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Relay Technolog y
Introduction
7.1
Electromechanical relays
7.2
Static relays
7.3
Digital relays
7.4
Numerical relays
7.5
7.6
7.7
References
7.8
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7 Relay Technolog y
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The last thirty years have seen enormous changes in relay
technology. The electromechanical relay in all of its
different forms has been replaced successively by static,
digital and numerical relays, each change bringing with
it reductions and size and improvements in functionality.
At the same time, reliability levels have been maintained
or even improved and availability significantly increased
due to techniques not available with older relay types.
This represents a tremendous achievement for all those
involved in relay design and manufacture.
This chapter charts the course of relay technology
through the years. As the purpose of the book is to
describe modern protection relay practice, it is natural
therefore to concentrate on digital and numerical relay
technology. The vast number of electromechanical and
static relays are still giving dependable service, but
descriptions on the technology used must necessarily be
somewhat brief. For those interested in the technology
of electromechanical and static technology, more
detailed descriptions can be found in reference [7.1].
7 . 2 E L E C T R O M E C H A N I C A L R E L AY S
These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the
protection of power systems, and they date back nearly
100 years. They work on the principle of a mechanical
force causing operation of a relay contact in response to
a stimulus. The mechanical force is generated through
current flow in one or more windings on a magnetic core
or cores, hence the term electromechanical relay. The
principle advantage of such relays is that they provide
galvanic isolation between the inputs and outputs in a
simple, cheap and reliable form therefore for simple
on/off switching functions where the output contacts
have to carry substantial currents, they are still used.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several
different types as follows:
a. attracted armature
b. moving coil
c. induction
d. thermal
e. motor operated
f. mechanical
However, only attracted armature types have significant
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Armature
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
Core
Permanent
magnet
S
Coil
Figure 7.2: Typical polarised relay
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R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
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7 . 4 D I G I TA L R E L AY S
Digital protection relays introduced a step change in
technology.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers
replaced analogue circuits used in static relays to
implement relay functions. Early examples began to be
introduced into service around 1980, and, with
improvements in processing capacity, can still be regarded
as current technology for many relay applications.
However, such technology will be completely superseded
within the next five years by numerical relays.
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
7 . 5 N U M E R I C A L R E L AY S
The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests
on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in
areas other than Protection. They can be viewed as
natural developments of digital relays as a result of
advances in technology. Typically, they use a specialised
digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational
hardware, together with the associated software tools.
The input analogue signals are converted into a digital
representation and processed according to the appropriate
mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out using a
specialised microprocessor that is optimised for signal
processing applications, known as a digital signal
processor or DSP for short. Digital processing of signals in
real time requires a very high power microprocessor.
In addition, the continuing reduction in the cost of
microprocessors and related digital devices (memory, I/O,
etc.) naturally leads to an approach where a single item
of hardware is used to provide a range of functions
(one-box solution approach). By using multiple
microprocessors to provide the necessary computational
performance, a large number of functions previously
implemented in separate items of hardware can now be
included within a single item. Table 7.1 provides a list of
typical functions available, while Table 7.2 summarises
the advantages of a modern numerical relay over the
static equivalent of only 10-15 years ago. Figure 7.7
shows typical numerical relays, and a circuit board is
shown in Figure 7.8. Figure 7.9 provides an illustration of
the savings in space possible on a HV feeder showing the
space requirement for relays with electromechanical and
numerical relay technology to provide the same
functionality.
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Present values
of all settings
Battery
backed-up
SRAM
E2 PROM
Flash
EPROM
SRAM
CPU
LEDs
Comms betwen
main & compressor
boards
IRIG - B signal
IRIG - B board
(optional)
Timing
data
FPGA
Serial data bus
(sample data)
CPU
Legend:
Coprocessor board
Relay board
ADC
Input board
Power supply
board
Transformer
board
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
Output relays
SRAM
Fibre optic
rear comms
port optional
CPU code
& data
Opto-isolated
inputs
Chap7-98-111
where:
fs = sampling frequency
fh = highest frequency of interest
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+Vref
Vref
Vout
Vin
Vref
-Vref
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
7
Actual signal
Apparent signal
Sample points
Figure 7.12: Signal aliasing problem
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X
X
X
X
Xs = 2 0 + 1 + X2 + 3 + 0 - 5 - X6 - 7
8
2
2
2
2
(a) Sine filter
7 . 6 A D D I T I O N A L F E AT U R E S
O F N U M E R I C A L R E L AY S
X
X
X
X
Xc = 2 X0 + 1 + 0 - 3 - X4 - 5 + 0 + 7
8
2
2
2
2
(b) Cosine filter
Figure 7.13: Digital filters
Alias of fundamental
Gain
1
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
0
f0
2f0
3f0
4f0
5f0
Frequency
107
6f0
7f0
8f0
9f0
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e. harmonic quantities
f. frequency
g. temperatures/RTD status
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
i. distance to fault
The accuracy of the measured values can only be as good
as the accuracy of the transducers used (VTs CTs, A/D
converter, etc.). As CTs and VTs for protection functions
may have a different accuracy specification to those for
metering functions, such data may not be sufficiently
accurate for tariff purposes. However, it will be
sufficiently accurate for an operator to assess system
conditions and make appropriate decisions.
7.6.2 VT/CT Supervision
If suitable VTs are used, supervision of the VT/CT supplies
can be made available. VT supervision is made more
complicated by the different conditions under which
there may be no VT signal some of which indicate VT
failure and some occur because of a power system fault
having occurred.
CT supervision is carried out more easily, the general
principle being the calculation of a level of negative
sequence current that is inconsistent with the calculated
value of negative sequence voltage.
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7.6.8 Conclusions
The provision of extra facilities in numerical relays may
avoid the need for other measurement/control devices to
be fitted in a substation. A trend can therefore be
discerned in which protection relays are provided with
functionality that in the past has been provided using
separate equipment. The protection relay no longer
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7.8 REFERENCES
R e l a y Te c h n o l o g y
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