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There are many kinds of personnel research. Three dimensions are particularly
important in classifying types of research:
Applied vs Basic research. Applied research is research designed to solve a
particular problem in a particular circumstance, such as determining the cause of low
morale in a given department of an organization. Basic research is designed to
understand the underlying principles behind human behavior. For example, you
might try to understand what motivates people to work hard at their jobs. This
distinction is discussed in more detail in another handout. Click here to read it.
Exploratory vs Confirmatory. Exploratory research is research into the unknown.
It is used when you are investigating something but really don't understand it all, or
are not completely sure what you are looking for. It's sort of like a journalist whose
curiousity is peaked by something and just starts looking into something without
really knowing what they're looking for. Confirmatory research is where you have a
pretty good idea what's going on. That is, you have a theory (or several theories), and
the objective of the research is to find out if the theory is supported by the facts.
Quantitative vs Qualitative. Quantitative studies measure variables with some
precision using numeric scales. For example, you might measure a person's height
and weight. Or you might construct a survey in which you measure how much
respondents like President Clinton, using a 1 to 10 scale. Qualitative studies are
based on direct observation of behavior, or on transcripts of unstructured interviews
with informants. For example, you might talk to ten female executives about their
the decision-making process behind their choice to have children or not, and if so,
when. You might interview them for several hours, tape-recording the whole thing,
and then transcribe the recordings to written text, and then analyze the text.
As a general rule (but there are many exceptions), confirmatory studies tend to be
quantitative, while exploratory studies tend to be qualitative
Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many
different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes,
rules, and policies relating to research ethics. East Carolina University (ECU) has a variety of policies
pertaining to research, which you will review in this short course. Many government agencies, such as the
National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) also have ethics rules for funded researchers, which we will also mention in this
course. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements (International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society),
Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists
(American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American
Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University
Professors), The Nuremberg Code and The Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association). The
following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address*:
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures,
and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting
agencies, or the public.
Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel
decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or
required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may
affect research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of
your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or
credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel
records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful
and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own
decisions.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education,
and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors
that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and
learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or
poorly designed animal experiments.
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect
human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to
distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not
cover every situation that arises in research, they often conflict, and they require considerable
interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various
research rules and how to make decisions about how to act in various situations. The vast majority of
decisions that people must make in the conduct of research involve the straightforward application of
ethical rules.
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1. correct and examples of perception.
2. gathers information on subject or phenomena people lacks or have little knowledge about.
3. develops and evaluate concepts, practices and theories.
4. evaluates methods that test concepts.
5. obtains knowledge for practical purpose like solving problems on population explosion.