and a flow transmitter is usually available. Because they totalize volume w
ithout power, they will continue to operate during power failures and because th
ey will operate without any configuration on the part of the user or operator th
ey are often used where ease of use and maintenance are essential.
1. Where debris may be present in the water, such as in a raw water intake, a sc

reen filter (such as a Y-type strainer) upstream of the meter should be provided
.
2. A continuous straight run of piping upstream of the meter, 10 pipe diameters
if possible should be provided, to produce a smooth flow profile through the met
er. This will minimize errors in the reading.
3. If it is not possible to provide at least five diameters of straight piping u
pstream of the meter, install straightening vanes in the pipe immediately upstre
am of the filter. Even with vanes, the accuracy of the meter may be compromised.
4. Five diameters of straight piping should be provided downstream, if possible.
5. If a totalizer or flowrate display is provided, they should be located so tha
t the display is easily read.
2.Magnetic Flow Meters
Magnetic flow meters operate by applying a magnetic field around the flowing liq
uid and reading the voltage produced on a pair of immersed electrodes.
1. The manufacturer should be consulted regarding electrode material and liner m
aterial. The meter should operate with silt, chemicals, etc.
2. It is essential that the pipe be full of water at all times; the meter will n
ot operate with large air bubbles in the pipe. Some small bubbles, such as are f
ound downstream of pumps, can be tolerated.
3. A continuous straight run of piping should be provided upstream of the meter,
10 pipe diameters if possible, to produce a smooth flow profile through the met
er. This will minimize errors in the reading.
Because magnetic meters read the total voltage produced across the full width of
the pipe, some averaging is provided, and this makes them more resistant to tur
bulence than either turbine or ultrasonic meters. Less than 10 pipe diameters st
raight run upstream may compromise the accuracy of the meter.
1. Five diameters of straight piping should be provided downstream if possible.
2. Magnetic meters should be supplied with flowrate and flow total displays; the
controller should be installed so that the display is easily read.
3.Ultrasonic Flow Meters
Ultrasonic flow meters operate by firing a sonic pulse through the pipe wall into
the flowing liquid. A transit-time meter uses two transducers, one mounted upstr
eam of the second, and measures the difference in travel time for a pulse from o
ne transducer to the other. A Doppler type measures the difference in the freque
ncy received by the transducer as the sonic pulse reflects off particles or bubb
les in the liquid. In either case, the difference is directly proportional to th
e velocity of the liquid.
1. The manufacturer should confirm that the flow meter will operate with the pip
e wall material and thickness expected.
2. Ultrasonic flow meters should not be installed where the pipe will contain la
rge bubbles or air pockets; the sonic pulse will be disrupted so that the meter
won t operate.
3. Ultrasonic meters are sensitive to the flow profile; at least five pipe diame
ters of straight piping should be provided (ten pipe diameters recommended) betw
een the meter and an upstream elbow or other hydraulic disturbance.
Level
Level measurement is often accomplished by displacer/ float instruments and leve
l glasses. Other choices include differential pressure gauges, gas bubblers, and
noncontact level instruments, such as ultrasonic, microwave, and fiberoptic
instruments. The use of differential pressure gauges is discouraged in tanks or
vessels where the specific gravity of the stored material is variable since the
change in the weight of the material column will change the pressure at the leve
l instrument. Level glasses are not recommended for materials that are highly fl
ammable or toxic, unless they are armored or high pressure design. IRI (1990) ha

s published recommendations on the use of sight glasses and gauge glasses in haz
ardous and flammable liquid service. In order to minimize fabrication complexity
and expense, the use of level bridles or standpipes is recommended when more th
an four vessel connections are required. Bottom level connections should never b
e located in such a manner that the level measurement will be affected by liquid
s flowing out of the vessel, i.e., connected to the bottom outlet piping. Additi
onally, the connecting piping should not form a liquid trap that does not drain
back into the vessel.
Dedicated service level switches may be necessary on suction vessels to protect
pumps from losing suction caused by low liquid level and to protect compressors
from liquid carryover caused by high liquid level. Level switches intended to pr
otect rotating equipment are often directly connected to the vessel and not to l
evel bridles. This prevents them from being blocked-in and rendered ineffective
if the bridle is blocked-in to service an instrument in a less critical service.
Often, correct level control and indication is critical to safe and secure opera
tions and in these cases redundant level controls are typically installed. Examp
les include deaerators, steam drums, or certain distillation tower overhead
accumulators. Redundant level indication should be considered on any vessel cont
aining hazardous materials, including storage tanks.
Level Instruments
Where access to the top of the reservoir is convenient (such as in a clearwell),
ultrasonic level transmitter should be used. Where access to the bottom of the
reservoir is convenient (such as at a tower or above-ground reservoir), a pressu
re transmitter should be used as a level-sensing device.
1. Ultrasonic Level Measurement
The ultrasonic level transmitter fires a sonar signal toward a surface, such as th
e surface of the water in a well, and measures the time required to receive an ec
ho in order to determine the level of the liquid.
The ultrasonic transducer should be installed so that it is protected from damag
e, there are no obstructions between the transducer and the water surface, and i
t is accessible for calibration and maintenance.
1. The transducer should be installed in the top of a stilling well to prevent t
urbulence from producing errors in the reading. The stilling well should be a co
ntinuous length of pipe, either PVC or steel of sufficient diameter and without
couplings or fittings that could reflect a sonic echo back to the transducer thu
s giving a false reading.
2. The well must extend from a convenient height above the high-water line, at w
hich level the transducer will be installed, to the low-water line.
3. Consider the transducer s blanking distance , inherent its design, and ensure that
the transducer is mounted high enough above the high-water line so that it will
properly read the highest water level anticipated.
4. Several holes should be provided in the side of the stilling well near the bo
ttom for water to enter the well. The holes must be large enough to prevent clog
ging if silt is present.
5. The controller and display should be located where it can be conveniently rea
d by the operator.
6. Where the air temperature between the transducer and the liquid surf ace is n
ot constant (this is usually the case), provide a temperature measurement for th
e controller in order that it can compensate for the speed of sound travel throu
gh the air, and correct for temperature variations. Note that some manufacturers
include the temperature sensor in the transducer itself, while some provide a s
eparate temperature probe.
2.Pressure-Sensing Level Transmitter
The pressure-sensing level transmitter reads the head of a column of liquid and
transmits a signal proportional to the level of liquid.
1. The level transmitter should be installed as near as practical to the bottom
of the tank being measured, so as not to introduce a zero offset in the reading.
2. A block and bleed valve should be provided on the pressure line so that the t
ransmitter can be calibrated for zero level, and can be removed from service.

3. If the pressure-sensing line is small in diameter (12 mm or less), clamp it t

o supports or walls to provide adequate support.
4. If the transmitter is equipped with an integral display, the transmitter shou
ld be located so the display is clearly visible. If no display is provided, and
the head being measured is high enough (100 kPa or higher), consider installing
a pressure gauge in addition to the transmitter as a backup and calibration aid.
ALARM SYSTEMS
Development of the alarm system includes determining what parameters should be a
larmed, how they should be alarmed, and how they should address operator respons
e. Guidance is provided in publications from the Instrument Society of America,
the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, and the Institute of Chemical Engineers.
The need for stand-alone dedicated alarm systems, even where modern PES controls
are implemented, continues for two primary reasons. First, with modern distribu
ted control systems there is a tendency to overalarm. This overalarming tendency
compromises the reliability and safety of an alarm system. Unless an alarm cond
ition exists only rarely, it is almost certain to be disconnected or ignored. De
dicated annunciators help to ease operator comprehension of process unit status,
particularly in a critical upset situation. Consequently, a dedicated, stand-al
one annunciator has the ability to draw attention to specific alarm information
and provides an important advantage over a corresponding cathode ray tube (CRT)
alarm display. Priority alarm or time sequencing of alarms in PES time history i
s also useful to show the sequence of process variations. The second primary fac
tor contributing to the survival of stand-alone alarm systems is the desire to p
rovide redundancy for critical alarm functions. Even if displayed on a CRT conso
le, a separate annunciator display offers added security in the event of a CRT w
orkstation failure
Manual Alarms
Manual alarm stations are usually simple contact closing devices. Two of the mos
t common fire alarm stations are of either pull-lever or break-glass design requ
iring two distinct operations to avoid accidental operation. Manual alarm statio
ns should be located with respect to normal means of egress from all areas and a
s may be required by local codes. All buildings and process blocks should have a
t least one station in clear view, readily accessible to personnel from any poin
t within the facility, with the maximum travel distance to a station no greater
than 200 feet.
All critical points of operation in a plant are normally protected by alarms and
/or shutdown devices which are actuated by microswitches triggered by high or lo
w pressures, flows, levels, temperatures, etc. An audible/visual alarm is actuat
ed when the variable deviates from normal and reaches a certain figure, to allow
the operator to take corrective action. If this is unsuccessful and the variabl
e deviates further to reach another figure, a shutdown device may be actuated, w
hich, by means of solenoid valves in the appropriate instrument air lines, shuts
down one or more sections of the plant. The alarm consists of a horn or other a
udible device and lights which appear at labelled positions on an annunciator bo
ard mounted on the instrument panel.
The operator can usually stop the audible device, but cannot switch off the ligh
t completely, although he or she may be able to alter it in some way (e.g. chang
e from flashing to continuous) so that it is not confused with a new warning sig
nal from another point in the plant which appears on the board. All warning ligh
ts continue to show until the variables which set them off have returned to thei
r normal range. More sophisticated alarm display and cancelling arrangements are
available with PESs.
When some malfunction, perhaps of an instrument, develops suddenly on a highly i
nteractive plant, it generally actuates an alarm for a particular part of the pl
ant. It is then often surprisingly difficult to pinpoint the source of the malfu

nction and distinguish between cause and effect. Misconceptions readily arise.Y.
The plant has the same propensity to disguise its ailments as the human body, w
here even doctors can be misled, and such dictums have arisen as for pain in the
knee, treat the spine . Confusion is compounded by the simultaneous blowing of a p
ressure relief valve, with an ear-splitting roar. The near-disaster on the Three
Mile Island atomic power plant in the USA was a classic example of this kind of
difficulty in fault diagnosis.
On PES-controlled plant it is possible to provide software programs to help oper
ators in rapid fault diagnosis. These programs are designed by experts who have
carefully studied the various faults which might develop and how to diagnose and
handle them.2h Even here the operators generally nced special training. For thi
s special process simulators with similar VDUand keyboard-equipped control stati
ons are being increasingly used.
To avert complete plant shutdowns because of minor malfunctions, the panel instr
uments should allow operators to take some holding action, such as putting the p
lant on total recycle or columns on total reflux, while the problem is being inv
estigated.
Procedures must be established between operating and instrument department perso
nnel for the calibration, zeroing and other necessary testing of instruments car
ried out while the plant is running. This generally involves tcmporarily putting
each control instrument in turn on remote manual control and similarly de-activ
ating alarms and trips. Clearly marked tags or notices should be displayed on an
y panel instruments which are out of service. Verbal and written warnings of thi
s must be given to incoming shifts.
If the alarm is indicated by a lamp, it must flash until acknowledged then remai
n steady until the alarm clears. If it is indicated on a computer screen, an app
ropriate colour code or symbol must be used to indicate for each alarm whether i
t has been acknowledged. Automated systems should log the time at which the alar
m occurred, the time it was acknowledged and the time it cleared. Logs may be pr
inted on paper or recorded electronically.
Valve and equipment status should use a consistent method of symbols and colours
, whether the status is indicated through lamps or on a colour computer screen.
The colour-coding scheme should be consistent with any existing equipment displa
ys elsewhere in the plant.
As a minimum, the following alarms should be provided:
1. High turbidity on the raw water, clarifier effluent (if applicable), filter e
ffluent, and plant discharge;
2. High and low pressure on the raw water line;
3. High flowrate on the raw water line;
4. High and low level in clarifiers or flocculators;
5. High torque on solids contact clarifier recirculator and rake;
6. High torque on flocculators;
7. High level in filters;
8. High and low level in chemical storage tanks;
9. High and low chemical feed rates;
10. High flowrate on each filter individually (also low flowrate on declining ra
te filters);
11. High and low levels in each clearwell, pumpwell, and reservoir;
12. High and low pH on the raw and treated water (if on-line measurements are pr
ovided);
13. High and low chlorine residual on the plant discharge (where on-line measure
ments are provided);
14. High head loss on the filters (if constant rate type);
15. Trip or failure to run on each pump;
16. High and low pressure on the plant discharge line;
17. High flowrate on the plant discharge line;
18. Chlorine gas detection in the chlorine storage, metering and injector rooms;

19. Chlorine scale low weight (where scales are equipped with transmitters); and
20. Valve operation failure (where valves are provided with limit switches).
More alarms may be required where additional treatment processes are provided. A
larms should be provided for all control system interlocks that can shut down eq
uipment or systems. n plants that are left unattended for periods of time, an au
tomatic alarm dialler should be provided.