Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Rational choice and social exchange theories- take into account economic considerations when
decision-making
Rational choice- extrinsic (measurable costs) profit. Advancement in education
Social exchange theories- extrinsic as well as intrinsic. (non-measureable costs) like
friendship and companionship.
Fundamental attribution error- blames individuals for their behaviors and not environment
Actor/Observer Bias- blames ourselves but because of our environment.
Self-serving bias- attribute success to ourselves. but failures on others (like the teacher)
Optimism bias- things happen bad to others but not ourselves.
Stanley Milgram- obedience with authority figure
Solomon Asch- conformity theory
BOTH used confederates to deceive people
ascribed status- is something you didnt have to work for to get the status of (female, OC
resident., Vietnamese)
Achieved status is what you earned -Doctor
Source characteristic in Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion is the ethos of the speaker
is taken into account.
Central/peripheral- central= the main message (message characteristic); peripheral- how he
looks.
Central>peripheral in memory
Target characteristic- how the audience is feeling; if the individual is tired self-esteem
mood intelligence toward subject if it is important or not.
FUNCTIONALISM- formal organizationUtilitarian Organization- compensations to their members (Microsoft users)
Normative- moral causes. (PETA)
In primary groups- it is expressive function. Because it helps develop morals and emotions.
Instrumental function is leadership and completion of the task
Environmental injustice- WHEN poor minorities have to live in bad environments that causes
disease
APPLICATION/EXAMPLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INJUSTICE: when minority live
in these environemnts and are obese because they do not have access to good/nutritious food
THIS IS FOOD DESERT
Demographic Transition when high birth AND death rates lower. Due to industrialization
Meritocracy- society where individual status can go up or down based on accomplishments
Caste system is where individual status is defined at birth and will remain there FOREVER.
Class system- BOTH accomplishments and birth rights.
Cultural competence- include minority/socioeconomic backgrounds. groups in biomedical
research
Suburbanization- people moving to suburbs (areas around the cities/urban settings)
Counter-urbanization suburb to rural.
Sub-replacement fertility when net birth rate is NEGATIVE. (more deaths than birth rates)
Population-lag effect is when the net is ZERO
Fecundity refers to the reproductive potential of a single women
Colonization- form of immigration where a group of people arrives to a place where it is already
settled and proceeds to dominate and exploit the indigenous people
Involuntary migration- where the Europeans will actually force the native americans out of their
land. (trail of tears)
False consensus- when you think youre right but everyone around completely disagrees
Confirmation bias- is looking for information to support your own previously known opinions
Belief bias- when one judges a situation on the plausibility of the event instead of the actually
logical facts
Example of belief bias : all humans are mortall Socrates is human Socrates is
mortal
All teenage girls are ambitious teenage girls study hard Therefore, girls study
hard because they are ambitious
Absolute poverty- is the measure of the bare minimum for subsistence. One disadvantage of
using this number is that poverty threshold in developed nations tend to higher
Relative poverty- measure of poverty compared to other families; defined as an inability to meet
the average standard of living within a society
Antisocial personality disorder- acts of aggression against people or animals; deliberate property
descturciton; lying or theft
Schizoid- detached from social relationships and detached from close relationships but not odd
or completely eccentric
Sensory memory (Echoic or iconic) must pass through the BROADBENT FILTER in order to
become short term memory (iconic and echoic memory are short term)
Long term:
Episodic memory- Thats another story Im no story teller (type of autobiographical
events/EXPLICIT MEMORY)
Procedural memory riding a bike
Semantic memory- factual information
The Big Five personalities: OCEAN
O-Openness
C- conscientiousness
E- extraversion
A- Agreeable
N- neuroticism- ability to control/handle stress (EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE) (personality trait
characterized by anxiety, fear, moodiness, worry, envy, frustration, jealousy, and loneliness
Working memory and long term memory- stored in PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX
HIPPOCAMPUS- is involved in making new memories and adding emotional association with
those memories
Psychoanalytic theory- THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND.
Humanist theory- emphasizes an individual inherent drive toward self-actualization focuses on
healthy personality developments. Humans are inherently good.
Behaviorist perspective- people are a blank slates and then environment refinrocements their
personality through operative and classical conditioning
Social cognitive perspective- environment/behavioral/cognitive all effect personality
Trait perspective- each individual possesses traits that are stable and enduring???? WTF.
Stimulus reactions:
Sensitization- sensitivity increases as stimulus increases
Habituation- sensitivity decreases as stimulus decreases
Dishabituation- when the stimulus is removed and then reaction is gone but when stimulus
comes back. The reaction comes back SOMETIMES EVEN STRONGER.
Extinction- unconditional conditional unconditional [IT IS COMPLETELY GONE.]
Types of reinforcements:
Fixed ratio- reinforced every nth response
used car dealer gets 1000 for every 10 car sold
Variable ratio- reinforced ON AVERAGE every nth response, but not on each nth response.
slot machines because though the jackpot is constant. The number of times of lever pulling
is variable)
fixed interval- reinforced after n amount of time
rewarded after 15 minutes of rat pushing the lever
variable interval- reinforced ON AVERAGE every nth response, BUT not ALWAYS on the nth
amount of time....
fishing.--> you might be able to catch a fish in 5 minutes but the next one might take an
hour
schizophrenia- positive and negative symptoms
positive- seeing things that are not there. (delusions, hallucinations, and
negative- lack of behaviors- (losing interest aka avolition), feeling out of touch)
catatonic behavior(they are rigid and stuck. Stuck in time) [I THINK ITS NEGATIVE]
Bobo dolls (Albert Bandura)- child who observe adult behavior will model that behavior with or
WITHOUT rewards geared toward that behavior
vicarious reinforcement is our tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviors for which
others are being rewarded; copying behaviors because someone else received a reward
Secondary reinforcers are one main criticism of the Drive Reduction Theory, because
these are other types of reinforcers that do not directly reduce physiological and biological drives.
Money as a secondary reinforcer can buy things that would reduce physiological drives, such as
buying food to reduce hunger, but there is no direct connection between a secondary reinforcer
and a reduction in drive, only an indirect connection through the primary reinforcer.
Maslow the pyramid
Taste aversion conditioning- individual avoids eating foods that have made him/her ill; foods
associated with illness
Children with autism often display repetitive behavior but do NOT have difficulties with
sustained attention. AKA they do not have ADD. Or ADHD
The Diagnosis of ASD (autism spectrum disorders) is made during toddlerhood (18-30 months)
Denial- occurs when parents outright refusal to admit the existence of a painful experience.
(postpartum depression) this is different from repression because repression involves memroeis
that are held in the SUBCONSCIOUS and we are not clearly thinking of it.
Role conflict- SHOULD I BE A STUDENT OR A FRAT BRO.
Role exit happens in the case of disengagement from a role that is important to a person's sense of
self; for example, a mother might experience role exit as a result of birth because she exits the
role of a pregnant woman
Role strain- happens in the case of a SINGLEEEEE status that has conflicting expectations
associated with it; for example, a mother might experience role strain due to the struggle between
the expectation to show compassion to her children while also being expected to discipline them
for poor behavior
The Arousal Theory of Motivation suggests that individuals are motivated to change their
behavior to achieve their optimal level of arousal, which means they will work to increase or
decrease arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law states that increased arousal can help improve performance, but at the point
when arousal becomes excessive, performance diminishes
Stimulus generalization- when a conditioned stimulus has been generalized to a response for
everything..
Response generalization- when an organism emits a different response to a conditioned stimulus
Response discrimination- is when the invidiual can discern between the conditioned stimulus and
other stuff
Implicit memories- are memories that explain completely procedural or motor tasks aka hard to
explain/nondeclarative, only measured indirectly
Explicit memory- facts and numbers and shit
The reticular activating system (RAS), which is located in the midbrain, controls alertness and
arousal.
Thalamus is the relay station
Cognitive dissonance- when an individual feels tension when two thoughts/beliefs are
conflicting it is necessary to eliminate this to establish self-worth/self-identity
Yerkes-Dodson Law suggest that you will do better on the real MCAT than the practice ones
because there is a little nervousness involved
There is a relationship between performance and arousal. Increased arousal can help
improve performance, but only up to a certain point. At the point when arousal becomes
excessive, performance diminishes.
Atonia- skeletal muscle paralysis (REM)
N2- sleep spindles
A cross-sectional study is observational and involves comparisons of different population groups
within a single point in time.
A study in which participants are observed at different points over time is considered a
longitudinal study
Belief perseverance is the tendency to reject convincing proof and become even more tenaciously
firm about an existing idea, even despite contradictory evidence
The availability heuristic is a tendency to make judgments based on how readily available
information is in our memories. If a memory is readily available, we may think the idea is more
common than it actually is.
A confirmation bias is a type of cognitive error that involves favoring information that confirms
previously existing beliefs; this occurs when she pays attention to the information that upholds
her ideas about stem cell research and ignores the information that challenges her existing
beliefs.
The representativeness heuristic (stereotyping) occurs when one estimates the likelihood of an
event occurring by comparing it to an existing mental prototype; these prototypes are what each
person thinks are the most relevant or typical example of a particular event or object.
Olfaction is the only sense that does not synapse with the thalamus before reaching its primary
processing cortex. The olfactory bulb of the frontal lobe is connected directly to the nasal cavity
by the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I)
left hemisphere where Brocas area is localized, so he will not be able to say what the shape is.
Blindsight, the ability to accurately guess what an object is without consciously seeing it, tends
to occur in patients with primary visual cortex damage and would not be seen with a split brain
patient as his visual system is intact.
Right hemisphere- visual processing
The ability to produce fluent but meaningless spoken or written language is indicative of damage
to Wernickes area, located in the left temporal lobe in right-handed individuals
Signal detection theory tests look for subjects to correctly identify the presence or absence of a
signal amidst background noise; they do not test for the presence of noise itself. When a subject
correctly detects a signal that is present, that is known as a hit. When a subject detects the
absence of a signal that is truly absent, that is known as a correct rejection. When a subject
detects a signal as present that is actually absent, this is known as a false alarm.
Sapir-whorf hypothesis- The idea that language encodes cultural and cognitive properties that
affect the way that people think, such that speakers of different languages will tend to think and
behave differently depending on the language they use, is known as the SapirWhorf
hypothesis
Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born hard-wired to learn language, and
suggested this ability was due to the presence of a language acquisition device (LAD), an
innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from
limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood.
B. F. Skinner, on the other hand, believed that humans learn language through a series of operant
conditioning steps and stages, wherein young children are praised for making sounds that
resemble words and eventually are conditioned through shaping to produce language.
Parallel processing- When watching a movie or other complex visual stimulus, all of the
elements (form, depth, color, movement) are processed simultaneously. This process is
referred to as parallel processing.
According to Baddeleys model, working memory consists of four componentsa phonological
loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a central executive. The phonological loop
allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it. The visuospatial sketchpad serves a
similar purpose for visuospatial information through the use of mental images. The episodic
buffer is where information in the working memory can interact with information in long-term
memory. For example, if a doctor sees a rare condition much like the one she saw in residency
years ago, she is able to make this connection through the interaction between her memory of
residency and her current visual experience in the episodic buffer. Echoic memory, which is not a
component of Baddeleys model, is a component of sensory memory that is specific to retaining
auditory information.
Korsakoffs syndrome- alcoholism/ affects long term memory
REM sleep- there is no EMG activity and NO K complexes or theta waves (K complexes are in
N2
Nucleus accumbens- reward center= dopamine centers
Dissociative fugue (a type of dissociative disorder)- sufferes of dissociative fugue tend ot wander
or travel and often establish new identities based on who they believe they are
Delusional disorder- psychotic illness that is characterized by non-bizarre delusions, with no
accompanying hallucinations, mood disturbances, or flattening of affect;
Social network theory- peoples network are important and necessary for the spread of ideas and
resources; there is much strength in weak ties because weak ties allow the sharing of new
resources to a vast network.. although strong ties have advantages, there is a sense of
redundancy with the information and resources provided; generally peoples strong ties have
infmration that the person is already aware of since they are part of the same cluster
Mead- final step to forming a self is the ability of seeing oneself..
I is the observer while ME is the observed.
The Me prevents the I from violating social norms
Me can be reflected. But I can not self-reflect because I is self
The opponent-process theory was first developed by Ewald Hering. He noted that there are color
combinations that we never see, such as reddish-green or yellowish-blue. Opponent-process
theory suggests that color perception is controlled by the activity of three opponent systems. In
the theory, he postulated about three independent receptor types which all have opposing pairs:
white and black, blue and yellow, and red and green.
Positive correlation means the correlation coefficient [ranges from -1 to 1] is greater than zero
and negative is vice versa BUT MOST IMPORTANTLY. CORRELATION DOES NOT
IMPLY CAUSATION
Whenmeasuresvarybutthescoresareconsistent,thatisintermethod
reliability,whichisabsentinthiscase.
Testretestreliabilityisonlyapplicablewhenthefirstandsecondmeasures
areidentical(i.e.,thequestionsarethesameoneachtest).
Thechildismostlikelyinthepreoperationalstage,whichrangesfrom27
yearsoldandisfeaturedbyanimism,thetendencytogivenonhuman
objectshumancharacteristics.Sheisalsoexhibitingegocentrism,orthe
tendencytofocusonherownthoughts&emotions.
TheWhorfianhypothesisisthatlanguagedeterminesthought;theideaof
linguisticdeterminism.
Thispsychologistsupportstheideathatthoughtdetermineslanguage.
Universalists/nativistbelievethatthoughtdetermineslanguage.
Languageisinherent
Elevatedactivationoftherighthemisphereisassociatedwithsocial
withdrawalandisolation.
Elevatedactivationofthelefthemisphereisassociatedwithpositive
emotions.
Theevaluationofapotentialthreatasstressfulornotoccursinthefirststage
ofappraisal.
Theevaluationofapotentialthreatasstressfuloccursduringprimary
appraisal.
The General Adaptation Syndrome theorizes that:As proposed by Hans Selye, and supported by
his research, the physiological response to stress is universal
targetcellsoflowermotorneurons
polydysia
TheFootintheDoorPhenomenonexplainshowpeoplehaveatendencyto
agreetoasmallactionandcomplylateronwithalargeraction.Atfirstthe
smokeronlyagreedtoremainsoberforoneweek.Heremainedinthe
companyofpeoplewhodidntsmokeandovertime,hiscognitionsand
behaviorschangedhisattitudestowardssmoking,whichlastedlongerthan
oneweek.
Displacementisadefensemechanismthatshiftsaggressiveimpulsestoa
lessthreateningtarget.Itredirectsemotiontoasaferoutletorsomeone
unrelatedtotheemotionalsituation,inordertoavoiddealingdirectlywith
whatisfrighteningorthreatening.Thegirlyellsatherroommateeven
thoughsheisangrywithhermother.
Projectionprojectyourownideasontootherpeople
TheoryofPlannedBehaviorTheimplicationsofouractionsaregenerally
thoughtoutbeforeweengageinbehaviorandtogetherwithourintentions,
subjectivenorms(whatothersthinkaboutourbehavior),andperceived
behaviorcontrol(howeasyordifficultwethinkitistocontrolour
behavior),weformanattitudeandthusact.
socialpsychologists,thepresenceofothersincreasesarousalitdoesnot
decreaseit.
Signal Detection Theory
I.
II.
III.
Delta waves are characteristics of deep sleep (stages 3 and 4), not REM sleep, which while
deep, is known as paradoxical sleep, because the EEG measures most resemble that of
wakefulness
CHOMSKY-you can lack syntax and sentence structure, but it is still considered language
acquisition because you are being exposed it.
The amygdala communicates with the hypothalamus, which controls the physiological aspects of
emotion, such as sweating and a racing heart
cocktail party effect. This is especially true if the information is subjectively important, such as
hearing ones own name amidst the noise
The learning perspective, which is attributed to B. F. Skinner, holds that adults have a significant
impact on the speech of children when they reinforce infant babbling
nteractionist theory, which is often related to Vygotsky, bridges the social and biological factors
that contribute to language learning;
The availability heuristic occurs when we rely on immediate examples that come to mind when
trying to make a decision or judgment. When you overestimate the probability or likelihood of
something happening because you can think of examples of it happening (JJ thinks hell hate
State U because several people hes met dont like State U and want to transfer), the availability
heuristic has occurred
A heuristic is defined as a mental rule-of-thumb, shortcut, or guideline that can be applied to
problem solving which prevents us from having to try all possible options, but may lead to
erroneous solutions (choice A is wrong). A mental set is our tendency to approach situations in a
certain way because that method worked for us in the past; a mental set precludes the use of a
step-by-step procedure because you are cutting corners to save time (choice C is wrong).
In signal detection theory, a type II error occurs when the signal is present but the detector fails
to respond; this is also known as a miss (choice A is correct). A false alarm occurs when the
signal is not present, but the detector responds anyway; this is also known as a type I error or a
false positive
Kolberg- morality
Kluver-bucy- HYPER ORALITY (when youre amayldya is missing) SUCKS EVERYTHING
when you fail oral
Social network analysis helps us identify communities ties and key
members within communities that are crucial to understanding
channels of attitude and behavior change.
Relative deprivation itself refers to the gap between what one has and
what one expects, particularly in comparison to some specific reference
group in society.
A rumination is a mood-congruent obsessive thought process (e.g., a person is
sad and dwells on the circumstances that made them feel sad). Rumination is not
typically seen as an abnormal or irrational thought process, even while it may be
harmful. Rumination is often associated with mental disorders like depression or
anxiety.
A compulsion is a repetitive behavior or action that is performed to decrease
anxiety or relieve obsessive thoughts.
A delusion is a false belief that is held even when there is evidence to the
contrary. Individuals who experience delusions typically lack the insight described
in the question above. Delusions are also qualitatively different from the
experience of OCD; instead of fearing contamination or harm from discarding
items, individuals who experience delusions may believe that they have special
powers or or are being persecuted.
Thus, the phenomenon in the question is best described by the term
obsession.
Many psychodynamic theories focus on how experiences in childhood
shape adulthood. This is most likely a psychodynamic theory of
persistent depressive disorder.
Morality is a set of standards of conduct that is specific to the social group one is embedded in.
Socialization is the process by which one person becomes a member of a group, and learning the
moral standards of the group is important to retaining group membership
The rules governing emotional displays within a particular culture are called display rules