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Abstract
The outstanding corrosion resistance of stainless steels results from the presence of a thin oxide */passive */film on the metal
surface, typically 1 /3 nm thick. The characterisation of the composition and structure of such thin films and the study of their
interaction with corrosive environments requires a combination of sophisticated experimental techniques. This paper reviews
progress in the characterisation and understanding of passive films on stainless steels achieved over the past two decades. During
this period, ex situ surface analysis methods have made substantial progress and new in situ methods for the study of passive films
with atomic resolution have been introduced, giving real time information on film chemistry and growth. It has been found that
whereas passive film growth occurs in seconds or minutes, long range film ordering is a considerably slower process that takes
several hours. In situ investigations indicate that at short times, charge transfer at the metal/film or the film/solution interface limits
the rate of film growth on stainless steels. In situ estimates of film composition confirm previous data obtained with ex situ
techniques.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Passive films; Stainless steel; Passivity; X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy; Scanning tunnelling microscope; X-ray absorption near edge
structure; Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance
1. Introduction
Stainless steels were invented almost a century ago by
Monnartz [1]. Today, their usage shows an average
increase rate of about 5% per annum. They are divided
into four main groups based on their microstructure:
ferritic, austenitic, martensitic and austeno /ferritic
(duplex). Among the ferritic steels, one finds a series
of Fe /Cr alloys, e.g. Fe /17Cr (AISI 430), but also
superferritics containing high fractions of molybdenum.
Austenitic stainless steels are usually alloyed with Ni, for
example 18Cr /9Ni (AISI 304); superaustentic stainless
steels containing high fractions of Mo and N can in
certain environments surpass the corrosion resistance of
Ni-base alloys. Stainless steels are subject to continuing
development; some recent inventions are listed in Table
1. Thermodynamic modelling has made it possible to
develop new grades with high contents of molybdenum
and nitrogen (654 SMO), that are extremely resistant to
pitting attacks induced by halides[2]. Another example
* Corresponding author. Fax: /41-21-693-3946.
E-mail address: claes.olsson@epfl.ch (C.-O.A. Olsson).
0013-4686/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0013-4686(02)00841-1
1094
Table 1
Examples of recent commercial developments in the field of stainless steel with high impact on the surface behaviour of the material
Product
Significance
Producer
654 SMO
SAFUREX
First 7% Mo austenitic stainless steel. Very high resistance to pitting corrosion at elevated temperatures
Avesta Polarit
First 29Cr duplex stainless steel. Very high resistance to oxidising acids and localised corrosion, in particular stress Sandvik Steel
corrosion cracking.
UGICLEAN A special surface structure modified to resist bacterial adhesion
Ugine
NSS AM1-4 Cu alloyed stainless steels with special heat treatment giving high resistance to bacterial adhesion
Nisshin steel
Zeron 100
Duplex stainless steel alloyed with W
Weir Materials
DP3-W
W alloyed stainless steel
Sumitomo
Fig. 1. XPS results from a passive film formed in the high passive
region in a 0.1 M HCl/0.4 M NaCl solution. The oxide film is found
to be strongly enriched in chromium, whereas the metal layers closest
to the metal/film interface, i.e. the apparent metal concentration, are
strongly enriched in nickel. The passive film itself shows close to no
incorporation of nickel. After Olefjord and Elfstrom [9].
1095
1096
Fig. 4. XANES spectra (Fe and Cr K edges) of a mixed (Fe, Cr)2O3 sample containing 50% Cr2O3 during anodic potential steps in 0.1 M H2SO4. The
potential was increased in 100 mV steps/15 min, which is illustrated with selected raw spectra. From Schmuki et al. [29].
2.3.1. Potential
The thickness of passive films on stainless steels grows
linearly with the applied potential. This is illustrated in
Fig. 5 for a Fe15Cr alloy in an acidic sulphate [41] as
well as Fe10Cr and Fe20Cr alloys in a sodium hydroxide
solution [42]. The basic solution gives considerably
thicker films, since dissolution is less pronounced. The
observed increase in film thickness with potential in an
acidic solution is due mainly to the oxide part; the
hydroxide part of the film is approximately independent
of potential [43,44]. Development of the passive film
with time has been investigated by, among others,
Maurice et al. [45]. Between 20 min and 20 h of
polarisation, they found only a small change in the
total film thickness; the oxide part of the film was found
to grow at the expense of the hydroxide part.
1097
1098
produced using PVD has been investigated by Hashimoto et al. [59 /64] who underlined the extremely high
corrosion resistance of amorphous alloys.
A showcase for the importance of microsctructure is
the austeno /ferritic (duplex) stainless steels. Their twophase structure makes them particularly sensitive to the
formation of intermetallic phases. AES has been used to
investigate the homogeneity of the passive film on the
austeno /ferritic stainless steel 2205 (EN 1.4462) [65]. A
typical phase region for a commercial duplex stainless
steel covers 10/20 mm. It has been demonstrated that
the passive film composition shows a comparatively
homogeneous composition, virtually independent of the
underlying phase structure. This homogeneity continues
ngstroms down in the metal phase where a nickel
some A
and nitrogen enrichment is found for the austenitic and
the ferritic phases [65]. This enrichment would be
sufficient to produce a fully austenitic structure in a
bulk material. Significant differences between phase
regions were found by Hubschmid et al. who studied a
Fe /25Cr /11Nb model alloy with a considerably coarser
dendritic microstructure than for commercial 2205 [66].
It appears the lateral homogeneity of the passive film is
linked to the lateral extension of different phases in the
microstructure.
2.4.2. Fe
In acid solution, anodic polarisation of a Fe /Cr alloy
in the passive potential region leads to selective dissolution of iron, leaving chromium enriched in the passive
film. This behaviour is governed by the difference in
diffusion rates of iron and chromium in the passive film
[13,67]. When performing sputter depth profiles with
AES or XPS, there is normally an enrichment of iron in
the outer region of the passive film. This is possibly a
transfer artefact related to the higher diffusion rate of
iron through the film. At about 0.58 VSHE, iron changes
valence from 2 to 3 [41] for an acidic solution; for a basic
solution, the corresponding potential is about/0.3
VSHE [18].
2.4.3. Cr
For moderate anodic polarisations in acidic solutions,
the passive film consists essentially of chromium in its
trivalent state. As the potential increases above the
stability limit of chromium III, (about 0.6 /0.8 VSHE),
the passive film will start to change composition and the
fraction of trivalent iron in the film will increase. For
acidic solutions, the cation fraction of Cr in the passive
film normally amounts to 50/70%. For basic solutions,
the solubility of Cr increases, resulting in a higher
fraction of iron. The surface chemistry of pure chromium has been studied by Bjornkvist and Olefjord
[68,69]
2.4.4. Ni
Nickel is less readily oxidised than iron and chromium. Consequently, there is an enrichment of Ni in its
metallic state in the metal closest to the oxide/metal
interface. This enrichment could assist in the formation
of a nickel nitride [70]. Nickel could also bring down the
overall dissolution rates of Fe and Cr. Recent scanning
tunnelling microscope (STM) results indicate that the
passive film formed on austenitic stainless steels shows a
higher degree of long-range order within a shorter time
span than the corresponding ferritic alloy [45].
2.4.5. Mn
Recently, addition of Mn to stainless steel has been
used to increase the solubility of nitrogen and molybdenum, both of which have a strong beneficial influence on
the pitting resistance. Examples include the low nickel
high strength austenitic material PANACEA [4] and the
commercial superaustenitic stainless steel 654 SMO [2].
2.4.6. Mo
Molybdenum is an alloy element with a strong
beneficial influence on the pitting resistance of a
stainless steel. Pure molybdenum does not form a
three-dimensional passive film [71]. It appears that the
passive region of pure molybdenum is associated with a
diffusion controlled oxidation of hydrogen released
from the metal rather than with the formation of a
passive oxide film [72]. On the other hand, when
included as an alloying element in a stainless steel,
molybdenum is incorporated into the passive film,
showing a complex oxide chemistry with different states
of oxidation. An example of the concentration gradients
of molybdenum in a passive film on a stainless steel is
given in Fig. 2. Hexavalent Mo is found to be enriched
at the surface, whereas tetravalent states show a more
homogeneous distribution through the film [10]. This
has been shown also for the two phases of a duplex
stainless steel [73]. There are two possible hexavalent
states: MoO3, which is soluble in acidic eletrolytes and
MoO2
which shows a higher stability. Distinguishing
4
between these two states is difficult even with a high
resolution XPS spectrometer. Attempts have been made
by Lu and Clayton, [70,74 /78], who discussed the
interaction between nitrogen and molybdenum. The
passivity of stainless steels was interpreted with a
bipolar model. Another subject of discussion is the
presence of a pentavalent state, cf. Kim et al. [79].
Different molybdenum oxides have been thoroughly
characterised by Brox et al. [11,71], who found the XPS
peak of the MoO2 compound to be considerably less
shifted than expected for an ionic bond. This effect was
not seen for a tetravalent molybdenum oxy-hydroxide
and was explained by core-level screening. The literature
on the effects of Mo on the corrosion/pitting resistance
1099
3. Atomic arrangement
Besides chemistry and elemental composition of the
passive films, their structure is also a vital parameter
that influences the corrosion resistance. The first investigation on the crystal structure of passive films on
Fe /Cr alloys was performed by McBee and Kruger in
1972 [90] using electron diffraction in a transmission
electron microscope. They found that the films formed
1100
@d
@t
1101
(1)
Dd]
(2)
@t
1102
5. Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Mats Liljas at Avesta Polarit
R&D, and Marie-Gilles Verge for valuable comments to
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