Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.

1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an

d Animals
Chapter 2: Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Anima
ls Support System and Locomotion 1. Provided by a skeleton. 2. Types of skeleton
: a) Exoskeleton shell - insects and crabs - importance: i) supports important b
ody organs ii) protects the internal structures from damage iii) allows movement
iv) waxy cuticles found on the surface of insects prevents water loss. b) Endos
keleton bones and cartilage - vertebrates - importance: i) maintaining body shap
e ii) supporting soft tissue iii) protecting internal organs from injury iv) sto
res mineral (calcium and phosphorus) v) produce blood cells c) Hydrostatic skele
ton internal watery fluids held under pressure contained within confined spaces
in the body surrounded by the muscles. - caterpillar and earthworm The human ske
leton 1. Parts: a) axial skeleton b) appendicular skeleton The axial skeleton 1.
Consists of: a) skull b) vertebral column c) the ribs d) sternum 2. Skull consi
st of: a) Cranial bones enclose and protect the brain b) Facial bones protect an
d provide support for the entrances to the digestive system and respiratory syst
em c) Suture immovable joints which securely hold bones that make up the skull d
) Jaw movable joint
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
3. Vertebral column (spine or backbone) a) composed of vertebrae. b) encloses an
d protects the spinal cord. c) supports the head d) serves as a point of attachm
ent for the ribs, pelvic girdle and the muscles of the back and neck. e) cervica
l, thoracic and lumbar are moveable. f) sacrum and coccyx are immovable. g) inve
rtebral discs in the vertebrae permits movement of the vertebral column and abso
rb vertical shock. h) varies in size and shape. i) vertebral foramen encloses th
e spinal cords.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
4. Cervical vertebrae a) Have transverse formaen through which blood vessels and
nerve pass. 5. Thoracic vertebra a) Have spinous processes that are long direct
ed downwards. b) Spinous and transverse processes serve as points of attachment
of muscles and ligaments.
6. Lumbar vertebra a) Largest and strongest. b) Have large centrums which bear t
he weight of the lower back.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
7. Thorax: a) thoracic cage (consists of ribs and the sternum) b) encloses and p
rotects the organs in the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity. The append
icular skeleton 1. Consists of: a) Pectoral girdle clavicle and scapula b) Humer
us upper arm, longest bone c) Ulna d) Radius e) Carpals - wrist f) Metacarpals p
alm of the hand g) Phalanges fingers and toefingers g) Pelvic girdle consists of
two hip bones which provide strong and stable support for the vertebral column.
h) Femur thigh bone, longest, heaviest and strongest i) Tibia j) Fibula k) Pate
lla kneecap l) Tarsals - ankle m) Metatarsals foot The structure of a joint 1. J
oint a place where two or more bones meet. 2. Ligaments Hold bones together and
allow them to move 3. Synovial joint: a) Joint that contains a cavity filled wit
h fluid that allow free movement. b) 4 features joint capsule (joint enclosure,
reinforced and strengthened with ligaments) - lined with thin synovial membrane
(inner surface of the capsule) - secretes synovial fluid lubricant which reduces
friction between the ends of
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
the bones) - covered with cartilage 4. Cartilage cushions the joint, absorbs sho
ck and reduces friction between the ends of the bones. 5. Joints:a) Hinge joint knee, elbow, finger and toe. - allows the leg to swing back and f
orth (one plane). - 180 degree
b) Ball and socket joint rotational movement of bones in all directions. - shoul
der and hip joint. - 360 degree
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
How movement is brought about in a limb
1. Skeletal muscle are responsible for voluntary movements of the body. 2. A mus
cle is attached to at least two bones across joints through tendons. 3. Tendons
are tough, strong and inelastic strands of dense connective tissues. 4. Skeletal
muscle produce movements by pulling on tendons attached to bones. 5. A muscle c
an only pull. 6. It pulls when it contracts. 7. A pair of muscle (antagonistic m
uscle) work together to allow coordinated movement of the skeletal joints. 8. Th
is means when one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes. 9. Bending and str
aightening of the arm a) When the biceps contract. b) The tendons transmit the p
ulling force produced by the contraction to the forearm. c) At the same time, th
e triceps relaxes. d) As a result, the elbow joint flexes or bends and the forea
rm moves upwards. e) This causes the bending and straightening of the arm.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
The structure of a muscle
1. A skeletal muscle such as the biceps consists of bundles of muscle fibres and
large supply of nerves and blood vessels. 2. A muscle fibre is a single, long c
ylindrical cell that contains many nuclei. 3. A muscle fibre is made up of bundl
es of smaller units called myofibrils. 4. Each myofibril is made up of actin and
myosin ( protein filaments). 5. The interaction of both these proteins causes m
uscle contractions. 6. Muscle contraction involves the nervous systema and requi
res energy. Consequences of impaired musculoskeletal system on support and locom
otion 1. Muscle cramp Definition: sudden contraction of one or more muscles whic
h results in a sudden, intense pain and inability to use the affected muscle. Ca
uses: - common among endurance athletes. - inadequate stretching and muscle fati
gue. 2. Muscular dystrophy Definition: Caused by the progressive degeneration an
d weakness of the skeletal muscles That control movement. Causes: - mutated gene
which is found on the X chromosome and mainly affects the boys.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
3. Osteoporosis Definition: Common bone disorder, especially among elderly women
. The bones become thinner, more brittle and more porous. Causes: - Loss of bone
mass begins after the age of 30 and accelerates greatly around the age 45. - If
dietary intake of the of phosphate and calcium is insufficient. - Bone producti
on and bone tissue will suffer resulting in brittle and fragile bones. Symptoms:
- fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips - loss of height and stooped postur
e Prevention: - Adequae intake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D. - Regular e
xercise 4. Arthritis Definition: - Decreased production of synovial fluid in joi
nts and cartilage between bones become thinner (osteoarthritis), and ligaments s
horten and lose some of their elasticity. - Suffer from a painful and stiff knee
which restricts daily activities like walking.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
The mechanism of locomotion in animals Locomotion in an animal with a hydrostati
c skeleton (earthworm)
1. Earthworms have a hydrostatic skeleton (the force of contraction is applied t
o a coelum (fluid filled chamber). 2. Coelom is surrounded by two antagonistic m
uscle: a) circular muscles surround the chamber b) longitudinal muscles extend f
rom one end to the other. 3. Thinner and longer: When circular muscle contract a
nd the longitudinal muscle relax. 4. Shorter and thicker: When circular muscle r
elax and the longitudinal muscle contract. 5. The muscles contract rhythmically
to produce peristaltic waves which begins at the front and move towards the end
of the body. 6. Earthworm has chaetae (bristles) which anchor parts of the body
to the ground so that other parts can be pulled towards it.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
Locomotion in an animal with exoskeleton (grasshopper)
1. A grasshopper uses three legs to support the body off the ground, while the o
ther three legs move together to make successive steps while walking. 2. The fle
xor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface of
the exoskeleton. 3. Flexor muscles bend a joint. 4. Extensor muscles straighten
it. 5. The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular and is adapted for h
opping. 6. Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts, the lower leg is
pulled towards the body. The hind leg is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jum
p. 7. Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg jerks backwards, propell
ing the grasshopper forward and upward into the air.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
Locomotion in an animal with an endoskeleton (fish)
1. Why can a fish swim in a viscous and dense environment: a) body wight is supp
orted by water to overcome gravity. b) sleek and streamlined body to overcome re
sistance. c) overlapping scales on the body of a fish face backwards to overcome
resistance. d) covered by slimy coating to minimize frictional drag and maintai
ns a smooth flow of water. 2. Vertebral column of the fish is moved from side to
side by the contraction and relaxation of myotomes.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
3. Myotomes W shaped muscle blocks that make up each side of the body of a fish
and carry out opposite action. 4. Alternating waves of contraction and relaxatio
n pass down the myotomes on either side of the body from the head to the tail. 5
. These cause different parts of the body to be swept from side to side pushing
water backwards and sideways and the body forwards. 6. Tendency for a fish to be
come unstable in water during movement, leading to:a) yawing sideways movement b
) pitching vertical plane movement c) rolling transverse plane movement 7. Movem
ents are countered by fins. Caudal fin provides thrust and controls the fishs dir
ection.
8. These movements are countered by:a) yawing resisted by the median (dorsal and
ventral) fin b) rolling resisted by median fin c) Pitching resisted by paired p
elvic fin and pectoral fin which acts as brakes and rudders. 9. Bony fish have s
wim bladders to help them maintain buoyancy in the water. 10. The swim bladder i
s a sac inside the abdomen that contains gas. 11. Controlling the amount of gas
in the swim bladder, a fish can change its buoyancy so that it has the same rela
tive density as the surrounding water.
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
2.2 Appreciating a Healthy Muscoskeletal System 1. Adequte calcium intake 2. Phy
sical activities and exercise strengthen joint structures, increase muscular per
formance and delay the progress of arthritis. 2.3 Support in Plants 1. Why? a) P
lant grows and it produces more leaves. b) Grow tall therefore needs to withstan
d the forces of gravity. c) Spreading of leaves and branches horizontally. 2. Aq
uatic plants are supported by buoyancy and support. Support in aquatic and terre
strial plants Submerged plants 1. Hydrilla sp. have thin, narrow and flexible le
aves. 2. This type of leaves provide little resistance to water flows, plants ca
n be tugged at and pulled by water currents without being damaged. 3. Air sacs i
nside the leaves and stems keep the plant floating close to the surface to obtai
n maximum sunlight. 4. Their stems have no woody tissues. Floating plants 1. Wat
er hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) have broad leaves that are firm but flexible e
nough to resist tearing by wave action. 2. Aerenchyma tissues (spongy tissues wi
th large air spaces between the cells) in the stems and leaves provide buoyancy
so that the plants can float on the surface of the water. Herbaceous plants (Ter
resterial plants) 1. Support provided by the turgidity of the parenchyma and col
lenchyma cells. 2. Turgor pressure of the fluid content in the central vacuole p
ushes the cell membrane and the cell contents against the cell wall, creating su
pport for the stem, root and leaves. 3. The thickening of the cell walls with ce
llulose and pectin in collenchyma cells provide additional mechanical strength.
Woody plants 1. Support provided by sclerenchyma and xylem tissues. 2. Sclerench
yma tissue is composed of cells with secondary cell walls that are usually ligni
fied which support non-growing parts of plants. 3. Two types of sclerenchyma tis
sue: a) fibres long, straight and thin
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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans an
d Animals
- found around vascular tissues b) sclereids short, circular and irregular shape
d - found in fruit and seeds 4. During primary growth development, the cell wall
s of xylem vessels and tracheids are thickened with lignin and forms vessels .
5. Type of vessels: a) annular (ring shaped) vessel b) spiral vessel c) scalarif
orm (ladder like) vessel d) pitted vessel 6. Secondary growth of xylem results i
n the formation of wood which makes the plant stronger and and provides support.
. 7. Other supporting structures: a) Buttress root roots that come out from the
lower part of the trunk and grow into the ground, providing support for the tree
. b) Creepers, vines and lianas use other trees for support.
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