Table of Contents

Part 1
Chapter 1
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................
1.1 Motivation of the search .......................................................................................................................
1.2 PV History ..............................................................................................................................................
1.3 PV operation ..........................................................................................................................................
Chapter 2
PV systems and system components .....................................................................................................
2.1 PV systems types.....................................................................................................................................
2.2 Inverter ...................................................................................................................................................
2.3 Battery.....................................................................................................................................................
2.4 Battery charger ......................................................................................................................................
Chapter 3
Protection and Troubleshooting ...........................................................................................................
3.1 Protection system ..................................................................................................................................
3.2 Troubleshooting and maintenance .........................................................................................................
Chapter 4
Load estimation and sizing ..................................................................................................................
4.1 Load estimation .....................................................................................................................................
4.2 PV design and Sizing ..............................................................................................................................
Chapter 5
Economical and technical studies .........................................................................................................
5.1 Environmental effects .............................................................................................................................
5.2 Economic study using PV program .........................................................................................................

Part2
Chapter 6
Tracking system to obtaining the maximum power point from PV .....................................................
6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................
6.2 Installation for PV module .....................................................................................................................
6.3 Tracking system using arduino and stepper motor.................................................................................

Photovoltaic (Solar Electric)

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that
occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are
freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical
devices or sending electricity to the grid.
PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics
such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large
commercial businesses.
Photovoltaic (PV), the technology which converts sunlight into
electricity, is one of the fastest growing sectors of the renewable
energy industry. It is already well established in many countries
and looks set to become one of the key technologies of
The 21st century. The market is being driven by concerns about carbon emissions, energy security and
the rising price of fossil fuels.

History of Photovoltaic Technology

The photovoltaic effect was observed as early as 1839 by
Alexander Edund Becquerel .it was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early
Twentieth century. In 1954 Bell Labs in U.S
Introduced the first solar PV device that produced a usable amount of electricity.
In 1958 solar cells were being used in a Varity of small scale scientific and commercial applications. the
begging of using PV in homes and businesses was in 1970.but the high price made it impractical to be
used in large applications. After that industry and research began to make it feasible, low price and
increasing production. The end of 2011, total of 67.4GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85
TWH/year and by the end of 2012 the 100 GW installed capacity was achieved. Solar PV is now ,after
hydro and wind power the
third most important
renewable energy source in
terms of globally installed
capacity .more than 100
countries use solar
photovoltaic.

Photovoltaic Operation:
Photovoltaic (PV) use some of the properties of semiconductors to directly convert light into electricity.
There are many different kinds of PV technology commercially available and under research each with
their own strengths and weaknesses. Our discussion focuses on one material: silicon. This is the same
material that many integrated circuits (computer chips) are made from. It is currently the workhorse of
the commercial market.
We begin by looking at the physics that allows this technology to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
A discussion of efficiency follows. Efficiency for any energy production technology is a complex issue and
PV is no exception.

Physics of Photovoltaic Operation:

The fundamental unit of a PV panel is the cell. The main material of the cell is some kind of semi
conducting material. There are cells made from gallium arsenide, crystalline silicon, amorphous silicon
and others. These all are different types of semi conducting material. The discussion of the basic
operation will focus on explaining the behavior of crystalline silicon cell. It is the most common type.
Because of its conduction level we can get semiconductors to exhibit some behavior. We have the ability
to add conductors to a semiconductor allowing us to choose not only the quantity of conductors but also
the type. There are two types of conductors we can add: positive conductors and negative conductors.
The negative ones known as electrons. The positive ones are a little more conceptually difficult s they
are halls, or lack of electrons.
A semiconductor with more positive conductors is called a p type and one with more negative
conductors is called n- type.

Do not however get the impression that we are adding a charge to the semiconductor. We are merely
increasing the number of current carriers (so charges that are free
to move about) but each one is balanced out by a charge of the
opposite type so the overall charge of the semiconductor remains
neutral. A PV cell requires both p and n type semiconductors.
Figure a show two pieces of semiconductor. The one with the plus
signs is the p-type and they are distributed evenly over the
material.
. Again, the plus and minus signs represent the polarity of the
carriers not the overall charge of the material.
If the p and n type semiconductors are then brought together and
a junction formed so that charges can flow between them an
interesting thing happens as shown in Figure .

The loose positive and negative carriers are attracted to each other so some of the electrons in the ntype material migrate into the p-type material and vice-versa. The attraction of unlike charges is
counterbalanced by the electric field that is created as the charge of the material is changed when it
loses some of its charged particles.
This region surrounding the junction is called the
depletion region and is what gives the p-n junction the
ability to convert light into electricity.
It is possible to excite an electron away from the atom it is
attached to by having it absorb some energy.
When light of sufficient energy hits the p-n junction an
electron can be separated from its associated atom. If this
electron is not re-absorbed by another atom before
reaching the depletion region, it gets swept through the
electric field created by the charge separation to a higher
potential.
This electron can then be collected by an electrode placed on the top of the junction (N-type) and used
in a circuit to do some work. This is how the p-n junction creates usable electricity.
Clearly the direction the sun comes from must have a transparent coating. The electron can be
reabsorbed by the silicon before it gets to the electrode.
If this happens that energy is lost and never makes it out of the panel. To reduce the occurrence of
electron reabsorbing it is desirable to have the electrodes as close together as possible. Too many
electrodes will shade the panel, however, so a balancing act ensues.
The smallest unit of PV system is solar cell it produces small power, so cells are connected in series and
parallel to form larger unit with higher power called (Module). Modules also connected in series and
parallel to form (Array).

Solar radiation
The sun as an energy source
The sun supplies energy in the form of radiation, without which life on Earth could not exist. The energy
is generated in the sun's core through the fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium. Part of the mass of the
hydrogen is converted into energy. In other words, the sun is an enormous nuclear fusion reactor.
Because the sun is such a long way from the Earth, only a tiny proportion (around two-millionths) of the
sun's radiation reaches the Earth's surface. This works out at an amount of energy of 1 x 101 8 kWh/a.

worldwide distribution of annual solar irradiance in kWh/m2

4H+2e4He+2neutrinous+6photons
The amount of energy involved is 26Mev each time the above reaction take place.
90% of the generated by the sun comes from this fusion reaction.

Distribution of solar radiation

Global Horizontal Irradiance/Irradiation (GHI)
GHI is the most important parameter for calculation of PV electricity yield. In simple language, Global
Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) = Direct Horizontal Irradiation (DHI) + Diffused Horizontal Irradiation (DIF)
DHI is the irradiation component that reaches a horizontal Earth surface without any
atmospheric losses due to scattering or absorption.
DIF is the irradiation component that reaches a horizontal Earth surface as a result of being scattered by
air molecules, aerosol particles, cloud particles or other particles. In the absence of an atmosphere there
would be no diffused horizontal irradiation.
The ratio between DHI and DIF can be variable in time and spatial context. It plays an important role
when comparing various technology options.
The GHI varies throughout months of year and from somewhere to another.

Sunlight as it passes through the atmosphere.

Angle definition
Angle definition is important for calculating irradiance
and the yields of solar energy system.

value

Solar angles used in power calculations for

PV panels
The angle at which the sun hits a PV panel is the basis for understanding how to design the most
efficient PV array for a specific location. This is one of the first topics presented in solar engineering
textbooks.
Zenith Angle, z: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the vertical basically,
this is just where the sun is in the sky. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 90.
Solar Altitude Angle, s: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the horizontal. It is
the complement of the zenith angle. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 0.
Solar Azimuth Angle, s: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and south. Angles to
the east are negative. Angles to the west are positive. This angle is 0 at solar noon. It is probably close
to -90 at sunrise and 90 at sunset, depending on the season. This angle is only measured in the
horizontal plane; in other words, it neglects the height of the sun.
Angle of Incidence, : This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the angle that point
straight out of a PV panel (this is also called the line that is normal to the surface of the panel). This is
the most important angle. Solar panels are the most efficient when pointing at the sun, so engineers
want to minimize this angle at all times. To know this angle, you must know all of the angles listed and
described next.
Hour Angle, : This is based on the sun's angular displacement, east or west, of the local meridian (the
line the local time zone is based on). The earth rotates 15 per hour so at 11am, the hour angle is -15
and at 1pm it is 15.
Surface Azimuth Angle, : This is the angle between the line that points straight out of a PV panel and
south. It is only measured in the horizontal plane. Again, east is negative and west is positive. If a panel
pointed directly south, this angle would be 0.
Collector Slope, : This is the angle between the plane of the solar collector and the horizontal. If a
panel is lying flat, then it is 0. As you tip it up, this angle increases. It does not matter which direction
the panel faces.
Declination, : This is the angle between the line that points to the sun from the equator and the line
that points straight out from the equator (at solar noon). North is positive and south is negative. This
angle varies from 23.45 to -23.45 throughout the year, which is related to why we have seasons.
Latitude, : This is the angle between a line that points from the center of the Earth to a location on the
Earth's surface and a line that points from the center of the Earth to the equator.

Electrical properties of solar cells

A solar cell looks like a large scale diode .the characteristic curve of a silicon diode is shown below. if a
positive potential is present at the anode and negative potential is present at the cathode, the diode is
connected in forward biased direction. The characteristic curve in the first quadrant applies Starting
from a particular voltage (the threshold voltage here is 0.7V), current flows. If the diode is connected in
reverse-biased direction, current flow is prevented in this direction. The characteristic curve in the third
quadrant applies. Only starting from a high breakdown voltage (here, 150V) does the diode become
conductive? This can also lead to the destruction of the diode.

Current voltage curve for silicon diode

An un-illuminated solar cell is described in the equivalent circuit diagram by a diode.

Accordingly, the characteristic curve of a diode is also applicable. For a mono crystalline solar cell, one
can assume a forward voltage of approximately 0.5V and a breakdown voltage of 12V to 50V (depending
upon the quality and cell material).

Dark equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve

V =VD
I =-ID

Illuminated equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve

V=VD
I=IPh -ID

When light hits the solar cell, the energy of the photons generates free charge carriers.
An illuminated solar cell constitutes a parallel circuit of a power source and a diode.
The power source produces the photoelectric current (photocurrent) I p h. The level of this current
depends upon the irradiance. The diode characteristic curve is shifted by
the magnitude of the photocurrent in the reverse-biased direction (into the fourth
quadrant).

Extended equivalent circuit diagram

This extended equivalent circuit diagram is termed a single-diode model of a solar cell and is used as a
standard model in photovoltaic. In the solar cell, a voltage drop
occurs as the charge carriers migrate from the semiconductor to the electrical
contacts. This is described by the series resistor Rs, which is in the range of a few
milliohms. In addition, what are known as leakage currents arise, which are described
by the parallel resistor. Both resistors bring about a flattening of the
solar cell characteristic curve. With the series resistor, it is possible to calculate
current/voltage characteristic curves of solar cells at different irradiances and
temperatures.

Equivalent circuit models of solar cell

Solar cell character I-V Curves

If light falls on an unloaded solar cell, a voltage of approx. 0.6V builds up. This can be measured as the
open-circuit voltage Voc at the two contacts. If the two contacts are short circuited via an ammeter, the
short-circuit current ISC can be calculated. In order to record a complete solar cell characteristic I-V
curve, one requires a variable resistor (shunt), a voltmeter and an ammeter

Current/voltage characteristic curve (l-V curve) for crystalline silicon

Solar cell
FF=Vmpp*Impp/Voc*Isc

Where:

Mpp: maximum power point. The maximum power point (MPP) value is the point on the I-V curve at

which the solar cell works with maximum power.

Impp: current at maximum power point
Vmpp: voltage at maximum power point
Voc: open circuit voltage with crystalline cells, approximately 0.5V to

0.6V, and for amorphous cells is approximately 0.6V to 0.9V.

Isc: short circuit current is approximately 5 per cent to 15 per cent higher

than the MPP current. With crystalline standard cells (10cm x 10cm) under STC ,
FF: fill factor it measures the quality of PV cell. If FF=1 this means the best quality of PV cell.

Standard test conditions (STC)

Uniform conditions are specified for determining the electrical data with which the solar cell
characteristic I-V curve is then calculated.
1 vertical irradiance E of 1000 W/m2;
2 cell temperature T of 25C with a tolerance of 2C;
3 defined light spectrum (spectral distribution of the solar reference irradiance

Irradiance dependence and temperature

characteristics:
The electrical output and the I-V curves of PV modules depend upon
(Temperatures & irradiance).
1) Effect of irradiance:
>> During the course of a day the irradiance varies more than the
temperature.
>> The changes in irradiance affect the module current since the current
is directly dependent upon the irradiance.
Note:
-When irradiance drops by half, the electricity generated also reduces by half.

(I-V) curves for varying irradiance and constant temperature.

- By contrast, the MPP voltage stays approx. constant with changing

irradiance.
2) Effect of temperature:
>> The voltage is most affected by the temperature.
-Where the voltage is inversely proportional to temperature.
In summer:
Temp is high .. so there is (-10 volts).
In winter:
Temp is low so there is (+10 volts).
- By contrast, the current increases slightly with increasing
temperature.

(I-V) curves at different module temperatures and with constant

irradiance of 1000W/m2.
Problem:
>> During summer, the 0/p power of a module at high temperatures can
be 35 % less than under STC. As shown in Figure (***).
Solution:
>> In order to minimize this power loss, the PV modules should be able
to dissipate heat easily (sufficient ventilation)

Different module temperatures with constant irradiance

Effect of ventilation of the cells:

(Hot spots), (bypass diodes) and (shading):

- Hot spot: it is a spot on the solar cell which is hot when there is
a shadow.
>> This can happen, for instance, when relatively high reverse current
flows through the unlit solar cell) shading cell).
1) Hot spot reduces the power of the solar cell.
2) The probability of cell failure.
3) And hence, the probability of module failure.
Bypass diodes:
First standard module with 36 cells is irradiated by the sun. The
current generated in the solar cells is used by a load (resistance R).
As fig

If a leaf falls on the solar module so that a solar cell (C36 in Figure) is
darkened, this solar cell becomes an (electricity load).
- No more current is generated in this cell.
- It uses the current from the other cells so the direction of the
voltage is reversed in the shaded cell.

- This current flow is then converted into heat. If there is a large

enough current, this can lead to the hot spot effect already
mentioned.
To prevent a hot spot from developing, the current is diverted past the
solar cells via bypass diodes.
See following fig:

Number of bypass diodes:

- One diode for each (18 to 20 cells).
- Modules with (36 to 40) cells have two bypass diodes.
- Modules with (72) solar cells have four bypass diodes.

Solar cell types

Crystalline silicon cells
1. Polycrystalline silicon or multicrystalline silicon.
2. Mono crystalline.
3. Mono-like-multi silicon.
4. Ribbon silicon.

Thin films
1. Cadmium telluride solar cell.
2. Copper indium gallium selenide.
3. Gallium arsenide multijunction.
4. Light-absorbing dyes (DSSCQuantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs).
5. Organic/polymer solar cells.
6. Silicon thin films Indium Gallium Nitride.

Hybrid solar cell

The most common solar cell and higher sails is poly crystalline.

Maximum efficiencies in photovoltaic

Solar cell material

Monocrystalline silicon
Polycrystalline silicon
Ribbon silicon
Crystalline thin- film silicon
Amorphous silicon
Micromorphous silicon
CIS
Cadmium telluride
lll - V semi conductor
Dye-sensitized call
Hybrid HIT solar cell

Cell efficiency
(laboratory) (%)

Cell efficiency
(production) (%)

24.7
20.3
19.7
19.2
13.0
12.0
19.5
16.5
3 9. 0
12.0
21

21.5
16.5
14
9.5
10.5
10.7
14.0
10.0
27.4
7.0
18.5

The cell we use is Polycrystalline silicon.

Module efficiency
(series production) (%)
16.9
14.2
13.1
7.9
7.5
9.1
11.0
9.0
27.0
5.0
16.8

What is crystalline silicon??

The most important material in crystalline solar cells is silicon. After oxygen, this is the second
most abundant element on Earth and, hence, is available in almost unlimited quantities. It is
present not in a pure form, but in chemical compounds, with oxygen in the form of quartz or
sand. The undesired oxygen has to be first separated out of the silicon dioxide. To do this, quartz
sand is heated together with carbon powder, coke and charcoal in an electric arc furnace to a
temperature of 1800C to 1900C.This produces carbon monoxide and what is known as
metallurgical silicon, which is about 98 per cent pure. But 2 per cent impurity in silicon is still
much too high for electronics applications. Only billionths of a per cent are acceptable for
photovoltaic, which falls to ten times less for the semiconductor industry (electronic grade
silicon).
Because the purity requirements for silicon used in manufacturing solar cells aren't as high as for
electronic grade silicon, the solar industry primarily uses waste products from the semiconductor
industry. Since 1998, however, there has not been enough silicon waste to cover the rapid growth in
demand. The shortfall has mostly been made up using ultra-pure silicon, but which, in some cases, is of
a slightly lower quality. Over the same period, processes have been developed that now make it possible
to produce silicon with the quality required for solar cells (solar grade silicon and solar silicon), but
involving less cost, time and energy expenditure.

Efficiency of solar cells and PV modules

The efficiency of solar cells is the result of the relationship between the power
delivered by the solar cell and the power irradiated by the sun. Hence, it is calculated
from the MPP the solar irradiance E and the area A of the solar cell as follows

In PV modules, the module surface area is used for A. On the data sheets, the
efficiency is always specified under standard test conditions (STC):

This yields the nominal efficiency of solar cells and modules:

The efficiency of solar cells depends upon irradiance and temperature. The efficiency
at a particular irradiance or temperature is the result of the nominal efficiency minus
the change in efficiency.

With the radiation factor s, the change in efficiency with irradiances deviating from
STC can be calculated

For example, s = 0.5 means the radiation factor is at half STC irradiance and, hence,
irradiance is at 500W/m2 .The approximate change in efficiency with crystalline silicon
cells results with constant temperature as follows:

The efficiency also depends on temperature as follow.

PV Systems
There are two types of PV systems:

1.
2.

Stand alone system

Grid connected system

Stand-alone PV
systems are systems that are not connected to the public electricity grid. They are generally much smaller than grid-connected systems,
and because they are very often in rural areas, the PV modules are frequently ground mounted as space is usually not a problem. The
three main categories are:

systems providing DC power only;

systems providing AC power through an inverter;
Hybrid systems: diesel, wind or hydro.
Stand-alone photovoltaically powered systems with peak PV powers can have from mill watts to several kilowatts. They do not have a
connection to an electricity grid. In order to ensure the supply of the stand-alone system with electric power also in the times without
radiation (at night) or with very low radiation (at times with a strong cloud cover), stand-alone systems mostly have an integrated storage
system (battery system). If the systems are used only during the time when the radiation is sufficient to supply the system with electric
power directly, a storage system is not necessary.
At present, a very great variety of stand-alone system exists. Example range from solar calculators and watches to systems for traffic control
systems those are able to supply one or several buildings in remote areas with electric power. They can be dc systems with or without
storage battery they can be ac systems with an inverter.

Grid connected PV
system is the most popular solar electric system on the market today. Grid-connected systems
are so named because they are connected directly to the electrical grid.
A grid-connected system consists of five main components:
PV array
An inverter
The main service panel or breaker box
safety disconnects
Meters.
To understand how a battery-less grid-connected system works, lets begin with the PV array.
The PV array produces DC electricity. It flows through wires to the inverter, which converts the
DC electricity to AC electricity. The inverter doesnt just convert the DC electricity to AC; it
converts it to grid-compatible AC that is, 60 cycles per second, 120-volt (or 240-volt)
electricity. Because the inverter produces electricity in sync with the grid, inverters in these
systems are often referred to as synchronous inverters.
The 120-volt or 240-volt AC produced by the inverter flows to the main service panel, aka the
breaker box. From there, it flows to active loads (electrical devices that are operating). If the PV
system is producing more electricity than is needed to meet these demands which is often the
case on sunny days the excess automatically flows on to the grid.
After the electricity is fed to the grid, the utility treats it as if it were its own. End users pay the
utility directly for the electricity you generate (thats only occurs at smart Grid).

Solar Inverter
Inverter is one of the most important components in grid connected
system. Inverter is semiconductor device which used to convert DC (direct
current) electricity into AC (alternating current) electricity. Some modern
inverters make process of conversion with small losses. Sometimes we
dont need battery bank in grid connected system as Electricity Company
act as battery .But many people preferred to use battery bank to act as
back up when grid is failure. When PV feed dc load, it become more
efficient as in this case dont need to use inverter

Inverter Ratings:
1- Continuous Rating :
This is the amount of power you could expect to use continuously without the inverter overheating and
shutting down.
2-Half Hour Rating:
This is handy as the continuous rating may be too low to run a high energy consumption power tool or
appliance, however if the appliance was only to be used occasionally then the half hour rating may well
suffice.
3- Surge Rating:
A high surge is required to start some appliances and once running they may need considerably less
power to keep functioning. The inverter must be able to hold its surge rating for at least 5 seconds.
4- IP Rating :
Define the ability of inverter to be used to prevent water and dust ingress
5- Peak Efficiency:
Represent high efficiency inverter can achieve.

Types of Solar Inverter

1) standalone inverter:
Used in isolated system and do not need an anti-islanding system.
2) battery backup inverter:
Special type of inverter which required an anti-islanding protection

3) grid tie inverter:

Is the most common type used in grid connected solar system. It takes the direct current voltage from
battery or pv array and convert it to ac voltage to be used in homes and business. The output of grid tie
inverter must be in phase with Grid to have the ability of selling the remaining energy back to Grid and
reduce consumer bill. This process called net metering which.

Grid Controlled Inverter:

The basic assembly of a grid-controlled inverter is a bridge circuit with thyristors inlarger PV systems,
thyristor inverters are also used, as well as the predominantinsulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
inverters.For the single-phase inverters with lower powers (< 5kWp), there are now only afew
manufacturers who still build inverters on this principle.

Self commuted inverter

can be turned on and off are used in the In self-commutated inverters, Principle of grid controlled
inverter semiconductor elements that bridge circuit. Depending upon the system performance and
voltage level, the following semiconductor elements are used:
Metal-oxide semiconductor power field effect transistors (MOSFETs);
Bipolar transistors;
8 gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) (up to 1 kHz);
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
These power-switching devices, using the principle of pulse width modulation, enabla good reproduction
of the sinusoidal wave.

Principle of self-commutated inverters

Grid Tied Inverter:

Grid connected inverter also known as grid tied inverter or synchronous inverter.These types of inverters
can not used in standalone system.In grid-connected PV systems, the inverter is linked to the mains
electricity griddirectly or via the building's grid. With a direct connection, the generated electricity isfed
only into the mains grid. With a coupling to the building's grid, the generated solar is first consumed in
the building, then any surplus is fed to the mains electricity grid.

Principle operation of grid tied inverter

In order to feed the maximum power into the electricity grid, the inverter must workin the MPP of the
PV array. The MPP of the PV array changes according to Climatic conditions. In the inverter, an MPP
tracker ensures that the inverter is adjusted to the MPP point. Since the modules' voltage and current
vary considerably depending upon the weather conditions, the inverter needs to move its working
pointing order to function optimally. To do this, an electronic circuit is used that adjusts the Voltage so
that the inverter runs at the point at which the PV array achieves its maximum power (MPP).

Modern grid-connected inverters are able to perform the following functions:

Conversion

of the direct current generated by the PV modules into mains-standardalternating current;

Adjustment of the inverter's operating point to the MPP of the PV modules (MPP tracking)Pv system up
to5kwp or size of 50 m^2 we use single phase inverter and with large system the feed is three phase
inverter.

Principle of connecting PV systems to the grid with a single-phase and three-phase inverter

Grid Connected Inverter Types and Construction

Size in Various power Class:
Grid connected inverter classified into three groups:
1-centeral

inverter

2-string inverter

3-module inverter

Central inverter with low output power range (single phase)

Type:

Top Class III - TCG 2500/6.

Manufacturer: ASP.
Concept: self-commutated inverters with LF transformer.
DC nominal power: 2.5kW.
MPP voltage: 82V to 120V.
Size: 456mm x 320mm x 211mm.
Weight: 22kg.
Central inverter with high output power range (three phase):
Type: invert solar 100
Manufacture: Siemens AG
Concept: self commuted inverter with LF transformer
MPP voltage: 460v to 750v
Size: 13.725*950*850 mm^3
Weight:

750kg

String inverter:
Type: Sunny Boy 2100TL.
Manufacturer: SMA Technology AG.
Concept: transformer less, self-commutated inverter.
DC nominal power: 2kW.
MPP voltage: 125V to 600V.

 Size: 295mm x 434mm x 214mm.

Weight: 25kg.
Module inverter:
Type:

DMI 150/35.

Manufacturer: Dorfmiiller Solar anlagen GmbH.

Concept: self-commutated inverter with LF

transformer.
DC nominal power: 120W.
MPP voltage: 28V to 50V.
Size: 80mm x 200mm x 100m^3
Weight: 2.8kg.

Characteristics and Properties of Grid Tied

Inverter:
Conversion efficiency (N, C 0 N)
The conversion efficiency describes the losses that arise when converting direct current into alternating
current. In inverters, these comprise the losses caused by the transformer (in devices that have
transformer), the power switching devices and by own consumption for management, control, recording
operating data, etc.
N, con=Pac (input real power)/Pdc (input real power)
Tracking efficiency :( R | T R).
A state-of-the-art grid-connected inverter in a grid-connected PV system has to ensure optimum
adaptation to the characteristic curve of the PV array connected to it (I-V curve). During the day, the
operating parameters in the PV array are constantly changing. The differing irradiance and temperature
conditions change the PV array's maximum power point (MPP). In order to always transform the
maximum solar power into alternating current, the inverter must automatically set and track the
optimum operating point (MPP tracking). The quality of this inverter adjustment to the optimum
operating point is described by the tracking efficiency:

R | T R=Pdc (instantaneous input real power)/Ppv (maximum instantaneous pv array power ).

Instantaneous values (red line) of insulation compared to hourly values (blue line) on a cloudless day (left) and on a cloudy day

Static efficiency:
Static efficiency is formed as the product of conversion
and tracking efficiency. Generally, only the conversion
efficiency that is achieved during operation in the
inverter's nominal range (Vnand In) is stated as the
nominal efficiency on the data sheets. In addition, the
maximum efficiency is also often stated, which usually
lies in the partial load range of 80 per cent to 50 per cent of the nominal power.
Characteristic curves for various inverter types (according to manufacturers' specifications)

Inverter installation site:

When choosing the installation site, it is required that the environmental conditions specified by the manufacturer are maintained
(essentially humidity and temperature).The ideal installation site for inverters is cool, dry, dust free and indoors. It makes sense to install
inverters next to the meter cupboard or close by. If the environmental conditions permit, the inverter can be installed close to the PV array
combiner/junction box. This reduces the length of the DC main cable and lowers the installation costs. The ventilation grilles and heat
dissipaters need to be kept uncovered to ensure optimum cooling. For the same reason, the devices should not be installed right on top of
each other if this can be avoided. The noise produced by the inverter should also be taken into account when choosing the installation site.
The units should be protected from aggressive vapors, water vapor and fine particles.

Criteria for Inverter Selection:

Checklist when considering selecting a Solar PV Inverter

AC Voltage:

AC operating voltages as well as single or three-phase systems;

120/240- single phase is used in residential applications. Inverters would connect to 240VAC in this application.

240- three-phase is used for power loads in commercial and industrial buildings. This is a delta configuration. Across any one (of 3
transformers) theres 240V. On one side (only) of the delta there is a center-tapped transformer which is connected to neutral.
Thus providing 2x 120VAC for outlets.

208Y/120-V three-phase four wire distribution is commonly used in commercial buildings with limited electrical loads. 120V is
available between a pole and ground, while 208V is available between any two poles.

480- Three phase delta is commonly used in commercial and industrial buildings with substantial motor loads.

480Y/277- is used to supply commercial and industrial buildings. Between any two poles theres 480V, and between any pole and
neutral theres 277V. The 277V is used for ballasted lighting. Local step-down transformers are typically inserted to provide
208Y/120-V power for lighting, appliances and outlets.

DC Voltage:

The Maximum Power Point Transfer (MPPT or MPP) voltage range. a solar PV string should be
sized such that the inverter can normally operate within this range.

Maximum DC voltage; a solar PV string with no load (Vo) must under no circumstance ever
exceed an inverters maximum DV voltage. When considering this factor, one must assume the
lowest possible solar PV panel temperature while exposed to bright sunlight

Minimum DC voltage; for tracking systems:

. During cloud cover, a solar
PV strings DC voltage can drop to a very low level, so inverter will stop production and
shutdown.

We can select grid tied inverter according to the

following table:
When select grid tie inverter we should take in our mind some consideration such as: how much power generated, sizing of building, energy
use changes over the time and type of solar panel Inverter can be selected according to the following table:

SYSTEM SIZE

NO. PANELS

AVG DAILY
INVERTER

ROOF AREA

ANNUAL OUTPUT
OUTPUT

1.0kW

1700WR

7.8m

4.7kWh

1715kWh

1.5kW

1700WR

11.7m

7.0kWh

2555kWh

2.1kW

12

2300WR

14.3m

9.3kWh

3487kWh

2.6kW

15

3300WR

19.5m

11.7kWh

4270kWh

3.1kW

18

3300WR

23.4m

14.3kWh

5219kWh

3.5kW

20

4600WR

27.3m

15.6kWh

5694kWh

4.2kW

24

4600WR

31.2m

18.7kWh

6825kWh

Inverter efficiency:
Inverter efficiency can be defined as how much output power from inverter as percentage of power
input to the inverter. Inverter efficiency is depending on power as there is direct relation between power
and efficiency. As the power increase inverter efficiency will increase. Inverter uses power from battery
even we are not drawing AC current from it which reduce efficiency of inverter. Some inverters have the
facility called sleep mode which improve overall efficiency of inverter. So sensor is required with inverter
to sense if AC power is required or not. If not power used it will shut down the inverter so inverter dont
draw power from battery and increase efficiency. Which means that the appliances can not be put in
stand-by mode .Another factor may be affects on inverter efficiency is waveform and inductive load. In
case of non pure sine wave will be less efficient when powering an inductive load. The most common
disadvantages of inverter are harmonic problems.

How to solve harmonic problem?

A large portion of the losses are caused by the return of current between the output inductor and the
input capacitor. If we decouple the capacitor and the inductors then it is impossible for a return current
to flow and electro-magnetic disturbances cannot occur at the input as a result of voltage spikes.

Inverter failure:
Solar inverters may fail due to transients from the grid or the PV panel, component aging and operation beyond the designed limits.

Causes of failure:
capacitor failure:
Voltage stress
Continuous operation under maximum voltage
Current stress
Mechanical stress
Vibration
2-inverter bridge failure:
Over voltages and over currents
Thermal shock
Thermal overload
Extremely cold operating temperature
Other malfunction components

3-electro mechanical wear:

Extreme temperature conditions
Component stress
Contamination at contact

What can market provide for you?

Market can provide two types of inverter:
Low Cost:
These inverters are available from electrical stores, hardware stores and electronic suppliers are
commonly available.. These inverters usually lack devices such as auto-start or any form of
adjustability.
Performance may or may not be as stated (or even not properly stated at all). However they are not all
bad. Consider one if your needs are modest and your budget is limited. Usually they present no
problems for TV and video, computers and smaller appliances. High output models can be good "power
tool" inverters. We don't sell them.
High Quality:
There is no substitute for quality. You will find only a small handful of companies worldwide who
make high quality power inverters.

Battery selecting and voltage regulation In

Stand-alone PV system
In stand-alone photovoltaic systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array cannot always be
used when it is produced. Because the demand for energy does not always coincide with its production,
electrical storage batteries are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage battery
in a PV system are to:
1. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is produced by the PV array
and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on demand.
2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages and currents,
by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may occur in PV systems.
3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical loads or
appliances.
The battery's capacity for holding energy is rated in amp-hours: 1 amp delivered for 1 hour = 1-amp hour
Battery capacity is listed in amp hours at a given voltage, e.g. 220 amp-hours at 6 volts. Manufacturer's
typically rate storage batteries at a 20-hour rate:
220 amp-hour batteries will deliver 11 amps for 20 hrs

This rating is designed only as a means to compare different batteries to the same standard and is not to
be taken as a performance guarantee. Batteries are electrochemical devices sensitive to climate,
charge/discharge cycle history, temperature, and age. The performance of your battery depends on
climate, location and usage patterns. For every 1.0 amp-hour you remove from your battery, you will
need to pump about 1.25 amp-hours back in to return the battery to the same charge state of charge.
This figure also varies with temperature, battery type and age.

Wattage, Volts, Amps, etc

Electrical appliances in the United States are rated with wattage, a measure of energy consumption per
unit of time. One watt delivered for one hour equals one watt-hour. Wattage is the product of current
(amps) multiplied by voltage.
Watt = amps x volt

One amp delivered at 120 volts is the same amount of wattage as 10 amps delivered 12 volts:
1 amp at 120 volts = 10 amps at 12 volts

Wattage is independent of voltage:

1 watt at 120 volts = 1 watt at 12 volts
To convert a battery's amp-hour capacity to watt-hours, multiply the amp-hours times the voltage. The product is watt-hours.
To figure out how much battery capacity it will require to run an appliance for a given time, multiply the appliance wattage times the
number of hours it will run to yield the total watt-hours. Then divide by the battery voltage to get the amp hours.

For example, running a 60-watt light bulb for one hour uses 60 watt-hours. If a 12-volt battery is running the light it will consume 5 amphours (60 watt hours divided by 12 volts equals 5 amp-hours)

How big a battery do I need for a PV System?

Ideally, a battery bank should be sized to be able to store power for 5 days of autonomy during cloudy
weather. If the battery bank is smaller than 3 day capacity, it is going to cycle deeply on a regular basis
and the battery will have a shorter life. System size, individual needs and expectations will determine the
best battery size for your system.

Wel
* Autonomy Days
System Voltage
Battery size
Ah
B * Max.DOD
Where:Wel: power from PV
Autonomy Days: Number of days of non-sunshine often 2 days
b: is the battery efficiency often (80%)
DOD: depth of discharge (80%)
SYSTEM Voltage: (12 or 24 volt)

In our case 50 watt PV module and system voltage is 12 volt after regulation assume Autonomy Days is only one day max DOD is 70%
so we need

(50/12)*2/(.8*.7) 15 AH battery

Wide variations exist in charge controller designs and operational characteristics. Currently no standards, guidelines, or sizing practices
exist for battery and charge controller interfacing.

Battery Cycles
Batteries are rated according to their "cycles". Batteries can have shallow cycles between 10% to 15% of
the battery's total capacity, or deep cycles up to 50% to 80%. Shallow-cycle batteries, as those for
starting a car, are designed to deliver several hundred amperes for a few seconds, then the alternator
takes over and the battery is quickly recharged. Deep-cycle batteries or the other hand, deliver a few
amperes for hundreds of hours between charges. These two types are designed for different applications
and should not be interchanged.

Battery classifications
Primary Batteries
Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot be recharged. Typical carbon-zinc
and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer electronic devices are primary batteries. Primary
batteries are not used in PV systems because they cannot be recharged
Secondary Batteries
A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be recharged by passing a
current through it in an opposite direction to the discharge current. Common lead-acid batteries used in
automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries.

Batteries used in PV systems

Lead Acid Batteries
Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Lead-Acid Batteries - How they work
The lead-acid battery cell consists of positive and negative lead plates of different composition
suspended in a sulfuric acid solution called electrolyte. When cells discharge, sulfur molecules from the
electrolyte bond with the lead plates and releases electrons. When the cell recharges, excess electrons
go back to the electrolyte. A battery develops voltage from this chemical reaction. Electricity is the flow
of electrons. In a typical lead-acid battery, the voltage is approximately 2 volts per cell regardless of cell
size. Electricity flows from the battery as soon as there is a circuit between the positive and negative
terminals. This happens when any load (appliance) that needs electricity is connected to the battery.

Good care and caution should be used at all times when handling a battery. Improper battery use can
result in explosion. Read all documentation included with your battery in its entirety.
At the positive plate or electrode:

Pbo2 +4H++2e-

pb2++2H2o

Pb2++so4-2v

pbso4

At the negative plate or electrode:

pb2++2e-

Pb

Pb2++so42pbso4
Overall lead acid cell reaction:

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Chemistry

At the positive plate or electrode:

At the negative plate or electrode:

Overall nickel cadmium cell reaction

The nominal voltage for a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.2 volts, compared to about 2.1 volts for a lead-acid
cell, requiring 10 nickel-cadmium cells to be configured in series for a nominal 12 volt battery. The
voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell remains relatively stable until the cell is almost completely discharged.
Nickel-cadmium batteries can accept charge rates as high as C/1, and are tolerant of continuous
overcharge up to a C/15 rate. Nickel-cadmium batteries are commonly subdivided into two primary
types; sintered plate and pocket plate.
Where c is the charge rate
Charge rate is often denoted as C or C-rate and signifies a charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity
of a battery in one hour.[1] For a 1.6Ah battery, C = 1.6A. A charge rate of C/2 = 0.8A would need two
hours, and a charge rate of 2C = 3.2A would need 30 minutes to fully charge the battery from an empty
state, if supported by the battery. This also assumes that the battery is 100% efficient at absorbing the
charge

Comparison between different PV batteries

types

BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLERS IN PV SYSTEMS

The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone PV system is to maintain the battery at
highest possible state of charge while protecting it from overcharge by the array and from overdischarge by the loads.
Although some PV systems can be effectively designed without the use of charge control, any system
that has unpredictable loads, user intervention, optimized or undersized battery storage (to minimize
initial cost) typically requires a battery charge controller.
The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of battery
charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the ability of the system to meet the load demands.
Additional features such as temperature compensation, alarms, meters, remote voltage sense leads and
special algorithms can enhance the ability of a charge controller to maintain the health and extend the
lifetime of a battery.
Important functions of battery charge controllers and system controls are:

Prevent Battery Overcharge: to limit the energy supplied to the battery by the PV array when the
battery becomes fully charged.
Prevent Battery Over-discharge: to disconnect the battery from electrical loads when the battery
reaches low state of charge.
Provide Load Control Functions: to automatically connect and disconnect an electrical load at a
specified time, for example operating a lighting load from sunset to sunrise.

Overcharge Protection
A remote stand-alone photovoltaic system with battery storage is designed so that it will meet
the system electrical load requirements under reasonably determined worst-case conditions, usually for
the month of the year with the lowest insolation to load ratio.
When the array is operating under good-to-excellent weather conditions (typically during summer),
energy generated by the array often exceeds the electrical load demand. To prevent battery damage
resulting from overcharge, a charge controller is used to protect the battery.
A charge controller should prevent overcharge of a battery regardless of the system sizing/design and
seasonal changes in the load profile, operating temperatures and solar insolation.
Charge regulation is the primary function of a battery charge controller, and perhaps the single
most important issue related to battery performance and life.
The purpose of a charge controller is to supply power to the battery in a manner which fully recharges
the battery without overcharging.
Without charge control, the current from the array will flow into a battery proportional to the
irradiance, whether the battery needs charging or not.
If the battery is fully charged, unregulated charging will cause the battery voltage to reach exceedingly
high levels, causing severe gassing, electrolyte loss, internal heating and accelerated grid corrosion.
In most cases if a battery is not protected from overcharge in PV system, premature failure of the battery
and loss of load are likely to occur.

Charge controllers prevent excessive battery overcharge by interrupting or limiting the current
flow from the array to the battery when the battery becomes fully charged.
Charge regulation is most often accomplished by limiting the battery voltage to a maximum value, often
referred to as the voltage regulation (VR) set point. Sometimes, other methods such as integrating the
ampere-hours into and out of the battery are used.
Depending on the regulation method, the current may be limited while maintaining the regulation
voltage, or remain disconnected until the battery voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage (ARV) set
point.

Over-discharge Protection
During periods of below average insolation and/or during periods of excessive electrical load usage, the energy produced by the PV
array may not be sufficient enough to keep the battery fully recharged.
When a battery is deeply discharged, the reaction in the battery occurs close to the grids, and weakens the bond between the active
materials and the grids.
When a battery is excessively discharged repeatedly, loss of capacity and life will eventually occur. To protect batteries from over-discharge,
most charge controllers include an optional feature to disconnect the system loads once the battery reaches a low voltage or low state of
charge condition.
In some cases, the electrical loads in a PV system must have sufficiently high enough voltage to operate. If batteries are too deeply
discharged, the voltage falls below the operating range of the loads, and the loads may operate improperly or not at all. This is another
important reason to limit battery over- discharge in PV systems.
Over-discharge protection in charge controllers is usually accomplished by open-circuiting the connection between the battery and
electrical load when the battery reaches a pre-set or adjustable low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point. Most charge controllers also
have an indicator light or audible alarm to alert the system user/operator to the load disconnects condition. Once the battery is recharged
to a certain level, the loads are again reconnected to a battery.
Non-critical systems loads are generally always protected from over-discharging the battery by connection to the low voltage load
disconnect circuitry of the charge controller.
If the battery voltage falls to a low but safe level, a relay can open and disconnect the load, preventing further battery discharge.
Critical loads can be connected directly to the battery, so that they are not automatically disconnected by the charge controller. However,
the danger exists that these critical loads might over-discharge the battery.
An alarm or other method of user feedback should be included to give information on the battery status if critical loads are connected
directly to the battery.

Charge Controller Set Points

The battery voltage levels at which a charge controller performs control or switching functions are called the controller set points.
Four basic control set points are defined for most charge controllers that have battery overcharge and over-discharge protection features.
The voltage regulation (VR) and the array reconnect voltage (ARV) refer to the voltage set points at which the array is connected and
disconnected from the battery.
The low voltage loads disconnect (LVD) and load reconnect voltage (LRV) refers to the voltage set points at which the load is disconnected
from the battery to prevent over-discharge.

Figure 11 shows the basic controller set points on a simplified diagram plotting battery voltage versus time for a charge and discharge cycle.
A detailed discussion of each charge controller set point follows.

Voltage Regulation
(VR) Set Point
The voltage regulation (VR) set point is one of the key
specifications for charge controllers.
The voltage regulation set point:
Is defined as the maximum voltage that the charge
controller allows the battery to reach, limiting the
overcharge of the battery.
Once the controller senses that the battery reaches the
voltage regulation set point, the controller will either
discontinue battery charging or begin to regulate (limit)
the amount of current delivered to the battery.

Proper selection of the voltage regulation set point may

depend on many factors, including:
1. The specific battery chemistry and design.
2. Sizes of the load and array with respect to the battery.
3. Operating temperatures.
4. Electrolyte loss considerations.

An important point to note about the voltage regulation set point is that the values required for optimal battery performance in standalone PV systems are generally much higher than the regulation or 'float voltages' recommended by battery manufacturers.
This is because in a PV system, the battery must be recharged within a limited time period (during sunlight hours), while battery
manufacturers generally allow for much longer recharge times when determining their optimal regulation voltage limits. By using a higher
regulation voltage in PV systems, the battery can be recharged in a shorter time period, however some degree over overcharge and gassing
will occur. The designer is faced selecting the optimal voltage regulation set point that maintains the highest possible battery state of charge
without causing significant overcharge.

Array Reconnect Voltage (ARV) Set Point

In interrupting (on-off) type controllers, once the array current is disconnected at the voltage regulation set point, the battery voltage will
begin to decrease.
The rate at which the battery voltage decreases depends on many factors, including the charge rate prior to disconnect, and the discharge
rate dictated by the electrical load.
If the charge and discharge rates are high, the battery voltage will decrease at a greater rate than if these rates are lower.
When the battery voltage decreases to a predefined voltage, the array is again reconnected to the battery to resume charging. This voltage
at which the array is reconnected is defined as the array reconnects voltage (ARV) set point.
If the array were to remain disconnected for the rest of day after the regulation voltage was initially reached, the battery would not be fully
recharged. By allowing the array to reconnect after the battery voltage reduces to a set value, the array current will 'cycle' into the battery
in an on-off manner, disconnecting at the regulation voltage set point, and reconnecting at the array reconnect voltage set point. In this
way, the battery will be brought up to a higher state of charge by 'pulsing' the array current into the battery.

Voltage Regulation Hysteresis (VRH)

The voltage span or difference between the voltage regulation set point and the array reconnect voltage is often called the voltage
regulation hysteresis (VRH). The VRH is a major factor which determines the effectiveness of battery recharging for interrupting (on-off)
type controllers. If the hysteresis is too great, the array current remains disconnected for long periods, effectively lowering the array energy
utilization and making it very difficult to fully recharge the battery.
If the regulation hysteresis is too small, the array will cycle on and off rapidly, perhaps damaging controllers which use electro-mechanical
switching elements.
The designer must carefully determine the hysteresis values based on the system charge and discharge rates and the charging requirements
of the particular battery.
Most interrupting (on-off) type controllers have hysteresis values between 0.4 and 1.4 volts for nominal 12 volt systems. For example, for a
controller with a voltage regulation set point of 14.5 volts and a regulation hysteresis of 1.0 volt, the array reconnect voltage would be 13.5
volts. In general, a smaller regulation hysteresis is required for PV systems that do not have a daytime load.

Low Voltage Load Disconnect (LVD) Set Point

Over-discharging the battery can make it susceptible to freezing and shorten it's operating life. If battery voltage drops too low, due to
prolonged bad weather for example, certain non-essential loads can be disconnected from the battery to prevent further discharge.
This can be done using a low voltage load disconnect (LVD) device connected between the battery and non-essential loads.
In controllers or controls incorporating a load disconnect feature, the low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point is the voltage at which
the load is disconnected from the battery to prevent over-discharge. The LVD set point defines the actual allowable maximum depth-ofdischarge and available capacity of the battery operating in a PV system.
The available capacity must be carefully estimated in the PV system design and sizing process using the actual depth of discharge dictated
by the LVD set point.
In more sophisticated deigns, a hierarchy of load importance can be established, and the more critical loads can be shed at progressively
lower battery voltages. Very critical loads can remain connected directly to the battery so their operation is not interrupted.
The proper LVD set point will maintain a healthy battery while providing the maximum battery capacity and load availability. To determine
the proper load disconnect voltage, the designer must consider the rate at which the battery is discharged.
Because the battery voltage is affected by the rate of discharge, a lower load disconnect voltage set point is needed for high discharge rates
to achieve the same depth of discharge limit. In general, the low discharge rates in most small stand-alone PV systems do not have a
significant effect on the battery voltage.
Typical LVD values used are between 11.0 and 11.5 volts, which correspond to about 75-90% depth of discharge for most nominal 12 volt
lead-acid batteries.
A word of caution is in order when selecting the low voltage load disconnects set point. Battery manufacturers rate discharge capacity to a
specified cut-off voltage which corresponds to 100% depth of discharge for the battery.
For lead-acid batteries, this cut-off voltage is typically 10.5 volts for a nominal 12 volt battery (1.75 volts per cell).
In PV systems, we never want to allow a battery to be completely discharged as this will shorten it's service life. In general, the low
voltage load disconnect set point in PV systems is selected to discharge the battery to no greater than 75-80% depth of discharge.

Load Reconnect Voltage (LRV) Set Point

The battery voltage at which a controller allows the load to be reconnected to the battery is called the load reconnect voltage ('LRV). After
the controller disconnects the load from the battery at the LVD set point, the battery voltage rises to its open-circuit voltage.
When additional charge is provided by the array or a backup source, the battery voltage rises even more. At some point, the controller
senses that the battery voltage and state of charge are high enough to reconnect the load, called the load reconnect voltage set point.
The selection of the load reconnect set point should be high enough to ensure that the battery has been somewhat recharged, while not to
high as to sacrifice load availability by allowing the loads to be disconnected too long.

Low Voltage Load Disconnect Hysteresis (LVDH)

The voltage span or difference between the LVD set point and the load reconnect voltage is called the low voltage disconnect hysteresis
(LVDH). If the LVDH is too small, the load may cycle on and off rapidly at low battery state-of-charge (SOC), possibly damaging the load or

controller, and extending the time it takes to fully charge the battery. If the LVDH is too large, the load may remain off for extended periods
until the array fully recharges the battery.
With a large LVDH, battery health may be improved due to reduced battery cycling, but with a reduction in load availability. The proper
LVDH selection for a given system will depend on load availability requirements, battery chemistry and size, and the PV and load currents.

Charge Controller Designs

Two basic methods exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a battery from a PV module or array - shunt and series regulation.
While both of these methods are effectively used, each method may incorporate a number of variations that alter their basic performance
and applicability.
Simple designs interrupt or disconnect the array from the battery at regulation, while more sophisticated designs limit the current to the
battery in a linear manner that maintains a high battery voltage.
The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization,
and ultimately the ability of the system to meet the electrical load demands. Most importantly, the controller algorithm defines the way in
which PV array power is applied to the battery in the system. In general, interrupting on-off type controllers require a higher regulation set
point to bring batteries up to full state of charge than controllers that limit the array current in a gradual manner.
Some of the more common design approaches for charge controllers are described in this section. Typical daily charging profiles for a few of
the common types of controllers used in small PV lighting systems are presented in the next section.

1.

Shunt controller design:

Since photovoltaic cells are current-limited by design (unlike batteries), PV modules and arrays can be short-circuited without any harm.
The ability to short-circuit modules or an array is the basis of operation for shunt controllers.
Most shunt controllers require a heat sink to dissipate power, and are generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20
amps.

1- Shunt-Interrupting Design
The shunt-interrupting controller
completely disconnects the array
current in an interrupting or on-off
fashion when the battery reaches
the voltage regulation set point.

2-

Shunt-Linear Design
Once a battery becomes
nearly fully charged, a shunt-linear controller maintains the battery at near a fixed voltage by gradually
shunting the array through a semiconductor regulation element.

2.

Series Controller Designs

As the name implies this type of controller works in series between the array and battery, rather than in parallel as for the shunt controller.
There are several variations to the series type controller, all of which use some type of control or regulation element in series between the
array and the battery.
While this type of controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the practical choice for larger systems due to the current
limitations of shunt controllers.

1- Series-Interrupting Design
The most simple series controller is the series-interrupting type, involving a one-step control, turning the array charging current either on or
off. The charge controller constantly monitors battery voltage, and disconnects or open-circuits the array in series once the battery reaches
the regulation voltage set point

2- Series-Interrupting, 2-step, Constant-Current Design

This type of controller is similar to the series-interrupting type, however when the voltage regulation set point is reached, instead of totally
interrupting the array current, a limited constant current remains applied to the battery.

3- Series-Interrupting, 2-Step, Dual Set Point Design

This type of controller operates similar to the series-interrupting type, however there are two distinct voltage regulation set points. During
the first charge cycle of the day, the controller uses a higher regulation voltage provides some equalization charge to the battery. Once the
array is disconnected from the battery at the higher regulation set point, the voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage and the array is
again connected to the battery, This type of regulation strategy can be effective at maintaining high battery state of charge while
minimizing battery gassing and water loss for flooded lead-acid types.

4- Series-Linear, Constant-Voltage Design

In a series-linear, constant-voltage controller design, the controller maintains the battery voltage at the voltage regulation set point. The
series regulation element acts like a variable resistor, controlled by the controller battery voltage sensing circuit of the controller. The series
element dissipates the balance of the power that is not used to charge the battery, and generally requires heat sinking. The current is
inherently controlled by the series element and the voltage drop across it.
Series-linear, constant-voltage controllers can be used on all types of batteries. Because they apply power to the battery in a controlled
manner, they are generally more effective at fully charging batteries than on-off type controllers. These designs, along with PWM types are
recommended over on-off type controllers for sealed VRLA type batteries.

Charge Controller Selection

The selection and sizing of charge controllers and system controls in PV systems involves the consideration of several factors, depending on
the complexity and control options required. While the primary function is to prevent battery overcharge, many other functions may also
be used, including low voltage load disconnect, load regulation and control, control of backup energy sources, diversion of energy to and

auxiliary load, and system monitoring. The designer must decide which options are needed to satisfy the requirements of a specific
application. The following list some of the basic considerations for selecting charge controllers for PV systems.

System voltage
PV array and load currents
Battery type and size
Regulation algorithm and switching element design
Regulation and load disconnect set points
Environmental operating conditions
Mechanical design and packaging
System indicators, alarms, and meters
Over current, disconnects and surge protection devices
Costs, warranty and availability

Sizing Charge Controllers

Charge controllers should be sized according to the voltages and currents expected during operation of the PV system. The controller
must not only be able to handle typical or rated voltages and currents, but must also be sized to handle expected peak or surge
conditions from the PV array or required by the electrical loads that may be connected to the controller. It is extremely important that the
controller be adequately sized for the intended application. If an undersized controller is used and fails during operation, the costs of
service and replacement will be higher than what would have been spent on a controller that was initially oversized for the application.
2

Typically, we would expect that a PV module or array produces no more than its rated maximum power current at 1000 W/m irradiance
o
and 25 C module temperature. However, due to possible reflections from clouds, water or snow, the sunlight levels on the array may be
2
"enhanced" up to 1.4 times the nominal 1000 W/m value used to rate PV module performance. The result is that peak array current could
be 1.4 times the nominal peak rated value if reflection conditions exist. For this reason, the peak array current ratings for charge controllers
should be sized for about 140% or the nominal peak maximum power current ratings for the modules or array.
The size of a controller is determined by multiplying the peak rated current from an array times this "enhancement" safety factor. The total
current from an array is given by the number of modules or strings in parallel, multiplied by the module current. To be conservative, use the
short-circuit current (Isc) is generally used instead of the maximum power current (Imp). In this way, shunt type controllers that operate
the array at short-circuit current conditions are covered safely.

Operating Without a Charge Controller

In most cases a charge controller is an essential requirement in stand-alone PV systems. However there are special circumstances where a
charge controller may not be needed in small systems with well defined loads. Beacons and aids to navigation are a popular PV application
which operates without charge regulation. By eliminating the need for the sensitive electronic charge controller, the design is simplified, at
lower cost and with improved reliability.
The system design requirements and conditions for operating without a charge controller must be well understood because the system is
operating without any overcharge and over-discharge protection for the batteries.
There are two cases where battery charge regulation may not be required:

(1) When a low voltage "self-regulating module" is used in the proper climate;
(2) When the battery is very large compared to the array.

1. Using Low-Voltage "Self-Regulating"

Modules
The use of "low-voltage" or "self-regulating" PV modules is one approach used to operate without battery charge regulation. This does not
mean that the modules have an electronic charge controller built-in, but rather it refers to the low voltage design of the PV modules. When
a low voltage module, battery and load are properly configured, the design is called a "self-regulating system".
Typical silicon power modules used to charge nominal 12 volt batteries usually have 36 solar cells connected in series to produce and opencircuit voltage of greater than 21 volts and a maximum power voltage of about 17 volts.

Why do we generally use modules with a maximum power voltage of 17

volts when we are only charging a 12 volt battery to maybe 14.5 volts?
Because voltage drops in wiring, disconnects, over-current devices and controls, as well as higher array operating temperatures tend to
reduce the array voltage measured at the battery terminals in most systems. By using a standard 36 cell PV module we are assured of
operating to the left of the "knee" on the array I-V curve, allowing the array to deliver it's rated maximum power current.
Even when the array is operating at high temperature, the maximum power voltage is still high enough to charge the battery. If the array
were operated to the right of the I-V curve "knee", the peak array current would be reduced, possibly resulting in the system not being able
to meet the load demands.

Self-Regulation Using Low-Voltage Module

In the case of using "self-regulating" modules without battery charge regulation, the designer wants to take advantage of the fact that the
array current falls off sharply as the voltage increases above the maximum power point. In a "self-regulating" low voltage PV module, there
are generally only 28-30 silicon cells connected in series, resulting in an open-circuit voltage of about 18 volts and a maximum power
o
voltage of about 15 volts at 25 C. Under typical operating temperatures, the "knee" of the IV curve falls within the range of typical battery
voltages. Figure above shows a comparison of operating points between a 36-cell and 30-cell PV module. As the battery voltage rises, there
is a more dramatic reduction in current from the 30-cell module. In the afternoon, in this example, the battery voltage has risen to about
14.4 volts, and the current from the 30-cell module is almost one third that from the 36-cell module.

Using a "self-regulating module" does not automatically assure that a photovoltaic power system will be a self-regulating system. For selfregulation and no battery overcharge to occur, the following three conditions must be met:

The load must be used daily. If not, then the module will continue to overcharge a fully charged battery. Every day the battery will
receive excessive charge, even if the module is forced to operate beyond the "knee" at current levels lower than its Imp. If the load is
used daily, then the amp-hours produced by the module are removed from the battery, and this energy can be safely replaced the next
day without overcharging the battery. So for a system to be "self-regulating", the load must be consistent and predictable. This
eliminates applications where only occasional load use occurs, such as vacation cabins or RV's that are left unused for weeks or months.
In these cases, a charge controller should be included in the system to protect the battery.

The climate cannot be too cold. If the module stays very cool, the "knee" of the IV curve will not move down in voltage enough, and the
expected drop off in current will not occur, even if the battery voltage rises as expected. Often "self-regulating modules" are used in
arctic climates for lighting for remote cabins for example, because they are the smallest and therefore least expensive of the power
modules, but they are combined with a charge controller or voltage dropping diodes to prevent battery overcharge.
The climate cannot be too warm. If the module heats up too much, then the drop off in current will be too extreme, and the battery
may never be properly recharged. The battery will sulfate, and the loads will not be able to operate.

A "self-regulating system" design can greatly simplify the design by eliminating the need for a charge controller, however these type of
designs are only appropriate for certain applications and conditions. In most common stand-alone PV system designs, a battery charge
controller is required.

2.

Using a Large Battery or Small Array

A charge controller may not be needed if the charge rates delivered by the array to the battery are small enough to prevent the battery
voltage from exceeding the gassing voltage limit when the battery is fully charged and the full array current is applied.
In certain applications, a long autonomy period may be used, resulting in a large amount of battery storage capacity. In these cases, the
charge rates from the array may be very low, and can be accepted by the battery at any time without overcharging.
These situations are common in critical application requiring large battery storage, such as telecommunications repeaters in alpine
conditions or remote navigational aids. It might also be the case when a very small load and array are combined with a large battery, as in
remote telemetry systems.
In general a charging rate of C/100 or less is considered low enough to be tolerated for long periods even when the battery is fully charged.
This means that even during the peak of the day, the array is charging the battery bank at the 100 hour rate or slower, equivalent to the
typical trickle charge rate that a controller would produce anyway.

Solar tracking
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of our projects is to utilize the maximum solar energy through solar panel. For this a digital based automatic sun tracking system
is proposed. This project helps the solar power generating equipment to get the maximum sunlight automatically thereby increasing the
efficiency of the system. The solar panel tracks the sun from east to west automatically for maximum intensity of light.

Basic concept:
Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the
remainder - the diffuse portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases proportionately on cloudy days. As the majority of the energy is
in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the sun to be visible to the panels as long as possible

Solar tracker: (mechanism)

Is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices.
This mean Tracking mechanism with the PV installation that enables it to follow the sun as it moves across the sky makes the system
produce more energy and provide the biggest returns in net metering.
The idea behind using trackers is that solar panels are static while the sun isn't at any time of the day - so trackers are used to help optimize
the incidence angle at which the sun's rays reach them.
Solar tracker increases the system's output by 50 percent in the summer months and by 20 percent in the winter months.

Types of solar trackers:

one axis tracking
two axis tracking

1. Single axis
tracking
systems:
Solar panels with single axis tracking systems. The
panels can turn around the center axis.
Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom
that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of
rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned
along a true North meridian. It is possible to align
them in any cardinal direction with advanced
tracking algorithms.

Single axis tracking system:

Single axis trackers increase electricity output by 27 to 32%, and are an impressive simple way of improving the potential performance of a
commercial solar installation while keeping cost in check. There are several common implementations of single axis trackers.
These include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned
single axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance.

2-Dual axis trackers:

Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is
fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a
secondary axis.
They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two common implementations are tip-tilt dual axis
trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT).
The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have
modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation.
Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to
follow the sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky,
dual axis trackers are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun.

Dual axis trackers increase a systems energy output by 35 to 40%; that is an

additional 6% on average compared with the single axis trackers.

How the Track Rack follow the sun:

1. Sunrise "Wake- Up
The Track Rack begins the day facing west.
As the morning sun rises in the east, then the tracker move to
the sun by sensors and motor drive which control the tracker.

2. Mid-Morning
The Track Rack moved by the shifting according to motion of sun.

3. Mid-Afternoon
As the sun moves, the Track Rack follows
o

(At approximately 15 per hour)

4. Sunset
The Track Rack completes its daily cycle facing west. It remains in this position
overnight until it is "awakened" by the rising sun the following morning.

How control the tracker to track the sun:

1-Fabricate a stepper motor control interfaced
with driver circuit, as will be explained in its
own partial.
2-Design an electronic circuit to sense the
intensity of light and to control stepper motor
driver for the panel movement.
3-use programmable device such as plc. or
arduino (used in our prog.) which send pulses to
motor drive to control the movement of
mechanism (tracker) .

What is stepper motor??

STEPPER MOTOR
Introduction:
Stepper motor is called also stepping motor as its rotor shaft rotate with fixed angular step in response
to each pulse received by its field winding from
digitally controller and its three type we will Talking
about them. We used the steeper motor in our
project as it has more advantage and special
applications and we will showed its advantages;
applications and also dis advantage to avoid it

Types of stepper motor

1-permenent magnet (PM)
.

This type of step motor has a permanent magnet

rotor. The stator can be similar to single stack variable
reluctance .Usually construct from two phase winding each one has two teeth and rotor is two poles of
permanent. Now we speak for its way of operation and its advantage and dis advantage.

Operation of (PM)
Each winding ( A ,B) has two terminal we excited stator winding control the polarity of excited current (
A+,B+,A-,B-,.) and the rotor poles are attracted To excited phase and make one step . Direction of
rotation depends on the polarity of excited coil.

1-One mode operation (full step):

At which excited phase (A) with positive current then change
excitation to phase (B) with positive current make the rotor rotate
one step at clock-wise direction. sequence of pulse for rotation
clock-wise ( A+,B+,A-,B-,A+,..).sequence of pulse for rotation
anti clock-wise (A+,B-,A-,B+,A+ ,B+ ,). We can obtain that step
angle for PM motor B =90 for full step fig1

2-Two phase operation mode:

In this method two stator winding excited at same time that make generate torque from both phases
make rotor set at mid-way Between two excited phase by sequence (A+B+,B+A-,A-B-,B-A+,).Make
stepper rotate at clockwise with full step .excited phase by sequence(A+B-,B-A-,A-B+,B+A+,A+B,).Make stepper rotate anti clockwise with full step .fig2

3- Half step operation:

is alternative between one phase and two phase mode we can obtain it by give sequence
(A+,A+B+,B+,B+A-,A-,A-B-,B-,B-A+,A+,).make
rotation with clock-wise steps . We can obtain that
step angle for PM motor B =45 for half step fig3

Advantage:
1-dont required external exciting current.
2-Need low power.
3-has high detent torque compared with variable
reluctance.
4-has high moment of inertia and slower acceleration

Disadvantage:
1-to reduce step angle we need increase rotor poles but it is difficult to manufacture small
2-permanent magnet motor with large number of poles the large range of step angle ( 30 : 900 ).

Step angle:
1-pole pitch =360/NROTOR pole

2- Step angle (B) =360/ n No of (rotor teeth control)

Where n: no of pulse required to make one pole pitch .

3-Resolution of motor =360/B 4- step/rev Speed of motor (n) =
fB/360

2-Variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motor

Unlike the PM stepper motor, the VR stepper motor does not have a permanent magnet and creates
rotation entirely with electromagnetic forces. It consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound
stator this motor does not exhibit magnetic resistance to turning when it is not powered. Energizing the

stator windings with DC currents causes the poles to be magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor
teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles. In a VR stepper motor, the surrounding coils that are
physically located opposite of each other are energized to create opposite magnetic fields.
And it has some types like Single stack type and Multi stack type.

3- HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR:

The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper
motor but provides better performance with respect to step
resolution, torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB
stepper motor range from
(100 400 steps per
revolution). The hybrid stepper motor combines the best
features of both the PM and VR type stepper motors. The rotor is
multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially
magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The Teeth on the
rotor provide an even better path which helps guide the
magnetic flux to preferred locations in the air gap. This further
increases the detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics
of the motor when compared with both the VR and PM types.
STATOR: has two phases with more number of teeth NSTATOR TEETH (multi-stack permanent).
ROTOR: has two toothed section separated by permanent magnet N ROTOR TEETH (multi-stack)

Operation of hybrid:
Stator has two phase with more pole and each pole has teeth NSTATOR TEETH and rotor has teeth section
separated by permanent magnet we can reduce detent torque and increase accuracy by make
NSTATOR>NROTOR. When no current is flowing in the windings, the only source of magnetic flux across the
air-gap is the permanent magnet. The magnetic flux crosses the air-gap from the N end-cap into the
stator poles, flow sexually along the body of the stator, and returns to the magnet by crossing the airgap to the S end-cap. If there were no offset between the two sets of rotor teeth, there would be a
strong periodic alignment torque when the rotor was turned, and every time a set of stator teeth was in
line with the rotor teeth we would obtain a stable equilibrium position. However, there is an offset, and
this causes the alignment torque due to the magnet to be almost eliminated. In practice a small 'detent
torque remains, and this can be felt if the shaft is turned when the motor is de-energized: the motor
tends to be held in its step positions by the detent torque. This is sometimes very useful: for example, it
is usually enough to hold the rotor stationary when the power is switched off, so the motor can be left
over night without fear of it being accidentally nudged into to a new position.
When energized phases the eight coils are connected to form two phase-windings. The coils on poles 1,
3, 5 and 7 from phase A, while those on 2, 4, 6 and 8 from phase B. When phase A carries positive
current stator poles 1 and 5 aremagnetised as S, and poles 3 and 7 become N. The offset teeth on the N
end of the rotor are attracted to poles 1 and 5 while the offset teeth at the S end of the rotor are
attracted into line with the teeth on poles 3 and 7.

To make the rotor step, phase A is switched-off, and

phase B is energized with either positive current or
negative current, depending on the sense of rotation
required. This will cause the rotor to move by onequarter of a tooth pitch (1.8) to a new equilibrium
(step) position. The motor is continuously stepped by
energizing the phases in the sequence of pulse for
rotation clock-wise ( A+,B+,A-,B
,A+,..).
sequence of pulse for rotation anti clock-wise (A+,B-,A,B+,A+ ,B+ ,).
It will be clear from this that a bipolar supply is
needed (i.e. one which can furnish +ve or -ve current).
When the motor is operated in this way it is referred
to as two-phase, with bipolar supply.

Advantage of hybrid motor:

1-motor achieve small step sizes easily than PM
2-Motor need less excitation than VR to give same torque
3-Provide good detent torque due to permanent-magnet flux

There are two types of PM and HYBRID:

Unipolar motor : Both permanent-magnet and hybrid motor has 5 or 6
terminal called (unipolar ).As shown has center tap for each phase
winding this center tap is connecting with Positive supply and other
terminal of winding connecting to the driver of motor to Control the
direction of current flow on it. Unipolar drivers are good for applications
that operate at relatively low step rates
Bipolar motor: Is permanent magnet or hybrid motor but dont have
center tap terminal has Four terminal are the start and end of
winding the direction of field depend on the direction of current flow
if current flow .

Two types of winding of steeper motor

1-monofilar winding 2- BIFILAR WINDING:

Now we need study specification of stepper motor as the following: 1-Accuracy

(step): The correctness of the distance a step motor moves during each step. Doesn't include errors due
to hysteresis.
2- . DRIVER VOLTAGE: The higher the output voltage from the driver, the higher the level of torque vs.
speed. Generally, the driver output voltage should be rated higher than the motor voltage rating
3-MOTOR STIFFNESS: By design, stepping motors tend to run stiff. Reducing the current flow to the
motor by a small percentage will smooth the rotation. Likewise, increasing the motor current will
increase the stiffness but will also provide more torque. Trade-offs between speed, torque and
resolution are a main consideration in designing a step motor system.
4-MOTOR HEAT: Step motors are designed to run hot (50-90 C). However, too much current may cause
excessive heating and damage to the motor insulation and windings. AMS step motor products reduce
the risk of overheating by providing a programmable Run/Hold current feature.
5-Holding torque: is max external torque can be applied on rotor of energized stepper motor without
cause continuous rotation motion still steps motor if applied load larger than it that make stator winding
absorb large current and rotor rotate freely .
6-Detent Torque: The maximum torque required to slowly rotate a step motor shaft with no power
applied to the windings. This applies only to permanent magnet or hybrid motors. The leads are
separated from each other.
7-Max working torque: max torque can be obtained from motor.
8-Hysteresis (positional): The difference between the step
positions when moving CW and the step position when
moving CCW. A step motor may stop slightly short of the
true position thus producing a slight difference in position
CW to CCW.
9-Pull-In Curve: The pull-in curve defines an area referred to
as the start stop region. This is the maximum frequency at
which the motor can start/stop instantaneously, with a load
applied, without loss of steps. As fig
10-Pull-in Rate (response rate or speed): The maximum switching rate at which an unloaded motor can
start without losing step positions.
11-Maximum Start Rate: The maximum starting step frequency with no load applied to start motor
without losses on steps
12- Pull-in Torque (max starting torque): The maximum torque load at which a step motor will start and
run in synchronism with a fixed frequency pulse train without losing step positions.
13-Pull-Out Curve: The pull-out curve defines an area referred to as the slew region. It defines the
maximum frequency at which the motor can operate without losing synchronism. Since this region is
outside the pull-in area the motor must ramped (accelerated or decelerated) into this region.
14-Maximum Slew Rate: The maximum operating frequency of the motor with no load applied
15-Pull-out Torque: The maximum torque load that can be applied to a motor running at a fixed stepping
rate while maintaining synchronism. Any additional load torque will cause the motor to stall or miss
steps.
16-Stepping rate: number of pulses given to motor per second depend on (torque speed) characteristic
and Type of driver .

The pull-in characteristics vary also depending on the load. The larger the load inertia the smaller the
pull-in area. We can see from the shape of the curve that the step rate affects the torque output
capability of stepper motor The decreasing torque output as the speed increases is caused by the fact
that at high speeds the inductance of the motor is the dominant circuit element.
17-Viscous Damping: A damper which provides a drag or friction torque proportional to speed. At zero
speed the drag torque is reduced to zero.
18-Viscous Inertia Damper: A damper with an inertia coupled to the motor shaft, through a film of
viscous fluid, usually silicone oil to minimize viscosity variations due to temperature changes. This
damper only responds when the velocity between the damper inertia and motor shaft changes. At
steady state speed there is no effect from the damper.
.19-Wave Drive: Energizing the motor phases one at a time. Driving the motor one phase or winding on
at a time.
20- Resonance: A step motor operates on a series of
input pulses, each pulse causing the rotor to
advance one step. In this time the motors rotor
must accelerate and then decelerate to a stop. To
overcome resonance you must shift the resonance
point away from the operating point. Resonance will
always be there, it is a matter of manipulating the
system so that it goes away. Change the following
parameters in order to shift resonance:
Current

Voltage

Rotor Inertia

Inertia load reflect to the Motor

Stepper Motor Advantages:

1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good Stepper motors have an accuracy of3
5% of a step and this error is Non-cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply
dependents on the life of the Earrings.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop Control which making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a Load that is directly coupled to
the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is Proportional to the frequency of the
i/p pulse.

Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

Application of steeper motor

1-Computer printer for paper.
2-Blood pump.
3-Drilling machine of printed circuit board (PCB). 4-Head positioning in computer disk.
5-Motion application need low speed.
6- Factory automation, aircraft controls, and many other application Ingenuity and further advances in
digital technology will continue to extend the list of applications.

Difference between fixed and tracking systems:

The tracked array rises up to quickly to full power and stays there on a
clear sunny day. The fixed array only maintains the maximum power
for a few hours in the middle of the day

If a surface is moved to follow the sun, the energy yield increases. On

days with high Insolation and a large direct radiation component, a
tracking system enables relatively large radiation gains to be achieved.
In summer, a tracking system achieves

around 50 percent radiation gains on sunny days, and in winter, 300 per cent or more, compared
to a horizontal surface (fixed surface).

From an economic point of view:

The tracking price is $2.24 per DC Watt. Compared to a fixed mount, the additional cost per watt or premium to track is $1.33 per watt
($2.24- $0.91).
That increases the installed cost for a tracked PV System from $8.63 to $9.96 per DC watt.
It might appear that tracking is a luxury addition to a PV System. However, it can be less expensive when viewed from a power
production standpoint.
The installed cost of System is quick to calculate:
DC Watts X ($ per Watt (Fixed Rack or tracked)) = Total Cost

We have to make a decision to use or not a

tracking system by calculating our benefits and
our costs and take in your mind that tracking
save more money on land or area to give the
same power you need.

Protection of PV system
Introduction
We know that we must take the protection of any system we installed it our calculation so we must
know. How we protect our system from any things may damage it or let our system be out of work? We
have two sides (a.c; d.c) and pv module we must protect them as we can .

In this figure. The original GFPD prototype was developed in two versions that were similar except for
voltage rating. The basic concept was to insert a 0.5 or 1.0 amp circuit breaker in the dc system-bonding
conductor connecting the grounded circuit conductor (usually the negative) to the grounding system
(the point where equipment grounding conductors and grounding electrode conductor are connected
together). Any ground-fault currents must flow through this bond on their way from the ground-fault
point back to the driving source, the PV module or PV array

We can make a protection against

1- ground fault
4-over current

2- lightning

3-reverse current

5- over voltage

And our protection will be in two sides according to the dangerous which faced it
Now we will talk about the four elements in details and any side it may occurs

1-ground fault and its protection

A-definition of ground fault
A ground fault in photovoltaic (PV) arrays is an accidental electrical short circuit involving ground and
one or more normally designated current-carrying conductors. Ground-faults in PV arrays often draw
peoples safety concerns because it may generate DC arcs at the fault point on the ground fault path. If
the fault is not cleared properly, the DC arcs could sustain and cause a fire hazard.
And it could potentially result in large fault current which may increase the risk of fire hazards too. And it
is the most common fault in PV.

b- Causes of ground fault

1. Insulation failure of cables by a rodent animal chewing through cable insulation and causing a ground
fault
2- Incidental short circuit between normal conductor and ground by a cable in a PV junction box
contacting a grounded conductor incidentally
Ground-faults within PV modules in a solar cell short circuiting to ground module frames due to
deteriorating encapsulation or impact damage.

c- How we do reduction to the hazard fire

(ground fault):
Detect ground faults in PV array.
2. Interrupt the fault current
3. Indicate that a ground fault had occurred
4. Disconnect the faulted part of the PV array
5. Short circuit the PV array

2-lightning
We know that the lightning is less happen in Egypt but we must say about it due to its high effect in the
system if it occurs.
Photovoltaic (PV) arrays are generally constructed in large, open, and unobstructed locations.
If lightning occurrences are present in those locations, the system may be highly susceptible to a
lightning strike.
Direct discharges to the PV array, nearby strikes to earth, and cloud to cloud discharges may have
damaging effects
On the PV system and its components.
The most effect is that the component of PV system will damage and we will need to make a new system
from A to Z.
The less effect is that may repeated high transient voltage.
And we have two type of lightning we will protect system from them.

And we will protect our system from (direct and indirect) lightning.
At dc side Lightning may cause magnetic fields to induce transient currents into PV system wire loops.
Then transient voltages will appear at equipment terminals and cause insulation and dielectric failures of
key Components, such as inverters, combiner boxes.
So we can use air terminal to protect the system like fig.

At ac .side
The inverter may also be affected by induced lightning transients and utility switching transients that
will appear at the service entrance, such as voltage tap changing or capacitor bank switching actions and
we can protect ac or dc side by the secondary protection device Surge Protective Devices and its
classification to get it
1- Ability of the devices to change states quickly enough for the brief time the transient is present
2- Ability to discharge the magnitude of the transient current that is associated with the transient
voltage without failing
3- Minimizing the voltage drop across the SPD circuit to protect the equipment it is connected to
4- No interference with the normal operation of that circuit

3- String protection against reverse currents

Recirculated current can reach extremely high values, especially when there are a large number of
strings.
The modules are unable to withstand this value of current and, in the absence of protection devices;
they develop faults within a very short time.

4; 5- over current and voltage protection

As in any installation, there should be protection against thermal effect of over current causing any
danger.
The National Electrical Code defines the maximum circuit current as 125% of the short-circuit current of
the PV module (Isc).
The conductors and the over current protective device are then sized at 125% of the maximum circuit
current or 1.5 x Isc Current (Imp) of the PV module.

This means that unlike typical grid connected AC systems, the available short circuit current is limited
and the over current protective devices will need to operate effectively on low levels of fault current

String protection:
Where string overcurrent protection is required, each PV string shall be protected with an overcurrent
protection device. The nominal overcurrent protection (Fuse or Circuit breaker) rating of the string
overcurrent protection device shall be greater than 1,25 times the string short circuit current
Isc stc_string.
PV systems that have three or more strings connected in parallel need to have each string protected.
Systems that have less than three strings will not generate enough fault current to damage the
conductors, equipment or modules. Therefore they do not present a safety hazard, provided the
conductor is sized correctly, and based on local codes and installations requirements. Where three or
more strings are connected in parallel, a fuse link on each string will protect the conductors and modules
from over current faults and help minimize any safety hazards. It will also isolate the faulted string so
that the rest of the PV system can continue to generate electricity.
It should be remembered that PV module output changes with the module temperature as well as the
amount of sun it is exposed to. The exposure is dependent on irradiance level, incline as well as shading
effect from trees/buildings or clouds. In operation, fuse links, as thermal devices, are influenced by
ambient temperature. Whilst a full study of all the parameters is recommended, the following factors
should be used: 1.25 for current and 1.2 for voltage when selecting the fuse link which covers most
variation due to installation.

Array protection
The nominal rated trip current of overcurrent protection devices for PV arrays (fuses or circuit breaker)
shall be greater than 1.25 times the array short-circuit current Isc of array
The selection of overcurrent protection rating shall be done in order to avoid unexpected trip in normal
operation taking into account temperature.
A protection rating higher than 1.4 times the protected string or array short-circuits current Isc is usually
recommended. Each fuses manufacturer provides rating selection recommendation. For Schneider
Electric circuit breakers.

Notes:
fuses(common use)
1. Fuses are the string protection most widely used by designers
2. Unlike diodes, they disconnect the circuit if faults occur.
3. A fuse, it must be selected to protect a PV source circuit operating at its short-circuit current rating,
and also protect it in case of a fault on that circuit.

TROUBLE SHOOTING AND MAITENANCE

Before we defined the cause of trouble we collect information from customer about:
1- last time at which PV operate well.
2- Measure output of array (voltage and current).
Defined the cause of trouble there are there causes such as:
a- Cell, module and array
b- Due to load.
c- Due to inverter.

CELL, MODULE AND ARRAY

There are two conditions that occur which can warrant the trouble-shooting of a solar array. The first is
no power output and the second is low power output both of these are disconcerting situations, but
the first of the two is more than likely the inverter or charge controller having a problem. Solar PV panels
are so reliable that they almost never quit completely unless they are severely damaged by fire, impact
or some other violent act.
The second situation, lower than expected output, is actually very common but rarely the fault of the
panels themselves. Here is a list of the factors that can lead to low output:
1. Shading always check for shading first. Most installers will make sure that there is no shading
issues when they install a solar array, but solar arrays can last for more than 25 years and trees
grow very quickly. After modules are cleaned of any debris or surface dirt and output is checked
at the inverter, perform a site survey with a Solar Pathfinder most reputable supply houses will
have one or both to rent or loan. Using the output of the site survey, trim any trees or bushes
that are causing the shading output should go back to normal. If not then check the operating
temperature of the array.
2. Temperature Solar panels do not like heat the hotter they get, the lower their voltage drops.
Most systems are designed to take this into consideration, but some series strings can be sized
right at the lower voltage limit needed to start the inverter and keep it going through
intermittent cloud cover. Check the string outputs based on the actual output as well as the
designed output. If the voltage gets close to 200 VDC for a grid-connected inverter, then check
the ambient temperature. If its higher than normal (a heat wave for instance) then you might
have to add a module to each string or combine some strings to get a higher voltage so that the
system can power through unusual summer heat. Also check to make sure that airflow under the
array hasnt changed. Fact: You can actually measure module temperature very accurately by
checking voltage and using the modules temperature coefficient to calculate remember that an
operating module is cooler than an unconnected one.
3. Faulty Connections If modules arent dirty or overheated, then theres probably a bad
connection somewhere. Some experts will insist that the connections are checked first, since a
ground fault caused by a hungry squirrel or poor installation can be dangerous (lethal), but the
fact is that a professionally installed array just doesnt have bad connections. Wires should be
secure, watertight, not pinched by any metal surface and junction boxes should be sealed. A

ground fault condition will be most likely registered on the inverter if it is, then the system is
very dangerous and any further trouble-shooting should be conducted by a DC voltage specialist.
4. Series Resistance This is the most unlikely condition to occur. Solar arrays using central
inverters are long strings of generators all the way down to the cell level. At each interconnection
point, there is a chance for a bad connection. Cells are encapsulated in glass and silicone,
terminals are enclosed in waterproof boxes and wires are connected by waterproof plugs. If
moisture or extreme heat attacks any of these points, their resistance will increase and bring the
output of the entire system down. By way of example, one manufacturer of solar panels had
been soldering the module cells together with a solder that was of insufficient heat. Over time,
the electrical resistance in these bad connections generated enough heat to burn through the
top glass, eventually leading to the replacement of the cells of thousands of modules. However,
this is very rare. Any series resistance is more likely to occur in a junction box, a connector, or a
combiner box. Both junction and combiners boxes can be opened to inspect the connections: any
metal surfaces should be free of oxidation and the screw terminals should be shiny.
These are the four basic conditions to check a poorly performing system.

. Do and Donts orders:

1- Do:
*clean the module surface regularly with a clean, dry/wet cloth
*check all the cable and wiring connections for their firmness
*check that there is no corrosion in the modules and there is no seepage of rain water

2-Donts:
*Do not use any detergent for cleaning the module (just clean water)
*Do not use sharp-edged materials to remove bird dropping
*Do not touch the surface of the module with oily or greasy hands

TROUBLE DUE TO LOAD

PV system is used to operate building electrical loads
, so any problem in load will affect the system as well.
1-Using avoltmeter, check to see that the proper voltage
Is present to the load.
2-check if there is blown fuse or tripped breaker,
Locate the cause and fix or replace the faulty component.
3-If the load is motor an internal thermal circuit breaker
Might be trapped or there might be open wiring.
4-Check for any loose connection or broken wires and

Clean any dirt.

5-Check for and repair any ground fault.
6-If the load still doesn't operate, check for system
Voltage at load connection. The wire size may be too
Small or the wire might be too long.

TROUBLESHODING DUE TO INVERTER

The inverter coverts dc from the PV system into ac power
For building use. If the inverter is not producing the correct output power:
1-Use voltmeter and a dc meter to check the inverter
Operating dc input voltage and current levels.
2-on the ac sides use a clamp meter to check the inverter
Output voltage and current levels.
3-Using a true RMS meter, the voltage and current
Can be used to measure and record the KW output.
4-f possible use the inverter display to show the current
Total in KWH.write down this value and compare it to the one recorded in the last inspection. if the
inverter Is not producing the right amount of power there might
Be number of problems incuding, ablown fuse, tripped
Breaker or a broken wire.
5-If load current demand is too high, the choice then is to reduce the loads or install a large converter.
6-check for and repair any ground faults before starting
The inverter again.
7-Any voltage problems from the utility may cause the inverter to shutdown .in this case contact the
utility for repairs.

Batteries
Failure of batteries is one of the main problems in PV system
Following procedures of maintenance for battery system:
1- Inspect battery terminals for corrosion and loose cable
2-check battery surface for electrolyte leakage
3-ensure that batteries are not in direct contact with the ground (floor)
4-check battery enclosure box for proper ventilation
5-check the level of electrolyte and distilled water in the batteries; top up the battery if the level is
below the specified mark

Battery must be placed in an enclosed box

it should kept away from direct human contact
Dos and Donts orders for batteries:1- Dos:
*charge battery every day
*clean the battery top with a cloth/brush with braking soda and water solution
2-Donts:
*Do not keep any inflammable object near the battery
*Do not keep the battery exposed; always keep it in a sealed box that has proper ventilation
*Do not put additional load on the battery, as it will reduce its life
*Do not drop any metallic objects on the battery terminals it may lead to sparking
Warning
At very low voltage a large battery bank can release high current
So it is always safe to wear protective gear at the time of battery maintenance, as there is a possibility of
explosion.

Maintenance procedure
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR MAINTENANCE OF THE SYSTEMS IS AS FOLLOWS:
1-COMPLETE PHYSICAL INSPECTION OF THE SYSTEM AT LEAST TWICE A YEAR
2-DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING INSPECTION FORMS AND RECORDS

Routine Maintenance
Test system meters using a device where you know the voltage and verify it is working and correct
Test array/panel voltage with a multi-meter to measure the voltage/amperage (in full sun) in an
array/panel and record
Measure battery voltage before and after connecting array and record
Check status indicators on charge controller and inverter if available
Check all wiring to see if any is live by testing voltage and/or current at all points before and after a
component
Check all terminals and wires for loose, broken, corroded or burnt connections or components
Test system under full sun and re-test each point and component for common voltage/amperage

Load Estimation Of The Hotel That Fed By PV

Introduction
As mentioned before we use a grid connect system, so we will feed the hotel with a
part of its full power that needed.
The hotel will fed with about 25% of its power : the total power of hotel is about three
MW and PV system will shared with 800 KW.
The hotel located in Hurghada at the Red Sea Coast consist from five floors , in four
floor contain about 222 room , 31 suites, offices , administration offices , reception ,
cinema , gym , lounge and ball room according to each floor ,three swimming pool with
different sizes. The big one is 1438.87 m2, the medium one is 592 m2 and the small one is
346 m2with height of 3 m.

Estimation of the loads

First, we divided the layout into blocks and every block is repeated above each other
and are numbered as the following figures of the layout , the floors of hotel is named for
bottom to top as ( -7.00 , -3.2 , 0.00 , +3.2 , +6.4 ).
The distribution boards is named as FX.X DB-Y , where F= FLOOR , X.X is the floor
name , DB = distribution board and Y is the number of the block,
for
example: F+3.2 DB-1 .
In single line diagram of hotel the lighting is mentioned by L , the socket by S and
the power socket by PS and under each type the area ( mm2 ) of conductor that used
and (XN) that inside a circuit mean the number of circuit that have the same power ,
N is the no. of the circuit.
The hotel has 29 Elevators and every elevators 10 HP, the swimming pools have pumps
of 2000 , 3000 and 5500 W for small , medium and big pool.

THE LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR -7.00

LOADS OF FLOOR -7.00

Classification of rooms

Number

Lightning power(W)

Total power(W)

Store 1
sockets
Store2
sockets

3
4
15
4

1518
648
1821.6
648

4554
972
27324
4860

wc (main)
socket
Dry garbage
wet garbage
mixed garbage
corridor
office
socket
Generator
sockets
Store
socket
Lowered
sockets
Transformer room
sockets
Laundry
socket
power socket
Boiler
socket
power socket
Shop1
socket
Shop2
socket
Shop3
socket

2
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
8
1
4
1
5
2
3
1
11
5
1
11
5
2
4
2
4
2
4

455
3600
84
84
84
112
607.2
648
476
1296
506
648
336
810
84
486
4312
1782
9000
4312
1782
9000
759
648
1062
648
1265
648

910
3600
84
84
84
112
607.2
324
476
648
506
324
336
405
168
486
4312
891
4500
4312
891
4500
1518
648
2124
648
2530
648

Lounge
cinema

1
1

3752
3592.6

3752
3592.6

Store a
socket
House Keeping 1

7
4
2

354.2
648
556.6

2479.4
2268
1113.2

socket
Elec. Room 1
sockets

4
2
4

648
455.4
648

648
910.8
648

Housekeeping 2
socket
Store b
socket
Elec. Room 2
sockets

2
4
10
4
2
4

303.2
648
253
648
455.4
648

606.4
648
2530
3240
910.8
648

shop
sockets
wc
power sockets
Entertainment
power sockets
sockets

8
4
2
2
1
4
12

404.8
648
303.6
1800
8247.8
7200
1944

3238.4
5184
607.2
1800
8247.8
3600
972

Store c
socket

10
4

607.2
648

6072
3240

Staff cafeteria 1
Staff Cafeteria 2
Kitchen
sockets
power socket

1
1
1
6
3

2428.8
3339.2
2732.4
972
5400

2428.8
3339.2
2732.4
486
2700

wc
sockets

2
1

1113
1800

2226
1800

Staff wc 1
sockets
Staff wc 2
sockets
Lenin store
socket
Elec. Room
Socket
House Keeping
sockets
big corridor
Dock

1
2
1
1
3
4
5
4
5
4
1
2

404.8
3600
961.4
1800
1416.8
648
404.8
648
455.4
648
1214
506

404.8
1800
961.4
900
4250.4
972
2024
1620
2277
1620
1214
1012

The total power of floor -7.00 is 339.4162 KW

This power calculated with demand factor of load.

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR -3.2

There are repeated blocks from (1 .. to
23) in floors (-3.2 , 0.00 , +3.2 , +6.4).
The similar rooms is in blocks from (1 6 ,
9... to . 19) , And its power calculation is:

This block contain 12 similar rooms

and repeated in blocks from (1 6 ,

9... to . 19)

calculation for one room per block

room 1

LIGHTING

SOCKET(VA)

with demand factor

N0

12

POWER OF ONE
big passage

435
607

passage

56

TOLAT

5892

N0

12

Power Sockets

1800

POWER OF ONE

1080

TOLAT

34560

5892

17280

And there are repeated suites in the floors in blocks numbered by (7 , 8 , 20 , 21 , 22 ,

23) and have the same power.
power of suites
Classification of rooms in suite

numbers

power of one (W)

total power (W)

bath room 1
bed room1
corridor 1

31
31
31

101
112
56

3131
3472
1736

bath room2
bed room2
corridor 2

31
31
31

101
112
56

3131
3472
1736

Total lighting of Suites

31

538

16678

Sockets
Power Sockets

12
2

972
1800

30132
55800

3310

102610

total power for one

Also , we have blocks that have different power in each floor the same four
floors mentioned before , So the calculated power for this floor is :
-3.50
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

+31.70

-3.80
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

+31.70

-3.20
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

-3.50
F.F.L

different blocks in floor -3.2

block 25

Classification of rooms

Number

Lightning power (W)

Total power (W)

office 1

258

2064

socket

1296

5184

office 2

172

860

socket

810

2025

Dry garbage

84

84

wet garbage

84

84

mixed garbage

84

84

corridor

112

112

block 24

wc (main)

455

910

power socket

1800

1800

wc 1

151

151

power socket

1800

900

wc 2

151

151

power socket

1800

900

Kitchen 1

2783

5566

socket

972

972

power socket

10800

10800

Kitchen 2

3440

3440

socket

1296

648

power socket

14400

7200

Service

276

552

socket

648

648

Restaurants

708

4248

Store 1

455

455

sockets

648

324

Store2

404

2020

sockets

648

1620

Health Club

5313

5313

power socket

15

27000

13500

sockets

14

2268

1134

wc

303.6

607.2

power socket

3600

3600

Locker

404

808

power socket

1800

1800

socket

324

324

Gym

5920

5920

socket

14

2268

1134

power socket

15

27000

13500

29268

14634

total
Ball room

7392

7392

Sockets

24

3888

1944

power socket

3600

1800

big corridor

1214

1214

mini corridor

607

607

small corridor

404.6666667

809.3333333

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR 0.00

This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks.
The different blocks in this floor have power of :
+31.70

0.00
F.F.L

+31.70

0.00
F.F.L

25
+31.70

0.00
F.F.L

+31.70

0.00
F.F.L

different blocks in floor 0.00

block 25

Classification of rooms

Numbers power of one (W) total power (W)

office 2

172

860

socket
office 1

4
8

324
258

1620
2064

socket

648

5184

total power of lighting

430

2924

total power of socket

972

6804

TOTAL POWER

1402

9728

wc (main)

455

910

wc 1
wc 2
Total

1
1

151
151
757

151
151
1212

power socket

total power

3600

14400

4357

15612

block 24

Dry garbage

84

84

wet garbage
mixed garbage
Garbage

1
1
3

84
84
252

84
84
252

corridor
big corridor

1
1

112
1214

112
1214

mini corridor

607

607

administration office
reception
total
wc
power socket
total
socket of reception
socket of
administration office
total power of sockets
shop 1
socket
lighting of Shops
total power
total power

12
1

10

368
1196
1564
1113
7200
8313
810

4416
1196
5612
2226
7200
9426
8100

648

3888

2
4

6
4
6

1458
506
324
3036
4980
3022

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR+3.2

This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks.

3036
1944
4980
17600

 The different blocks in this floor have power of :

+31.70

+3.20
F.F.L

+31.70

+3.20
F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

+31.70

+3.20
F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

+4.80
F.F.L

+3.20
F.F.L

+3.20
F.F.L

+3.20
F.F.L

different blocks in floor +3.2

block 25
block
24

6
1
1
1
1

power of one
(W)
708
84
84
84
112

Total power
(W)
4248
84
84
84
112

Service 1
sockets
service 2
sockets
Service 3
sockets
main kitchen
socket
power socket
Buffet Zone
Corridor 1
corridor 2

2
4
2
4
1
4
1
20
20
1
2
3

276
648
87
648
217
648
5488
3240
36000
5262
506
253

552
648
174
648
217
324
5488
1620
18000
5262
1012
759

Ball room
power socket
Sockets

1
2
24

7392
3600
3888

7392
1800
1944

Classification of rooms

Numbers

Restaurants
mixed garbage
wet garbage
Dry garbage
corridor

Wc
power socket
Lounge

2
2
1

1113
3600
3752

2226
3600
3752

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR +6.4

This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks and block 25 is zero
power because it is empty.
The different blocks in this floor have power of:
+31.70

+31.70

+6.40
F.F.L

+6.40
F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

25

+7.60
F.F.L

+6.40
F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

+6.40
F.F.L

+6.40
F.F.L

block 24

Lounge

3752

3752

Distribution boards:
In this section, we will show you how loads distributed and the calculation of the current
and selecting of the standard of CB and CABLES that used in the project.
The block consist from 5 floor, every floor has its panel board that fed from larger panel of
the block, and every block fed from the Main Distribution Boards.

THE DISTRIBUTION BOARDS OF THE HOTEL

F-7.00 DB-1

185 mm^2(300A)

standard

250 A

285.9

F+6.4 DB-1 F+3.2 DB-1 F0.00 DB-1 F-3.2 DB-1-

238.25

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-1

190.6

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697

Icb
2.74621
10

Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2

4.909091 6.13636

7.363636364

standard
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
3.833333
standard

10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
4.79167
10A

3.272727 4.09091
socket

feed in cable

POWER

26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
5.75
2mm^2
4.909090909

0
0
0
10A
3 mm^2
3 mm^2
12.18851 15.2356 18.28275852
10A
16A
4mm^2 (30 A)

7220

TOTAL POWER(VA)

112904.44

PANEL: DBP-2

187.68 234.6 281.52

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-2 F+3.2 DB-2 F0.00 DB-2 F-3.2 DB-2 F-7.00 DB-2

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.6
5.52
10A
3.272727 4.09091
0
0
10A
9.264615 10.4228
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
13.89692227
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-3

187.68 234.6 281.52

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-3 F+3.2 DB-3 F0.00 DB-3 F-3.2 DB-3 F-7.00 DB-3

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.6
5.52
10A
3.272727 4.09091
0
0
10A
9.264615 13.7121
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
16.45448267
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-4

187.68 234.6 281.52

F-7.00 DB-4

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250A

F+6.4 DB-4 F+3.2 DB-4 F0.00 DB-4 F-3.2 DB-4

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.6
5.52
10A
3.272727 4.09091
0
0
10A
9.264615 11.5808
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
13.89692227
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-5

187.68 234.6 281.52

F-7.00 DB-5

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-5 F+3.2 DB-5 F0.00 DB-5 F-3.2 DB-5

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
44.60303 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.6
5.52
10A
3.272727 4.09091
0
0
10A
10.96966 13.7121
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
16.45448267
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-6

205.69 257.11 308.53

F-7.00 DB-6

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-6 F+3.2 DB-6 F0.00 DB-6 F-3.2 DB-6

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.22559 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.22559 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.22559 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.22559 46.532
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.548485 5.68561
10A
4.909091 6.13636
4.545455 5.68182
10A
27.27689 13.7121
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.83838064
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.822727273
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 16157.78
3 mm^2
16.45448267
4mm^2 (30A)

TOTAL POWER

121842.22

PANEL: DBP-7

179.94 224.92 269.91

185mm^2(300A)

standard

250A

F+6.4 DB-7 F+3.2 DB-7 F0.00 DB-7 F-3.2 DB-7 F-7.00 DB-7

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
3.913131 4.89141
10A
4.909091 6.13636
4.545455 5.68182
10A
30.93007 38.6626
50A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
5.86969697
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 18321.78
3 mm^2
46.39510233
10mm^2 (48 A)

TOTAL POWER

106588.44

PANEL: DBP-8

179.94 224.92 269.91

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-8 F+3.2 DB-8 F0.00 DB-8 F-3.2 DB-8 F-7.00 DB-8

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
3.913131 4.89141
10A
4.909091 6.13636
4.545455 5.68182
10A
30.93007 38.6626
50A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
22066.67
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
5.86969697
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 18321.78
3 mm^2
46.39510233
10mm^2 (48 A)

TOTAL POWER

106588.44

PANEL: DBP-9

216.22 270.28 324.33

F-7.00 DB-9

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-9 F+3.2 DB-9 F0.00 DB-9 F-3.2 DB-9

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
4.548485 5.68561
10A
4.909091 6.13636
4.545455 5.68182
10A
37.811 47.2638
50A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
6.822727273
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 22397.78
3 mm^2
56.71650451
16mm^2 (60 A)

TOTAL POWER

128082.22

PANEL: DBP-10

226.01 282.52 339.02

240 mm^2(345A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-10 F+3.2 DB-10 F0.00 DB-10 F-3.2 DB-10 F-7.00 DB-10

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10
4.909091 6.13636
10
37.25203 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.19697 2.74621
10A
4.909091 6.13636
4.545455 5.68182
10A
47.60045 59.5006
63A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
5.75
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 28196.67
3 mm^2
71.40067145
25mm^2 (80 A)

TOTAL POWER

133881.11

standard

300 A

240 mm^2(345 A)

PANEL: DBP-11

212.29 265.37 318.44

F+6.4 DB-11
F+3.2 DB-11
F0.00 DB-11
F-3.2 DB-11F-7.00 DB-11

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
2.1969697 2.74621
10
4.9090909 6.13636
10
37.252035 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.1969697 2.74621
10
4.9090909 6.13636
10
37.252035 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.1969697 2.74621
10
4.9090909 6.13636
10
37.252035 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.1969697 2.74621
10
4.9090909 6.13636
10
37.252035 46.565
50A
AMPERE
Icb
2.1969697 2.74621
10A
4.9090909 6.13636
4.5454545 5.68182
10A
33.881345 42.3517
50A

Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
55.87805237
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818
3 mm^2
50.82201712
16mm^2 (60 A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

total power

20070

125754.444

PANEL: DBP-12

212.29 265.37 318.44

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-12 F+3.2 DB-12 F0.00 DB-12 F-3.2 DB-12 F-7.00 DB-12

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
4.545455

socket
standard
feed in cable

33.88134
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10A
6.13636
5.68182
10A
13.7121
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
20070
6.818181818
3 mm^2
16.45448267
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

125754.44

PANEL: DBP-13

212.29 265.37 318.44

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-13 F+3.2 DB-13 F0.00 DB-13 F-3.2 DB-13 F-7.00 DB-13

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
4.545455

socket
standard
feed in cable

33.88134
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10A
6.13636
5.68182
10A
42.3517
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
20070
6.818181818
3 mm^2
50.82201712
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

125754.44

PANEL: DBP-14

217.82 272.27 326.73

240mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-14 F+3.2 DB-14 F0.00 DB-14 F-3.2 DB-14 F-7.00 DB-14

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
4.545455

socket
standard
feed in cable

39.40763
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10A
6.13636
5.68182
10A
49.2595
50A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
6.818181818 23343.56
3 mm^2
59.11143896
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

129028

PANEL: DBP-15

200.97 251.21 301.46

240mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-15 F+3.2 DB-15 F0.00 DB-15 F-3.2 DB-15 F-7.00 DB-15

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
1.788889
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

22.5583
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.23611
10A
4.09091
0
10A
28.1979
32A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
2.683333333
2 mm^2
4.909090909
13362.67
0
3 mm^2
33.83745262
6mm^2 (36A)

TOTAL POWER

119047.11

PANEL: DBP-16

200.97 251.21 301.46

240 mm^2(345A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-16 F+3.2 DB-16 F0.00 DB-16 F-3.2 DB-16 F-7.00 DB-16

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
1.788889
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

22.5583
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.23611
10A
4.09091
0
10A
28.1979
32A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
2.683333333
2 mm^2
4.909090909
13362.67
0
3 mm^2
33.83745262
6mm^2 (36 A)

TOTAL POWER

119047.11

180 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

281.52

F+6.4 DB-17 F+3.2 DB-17 F0.00 DB-17 F-3.2 DB-17 F-7.00 DB-17

234.6

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-17

187.68

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
4.6
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

9.264615
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
5.75
10A
4.09091
0
10A
11.5808
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
13.89692227
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

180 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

281.52

F+6.4 DB-18 F+3.2 DB-18 F0.00 DB-18 F-3.2 DB-18 F-7.00 DB-18

234.6

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-18

187.68

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
4.6
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

9.264615
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
5.75
10A
4.09091
0
10A
11.5808
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
5488
0
3 mm^2
13.89692227
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-19

192.31 240.39 288.46

180mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-19 F+3.2 DB-19 F0.00 DB-19 F-3.2 DB-19 F-7.00 DB-19

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303
standard
AMPERE
4.6
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

13.89692
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
55.7538
63A
Icb
5.75
10A
4.09091
0
10A
17.3712
20A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
26421.11
3 mm^2
66.90454216
25mm^2 (80 A)
Icable
total power
6.9
2 mm^2
4.909090909
8232
0
3 mm^2
20.8453834
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

113916.44

PANEL: DBP-20

135.95 169.93 203.92

120 mm^2(240A)

standard

200A

F+6.4 DB-20 F+3.2 DB-20 F0.00 DB-20 F-3.2 DB-20 F-7.00 DB-20

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
3.066667
standard
3.272727
0

socket
standard
feed in cable

11.77209
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
3.83333
10A
4.09091
0
10A
14.7151
16A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
4.6
2 mm^2
4.909090909
6973.333
0
3 mm^2
17.65813981
4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

80528.889

PANEL: DBP-21

158.71 198.39 238.07

120 mm^2(240 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-21 F+3.2 DB-21 F0.00 DB-21 F-3.2 DB-21 F-7.00 DB-21

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

lighting

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
4.770146
standard
4.909091
4.958678

socket
standard
feed in cable

34.53673
standard

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
5.96268
10A
6.13636
6.19835
10A
43.1709
50A

Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
POWER
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
18388.89
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
total power
7.155218855
2 mm^2
7.363636364
7.438016529 20458.22
3 mm^2
51.80508819
16mm^2 (60 A)

TOTAL POWER

94013.778

PANEL: DBP-22

138.07 172.59 207.11

120 mm^2(240 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-22 F+3.2 DB-22 F0.00 DB-22 F-3.2 DB-22 F-7.00 DB-22

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
2.19697
standard
4.909091
standard
31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

31.04336
standard
AMPERE
4.6

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
38.8042
50A

Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
46.56504364
16mm^2 (60 A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

Icb
Icable
total power
5.75
6.9
lighting
standard
10A
2 mm^2
3.272727 4.09091 4.909090909
socket
0
0
0
8232
standard
10A
3 mm^2
13.89692 17.3712
20.8453834
feed in cable
standard
20A
4mm^2 (30 A)

81787.556

PANEL: DBP-23

106.97 133.71 160.45

socket
feed in cable

standard
4.909091
standard
24.83469
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

24.83469
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

24.83469
standard
AMPERE
2.19697

lighting
standard
socket

4.909091
standard

feed in cable

24.83469
standard
AMPERE

F-7.00 DB-23

95 mm^2(210 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-23 F+3.2 DB-23 F0.00 DB-23 F-3.2 DB-23

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting

AMPERE
2.19697

lighting

Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
37.25203491
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
37.25203491
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
37.25203491
16mm^2 (60 A)
Icable
3.295454545
2 mm^2
7.363636364
3 mm^2
37.25203491
16mm^2 (60 A)

Icb

Icable

3.45

4.3125
standard
10A
4.545455 5.68182

5.175
2 mm^2
6.818181818

10A

3 mm^2

socket
standard
feed in cable

Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
31.0434
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
31.0434
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
31.0434
50A
Icb
2.74621
10
6.13636
10
31.0434
50A

7.627101 9.53388
standard

16A

11.44065139
4mm^2 (30A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

14711.11

POWER

14711.11

POWER

14711.11

63362.444
POWER

14711.11

total power

4518

PANEL: DBP-24

248.81 311.01 373.21

300 mm^2(440A)

standard

400 A

F+6.4 DB-24 F+3.2 DB-24 F0.00 DB-24 F-3.2 DB-24 F-7.00 DB-24

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

standard
standard
standard

lighting
standard
socket
standard
feed in cable

standard

AMPERE
Icb
Icable
POWER
4.737374 5.92172 7.106060606
10
2 mm^2
0
0
0
4168.889
10
3 mm^2
7.037746 8.79718 10.55661896
16A
4mm^2 (30A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
POWER
4.737374 5.92172 7.106060606
10
2 mm^2
0
0
0
16542.22
10
3 mm^2
27.9259 34.9074 41.88884409
40A
10mm^2 (48A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
POWER

TOTAL POWER

0
calculations detailed below

0
feed in cable

39302.44
66.34876
standard
AMPERE

82.936
99.52314421
100A 50mm^2 (115 A)
Icb
Icable
POWER

0
calculations detailed below

feed in cable

52933.56
89.36024
standard
AMPERE

111.7
134.0403621
150A 95mm^2 (165 A)
Icb
Icable
total power

lighting
calculations detailed below
socket

feed in cable

34437.78
58.13643 72.6705
standard

80A

87.20465031
35mm^2 (95 A)

147384.89

300mm^2(440 A)

standard

400 A

436.65

F+6.4 DB-25
F+3.2 DB-25
F0.00 DB-25
F-3.2 DB-25F-7.00 DB-25

363.88

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-25

291.1

Icb

lighting
socket
feed in cable

AMPERE
0
standard
0
standard
0
standard
AMPERE

Icb
0
10
0
10
0
16A
Icb

Icable
0
2 mm^2
0
3 mm^2
0
4mm^2 (30 A)
Icable

POWER

TOTAL POWER

POWER

lighting
calculations detailed below

socket
feed in cable

40836.67
standard

68.938773 86.1735
40A
AMPERE
Icb

103.4081601
10mm^2 (48A)
Icable

POWER

lighting
calculations detailed below

socket
feed in cable

30583.33
51.62952
standard
AMPERE

64.5369
80A
Icb

77.44427953
35mm^2 (95 A)
Icable

POWER

lighting
calculations detailed below

socket
feed in cable

57792.59
standard

97.563067 121.954
146.3446004
125A
95mm^2 (165A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
total power

lighting
calculations detailed below
socket

feed in cable

43224.67

standard

72.970096 91.2126
109.4551445
100A
50mm^2 (115A)

172437.259

lighting

adminstration office
Socket
feed in cable

lighting

F0.00 DB-24

Reception

AMPERE
1.858585859
standard
0
standard

3.272727273
0
5.101615537

standard
AMPERE
3.949494949
standard
2.045454545
2.045454545

socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

WC

5.101615537
standard
AMPERE
3.681818182
standard
2.045454545
2.045454545

socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

Shops

5.375097243
standard
AMPERE
2.555555556
standard
1.636363636
standard

feed in cable

8.407030236
standard

Icb
2.323232
10
4.090909
0
10
6.377019
10A
Icb
4.936869
10
2.556818
2.556818
10
6.377019
10A
Icb
4.602273
10
2.556818
2.556818
10
6.718872
10A
Icb
3.194444
10
2.045455
10
10.50879
16A

Icable
total power
2.787878788
2 mm^2
4.909090909
8304
0
3 mm^2
7.652423305
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
Icable
total power
5.924242424
2 mm^2
3.068181818
3.068181818
8910
3 mm^2
7.652423305
1.5mm^2 (18A)
35372
Icable
total power
5.522727273
2 mm^2
3.068181818
3.068181818
9426
3 mm^2
8.062645864
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
Icable
total power shopes
3.833333333
2 mm^2
2.454545455
4980
3 mm^2
12.61054535
1.5mm^2 (18A)

lighting

Health club

sockets
Fed in Cable

lighting

F-3.2 DB-24

Wc

sockets
Fed in Cable

lighting

Locker

sockets
Fed in Cable

Lighting

GYM

sockets
Fed in Cable

4.472222222
standard
2.863636364
standard
33.67370123
standard
1.533333333
standard
4.545454545
standard
2.367473735
standard
2.04040404
standard
1.636363636
standard
4.949681255
standard
4.983164983
standard
4.927272727
standard
34.69841355
standard

icb
5.590277778
10A
3.579545455
10A
42.09212653
50A
icb
1.916666667
10A
5.681818182
10A
2.959342169
10A
icb
2.550505051
10A
2.045454545
10A
6.187101569
10A
icb
6.228956229
10A
6.159090909
10A
43.37301693
50A

I cable
6.708333333
2 mm^2
4.295454545
3 mm^2
50.51055184
16mm^2 (60A)
I cable
2.3
2 mm^2
6.818181818
3 mm^2
3.551210603
1.5mm^2 (18A)
I cable
3.060606061
2 mm^2
2.454545455
3 mm^2
7.424521883
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
I cable
7.474747475
2 mm^2
7.390909091
3 mm^2
52.04762032
16mm^2 (60A)

power

19947

power

4207.2

power

2932

power

20554

Launge

AMPERE
Icb
Icable total power
4.737374 5.921717 7.106061
lighting
standard
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
socket
0
0
0
3752
standard
10
3 mm^2
6.333971 7.917464 9.500957
feed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
lighting

Cinema

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

F -7.00 DB -24

lighting

Shop

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

lighting

wc

standard

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable

Entertainment

lighting

standard

standard

Icb

Icable total power

7344.6

4.536111 5.670139 6.804167

10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3592.6
10
3 mm^2
6.064879 7.581099 9.097318
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable total power
2.044444 2.555556 3.066667
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0.023232 0.02904 0.034848 8422.4
10
3 mm^2
14.21835 17.77293 21.32752
20A 4mm^2 (30A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable total power
1.533333 1.916667
2.3
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2407.2 23649.4
10
3 mm^2
4.063736 5.079669 6.095603
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable total power
4.628395 5.785494 6.942593
10A

2 mm^2

4.909091 6.136364 7.363636

12819.8
socket
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
21.64186 27.05232 32.46279
feed in cable
standard
32A 6mm^2 (36 A)

lighting

Restaurants

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable
standard

lighting

F+3.2 DB-25

Garbage

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable
standard

lighting

Corridor

standard

socket
standard
feed in cable
standard

lighting

Main Kitchen

socket

standard

AMPERE
Icb
Icable
total power
1.787879 2.234848 2.681818182
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
4248
10A
3 mm^2
7.171298 8.964123 10.75694712
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
total power
1.272727 1.590909 1.909090909
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
252
10A
3 mm^2
0.425416 0.53177
0.638123982
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
total power
0.565657 0.707071 0.848484848
10A
2 mm^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
10A
3 mm^2
0.189074 0.236342 0.283610659
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE
Icb
Icable
total power
4.619529 5.774411 6.929292929
10A
2 mm^2

18.01653 22.52066
standard
10A
42.38629 52.98286
feed in cable
standard
40A

27.02479339
3 mm^2
63.57943228
6 mm^2

25108

36753

office2

lighting
socket

office 1

lighting

F 0.00 DB -25

socket

WC

lighting
socket

grabage

lighting
socket

corridor

lighting
socket

standard
standard

standard
standard

standard
standard

standard
standard

standard
standard

AMPERE
Icb
0.868687 1.085859
10
1.636364 2.045455
10
AMPERE
Icb
1.30303 1.628788
10
1.636364 2.045455
10
AMPERE
Icb
2.29798 2.872475
10
4.848485 6.060606
10A
AMPERE
Icb
0.424242 0.530303
10
0
0
0
0
AMPERE
Icb
0.565657 0.707071
10
0
0
0
0

Icable
1.30303
2 mm^2
2.454545
3 mm^2
Icable
1.954545
2 mm^2
2.454545
3 mm^2
Icable
3.44697
2 mm^2
7.272727
3 mm^2
Icable
0.636364
2 mm^2
0
0
Icable
0.848485
2 mm^2
0
0

total power

2480

total power
7248

total power
15612

total power

252

total power

112

27525

lighting

Restaurants

Service

Kitchen 1

Kitchen 2

F -3.20 DB - 25

WC 1

WC 2

Garbage

Corridor

WC (main)

Office 1

Office 2

3.57576

icb

I cable

4.4697

5.36364

standard
10A
2 mm^2
7.171298 8.964123 10.75695
Fed in Cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lightening
1.393939 1.742424 2.090909
standard
10A
2mm^2
sockets
1.393939 1.742424 2.090909
standard
10A
3 mm^2
2.02579 2.532238 3.038686
Fed in Cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18A)
icb
I cable
lightening 4.685185 5.856481 7.027778
standard
10A
2mm^2
11.89091 14.86364 17.83636
sockets
standard
10A
3 mm^2
29.2693 36.58662 43.90394
Fed in Cable
standard
40A 10mm^2 (48 A)
icb
I cable
Lighting 4.343434 5.429293 6.515152
standard
10A
2mm^2
15.85455 19.81818 23.78182
sockets
standard
10A
3mm^2
19.05594 23.81992
28.5839
Fed in Cable
standard
25A 4mm^2 (30 A)
icb
I cable
lighting 0.762626 0.953283 1.143939
Standard
10A
2mm^2
4.545455 5.681818 6.818182
sockets
Standard
13A
3 mm^2
1.774255 2.217818 2.661382
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lighting 0.762626 0.953283 1.143939
Standard
10A
2mm^2
4.545455 5.681818 6.818182
sockets
Standard
13A
3 mm^2
1.774255 2.217818 2.661382
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lighting 1.272727 1.590909 1.909091
Standard
10A
2mm^2
0.425416
0.53177 0.638124
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lighting 0.565657 0.707071 0.848485
Standard
10A
2 mm^2
0.189074 0.236342 0.283611
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lightening 2.29798 2.872475 3.44697
Standard
10A
2mm^2
9.090909 11.36364 13.63636
sockets
Standard
13A
3 mm^2
4.57491 5.718638 6.862365
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A)
icb
I cable
lightening 1.30303 1.628788 1.954545
Standard
10A
2mm^2
3.272727 4.090909 4.909091
sockets
Standard
10A
3 mm^2
12.23577 15.29472 18.35366
Fed in cable
standard
16A 4mm^2 (30 A)
icb
I cable
lightening 0.868687 1.085859 1.30303
Standard
10A
2mm^2
4.090909 5.113636 6.136364
sockets
Standard
10A
3 mm^2
4.870338 6.087922 7.305507
Fed in cable
standard
10A 1.5mm^2 18 A)

power

4248

power

1200

power

17338

power

11288

Power

1051

Power

52013
1051

Power
252

Power
112

Power

2710

Power

7248

Power

2885

AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
2.298 2.872
3.447
10A 2 mm^2
9.091 11.36 13.636
socket
4510
0
0
0
standard
10A 3 mm^2
7.614 9.517
11.42
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
1.273 1.591 1.9091
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
0
0
0
socket
252
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
0.425 0.532 0.6381
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
0.566 0.707 0.8485
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
0
0
0
112
socket
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
0.189 0.236 0.2836
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
3.067 3.833
4.6
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
1.636 2.045 2.4545
socket
931.2
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
1.572 1.965
2.358
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
45.45 56.82 68.182
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
0
0
0
socket
1124
0.049 0.061 0.0738
standard
10
3 mm^2
1.897 2.372 2.8462
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
2.404 3.005 3.6061
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
3.273 4.091 4.9091
socket
830
0.011 0.013
0.016
standard
10
3 mm^2
1.401 1.751 2.1018
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
1.697 2.121 2.5455
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
4.091 5.114 6.1364
socket
0.013 0.017 0.0199
741
standard
10
3 mm^2
1.251 1.564 1.8764
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
0.424
0.53
0.6364
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
2.455 3.068 3.6818
654
socket
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
1.104
1.38
1.6561
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
4.356 5.444 6.5333
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
7.779 9.724 11.669
9703
socket
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
16.38 20.48
24.57
feed in cable
standard
25A4mm^2 (30 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
4.356 5.444 6.5333
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
7.779 9.724 11.669
socket
9703
0
0
0
standard
10
3 mm^2
16.38 20.48
24.57
feed in cable
standard
25A4mm^2 (30 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
3.833 4.792
5.75
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
3.273 4.091 4.9091
socket
0
0
0
2166
standard
10
3 mm^2
3.657 4.571 5.4848
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
2.682 3.352 4.0227
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
3.273 4.091 4.9091
socket
0
0
0
2772
standard
10
3 mm^2
4.68
5.849 7.0194
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
AMPERE Icb
Icable total power
3.194 3.993 4.7917
lighting
standard
10A 2 mm^2
3.273 4.091 4.9091
socket
0
0
0
3178
standard
10
3 mm^2
5.365 6.706 8.0475
feed in cable
standard
10A
1.5mm^2 (18 A)
lighting

standard

WC (main)

garbage

Corridor

Office

generator

store

F -7.00 DB-25

Lowered

T.R Room

Laundry

Boiler

Shop 1

Shop 2

Shop 3

38902.2

PV sizing
A specific module type is selected based on these specifications. The module's technical specifications
determine the rest of the system sizing. First, the rough number of modules that can be accommodated in
the area is determined. This number enables the rough overall power of the PV system

The area requirement when using semi-transparent modules will increase roughly in proportion to
the area of the modules

Points need to be taken into consideration for the

actual planning:
-Number of modules corresponding to multiples of module width and height in relation to the available
area.
-local surroundings with regard to shading.

Selected

Datasheet
information:

module:

Voltage selection:
The magnitude of the inverter's voltage is the sum of the voltages of the series connected modules in a
string.

And the voltage of the entire PV array depends upon the temperature, the extreme cases of winter and
summer operation is used when sizing.
In order to enable inverters to be optimally matched to the solar array, it is important to take the modules'
temperature and irradiance operating parameters into account. The PV array voltage is strongly dependent
upon the temperature. The operating range of the inverter must be matched with the I-V curve of the PV
array.
The MPP range of the inverter should, as can be seen in Figure, incorporate the MPP points of the array I-V
curve at different temperatures. In addition, the turn-off voltage and the voltage resistance of the inverter
must be taken into account.

In the low voltage range (UDC <120V), only a few modules (three to five standard modules) are connected
in series in a string.
In higher voltages range (more than five modules connected in series in string).
The advantage of this concept is that smaller cable cross sections can be used as a result of the lower
currents. A disadvantage is the greater shading losses due to the long strings.(shading losses increase as
string losses increase)

Inverter datasheet:

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MODULES IN A

STRING:
The first limit is defined by a winter temperature.
At low temperatures, the module voltage increases. The highest voltage that can occur in an operating
condition is the open-circuit voltage at low temperatures. If the inverter is switched off on a sunny winter
day (e.g. because of grid failure), this can lead to the open-circuit voltage being too high when it is switched
back on again. This voltage must be lower than the maximum DC input voltage at the inverter; otherwise
the inverter could be damaged. Thus, the maximum number of series-connected modules is derived from
the quotient of the maximum input voltage of the inverter and the open-circuit voltage of the module at
10C:

max = V max (inv)/v max (module)

According to datasheet of selected module and inverter

max= 750/34.6 22 module

MINIMUM NUMBER OF MODULES IN A

STRING:
During summer, modules on a roof can easily heat up to around 50C. This temperature is generally
used as a basis when determining the minimum number of modules in a string. With well-ventilated
systems, a maximum temperature of 45C can be assumed in EYGPT. With full irradiance in summer, a PV
system has a lower voltage than at STC conditions (nominal voltage on the module data sheet) owing to the
increased temperatures. If the operating voltage of the system drops below the minimum MPP voltage of
the inverter, this would no longer feed the maximum possible power and, in the worst case, would even
switch itself off. For this reason, the system should be sized such that the minimum number of seriesconnected modules in a string is derived from the quotient of the minimum input voltage of the inverter at
the MPP and the voltage of the module at the MPP at 45C. The following formula provides the lower limit
value for determining the number of modules in a series:

min =

(
(

)
)

min= 300/23.6 13 module

Determining the number of strings:

On completing the sizing, one should ensure that the maximum PV array current does not exceed the
maximum inverter input current. The maximum number of strings is as large as the quotient from the
maximum permitted DC input current of the inverter and the maximum string current:

string=
IMAX (inv) =

)
(
(

=110000/400= 275 A

string = 275/ 7.47 = 36 string

So no. of strings per group shouldn't exceed 36 string.
Total watt required to generate= 800 k watt
o/p watt of one module= 200 watt
System voltage= 400 v
No. of series modules in string
= sys. voltage/module voltage
=400/26.8= 14.9 15 modules
This hand calculation is enough to provide required voltage but.. by make combination with pv sys. Prog this
calculation is closely
And by take in consideration losses of temp variation and cloudes&shodow etc.
We will put 17 modules per string.
(This no. in safe region according to previous calculation)
No. of parallel strings per array= 27 string
No. of inverters = 11 inverter

Fig.1

So our system consist of 11 array connect to 11 inverter, each array consist of 27 string connect in in parallel
and each string consist 17 module connect in series as showing in Fig.1
The o/p voltage&current of array is very important in selecting inverter ratings.
This no of arrays is enough and more than the required of our need at good condition we use the more
power of our need to supply other loads and at bad condition our part of project be in safe region.
As said before there are losses due to environmental consideration and there are other losses due to dc&ac
cables.

Selecting and sizing cables for grid-tied PV

systems:
When sizing the cables, three essential criteria should be observed: the cable voltage ratings, the current
carrying capacity of the cable and the minimizing of cable losses.

1-Cable voltage ratings:

PV systems do not generally exceed the voltage ratings of standard.
With large PV systems and long module strings, the voltage rating of the cable should be checked, taking
into account the maximum open-circuit voltage of the PV string or array to which it is to be connected.

2-Cable current carrying capacity:

The cable cross section is then sized in accordance with the maximum current.
The maximum current that may flow through the module or string cable is the generator short-circuit
current minus the short-circuit current of one string:

IMAX=Isc PV Isc string

The cable is either designed for this current or string fuses are used to protect the cables from overloading.
The maximum current I max must be lower or equal to the current-carrying capacity of the cable or the
protective device Iz
IMAX Iz
It should be considered that the generator short-circuit current approximates the nominal current of the
string.
The string cable must be able to carry 1.25 times the generator short-circuit current and be laid such that it
is earth-fault proof and short-circuit proof.
String fuses are used mainly with PV systems with several strings, and must be employed for systems with
four or more strings where fault conditions could lead to significant module reverse currents. Fuses or
miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are deployed. The cable cross section of the module or string cables can
be dimensioned with the trigger current of the string fuses. Here, the permitted current-carrying capacity of
the cable Iz Cable must be the same as or greater than the trigger current of the string fuse:

Iz Cable Ia string fuse

I max string Iz cable

3-Minimizing the cable losses/voltage drops:

The sizing of the cable cross sections takes into consideration the need for as little cable loss/voltage drop
as possible.

The voltage drop in the direct voltage circuit should be no greater than 1 per cent of the nominal voltage
of the PV system at standard test conditions (STC).' This limits the loss power through all DC cables to 1 per
cent at STC. Practice has shown that this 1 per cent recommendation for PV systems with inverters
operating with a higher DC input voltage (V Mpp > 120V) can be maintained with standard cable crosssections without any problems.
For PV systems with inverters operating with lower V Mpp values
(e.g. low voltage concept), it is possible that the voltage drop with the string or module cable exceeds the 1
per cent limit, even when using a 6mm2 cable, particularly when there are greater distances between the
inverter and the PV generator. With such system designs, a 1 per cent voltage drop in the string cables and
an additional 1 per cent drop with the DC main cable is acceptable.

Sizing the module and

string cabling:
By knowing the passing current we can
select the required cable as showing
After sizing the cross section, taking into consideration the
current-carrying capacity, the cross section with the 1 per
cent recommendation can be selected.
The current path though module and string cable is the
module current=7.47 A
AM is rounded up to the next highest value for standard
cable cross sections.
From the above table the selected cable cross section (Am)
is 1.5 mm2 (15 m/m).
Assume average string cable length is 50 m, and losses of
dc of string cable is : 0.015*50 *7.47^2= 42w

Fig. 2

This losses is very small "not exceed 2% from total power of string", so we can neglect it

Sizing the DC main cable:

The DC main cable and the DC bus cables from PV sub-arrays must be able to carry the maximum occurring
current produced by the PV array.
In general, the DC main cable is sized to 1.25 times the PV array short-circuit current at STC.
Max current pass through dc main cable=I string (sc)* no. of strings
=8.16*27 = 220.32 A
=1.25*220.32 =275.4 A
The cross section of the cable must be selected according to the permitted current carrying capacity of the
cable. Here again, the temperature reduction factors and, with cable bunching, the accumulation factors
need to be taken into consideration.

The calculated value for the cable cross section for the DC main cable Adc rounded up to the next highest
value for standard cable cross sections, as shown in fig .2 the suitable cable cross section (ADC)
is 95 mm2 (.23m/m).
The actual cable loss from the DC main cable is calculated for the selected cable cross section as follows:
=.00023*50*(27*7.47) ^2470 w
This losses is very small "not exceed 2% from total power of string", so we can neglect it

Sizing the AC connection cable:

Similarly by knowing the current path we can select the required cross-section area.
The input power to the inverter92kw
Ac o/p current of one array = .
=150 A
The cross section area of cable that can carry 150 A is 35 mm2
Assume ac cable length is 100 m.
The length of cable is short so we can neglect the losses in this cable.

Distance between two solar modules:

In previous (fig) the cell is faced to true north

But... in our project the cell will be faced to true south

1) Azimuth angle:

2) Tilt angle in Egypt (spring & autumn) =30

degree
There are changes in this angle:
Where ...it is equal (30 +15) =45 (Winter).

Where ... it is equal (30 -15) = 15 ..(Summer).

So
Our calculation will be made according to winter; because this is the worst case for making a
shadow.

3) We take Altitude
angle of sun = 40 degree
Each country has its values according to its latitude.

Egypt lies in 30.06 deg. North

Pole.We have module dimension
(.992*1.482) m
When we take length (1.482m) and width (.992m)
So
X = (sin
Y = 1.05 *

) 1.482 =1.05 m
= 1.25 m

When we take length (.992m) and width (1.482 m)

So
X = (sin
Y = .7 *

) .992 =.7 m
= .84 m

So the second method will be taken.. Because it has smallest shadow length.

of

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY
Over 99% of electrical energy generated worldwide is produced by:

Fossil Fuel power plants.

Hydroelectric power plants.
Nuclear power plants.

Fossil Fuel Power Plant

Fossil Fuels are the most polluting resources for energy.
The worst among them are the raw coal fired power plant.
Coal combustion waste (CCW) is largely made up of ash and other unburned materials that are left when fossil fuels, like coal and oil, are
burned.

Selected Pollutants Emitted from Coal-Fired

Power Plants
Pollutant

1990 Emissions (tons)

1998 Emissions (tons)

Projected 2010
Emissions (tons)

Sulfur Dioxide

15,220,000

12426000

8600000

Nitrogen Oxides

5,642,000

5392000

3900000

Particulate Matter (PM10)

265,000

273000

Arsenic

61

71

Beryllium

7.1

8.2

Cadmium

3.3

3.8

Chromium

73

78

Hydrogen Chloride

143,000

155000

Hydrogen Fluoride

19,500

27500

Lead

75

87

Manganese

164

219

Mercury

46

60

The Most Pollutants Are:

Sulfur Oxides (dioxides SO2 & trioxide SO3)

Acid Rain.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
Nitrogen Oxides (NO2).
Ashes.
Troposphere Ozone (O3).

Sulfur Oxides
SO2 and SO3 are major contributes to air pollution.
Coal contains more than 6% sulfur(S).
Inhalation of SO2 can damage the respiratory tract and lung tissues.

Acid Rain
The rain from clouds with sulfuric or nitric acids is known as the Acid Rain.
Acid Rain is very damaging to crops and structures.
When it reaches to lakes, it can have severe effect on the fish population.
Acid Rain can also damage limestone.

Carbon Dioxide
Coal-fired power plants are among our largest sources of CO2 emissions, which have been linked to climate change. Atmospheric CO2
admits incoming sunlight, but traps the heat radiating from Earths surface (the way heat is trapped in a greenhouse, hence the
greenhouse effect). The greenhouse effect is predicted to result in higher temperatures that may affect the global distribution of rainfall
and subsequent land use (including agriculture) as well as ecological effects on forests, lowering of lake levels and waterways from
increased evaporation rates and rising ocean levels due to melting ice caps. An increased reliance on conventional coal tons all of these
pollutants are released in significant quantities.

The Greenhouse Effect

Nitrogen Oxides
The direct health effect of nitrogen oxides on human is minor.
However, nitrogen dioxide NO2 plays major roles in:

Formation of smog
Acid rain
Greenhouse effect: NO2 absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than Carbon dioxide.

Ashes
Ashes are small particles (0.01 50 m) are suspend in air.
About 7 million tons of ashes are released each year by electric power plants .
The ashes effect:

Breathing
Weaken the immune system
Worsen the conditions of cardiovascular disease patients.
The smaller ashes (less than 10m) can reach the lower respiratory tract and cause severe respiratory problems.
Due to those bad effects of generating electricity efforts are concentrated on using clean energy sources for producing electricity. Which
known as renewable energy sources, like solar energy, wind energy, hydro electric power.

The Benefits of Solar Electricity

Can solve electricity generation problems: where in some countries consumers can sell electricity back to the grid if it is surplus.
Consumer benefits: cut electricity bills as sun light is free, so once you have paid for the initial installation your electricity costs
will be reduced. Your tariff will be reduced .
Cut your carbon footprint: solar electricity is green, renewable energy and doesn't release any harmful carbon dioxide] or other
pollutants. A typical home solar PV system could save over a tone of carbon dioxide per year that's more than 30 tones over its
lifetime.
Solar PV needs little maintenance.
More jobs are created for each unit of electricity generated.
Stable Energy Prices:
Using more renewable energy can lower the prices of and demand for natural gas and coal by increasing competition and diversifying our
energy supplies. An increased reliance on renewable energy can help protect consumers when fossil fuel prices spike.
In addition, utilities spend millions of dollars on financial instruments to hedge themselves from these fossil fuel price uncertainties. Since
hedging costs are not necessary for electricity generated from renewable sources, long-term renewable energy investments can help
utilities save money they would otherwise spend to protect their customers from the volatility of fossil fuel prices.

Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2013. Coal news and markets report.

Source: EIA. 2013. U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price.

Disadvantages of Solar Power

High initial cost.
Solar cells take large area of land.
Solar cells have low efficiency.
Solar cells consist of toxic chemicals like: Si, Zn.

Economic study using PV program

Feasibility study
Contents and objective :
The aims of this chapter illustration of economic importance of using pv system to feeding of 25% of required load and illustrate simulation
of project by using one of famous programming to design project (PVSYST) and making comparison between fixed system and sun tracking
according to economic side and containing also the cost of energy required according to Egyptian Electric Utility And Consumer Protection
Regulatory Agency Commercial Usage 2013 and also the type of inverter using and pv module using

According to Load Estimation of project total power required is 3.1 MWatt i.e.
total energy per year
=3.1*24*365=27156 MWattH/Year
If we take all power from grid :
Total price per month according to Egyptian Electric Utility and Consumer
Protection Regulatory Agency Commercial Usage
=100*.24+250*.36+600*.46+1000*.58+2261050
*.6= 1357600
LE/month
Total price per year=16291200LE/year
For 20 year of using :
Total power cost =16291200 *20 =325824000 LE

PV SYSTEM FEEDING 25%OF LOAD

AND DESIGN BY PROGRAM

We are using in our study

PVSYST Program
One of the oldest photovoltaic software, developed by the university of Geneva. PVSYST is designed to be used by architects, engineer and
researchers, and it is also a very useful pedagogical tool. It could be considered as the swiss knife of photovoltaic softwares.
Main features :
- Full design of remote PV systems
- Full design of PV systems connected to the grid
- Complete database of PV panels, inverters, meteorological data
- Useful 3D application to simulate near shadings
- Import of irradiation data from PVGIS, NASA databases
- Import of PV mules data from PHOTON INTERNATIONAL
- Economic evaluation and payback
- export of calculations to CSV files
- Many tools to simulate the behavior of PV modules and cells according to irradiation, temperature, shadings
Pvsyst includes a detailed contextual Help, which explains in detail procedures and models used, and offers an ergonomic approach with guide
in development of a project. PVsyst is able to import meteo data from many different sources, as well as personal data.
PVsyst provides results in the form of a full report,
specific graphs and tables, as well as data export for use in
other software.
http://www.pvsyst.com/en/

INVERTER
TYPE USING
IN PROJECT
-phase output

-of-the-art technology
-directional solar inverters with MPPT charge controller

- 20 years design life

PV MODULE USING

SUN TRACKING USING

Solar tracker price of dual axis PV bracket system, large-scale

http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/690553577/solar_tracker_price_of_dual_axis.html
Source:

BY Using PV system share the grid to feed 25%of demand energy during7 hours i.e. .25*3.2*7*365=2044 MWattH/Year
For sizing and determining the number of modules using for getting required energy we using PV SYST PROGRAM
From program results of simulation we find that
1) For sun tracking system :
For required power we need 5049 module where 17module in series and 297 string
Use and total area 7423 m^2
The price of land 1000LE/M^2
SO total price of land =7423000LE

The price of PV = .5$/watt so the total price of pv using

Equal 200*5049*.5=504900*7=3534300LE with life time equal to 20year
Total price of sun tracking mechanism = .1*7*5049*200=706860LEWHERE .1$/watt

According to http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/690553577/solar_tracker_price_of_dual_axis.html

For inverter
The price of unit is $36,841.88
So total price of inverter using=36841.88*7*11
2836824.76 LE=
Total price with assuming 10%from total price as protection and maintence
=1.1*(7423000+3534300+706860+2836824.76) =
15951083.24LE
If getting this power from grid the total price for 20year equals to =20*12*(100600)=24144000LE

TOTAL SAVING BY USING PV

=24144000-15951083.24
=8192916.76LE
Figures blow explain data using and results getting from program

CALCULATION OF OHMIC LOSS

Assuming distance between inverter and grid =100meter

Figure below explain output current

2) FOR FIXED SYSTEM

From program results of simulation we find that
1)for sun tracking system
For required power we need 6919 module where 17module in series and 407 string
Use and total area 10172 m^2
The price of land 1000LE/M^2
SO total price of land =10172000LE

The price of pv .5$/watt so the total price of pv using

Equal: 200*6919*.5=691900*7=4843300LE with life time equal to 20year

For inverter
The price of unit is $36,841.88
So total price of inverter using=36841.88*7*14
3610504.24 LE=
Total price with assuming 10%from total price as protection and maintence
=1.1*(10172000+3610504.24+4843300) =
20488384.66LE
If getting this power from grid the total price for 20year equals to =20*12*(100600)=24144000LE

TOTAL SAVING BY USING PV

=24144000-20488384.66=3655615.336 LE

Figures blow explain data using and results getting from program

From above simulation we find that

Tracking system is better than fixed and save money equal to 8192916.76 -3655615.336=4537301LE during 20years

Why we make a tracking system for our module??

Currently, solar panels are not very efficient with only about 12-20% efficiency in their ability to convert sunlight to electrical power
The efficiency can drop further due to other factors such as solar panel temperature and load conditions
In order to maximize the power derived from the solar panel it is important to operate the pane; at its optimal power point.
It is crucial to operate PV energy conversion systems near maximum power point to increase the output efficiency of PV.
However, due to the nonlinear nature of PV systems the current and power of PV array depends on the array terminal operating voltage.
The conventional solar-array mathematical model requires detailed knowledge of physical parameters relating to the solar-cell material,
weather conditions, solar trajectory, illumination factor and temperature
MPPT tracks the output voltage and current from the solar cell and determines the operating point that will deliver the maximum power.
Due to nonlinear nature of PV systems the current and power of PV array depends on the array terminal operating voltage
The MPPT compensates for the varying voltage Vs. current characteristics of the solar cell according to its terminal voltage.
In addition to this, due to the changing weather conditions, solar trajectory, luminance factor and temperature operating maximum power point
varies, hence the tracking control of MPT becomes a highly non-linear problem.

PV output characteristic and Modeling

The input to PV system is determined by external factors such as location, geometry, orientation, cloud cover, time of day, and the season.
The output characteristics of PV cells are very much dependent on the insulation level and cell temperature.

Effect of insulation level at constant cell

temperature-I
curve
As the insulation varies, the source current varies
linearly, the open circuit voltage decreases, but slightly,
as the insulation decreases.

Effect of cell
temperature at
constant
insulation level,
V-I curve:
As the temperature varies, the source current
varies linearly .the open circuit voltage
decreases, but only slightly, as the temperature
increases.

Effect of cell
temperature at
constant
insulation level,
power-current
curve:
Under constant insulation, the locus of the
maximum power point is an almost vertical line,
sloping slightly toward the origin.

So tracking

system is useful to get the max irradiance through

the day
How we make tracking system??
The technique which used in our project is controlling the tilt and Azimuth angles using two stepper motors and 4 photo resistors to get the
max irradiance during the whole day.

Our Tracking Mechanism

Is a device that pay loaded with photovoltaic panels it may be fixed or tracked according to calculation and study of selected project
(depend on economic study).
Although we use fixed system in our project, in this department we combine between fixed and tracking mechanism to overcome all problems
in practical work in the two systems.

1-fixed mechanism:
It help us to control in tilt angle only as showing in the fig,
we can put it by suitable angle to collect max radiation
from sun.
But surely it still lower than tracking mechanism in collects
radiation
fixed mechanism increase electricity output by 27 to 32%

2-tracking
mechanism:
It helps us to track the sun all the day by control tilt and azimuth angles which the tracker move according to motion of sun by using stepper
motor and drive ,in addition to sensors putted on PV which sense intensity of radiation and send signals to controller(arduino) which control the
motion of motor.

We control in tilt angle as showing in the fig

By connect stepper motor to gear but the torque
wanted is very high

We overcome this problem by using mechanical

as showing in the fig this decrease the torque down
N.M and do the same job.

We control azimuth angle by connect stepper motor

to gear as showing in fig
The torque required to move the mechanism
azimuthally is not high

Tracking mechanism
increase a systems energy output by 35 to 40%;
that is an additional 6% on average compared
with the fixed mechanism.

screw
to 1

PV installation
We have 3 PV modules

Tracking system will be applied on one of them (50 watt )

And fixed system will be applied on the two others (11 watt for each module)

Connection of PV system:

Two 11 watt modules each of them has 10.5 v open circuit voltage and about 1 amp short circuit
current
They will be connected in series so as to get 21v as total voltage and 1 amp as equivalent current
And the output of two 11watt PV modules will entered to adjustable voltage regulator to get about
16v as fixed output voltage

Also, the output of PV module will entered to the same circuit to get 16v as fixed output voltage
The output of each regulator will be connected in parallel so as to produce 16v, 4amp as shown in fig.

Designing of adjustable voltage regulator to get

16v as output voltage from 50watt PV module
using LM2576-adj regulator:
A switching mode power supply such as LM2576 dc-dc converter uses switching control to reduce the input
dc voltage on average. This is equivalent to a lower input voltage resulting in minimum heat dissipated. The
control results in better regulated output, less energy wasted through heat and the use for high current
application.

Voltage regulator:
Features

3.3 V, 5.0 V, 12 V, 15 V, and Adjustable Output

Versions

Adjustable Version Output Voltage Range, 1.23 to 37

V 4% Maximum Over Line and Load Conditions

Guaranteed 3.0 A Output Current

Wide Input Voltage Range
Requires Only 4 External Components
52 kHz Fixed Frequency Internal Oscillator
TTL Shutdown Capability, Low Power Standby Mode
High Efficiency
Uses Readily Available Standard Inductors
Thermal Shutdown and Current Limit Protection
Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) Equals 1
Applications

Simple High-Efficiency Step-Down (Buck) Regulator

Efficient Pre-Regulator for Linear Regulators
On-Card Switching Regulators
Positive to Negative Converter (Buck-Boost)
Negative Step-Up Converters
Power Supply for Battery Chargers

Pin

Symbol

This pin is the positive input supply for the LM2576 step-down switching regulator. In order
to minimize voltage transients and to supply the switching currents needed by the
regulator, a suitable input bypass capacitor must be present ( in Figure 1).

Output

GND

Description (Refer to Figure )

This is the emitter of the internal switch. The saturation voltage V^t of this output switch is
typically 1.5 V. It should be kept in mind that the PCB area connected to this pin should be
kept to a minimum in order to minimize coupling to sensitive circuitry.

Circuit ground pin. See the information about the printed circuit board layout.
This pin senses regulated output voltage to complete the feedback loop. The signal is divided
by the internal resistor divider network R2. R1 and applied to the non-inverting input of the
Feedback internal error amplifier. In the Adjustable version of the LM2576 switching regulator this pin
is the direct input of the error amplifier and the resistor network R2. R1 is connected
externally to allow programming of the output voltage.
It allows the switching regulator circuit to be shut down using logic level signals, thus
dropping the total input supply current to approximately 80 uA. The threshold voltage is
typically 1.4 V. Applying a voltage above this value (up to ) shuts the regulator off. If the
ON/OFF
voltage applied to this pin is lower than 1.4 V or if this pin is left open, the regulator will be
in the "on" condition.

- Designing of adjustable voltage regulator to

get 16v as output voltage from 11watt pv
modules connected in series using LM317T
regulator :

Two 11watt PV modules connected in series have 1 amp max current and LM317T can withstand untill 1.5
amp as max current

Implementation of voltage regulator circuit

using LM317T:
to get 16v as output voltage adjust R2=2.8K ohm
fig. the simulation of our circuit using proteus programe

16v output voltage will be input to battery charger circuit designed to charge lead acid battery
about 15AH , 12v

12v Battery Charger Circuit with Auto Cut off

This is a simple charge controller schematic he main component of this auto battery charger circuit is a 555
timer which compares the voltage in the battery. It turns ON the charger if the battery voltage is below the
variable pre-set voltage (12 volt chosen here) and turns OFF the charger if the voltage reaches 13 volt. The
battery charging voltage of the charger can be varied by adjusting the variable resistor and maximum
charging is limited by a 13V zener diode on the fifth terminal of 555 IC.

To understand the working of this 12 volt battery charge controller circuit you must have an idea of the
internal diagram of 555. You can refer the pin out section at the bottom.

The interior construction of 555

These devices are precision monolithic timing circuits capable of producing accurate time delays or
oscillation. In the time-delay or monostable mode of operation, the timed interval is controlled by a single
external resistor and capacitor network. In the a stable mode of operation, the frequency and duty cycle
may be independently controlled with two external resistors and a single external capacitor
Here we use it as a comparator
The threshold and trigger levels are normally two-thirds and one-third, respectively, of VCC. These levels can
be altered by use of the control voltage terminal. When the trigger input falls below the trigger level, the
flip-flop is set and the output goes high. If the trigger input is above the trigger level and the threshold input
is above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset and the output is low. RESET can override all other inputs
and can be used to initiate a new timing cycle. When RESET goes low, the flip-flop is reset and the output
goes low. Whenever the output is low, a low-impedance path is provided between DISCH and ground
The output circuit is capable of sinking or sourcing current up to 200 mA. Operation is specified for supplies
of 5 V to 15 V. With a 5-V supply, output levels are compatible with TTL inputs ((Transistortransistor
logic (TTL) is a class of digital

circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

and resistors. It is called transistortransistor logic because both the logic gating function))
Absolute maximum ratings over operating free-air temperature range (unless otherwise noted)

Supply voltage, VCC .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 V

Input voltage (CONT, RESET, THRES, and TRIG) . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VCC

Continuous total dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Dissipation Rating Table
Operating freeSA555 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SE555, SE555C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommended operating conditions

Back to our circuit Components Required

1. IC 555
2. Transistor BC 548
3. Diode (6A4 x4 ,1N4007)
4. Zener diode (13V)
5. LED (red, green)
6. Capacitor 4700uF,25V
7. Resistor (1K x 3,820,5E 10W)
8. Variable resistor 10K
9. Relay 12V,10A

Working

Positive terminal of the upper comparator of 555 is connected with 13V in order to turn OFF the
charger if the battery charges above 13V.

13V is obtained by connecting a 13V zener in series with a resistor.

If the battery voltage is greater than 13V, comparator output goes high and flip flop will be set. This
turns OFF the transistor and the relay.

If the battery voltage is below the preset voltage (set by us), lower comparator will reset the flip flop.
This turns ON the transistor and the relay will switch to charge the battery.

The recharge voltage (preset voltage) can set by varying the variable resistor

Power ON is indicated by a red LED and charger ON status is indicated by a green LED.

The practical circuit

In charging mode

Full charging

PCP design

Diagram for our

system

A power inverter circuit is designed to convert about 70 watt DC power to

Ac

This circuit has input voltage 12v coming from battery and its output is connected to
9- 0- 9v /220v transformer so as to can turn on house electrical devices
Transistors Q1 and Q2 forms a 50Hz a stable multi vibrator
The output from the collector of Q2 is connected to the input of the Darlington pair formed by Q3 and
Q4.Similarly the output of Q1 is coupled to the input of the pair Q5 and Q6. The output from the Darlington
pairs drive the final output transistors Q7 and Q8 which are wired in the push pull configuration to drive the
output transformer.

ht adjustments can be made on the value of R3 and R4 to get exact 50Hz output.

Implementation of inverter circuit using preutos

program:

The waveform of output voltage "square wave

Controller used in our project is:

Arduino
Arduino is a single-board microcontroller designed to make the process of using electronics in multidisciplinary projects more
accessible. The hardware consists of a simple open source hardware board designed around an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller, though a new
model has been designed around a 32-bit Atmel ARM. The software consists of a standard programming language compiler and a boot loader
that executes on the microcontroller.

Photo resistor used to produce analog input

reading to Arduino controller
A photo resistor or light dependent
resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity.
A photo resistor is made of a high resistance
semiconductor.
If light falling on the device is of high enough
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into
the conduction band. The resulting free electron
(and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.

Analog input reading to Arduino can specified by

= 5V-(I*

As light irradiance increases resistance decreases and

so analog signal increases.
4 photo resistors used to produce 4 analog input to
Arduino so as to it can compare between different
values and then enable stepper motors to do specific
actions according to that signals.
Fig indicates: (plane view of the pyramid with 4 LDRs)
Photo resistor 1, 2 are responsible for controlling the motor of Azimuth angle
Photo resistor 3, 4 are responsible for controlling the motor of tilt angle

If irradiance on LDR 1 greater than irradiance on LDR 2 , then the stepper rotate
several steps toward LDR 1 (right ) ,And Vice versa.

Why Arduino?
There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical computing.
Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others offer similar
functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an
easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some
advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:
Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller platforms. The
least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled
Arduino modules cost less than $50
Cross-platform - The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems.
Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino programming environment is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's
conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that
environment will be familiar with the look and feel of Arduino.
Open source and extensible software- The Arduino software and is published as open source tools,
available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries,
and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C
programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino
programs if you want to.
Open source and extensible hardware - The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8 and ATMEGA168
microcontrollers. The plans for the modules are published under a Creative Commons license, so

experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even
relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it
works and save money.

Different types of Arduinos:

There are a number of different types of Arduinos to choose from. This is a brief overview of some of the more common types of Arduino
boards you may encounter. For a full listing of currently support Arduino boards:

>> This simple table shows a quick comparison between the characteristics of all the previous Arduino boards:

Note: In our project Arduino Uno is used

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328.It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or
battery to get started.

1.

Hardware of Arduino

Arduino Uno Features

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Digital pins (I/O).

Analog IN.
Power sockets.
ATmega 328.
ICSP (in circuit serial programmer.
External power socket.
USB port.
Reset button.
Virtual serial port chip.

(10) 16 MHz crystal (clock).

(11) An on-board LED attached to digital

pin 13 for fast an easy debugging of
code.

Power
-

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The power source is selected
automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter or battery.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than
five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. so The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

-

VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection
or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin.
5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied with power either from the DC power
jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA.
GND. Ground pins.
IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured
shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for
working with the 5V or 3.3V.

Memory
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the
loader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM.

The most important component

arduino board is

boot

on

(Microprocessor)
>> Similar to small (PC) ,contains a processor with speed of 16 MHz and total
memory of 32 KB .

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They
operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA.
-

Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of
the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they
measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference()
function.
-

AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the
board.

Communication
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this
serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM
drivers, and no external driver is needed.
The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs
on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial
communication on pins 0 and 1).

2.

Software of Arduino

We will be referring to the (Arduino IDE) as the Arduino Programmer.

The Arduino Programmer is based on the Processing IDE and uses a variation of the C and
C++ programming languages.
And the next figures show that program:

Arduino programs can be divided in three main

parts:
(1) Structure.
(2) Values (variables and constants).
(3) Functions.

AS mentioned

before The Arduino language is based on C/C++.

The idea of sun tracking of this project is putting (4) photoresistors on the four faces of the pyramid.

The following figure : show the tolerance between two sensor when they are under sun ray normally .

So we must take into consideration this tolerance which = 1

And this following figure will enable us to see this value (tolerance) equal =?

When there is a shadow on one of them??

Result: we take average value of toll. = ( 5 )

So in programming code we will make a trick and take (toll. = 5)

The above figures are result of using the

following small code:

The code:
This program for Azimuth and Tilt angle .

 drive of stepper