Fina Finall Report Jatropha

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION
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Introduction
1.1 WHAT IS JATROPHA?
Scientifically known as Jatropha curcas L.

Locally known as tuba-tuba, tubing, bakod, kasla.
A non-edible plant that grows mostly in tropical countries like the Philippines.
Drought resistant.
Easily be planted and propagated.
One of the higher yielding oil crop.
FIG: 1 JATROPHA SEEDS

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Jatropha curcas or psychic nut has become a new source of biodiesel. It is native to central
America but is now found in tropical regions of Asia and Africa. Various banks and government
agencies offer several incentives for Jatropha cultivation.
Compared to other vegetable oils like palm oil and sunflower oil, which are expensive, nonedible oil from Jatropha curcas is cheaper. The plant can be grown on arid waste lands. It was
earlier used for fencing as the seeds are poisonous (contain toxalbumin curcin) to human beings,
most animals and birds. The plants can grow on any type of oil.
The Jatropha seeds are black in color ad two centimeters long. If you purchase Jatropha
seeds, not all seeds will germinate. Jatropha plants can also grow from cuttings. The Jatropha
curcas plant is a small tree or a large shrub which can grow to up to 6 m in height. The rate of
growth and yield of seeds depends to a large extent on the rainfall and temperature variations. If
the rainfall is plentiful, the plant will start yielding seeds within a year. On an average a plant has
a life of about 50 years. The flowers are usually pollinated by moths at night which are attracted
by the scent of the plant.
Jatropha curcas is mainly cultivated for extraction of biodiesel and is one of the best sources
of biofuels. In studies of various biofuels, one hectare of Jatropha Curcas yields 6-8 MT
of seeds . One ton of Jatropha Curcas seeds yields 300kg oil products and 700 kg oil cake .
Before Jatropha oil is mixed with diesel, it has transesterified. This results in production of
glycerin, and disposal of this glycerin is a problem. In India, Jatropha oil is used for powering
farm equipment and diesel generator. Southern Railway also uses the biofuels Jatropha oil.
Jatropha oil is also used for making candles and soap. The seed fruit shell is used as a fuel for
burning. The seed cake that remains after extraction of Jatropha can be used as organic fertilizer
or for animal feed. The government plans to reduce the import of petro products by selling a
mixture of diesel with 5% biodiesel. Jatropha seeds which cost Rs 6 a kg a few years ago cost Rs
26 per kg due to increased demand. (as of September 2006)
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CHAPTER: 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
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HISTORY OF JATROPHA
2.1 WHY JATROPHA?
Jatropha Curcas is resistant to drought and can be planted even in the desert climates, and it
thrives on any type of soil, grows almost anywhere; in sandy, gravelly and saline soils.
Jatropha needs minimal input or management.

Jatropha has no inspect pests it is not browsed by cattle or sheep.
Jatropha Curcas can survive long periods of drought.
Jatropha Propagation is easy.
Jatropha Curcas growth is rapid; forms a thick live hedge after only a month's planting.
Jatropha Curcas starts yielding from the second year onwards and continues for 40 years.
Jatropha Curcas quickly establishes itself and will produce seeds round the year if
irrigated. Other than extracting Bio diesel from Jatropha Curcas plant, the leaf and the bark are
used for various other industrial and pharmaceutical uses.
Localized production and availability of quality fuel restoration of degraded land over a
period of time.
Approximately 31 to 37 % of oil extracted from the Jatropha Curcas seed. It can be used
for any diesel engine without modification.
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2.2 JATROPHA CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIAL IDENTIFICATION FEATURES
Jatropha curcas is a large coarse annual shrub or small short lived tree which can grow
3.5 to 4.5 meters (8-15 feet) tall. It has thin, often greenish bark which exudes copious amounts
of watery sap when cut.
HABITAT
The natural environment of animal and plan.
DESCRIPTION, CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, STABILITY CURCIN
Phytotoxins or toxalbumins are large, complex protein molecules of high toxicity. They
resemble bacterial toxins in structure and physiological effects. Phytotoxins are heat labile, and
can be positively identified by precipitin reactions with sera containing known antibodies
(Kingsbury 1964). Curcin is said to be highly irritant and remains in the seed after the oil has
been expressed.
OTHER PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Curcin is unable to penetrate cell walls; this has been indicated by the fact that these
proteins do not affect protein synthesis by Ehrlich as cites cells. This is thought to be because
they lack a carrier moiety or at least the galactose-binding groups by which racin binds to cell
membranes. This was discovered when it was found that the activity of Curcin in cell-free
systems is not increased by treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol, which greatly enhances the
inhibitory effect of racin and abrin by splitting their molecules into an effecter and a carrier
moiety.
TOXICITY
In some instances as few as three seeds have produced toxic symptoms. In others,
consumption of as many as 50 seeds has resulted in relatively mild symptoms. There is one
report where the ingestion of only one seed in an adult has produced toxic symptoms. It has
been suggested that there may be two strains one with toxic seeds and one without (Kingsbury,
1964). Curcin, the Phytotoxins or toxalbumin found in Jatropha curcas is similar to ricin the
Phytotoxins found in the castor bean (Ricinis). The minimum lethal dose of ricin,
when administered by injection, may be as small as 0.00000001% of body weight, although oral
toxicity is probably several hundred times less.
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Poisoning from ingestion of the seeds of the Jatropha plant is well known in veterinary
practice and autopsy findings include, severe gastro-enteritis, nephritis, myocardial
degeneration, haemagglutination, and subepicardial and subendocardial hemorrhages as well as
renal subcritical and sub pleural bleeding.
One study found a high mortality rate in mice fed 50% and 40% J. curcas. The important
symptoms of poisoning included diarrhea, inability to keep normal posture, depression and
lateral recumbence. The degree of the pathological changes observed in the small intestines,
liver, heart, kidneys, and lungs was related to the level of Jatropha in the diet. The most marked
pathological changes were catarrhal enteritis, erosions of the intestinal mucosa, congestion and
hemorrhages in small intestines, heart and lungs and fatty changes in the liver and kidneys.
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2.3 JATROPHA SEEDS CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
TYPICAL VALUES
PROPERTIES
Flash point
240/110 C
Carbon residue
0.64
Cetane value
51.0
Distillation point (C)
295 C
Kinematics Viscosity
50.73 CS
Sulphur %
0.13 %
Calorific value
9 470 kcal/kg
Pour point
8 C
Color
4.0
Viscosity (cp) (30 C)
52.6 (5.51)2
Specific
C)
0.917/
0.923(0.881)
gravity (15 C/4
Solidifying Point (C)
2.0
Saponification Value
188.198
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Iodine Value3
90.8 -112.5
Refractive Index (30C)
1.47
Acid value
1.0 - 38.2
TABLE: 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF JATROPHA SEED
2.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXANE
Physical state and appearance:
Liquid.
Odor:
Gasoline-like or petroleum-like (Slight.)
Molecular Weight:
86.18g/mole
Color:
Clear Colorless.
Boiling Point:
68C (154.4F)
Melting Point:
-95C (-139F)
Specific Gravity:
0.66 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure:
17.3 kPa (@ 20C)
Vapor Density:
2.97 (Air = 1)
Odor Threshold:
130 ppm
The product is more soluble in oil; Log (oil/water)
= 3.9
Dispersion Properties:
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See solubility in water, diethyl ether, and

Acetone.
Soluble in diethyl ether, acetone.
Insoluble in cold water, hot water.
Solubility:
TABLE: 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXANE
2.5 JATROPHA PARTS AND USES
BOTANICAL FEATURES AND POTENTIAL USES

This paper describes the botanical features and potential uses of Jatropha curcas for the
future. Uses of Jatropha Curcus:
1. Non-edible vegetable oil of Jatropha curcas has the requisite potential of providing a
promising and commercially viable alternative to diesel oil since it has desirable
physicochemical and performance characteristics comparable to diesel. Cars could be run
with Jatropha curcas without requiring much change in design.
2. The oil is used as an illuminant without being refined and it burns with clear smoke-free
flame.
3. Oil has a very high saponification value and is being extensively used for making soap in
some countries.
4. The latex of Jatropha contains an alkaloid known as "jatrophine" which is believed to
have anti-cancerous properties.
5. It is also used as an external application for skin diseases and rheumatism and for sores
on domestic livestock. In addition, the tender twigs of the plant are used for cleaning
teeth, while the juice of the leaf is used as an external application for piles. Finally, the
roots are reported to be used as an antidote for snake-bites.
6. The bark of Jatropha curcas yields a dark blue dye which is used for coloring cloth,
fishing nets and lines.
7. Jatropha oil cake is rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and can be used as
organic manure.
8. Jatropha leaves are used as food for the tusser silkworm.
Jatropha curcus or Ratanjyot can prove itself a miracle plant by turning waste land into a
moneymaking land. It can help to increase rural incomes, self-sustainability and alleviate poverty
for women, elderly, children and men, tribal communities, small farmers.
PRODUCTS OF THE EXPLOITATION OF THE JATROPHA PLANT
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The uses of Jatropha plant is provided in detail.

SOAP PRODUCTION
The glycerin that is a by-product of biodiesel can be used to make soap, and soap can be
produced from Jatropha oil itself. It will produce a soft, durable soap, and the rather simple soap
making process is well adapted to household or small-scale industrial activity.
OTHER USES
Jatropha oil is also used to soften leather and lubricate machinery.
2.6 OIL YIELD FROM JATROPHA

Jatropha is being heralded as a tree crop for biodiesel production and increasing incomes
of small farmers on marginal lands; however, when you plant crops on marginal lands/soils, you
can expect to get marginal yields. Plants mine nutrients from the soil, and to maintain yields,
these nutrients need to be replaced. This often means applying chemical fertilizers that even if
available, are not affordable to many small farmers. When doing realistic planning on the real
economics of a Jatropha project, one must also calculate that fact that optimal seed yield of
Jatropha wont be obtainable for several years. Furthermore, marginal farmers most often have
access to only a minimal amount to land for food crop production; therefore, what will they have
to eat until a sound market for Jatropha oil is developed?
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FIG: 2 JATROPHA OIL
The jury is still out on the actual seed and oil yields one can count on from Jatropha
plantings. IPGRI concludes that The low yields revealed in several projects may have been
caused by the fact that unadapted provenances had been used. If investigation of its genetic
diversity and its yield potential had been covered by adequate scientific research, this problem
could have been overcome.
In the literature reviewed, it could not be determined if adequate research on germplasm
improvement is taking place to optimize the per plant yield of nuts and oil content. Since j clones
are readily propagated through cuttings, germplasm improvement to optimize yields should be
easier than with many other plants/trees. One must be very careful in selecting a good source of
Jatropha germplasm for projects since there is little truth in advertising, and presently the best
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profitability is in selling seed, cuttings or seedlings produced from plants that are probably not
genetically improved and may vary widely in yield. .
Furthermore from the literature it is extremely difficult to determine what actual per
hectare yield of nuts one can rely upon when growing Jatropha. Most figures cited were
projections that often are inflated and over optimistic in order to procure funding for
projects. Also, the estimated oil content of the nuts cited in the literature varies considerably,
which adds to the difficulty of calculating the profitability of growing Jatropha. Furthermore,
optimizing oil extraction from the seeds requires expensive machinery. One can find on page 36
of the IPGRI study a list of yields cited by a number of sources.
In the literature, the reports of yields vary greatly and are confusing. This can be
attributed to one or a combination of the following factors including: yields are sometimes given
in terms of fruits, seeds, nuts, or kernels; confusing terminology used in making yield estimates,
e.g., some are made in tons (t) while others are in metric tons (MT); variance in germplasm;
unstipulated spacing between plants; no specific data on soils (ranging from marginal to fertile,
and if fertilizer was applied); no information on rainfall and other climatic conditions, and if
irrigation is being used
Reports on yields include that from plantations (mostly projected yields), but it is not
mentioned if they were established by vegetative propagation or by direct seeding, on fertile or
marginal soils, and if the plantations were irrigated or not. When irrigated, Jatropha trees are said
to produce seeds throughout the entire year. Often, there is no mention of the age of the
trees/shrubs, nor is the variety/cultivar given. Jatropha trees are said to begin producing a
measurable amount of nuts at 18 months, but are not expected to reach maturity and optimal
yields until after 6 years.
The IPGRI report gives a conversion factor of 30 kg of fruits yielding approximately 18
kg of seed. One might assume that the fruit to seed ratio may be higher in areas of higher
rainfall. In one reference, IPGRI estimates that a yield of at least 2-3t (not MT) of seeds/ha can
be achieved in semi-arid areas; however, in another citation, IPGRI reports that in
Hisar, Bangalore, India, a quite high seed yield (1,733 kg/ha or 1.733 MT) was observed in
one cultivar. IPGRI confuses the issue by reporting the yield in tons and not MT (this could have
been an editing mistake, ed.), while giving the area in hectares.
2.7 METHODS FOR OIL EXTRACTION:
Oil Extraction may be done:
Mechanical Extraction (by pressing the kernels)

Chemically Extraction
Enzymatically Extraction
MECHANICAL PROCESS
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Besides the time needed to collect the seeds needed for the production of the oil, the oil
extraction process is a key element in the economic calculation of the production process of
Jatropha oil.
TRADITIONAL WAYS
In the north of Madagascar, in the village of Ankiaka Be near Andapa in the SAVA
region, needed 3 hours of time to produce a bit less than 0.25 liters of oil, i. e. about 12 hours of
manual work for 1 liter of Jatropha oil.
To produce Jatropha oil the traditional way, the seeds have to be shelled. Than the pure
white kernels are roasted and then ponded to get a paste. This paste is mixed with water and
boiled for about 20 minutes. The oil is floating up and is scimmed with a spoon. This oil is boiled
again to get rid of the surplus water. This oil is then filtered to get rid of the particles.
FIG.:3 SHELLING OF THE SEEDS
FIG.:4 ROASTING OF KERNELS
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PONDING (a)
SCRIMMING THE FLOATING OIL(C)
BOILING (b)
PURIFICATION OF THE SCRIMMED OIL(D)
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FIG.:5 OIL SAMPLE (e)

Three hours time of hand work for less than a quarter of a liter of Jatropha oil.
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ADVANCE EXTRACTION PROCESS RECOMMENDED PRESSES

Manual presses for oil extraction are available in many countries. One of the most
available presses is the Bielenberg Ram press, because in was and still is disseminated by
Enterprise Works, former ATI (Appropriate Technology International), an American organization
working in close relationship with USAID, the American organization for co-operation. Looking
into economical aspects, it is important to note, that the oil extraction by hand is mostly more
expensive than by a motor driven expeller, just because the yield of oil by working hour is very
limited.
RAM PRESS
FIG.:6 RAM PRESS

The Bielenberg Ram Press was developed by Carl Bielenberg in Tanzania to facilitate
the extraction of edible oil from seeds like sesame, sunflower and/or peanuts. The design is very
simple, drawings are available, and the press can be produced in small workshops for a
reasonable price (around 150 USD).
The press has a capacity of 1 to 2 liters of Jatropha oil per hour (depending on the skill of
the extraction worker). Therefore it is useful only for small scale oil production for subsistence
production of farmers or for demonstrations
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SCREW PRESSES
FIG.:7 SCREW PRESSES
In the screw press, a round plate is forced upon a oil containing biomass in a metal
cylinder with holes by turning the screw by long levers. The oil runs out of the holes.
From its design and the experiences so far screw presses are working well for the
extraction of oil from soft seeds, like from oil palms.
The screw presses are relatively easy to produce, but they are difficult to manipulate (see
the photos below) and the spare parts, like the screw, are difficult to be produced in small
workshops in developing countries. For the Bielenberg Ram Press this is different: It doesnt
have parts which are difficult to produce.
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HYDRAULIC PRESSES
In the hydraulic presses, the pressure on the cage is effectively produced by a hydraulic
crick, which is usually used to change wheels of Lorries.
This system works perfectly, because it is very easy to produce the necessary pressure.
But the crick is not designed for this work, and soon the technology shows problems: The seals
of the hydraulic pump have to be placed soon, and the crick itself gets fine cracks, where the
hydraulic oil sorts.
This can be explained by the fact, that for a lorry, the crick hasto work perhaps 3 or 4
times a year, whereas for oil extraction, the crick was used about 10 to 15 times a day. The
material just could not stand the heavy work.
ENGINE DRIVEN EXPELLERS

TINYTECH EXPELLER
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FIG.:8 TINTECH EXPELLER

The interest of Tinytech was to improve their design of the press for their main market,
which has a strong focus on expelling peanuts. Thus it is important to know that the Tinytech
press is designed to suit particular this seed. Peanuts have a low fiber content thus it is required
that the nuts are steamed prior to expelling and this is the reason the Tinytech expeller has a
boiler and cooker. This preprocessing is not necessary for Jatropha provided the expeller has the
appropriate screw.
The type of screw/cage design the Tinytech expeller is using is not the best for Jatropha
in fact it requires the preprocessing to perform properly. Actually Tinytech had concentrated on
mass production to keep the cost low and has this approach up to date. The disadvantage of this
otherwise very positive approach is that the machine design needs to be kept constant as much as
possible and modifications necessary to process other seeds than peanut are avoided.
THE SUNDHARA EXPELLER
FIG.: 9 THE SUNDHARA EXPELLER

The Sundhara expeller is a motor driven oil extraction device with a worm as a central
part. This expeller was designed by German engineers by order of the German co-operation
(GTZ) to be implemented in villages in Nepal and to be produced within the country.
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THE SAYARI EXPELLER
FIG.:10 THE SAYARI EXPELLER

The Sayari expeller is the same design as the Sundhara expeller, but it is produced in
Tanzania to extract sunflower seed. 2 private workshops produced the press in Morogoro for a
price of about 3 000 USD per unit. The engine (electric motor or Indian diesel engine) was
included in this price. About 40 units of this expeller were produced. To introduce the production
of this expeller in Tanzania, a project of Bread for the World sent 2 of the engineers to
Tanzania to train the people in the workshops. An important part is the maintenance of the
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expeller, because the worm has to be reestablished regularly (after a defined amount of seeds
extracted, usually two times per year.
MODERN CONCEPTS:
Methods like ultrasonication have been discovered to be effective in increasing the
percentage of Jatropha oil that can be extracted using chemical methods like aqueous enzymatic
treatment. The optimum yield for such methods has been discovered to be around 74%. Jatropha
oil extraction methods are still being researched. The goal of such researches is to discover
methods to extract a greater percentage of Jatropha oil from the seeds than the current procedures
allow.
TRANSESTERIFICATION
Is the process of chemically reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol in a presence of a catalyst
Alcohol used is usually methanol or ethanol
Catalyst is usually sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
The main product of transesterification is biodiesel and the co-product is glycerin
SEPARATION
After transesterification, the biodiesel phase is separated from the glycerin phase, both
undergoes purification.
JATROPHA FOR BIODIESEL
Look at the financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel Look at the
financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel.
Jatropha is seen by many to be the perfect biodiesel crop. It can be grown in very poor
soils actually generating top soil as it goes, is drought and pest resilient, and it has seeds with up
to 40% oil content. Here are some facts and figures about Jatropha relating to its growth as an oil
product.
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2.8 JATROPHA COMPANIES

PRIVATE COMPANY GETS 5,000 ACRE FOR JATROPHA CULTIVATION:
1. Vitale Nandan Bio-pharma Sciences Pvt. Ltd, a joint venture company floated by
Hyderabad-based Nandan Biometrix Ltd and Ahmedabad-based V Worldwide, has been
allotted 5,000 acres of wasteland in Patan and Surendranagar districts for the cultivation
of Jatropha to produce bio-diesel.
2. SRIPHL, a Rajasthan, India-based biodiesel company, is planning to cultivate
approximately 100,000 hectares of Jatropha throughout India to increase their production
of biodiesel. According to the news release, their goal is to cultivate the land and produce
up to 1 million metric tons of oil. There are few details about when they plan to begin
refining biodiesel.
3. SBI, Chennai signs MOU with D1 Mohan Bio for Jatropha cultivation: The State Bank of
India has signed a memorandum of understanding with D1 Mohan Bio, to finance an
estimated Rs 130 Crore for Jatropha cultivation in Tamil Nadu (excluding Nilgiris) by
farmers through contract farming of nearly 1 lakh acres in the first year. The MOU was
signed last Saturday in the city by the two organizations.
4. Madhya Pradesh proposes Jatropha cultivation: The rugged Chambal Valley in Madhya
Pradesh is being seen as a future energy hub. If the Madhya Pradesh governments plan to
lease out wasteland to corporate India for cultivation of Jatropha gets a positive response,
Chambal is all set to turn into an alternative energy hotspot.
5. Bionor to invest $200 million in Jatropha cultivation: Bionor Transformations plans to
invest $200 million in a 247,000-acre Jatropha plantation in the Philippines. AME
Bioenergy will conduct feasibility studies, pick sites, install infrastructure, and organize
labor on behalf of Bionor.
6. PNOC Alternative Fuels Corporation chairman Renato S. Velasco said that he expected
that at least 700,000 hectares of Jatropha would be planted in the country, noting that it
had been identified as an ideal cultivation locale by the FAO. He said the bulk of
cultivation would be in Mindanao. The Chairman stressed that Jatropha would be grown
only in currently unused land and that no food production land would be switched to fuel.
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7. Eight Philippine companies have pledged more than $350 million towards biofuels
production investment. The companies include:
a) Bio-Energy NL, Inc.
b) E-Cane/Pampanga Industrial Park Corp.
c) Philippine Agricultural Land Development and Mill, Inc
(PALM, Inc.)
d) Zambo Norte Bioenergy.
e) Philippine National Oil Company-Alternative Fuels Corp.
f) Guidance Management Corp.
g) Fuel, Inc. and Eastern Petroleum.
8. Jatoil urges Australia to allow Jatropha production: Australia-based Jatoil Ltd. is urging
the Australian government to allow cultivation of the Jatropha plant, which is currently
banned as a weed in the countrys northern regions. Jatoil is a green energy company that
is focusing on using Jatropha oil in biodiesel production.
Some Companies Investing in Jatropha Plantations for Agro fuels: Here are the list of
Companies that are investing in Jatropha Plantations
1. Van Der Horst also agrees to join forces in the development of a 6,000 hectare Jatropha
plantation in India, enabling the rapid ramp up of large scale Jatropha production.
2. England: In England, De-Ord Fuel opened a new 100,000 GPY biodiesel facility
in Mansfield that will use Jatropha and waste vegetable oil as feedstocks. The company
will distribute fuel to bus and truck fleets. The $550,000 project is one of the first of a
wave of micro-facilities that will utilize sustainable feed stocks in Europe.
3. Energy Agriculture Uganda Ltd: Energy Agriculture Uganda (EAU) was registered as a
limited company in November 2007. EAU Ltd. has 3 shareholders. Test growing Jatropha
Curcas started in Mukono district on company land February 2007. The company is also
engaged in Jatropha test production on two farms in Moyo district (West Nile province).
The company is closely associated with its sister company in Kenya, Energy Africa Ltd
(Located in Shimba Hills, south of Mombasa ) and draws from its sister company's
experience. The two companies share vision, strategy, logo and most of the share holders.
The sister company Energy Africa Ltd has three years of Jatropha growing experience
and 200 out growers, with over 200 000 Jatropha trees in Shimba Hills, Kenya.
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2.9 CURRENT RESEARCH WORK DONE ON JATROPHA OIL

A Review of Jatropha Curcas: An Oil Plant of Unfulfilled Promise
Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant with many attributes and considerable potential. It
is a tropical plant that can be grown in low to high rainfall areas and can be used to reclaim land,
as a hedge and/or as a commercial crop. Thus, growing it could provide employment, improve
the environment and enhance the quality of rural life. The establishment, management and
productivity of Jatropha under various climatic conditions are not fully documented. This is
discussed and the gaps in the knowledge elucidated, especially its fertilizer requirements. The
plant produces many useful products, especially the seed, from which oil can be extracted; this
oil has similar properties to palm oil.
The costs and returns of growing the plant and producing the plant oil are discussed and
tabulated. Because it can be used in place of kerosene and diesel and as a substitute for fuel
wood, it has been promoted to make rural areas self sufficient in fuels for cooking, lighting and
motive power. This strategy is examined and found not viable. Oil for soap making is the most
profitable use. It is concluded that all markets for Jatropha products should be investigated. If the
full potential of the plant is to be realized, much more research is required into the growing and
management of Jatropha curcas and more information is needed on the actual and potential
markets for all its products.
Performance of Jatropha Oil Blends In a Diesel Engine
Results are presented on tests on a single-cylinder direct-injection engine operating on
diesel fuel, jatropha oil, and blends of diesel and Jatropha oil in proportions of 97.4%/2.6%;
80%/20%; and 50%/50% by volume. The results covered a range of operating loads on the
engine. Values are given for the chemical and physical properties of the fuels, brake
specific fuel consumption, brake power, brake thermal efficiency, engine torque, and the
concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen in the exhaust gases. Carbon
dioxide emissions were similar for all fuels, the 97.4% diesel/2.6% Jatropha fuel blend was
observed to be the lower net contributor to the atmospheric level. The trend of carbon monoxide
emissions was similar for the fuels but diesel fuel showed slightly lower emissions to the
atmosphere.
The test showed that Jatropha oil could be conveniently used as a diesel substitute in a
diesel engine. The test further showed increases in brake thermal efficiency, brake power and
reduction of specific fuel consumption for Jatropha oil and its blends with diesel generally, but
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the most significant conclusion from the study is that the 97.4% diesel/2.6% Jatropha fuel blend
produced maximum values of the brake power and brake thermal efficiency as well as minimum
values of the specific fuel consumption. The 97.4%/2.6% fuel blend Oil yielded the highest
Cetane number and even better engine performance than the diesel fuel suggesting that
Jatropha oil can be used as an ignition-accelerator additive for diesel fuel.
Lipase Catalyzed Preparation of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil in a Solvent Free System
The monoethyl esters of the long chain fatty acids (biodiesel) were prepared by
alcoholysis of Jatropha oil, a non-edible oil, by a lipase. The process optimization consisted of
(a) screening of various commercial lipase preparations, (b) pH tuning, (c) immobilization, (d)
varying water content in the reaction media, (e) varying amount of enzyme used, and (f) varying
temperature of the reaction. The best yield 98% (w/w) was obtained by using Pseudomonas
cepacia lipase immobilized on celite at 50 C in the presence of 45% (w/w) water in 8 h. It was
found that yields were not affected if analytical grade alcohol was replaced by commercial grade
alcohol. This biocatalyst could be used four times without loss of any activity.
Studies on Anti-Di-Arrhoeal Activity of Jatropha Curcus Root Extract in Albino Mice
Use of Jatropha curcus L. roots in the treatment of diarrheal is a common ethno botanical
practice in Konkan, a part of the Western coastal area of India. Roots of this species were
undertaken for pharmacognostic studies and evaluation of antidiarrhoeal activity in albino mice.
Successive solvent extraction was carried out using petroleum ether (6080C) and methanol.
The methanol extract showed activity against castor oil induced diarrheal and intraluminal
accumulation of fluid. It also reduced gastrointestinal motility after charcoal meal administration
in albino mice. The results indicate that action of J. curcus root methanol extract could be
through a combination of inhibition of elevated prostaglandin biosynthesis and reduced
propulsive movement of the small intestine.
Evaluation and Bio-Production of Energy Components of Jatropha Curcas
Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose species with many attributes and considerable
potential. The oil from the seeds is potentially the most valuable end product. Nearly 40% of the
land area in India is wasteland. However, a large number of latex bearing and oil yielding plants
can grow under such unfavorable agro climatic conditions. J. curcas, a Euphorbiaceous grows
well under such adverse climatic conditions because of its low moisture demands, fertility
requirements, and tolerance to high temperatures. The seed contains 19.0% oil, 4.7% polyphone,
and 3.9% hydrocarbon. This semi-drying oil could be an efficient substitute for diesel fuel. The
gross heat value for the seed (0% moisture content) was 4980.3 cal/g (20.85 MJ/kg), oil was
9036.1 cal/g (37.83 MJ/kg), and hydrocarbon was 9704.4 cal/g (40.63 MJ/kg). The oil fraction
consists of saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid (14.1%), stearic acid (6.7%) and unsaturated fatty
acids, oleic acid (47.0%), and linoleic acid (31.6%). Treatment of plants with growth regulators
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
26
significantly influenced the production of hydrocarbons. Among the treatments, ethephon and
morphactin induced the maximum production of hydrocarbon with 5.0% and 5.4%, respectively.
2.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF JATROPHA SEEDS

ADVANTAGES:
It starts producing seeds within 12 months

Maximum productivity level is 4-5 years
Plant remains useful for around 35-50 years
Seeds can produce around 37% oil content
Kernels can produce up to 60% oil content
Its seeds yield an annual equivalent of 0.75 to 2 tons of biodiesel per hectare
It is a NON-FOOD CROP
DISADVANTAGES:
The Jatropha Curcas nut and oil are inedible, but its price is not distorted by competing
food uses.
Potential gender conflicts.
Second income to make soap
If there is too little water, the plant will not produce the nut.
Jatropha needs at least 600mm (23in) of rain a year to thrive. However, it can survive
three consecutive years of drought by dropping its leaves.
It is excellent at preventing soil erosion, and the leaves that it drops act as soil-enriching
mulch.
The plant prefers alkaline soils.
The cost of 1,000 Jatropha saplings (enough for one acre) in Pakistan is about 50, or 5p
each.
The cost of 1kg of Jatropha seeds in India is the equivalent of about 7p.
Eachjatropha seedling should be given an area two meters square.
20% of seedlings planted will not survive.
Jatropha seedlings yield seeds in the first year after plantation.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
27
CHAPTER: 3
PROCESS SELECTION
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
28
3.1 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
STAGE: 1 (STEAMING)
Figure-1 illustrates, steaming of crushed Jatropha seeds.
Take 100gm of Jatropha seeds and crushed it by using hand crusher. After crushed; we do
steaming for removing moisture contain in seeds.
This process takes 25 mints for removing moisture.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
29
STEAM
OUT
FUNNE
CRUSH
SEEDS
TUBE
RUBER
COCK
ROUND
FLASHK
STEA
M
HOT
WATER
STAN
D
STAN
D
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
30
BURNE
FIG (11):-STEAMING OF JETROPHA SEEDS
STAGE: 2 (EXTRACTION)
Figure (2) illustrates a schematic diagram of a bench scale extraction setup which consists
mainly of a double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom.
The large neck in the middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer
was placed in one side necks.
Now, dry crushed seeds and 150ml Hexane are added in two necked flask. Properly immerge dry
crushed seeds in hexane.
Before starting heating start flow of water in reflux condenser, now start the heating for 25 mints
and maintain it at 59C.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
31
COLD
WATER
CONDENS
ER
STAN
D
RUBER
COCK
COLD
WATER IN
THERMOM
ETER
THERMOCO
UPEL
HEXANE & CRUSH
32
SEEDS
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
STAN
D
BURNE
FIG (12):-EXTRACTION OF JETROPHA SEEDS WITH HEXANE
STAGE: 3 (FILTRATION)
Figure-3
As above, first prepared closed filtration system for filtration of mixture of seeds and hexane.
After the extraction, the mixtures pour in closed filtration system to filtration.
After the filtration at the top remaining cake and bottom is mixture of oil and hexane.
For the separating oil and hexane to carry out distillation step.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
33
CRUSH
SEEDS AFTER
FUNNE
RUBER
COCK
CONICAL
FLASK
RECOVER HEXANE
+ OIL
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
34
FIG (13):- FILTRATION AFTER EXTRACTION OF JETROPHA SEEDS WITH

HEXANE
STAGE: 4 (DISTILLATION)
Figure 4 illustrates distillation of mixture of oil and hexane.
Mixture takes in double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom. The large neck in the
middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer was placed in one side
necks.
Now, start to heat the mixture up to 65 C. Sometimes after completely distilled in hexane
in other side of bottle and oil remaining in flask
Now, oil takes out and measured it.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
35
RUBER
COCK
HEXANE &
OIL
COLD
WATER IN
CONDENS
ER
THERMOCO
UPEL
COLD WATER
OUT
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
36
STAN
D
RECOVER
HEXANE
CONICAL
FLASHK
BURNE
FIG.: (14) DISTILLATION OF HEXANE FROME OIL
OVERALL LABORATORY SETUP
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
37
Fig.: (15) OVERALL LABORATORY SETUP

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
38
3.2 PLANT PROCESS

RAW MATERIALS:1. JATROPHA SEEDS
2. HEXANE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION (1):
Solvent Extraction is basically a process of diffusion of a solvent into oil-bearing cells of
the raw material, resulting in a solution of the oil in solvent. Various solvents can be used for
extraction. However, after extensive research and consideration of various factors, such as
commercial economics, edibility of the various products obtained from extraction, physical
properties of the solvent especially its low boiling point etc. Hexane is considered to be the best
and it is exclusively used for the purpose.
In a nutshell, the extraction process consists of treating the raw material with hexane and
recovering the oil by distillation of the resulting solution of oil in hexane called miscella.
Evaporation and condensation as also from the distillation of miscella recover the hexane
absorbed in the material. The hexane thus recovered is reused for extraction. The low boiling
point of hexane (67C) and the high solubility of oils and fats in it are the properties exploited in
the solvent extraction process.
The entire extraction process can be divided into the following stages.
1. Preparation of raw material.
2. Process of extraction.
3. De-solventisation of extracted material.
4. Distillation of miscella.
5. Solvent recovery by absorption.
6. Meal finishing and bagging.
Because of the highly inflammable character of the normal hexane, those stages of
process which involve high speed machineries, such as material preparation, finishing and
bagging are carried out at least 50 feet away from the main extraction plant wherein the
remaining processing stages involving handling of the solvent are carried out. The typical flowchart illustrates the various processing steps.
PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIAL
For thorough and efficient extraction, it is necessary that each and every oil-bearing cell of
the material be brought in contact with the solvent. Therefore, proper preparation of materials
prior to extraction is very important to ensure this contact. The smaller the material size, the
better is the penetration of the solvent into the oil-bearing cells; but too fine a size will prevent
the solvent form percolating through the mass. Therefore an optimum size is to be maintained for
best extraction. Hence material preparation methods vary from material to material depending on
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
39
its oil content, size and physical properties. For high oil content materials (oil content 15% or
more), the following steps of preparation are recommended to make the material suitable for
penetration of the solvent into the oil cells as well as for best percolation.
(a) Passage of the seed through corrugated roller mills with 3 mm flutes to reduce the Size to
about 3mm.
(b) Heating the broken material to about 80C with open steam in temperor & humidifying the
material to raise the moisture content to about 11 to 12%.
(c) Flaking of the humidified material between a pair of plain rolls to 0.25 mm thickness or
below.
(d) Conveying the flakes to the extraction system after crisping them firm.
Rice bran is a fine floury material and therefore is bound to obstruct the percolation. The best
preparation of rice bran for extraction is found to be pelletizing the same after tempering with
open steam. The pelletized bran is then crisped in a current of air while conveying to the
extractor. Some oilseeds can be directly extracted e.g. cottonseed, soybean, etc. But they are to
be decorticated by special equipment to separate the oil-bearing meats from the hulls. The
decorticating equipment varies from seed to seed (see our pamphlets on cottonseed & soya bean
processing). The decorticated meats are tempered, flaked and the flakes are sent to extractor after
crisping.
PROCESS OF EXTRACTION
The prepared material enters the extractor through the rotary air seal. The extractor
consists mainly of a very slow moving articulated band conveyor inside a totally enclosed
chamber. The band is lined with perforated sheets and porous stainless steel cloth. The mass of
the material moving on this band forms a slow moving bed. During the movement of the bed
through the extractor it is washed continuously at various points with miscella of decreasing
concentrations and finally with a fresh solvent in a counter current manner by means of sprayers
kept in a line over the meal bed. The miscella percolates through the perforated bottom and
collects in various hoppers kept below the bed. The miscella from the last hopper, which is
concentrated, is taken off for distillation.
DE-SOLVENTISATION OF EXTRACTED MATERIAL
After the fresh solvent wash the material is discharged from the band conveyor into an
airtight chain conveyor, which conveys it to the Desolventiser. In the Desolventiser the material
is heated to about 100C by jacketed steam, and thus the absorbed solvent is evaporated into
vapors (B.Point. of hexane 67-70C). Finally, the material, which is now completely
desolventised, is continuously discharged through airtight seal into a pneumatic conveyor, which
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
40
carries into the bagging section. The vapors evolved in the Desolventiser are led through a dust
catcher wherein they are washed with hot water, to a condenser.
Some materials, such as cottonseed and soya bean extractions, are toasted after desolventisation. In these cases both the steps of de-solventisation and toasting can be combined
into one operation by the use of Desolventiser - Toaster (D. T.) Instead of the tubular jacketed
Desolventiser.
The D.T. consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel with horizontal jacketed compartments
and a central rotating vertical shaft on which are mounted sweeps in each compartment. The
Material to be desolventised and toasted is fed in to the top compartment of D.T and heated with
open steam. Open steam condenses a lot of moisture in the material at the same time evaporating
the solvent. The moisture up to 14 to 15% is condensed. The material then flows to lower
compartment. In lower compartments the material is gradually heated to 115 to 120 C thus
evaporating all the solvent, cooking the material and driving away extra moisture. The cooking
in presence of moisture destroys undesirable enzymes.
High temperature attained toasts the material. The solvent and water vapors from various
compartments are led first to a dust catcher wherein they are scrubbed with hot water spray to
remove fine dust and then led to a condenser to condense the vapors. The de-seventies and
toasted meal from bottom-most compartment discharges into a redler conveyor.
DISTILLATION OF MISCELLA
The final miscella (solution of oil in hexane) obtained from the extractor is collected in a
tank form where it is pumped to the distillation column kept under vacuum by means of a series
of steam ejectors. The miscella is heated by jacket steam in the distillation column and thus the
hexane is turned into vapor immediately. The vapors are led to another condenser through an
entrainment separator.
The concentrated miscella from the evaporator is pumped into a similar secondary
distillation unit to raise the temperature to about 100 - 110 C and then into the final stripper kept
under high vacuum. Open steam is injected in the latter to strip the last traces of hexane from the
oil. The vapor both from the secondary still and the stripper are condensed in a third condenser.
The oil freed from solvent is pumped from the stripper to the storage.
SOLVENT RECOVERY BY CONDENSATION
All the condensers are of floating head type with tube-bundles to carry the cooling water.
The cooled water at 30C or below is circulated inside the tubes in all the condensers and the
vapors are passed outside the tubes. Thus the vapors are cooled and condensed into liquid. The
uncondensed vapors from each condenser are sucked by a series of ejectors and pushed through
the last condenser to a contact cooler where they are washed with cold-water spray. All the
condensate liquid hexane water from these condensers and contact cooler is led to a solvent
water separator wherein the pure solvent is separated from water by settling the difference in
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
41
densities of water and the solvent and their immiscibility accomplishes complete separation. The
fresh pure solvent from this tank is pumped to the extractor continuously for the final washing of
the meal bed.
FINAL SOLVENT RECOVERY BY ABSORPTION
The vapor and gases from the contact cooler are led to absorber where they come into
intimate contact with absorbing oil (vegetable oil or mineral oil). The solvent vapors if any, are
absorbed in this oil and non-condensable gases are let out into the atmosphere. While
theoretically these gases leaving the plant are expected to be free from hexane, in practice, a
small amount of the solvent is lost with these gases.
The oil containing the absorbed solvent is led into an evaporator kept under vacuum and
heated to 100C. The solvent is vaporized and these vapors are led into one of condensers and
recovered.
The hot oil from the evaporator is passed through a cooler to cool to room temperature,
and having been freed from hexane it is sprayed back into the absorber.
MEAL FINISHING AND BAGGING: (OPTIONAL)
The redler conveyor carries the desolventised meal form the DT to bagging section. The
meal is not only conveyed but also cooled to about 45-50C by means of cold air draft induced in
the conveyor by a blower. The meal drops to a humidifier from the redler. In the humidifier the
meal is mixed with enough moisture to bring up the moisture content, thus replacing the amount
of water lost during the extraction and de-solventisation steps. The humidified meal is then
bagged at the discharge of the humidifier.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
42
CHAPTER: 4
MATERIAL BALANCE
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
43
4.1 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL DATA.

1st STAGE EXTRACTION
{1} CRUSHING STEP
Wt of seeds= 50gm
Wt of crushed seed=49.72gm
Time for crushing=3 minute
{2} STEAMING
Water quantity for steaming=250ml
Steaming time= 30min.
Wt of crushed seeds after steaming=53.9gm
Therefore, moisture in seeds=53.9 49.72 =4.18gm
{3} EXTRACTION STEP
Volume of fresh Hexane=150ml
Heating time of (seeds + hexane)=20min at 58 to 59 C
{4} FILTRATION
Wt of seeds after filtration=60.68gm
Volume of (oil + hexane) =115ml
{5} (A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS
Wt of seeds after filtration=60.68gm

Wt of seeds
=92.78gm
Steaming time for seeds=26min
Volume of (Hexane + water) recovery from seed=7.5ml
Volume of water in recovered Hexane=1ml
Therefore, volume of hexane=6.5ml

{5} (B) VOLUME OF HEXANE RECOVERED FROM (OIL + HEXANE) MIXTURE
Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture=100ml
Volume of oil recovered =18ml
Temperature for distillation= 62 to 65C
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
44
Therefore,
Total Hexane recovered=100 + 6.5 =106.5ml
{6} DRYING
Initial wt = 163.39gm
Final wt = 157.43gm
Therefore Hexane evaporated=5.87gm
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
45
2nd STAGE EXTRACTION

When we kept seeds in air tight bottle then we saw that on the surface of the seeds, it is
all covered by fungus or it is affected by the fungus. Its colour is light green. So, the colour of
mixture of hexane with seeds is also change. It required quite more heat.
{2} STEAMING
Wt of seeds or feed for stage-2=37.56gm

Wt of seeds after steaming=38.85gm
Therefore moisture in seeds=38.85 37.56 =1.29gm

{3} EXTRACTION STEP
Total volume of Hexane=150ml

Volume of recovered Hexane = 50ml
Wt of (Hexane + Seeds)=138.85gm
{4} FILTRATION
Filtration time=17min
Wt of M.L =263.60gm
{5}(A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS
Steaming time for seeds=36min
Volume of (Hexane + water) recovery from seed=0.6ml
Volume of water in recovered Hexane=0.1ml
Therefore, volume of hexane=0.5ml

Volume of oil recovered =6.4ml
Temperature for distillation=58 to 59C for 28minute
Therefore total Hexane recovered=100 + 6.5 =100.5ml
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
46
{6} DRYING
Initial wt of seed =48.12gm

Dry seeds after 15min =44.42gm
After 26min =42.38gm
After 70min = 39.13gm
Therefore
Moisture in a seeds = 48.18 44.42 =3.76gm
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
47
3rd STAGE EXTRACTION

{2} STEAMING
Wt of seeds or feed for stage-3=39.05gm

Wt of seeds after steaming=38.77gm
{3} EXTRACTION STEP
Wt of seeds =38.77gm
Total volume of Hexane=150ml
Volume of recovered Hexane = 50ml
{4} FILTRATION
Filtration time=10min
Wt of seeds=37.08gm
Wt of M.L =264.94gm
Volume of M.L=116ml
{5} (A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS

Further steaming is not required because hexane recovered is low compare to given
energy. so, energy cost increase.
Volume of oil recovered =2.8ml
Temperature for distillation=62 to 65C for 15minute
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
48
STAGE
STAGE-1
STAGE-2
STAGE-3
EXTRACTION
58 TO 59C
58 TO 59C
58 TO 59C
DISTILLATION
62 TO 65 C
59C
62 TO 65C
FOR STEP
(2)
30
30
35
5(A)
28
36
Not Required
EXTRACTION
20
30
25
DISTILLATION
15
17
10
FEED
25
28
20
150(100R + 50 F)
150(100R + 50F)
STEAMING
TEMP.
(C)
TIME
(minute)
VOL. OF HEXANE TAKEN 150(F)

(ml)
5(A)
6.5
0.6
Not Available
5(B)
100
100
108
18
6.4
2.8
VOL. OF HEXANE
RECOVERED(ml)
OIL RECOVERED
TABLE: 2 OVERALL DETAILS FOR EXPERIMENTAL READINGS

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
49
Graph 1: Partial pressure graph between water and hexane

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
50
Graph 2: N-x,y for Jatropha oil and hexane
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
51
Where,
5(A) for Hexane recovery from seeds
5(B) for Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture
F for fresh Hexane
R for Recycle Hexane
E for Extraction
D for Distillation
Therefore,
Total time for stage-1 completion = 1 hr and 58min

Time for stage-2 completion = 2 hr and 21min
Time for stage-1 completion = 1 hr and 30min
Total Hexane used =150+ 150+ 150 = 450ml
Hexane required in process=315ml
Hexane loss in process = 135ml
Total oil recovered = 27.2ml from 50gm of Jatropha seeds.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
52
4.2 NOTATIONS:
A=Mass of solvent;
B= Mass of Insolubles (seeds + moisture)
C= Mass of oil
F= Mass (A+C) in the solids to be leached
R0 =Mass (A+C) in the leaching solvent
E1= Mass (A+C) in the leached solids
R1= Mass (A+C) in the strong leach solution
yF= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leached
x0= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leaching solvent
y1= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of the leached solids
x1= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of strong leach solution
NF= Mass of B / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leached
N1= Mass of B / Mass (A+C) of leached solids
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
53
BASIS: 1000 KG/ DAY OF SEEDS

Seeds contain 36% oil.
Therefore,
Actual wt. of oil in seeds (C) = 0.361000
C = 360 Kg/day
We assume 96% oil will be recovered from entire process
Therefore,
Recovery of oil (C) = 0.96360
C = 345.60 Kg/ day
Now,
50 gm of seeds required 150 ml hexane

1000Kg of seeds required (?) ml hexane
= (1000 150)/ (50)
= 3000 ml hexane required
Therefore,
Mass of solvent in Kg (A) = 3000 Density
= 3000 0.672
A = 2016 Kg/day
F= feed (A+C) in the soiled to be leached.
In fresh feed there is solvent will be zero
Therefore; A(solvent) = 0 Kg/day
Therefore; F=C=360 Kg/day (on the basis of oil)
Feed also contain moisture (insoluble).
50 gm seeds contain 3.9 gm moisture
1000 kg seeds contain (?) Kg moisture
= (1000 3.9)/ 50
= 78 Kg/day moisture
Total insolubles, oil free basis, (B) = (oil+ hexane) free seeds + moisture
= 1000 oil
= 1000 360
B = 640 Kg/ day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
54
B= moisture+ (oil+ hexane) free seeds

(oil+ hexane) free seeds = 640 78
= 562 Kg/day
Now RNP+1 = Mass of (A+C) in the strong leach solution
RNP+1 = (2016 + 0)
= 2016 Kg/day
Now mixture M = F + RNP+1 Kg/ day .. (I)
Therefore,
M = 1000+ 2016
M = 3016 Kg/day
But we assume we recover 96% oil therefore remaining 4% goes with solvent
Therefore, XNP+1 =0.04 Kg/ day
yF = xF = Mass of C/(A+C) of soiled to be leached
= 360/ (0+360)
yF = xF = 1
We have,
M = F + RNP+1 Kg/ day
As per oil fraction,
(F Xf) + (RNP+1 XNP+1) = (XM M). (II)
Where, Xf = Mole fraction of oil in feed
XNP+1 = Mole fraction of oil at NP+1 stage
XM = Mole fraction of oil in mixture
Put value of equation (i) in equation in (ii) we get,
XM = YM = [(XF F) + (XNP+1 RNP+1)] / (F + RNP+1) (III)
= [(1 1000) + (0.04 2016)] / (3016)
XM = YM = 0.358
Now , NM = B / A+C)
= (640)/ (2016 +360)
= 0.269 0.27
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
55
NF = B / A+C)
= (640)/ (2016 +360)
= 0.269 0.27
NF = NM = 0.27
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
56
4.3 N-XY DIAGRAM DATA FOR EXTRACTION

N
Wt.
of
insoluble/ Wt.
of
oil
/ Wt.
of
insoluble
/
( Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane)
(Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane) ( Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane)
4.5
2.35
0.02
0.02
1.97
0.025
0.07
1.6
0.055
0.09
1.325
0.095
0.125
1.05
0.135
0.173
0.95
0.19
0.235
0.75
0.2075
0.275
0.60
0.375
0.415
Table: 3: N-XY DATA

Where,
N-X data refer for raffinate layer in which N = 0.
N-Y data refer for extract layer.
X-Y data refer as a tie line data.
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57
4.4 OVERALL BALANCE DATA

X
0.40
0.34
0.35
0.32
0.295
0.28
0.25
0.235
0.21
0.17
TABLE: 4 (X, Y DATA FROM GRAPH NUMBER-2)
Overall balance:
F=1000kg
R1=2916.23kg
E4 =99.77kg
Overall balance
R5=2016kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
Therefore, F + R5 = E4 + R1
1000+2016 = E4 +R1
E4 +R1 = 3016 . {1}
As per oil balance,
(F yF) + (R5 x5) = (E4 y4) + (R1 x1)
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58
By using above table value of x and y, put it on in this equation, we get,

(1000 1) + (2016 0) = (E4 0.25) + (R1 0.34)
(0.25 E4) + (0.34 R1) = 1000 . {2}
Solve equation {1} and {2} we get,
E4 = 99.77 Kg/ day
R1 = 2916.23 Kg/ day
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59
4.5 STAGE WISE MATERIAL BALANCE

STAGE 1
F=1000kg
R1=2916.23kg
E1=7770.92kg
STAGE - 1
R2=9687.15kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
F + R 2 = E 1 + R1
1000 + R2 = E1 + 2916.23
E1 - R2 = 1916.23.. {3}
As per oil balance,
(F yF) + (R2 x2) = (E1 y1) + (R1 x1)
1000 + (0.32 R2) = (0.40 E1) + (0.34 R1)
(0.40 E1) (0.32 R2) = 8.48 .. {4}
Solved equation number {3} and {4} we get,
E1 = 7770.92 Kg/ day
R2 = 9687.15 Kg/ day
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60
STAGE -2:
E1=7770.92kg
E2 = 7543.57kg
STAGE - 2
R2=9687.15kg
R3 = 9459.8kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
E1 + R3 = E2 + R2
1000 + R3 = E2 + 9687.15
R3- E2 = 1916.23 .. {5}
As per oil balance,
(E1 y1) + (R3 x3) = (E2 y2) + (R2 x2)
(7770.92 0.40) + (0.28 R3) = (0.35 E1) + (0.32 9687.15)
(0.28 E1) (0.35 R2) = 8.49 .. {6}
Solved equation number (5) and (6) we get
E2 = 7543.57 Kg/day
R3 = 9459.8 Kg/ day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
61
STAGE 3:
E2 = 7543.57kg
R3 = 9459.8kg
E3 = 7363.43kg
STAGE - 3
R4 = 9279.66kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
E2 + R4 = E3 + R3
7543.57 +R4 = 9459.80 + E3
1916.23 = R4 E3. {7}
As per oil balance
(E2 y2) + (R4 x4) = (E= y3) + (R3 x=)
(7543.57 0.35) + (R4 0.235) = (E3 0.295) + (9459.2 0.28)
8.50 = (0.235 R4) (0.295 E3).. {8}
Solved equation {7} and {8} we get,
E3 = 7363.43 Kg/ day
R4 = 9279.66 Kg/ day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
62
STAGE 4:
E3 = 7363.43kg
R4 = 9279.66kg
E4= 99.77kg
STAGE - 4
R5 = 2016kg
E 3 + R5 = R 4 + E 4
R5 = R4 + E4 E3
= 9279.66 + 99.77 7363.43
R5 = 2016 Kg/ day
Therefore,
E3 + R5 = R4 + E4
7363.43 + 2016 = 9779.66 + 99.77
9379.43 = 9379.43
INPUT = OUTPUT
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
63
4.6 PLANT SCALE MATERIAL BALANCE
Initial wt. of seeds = 5000 Kg /day

Wt. of seeds coming out of the cleaner = 4102.56 Kg/day
Initial wt. of cleaned seeds into the polisher = 4102.56 Kg/day (2%)
Wt. of seeds coming out the polisher = 4020.50 Kg/day
Initial wt. of polished seeds into the screening chamber = 4020.50 Kg/day(3%)
Wt. of polished seeds out the screening chamber = 3900 Kg/day
Initial wt. of seeds for wetting and heating = 3900 Kg/day
Wt. of seeds coming out after wetting and heating = 3900 + 390 (moisture)
= 4290 Kg/day
Initial wt of seeds fed into the extractor = 4290 Kg/day
Initial wt of hexane fed into the extractor = 10080 Kg/day
Theoretically seeds contain 36% oil
4290 Kg/day seeds contains = 4290 0.36
= 1544.40 Kg/day
We assume, recovery of oil is 96%
Recovered oil = 1544.40 0.96
= 1482.62 Kg/day
Also we assume we recover hexane from extractor is 92%
Recovered hexane from extractor is = 10080 0.92
= 9273.60 Kg/day
So, total (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from the extractor = 9273.60 + 1482062
= 10756.22 Kg/day
The insolubles (seeds + oil + hexane) miscella are then fed to the desolventizer unit from where
pure hexane is recovered along with the solid cake from reuse.
Therefore,
Oil loss (left in seed) = 1544040 1482062 = 61.78 Kg/day
Hexane loss =10080 9273.66 = 806.4 Kg/day
Now, 40% hexane is recovered from Desolventiser (DT) unit
Hexane recovered from DT unit = 0.40 804.40
= 332.56 Kg/day
This hexane obtained at 65C from DT unit is then fed to the economizer (shell side) to increase
the temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella at tube side from 55C to 65C.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
64
4.7 EQUIPMENT WISE MATERIAL BALANCE

1) ECONOMIZER :Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to economizer = 9273.60 + 1482.62
= 10756.22 Kg/day
The hexane from DT to economizer used for heating then goes to jet condenser as pure
hexane which is then recycled back to the extractor.
Amount of hexane going to jet condenser from economizer = 332.56 Kg/day
2) FLASHER -1 :Flasher is used for the recovery of hexane from the (oil + hexane) miscella.
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to flasher-1 = 10756.22 Kg/day
Therefore, amount of oil coming out from flasher -1 = 1482.62 Kg/day
Amount of hexane recovered from (oil + hexane) miscella = 85% of 9273.60 Kg/day
= 0.85 9273.60 Kg/day
= 7882.56 Kg/day
So, amount of (oil + hexane) miscella left = 10756.22 - 7882.56
= 2873.66 Kg/day
3) HEATER-1 :Heater is used to increase the temperature of hexane because hexane recovery increases with
increasing temperature. Steam is used as a heating media at 100C. The temperature of
(Oil + hexane) increase to 75C.
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to heater-1 = 2873.66 Kg/day
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from heater-1 = 2873.66 Kg/day
(At increase temperature)
4) FLASHER- 2:Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to Flasher-2 = 2873.66 Kg/day
Oil in miscella = 1482.56 Kg/day
Amount of hexane left in miscella = 2873.60 1482.56
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
65
= 1391.04 Kg/day
Amount of hexane to be recovered from this flasher-2 = 75% of 1391.04 Kg/day
= 0.75 1391.04
= 1043.28 Kg/day
All the hexane recovered from Flasher-1 and Flasher-2 is then sand to a common condenser.
The hexane from jet condenser is also sand to this common condenser which is the total amount
of hexane recovered. This recovered hexane is reused as solvent in the extractor.
5) HEATER- 2:Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed into Heater-2 = 1482.56+ (1391.04 1043.28)
= 1830.32 Kg/day
The temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella is increased to 85C using steam heating
media at 100C.
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from Heater-2 = 1830.32 Kg/day
6) STRIPPER:Stripper is used to recover hexane completely and obtained pure oil.
Amount of miscella into Stripper = 1830.32 Kg/day
Amount of pure oil recovered =1482.56 Kg/day
Amount of hexane is = 1830.32 1482.56 = 347.76 Kg/day
Amount of hexane recovered from Stripper = 100% of 347.76 Kg/day
= 1 347.76
= 347.76 Kg/day
Total amount of hexane recovered (DT + Flasher-1 + Flasher-2 + Stripper) Kg/day
= 332.56 + 788.56 + 1043.28 + 347.76
= 9606.16 Kg/day
Hexane losses = 10080 9606.16
= 473.84 Kg/day
Oil obtained = 1482.56 Kg/day
Hexane recovered = 9606.16 Kg/day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
66
4.8 CALCULATE THE HEXANE

EXTRACTION PROCESS
EVAPORATING
DURING
THE
Weight of dehuling Jatropha seeds = 20gm

Weight of Jatropha seeds after crushing = 19.31gm
Weight of Jatropha seeds after steaming =23.1gm
recover
ed
(hexane
+
oil)
after
filtratio
n
Wt
of
cak
wt of
e
wt of wt of cake
cake
cake after afte
r 2
after
after 10
filtrati filtra mint day
s
on
tion
s
wt
of
seeds
for
Sr. extracti
N on
o
(gm)
hexane
for
extracti
on
(ml)
Time
for
extracti
on
Time
for
extracti
on
wt
of
(seeds+
hexane)
after
extracti
on
4.3
8.76
3.74
3.74
3.05
2.89
4.36
7.38
1.6
2.45
2.45
1.96
1.79
4.44
7.63
2.1
3.62
3.62
3.22
2.90
4.98
10
10
8.56
2.4
3.17
3.17
2.69
2.36
4.44
15
15
8.79
2.3
4.57
4.57
3.93
3.59
TABLE: 5 (HEXANE EVAPORATING READINGS)
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
67
CHAPTER: 5
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
DESIGN
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
68
5.1 MAIN EQUIPMENT LIST:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Crusher
Pelletizes
Solid Liquid Extractor ( 11 Stages)
Desolventiser
Ecominizer
Tipple Effect Evaporator
I. Two Flashers
II. Two Heater
III. Stripper
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
69
5.2 EQUIPMENT DESIGNING OF TRIPPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

DESIGN
HOT STEAM
ts1
115
388
ts2
65
338
ts3
50
323
Temp. of hexane evaporated in 3rd effect
35
308
Table: 6(Design temperature detail)
VACUUM PRESSURE
mmHg
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Pr1
620
140
Pr2
385
375
Pr3
230
530
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
70
Table: 7(Design pressure detail)
Amount of oil =61.77333 Kg/hr

Amount hexane =406.1433 Kg/hr
(Oil +Hexane) in feed = (61.77333 +406.1433)
=467.9167 Kg/hr
Feed rate (Wf) =
467 . 9167
3600
=0.129977 Kg/sec
61 .77333
Initial concentration of oil = 467 . 9167
=0.132018%
406 . 1433
Initial concentration of hexane= 467 . 9167
=0.867982%
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
71
FIRST EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Steam At 115C At 1.5 Kg Pressure
Latent Heat =605 KJ
t1 = ts1-ts2
=115-65
=50 oC
We assume, Hexane will be evaporated at 1st effect evaporator=85% =085
Hexane evaporated in 1st effect=0.85*406.1433
=345.2218Kg/hr
At Bottom evaporated= ( 467.9167345.2218 )
=122.6948Kg/hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
72
SECOND EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Due to the equilibrium the vapor of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at same
temp (650C)
Feed for 2nd Effect=122.6948 Kg/hr
Oil in feed=61.77333Kg/hr
Hexane in feed=122.6948-61.77333
=60.9215Kg/hr
Oil in feed in 2nd evaporator=
( 61.12277333100
.6948 )
=50.34713%
Hexane in feed in second evaporator =
60.9215
( 122.6948
)
=49.65287%
Now, we assume 75% of Hexane evaporated from second effect evaporator at 50 0C and
385mmHg.
Hexane evaporated in 2nd effect = ( 0.7560.9215 )
=45.69113 Kg/hr
Outlet of 2nd effect evaporator = ( 122.694845.69113 )
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
73
=77.00371Kg/hr
THIRD EFFECT EVAPORATOR:

Due to the equilibrium the vapors of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at 35 0C
temperature.
Feed for third effect evaporator=77.00371Kg/hr
Oil in feed =61.77333Kg/hr
Hexane in feed = ( 77.0037161.77333 )
=15.23038Kg/hr
Wt of oil in feed =
( 61.77333100
77.00371 )
=80.22124%
Wt of Hexane in feed=
( 15.23038100
77.00371 )
=19.77876%
Now, we assume 100% of Hexane evaporated from third effect evaporator at 35 0C and
230mmHg.
Hexane evaporated in 3rd effect = ( 115.23038 )
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
74
=15.23038Kg/hr
Outlet of 2nd effect evaporator = ( 77.0037115.23038 )
61.77333 Kg /hr
TOTAL HEXANE RECOVERED BY EVAPORATION (1st + 2nd +3rd)

=
( 345.2218+45.69113 +15.23038 )
= 406.1433Kg/hr
Temperature difference in 1st effect ( t 1 ) = ( 11565 )
=50C
=15C
=15C
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
75
5.3 ENERGY BALANCE:

OVEARLL HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT (ASSUME) FOR SHELL SIDE LIGHT
ORAGANICS AND TUBE SIDE STEAM ARE U1, U2 AND U3.
U1=1100 W/m*C
U2=900 W/m*C
U3=800 W/m*C
Now we have assumed heat transfer rates to be equal, Q1=Q=2=Q3
So, ( U 1A 1 t 1 ) = ( U 2A 2 t 2 )= (U 3A 3 t 3 )
We design the triple effect evaporator such that the heating area in all three is the same,
A1=A2=A3
So, ( U 1 t 1 ) = ( U 2t 2 )=( U 3 t 3 )
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
76
( tt 21 ) = ( UU 12 ) = ( 1100
900 )
( t 1) =
1
900
( t 2U
U 2 ) = ( 1100 )
( tt 32 ) = ( UU 32 ) = ( 900
800 )
( t 3) =
=1.22222
2
( t 2U
U3 )
=0.818182
=1.125
=1.125
t1+t2+t3 =50 + 15 + 15 =80C

1
( t 2U
U2 )
2U 2
+ t 2+ t U 3
U1
U2
+1+
U2
U3
(( ) ( ))
t 2
=80
=80
t 2 * ( 0.818182+1+ 1.125 )=80
t 22.943184=80
t2 =
80
( 2.943184
)=27.18147
So, t 1= 22.23938C
t2= 27.18147C
t 3= 30.57915C
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
77
t1
22.23938C
t2
27.18147C
t3
30.57915C
Table: 8( Temperature difference for designing)

ACTUAL BOILING POINTS IN EACH EFFECT:
1st EFFECT:T1 ( Ts t 1 )
( 11522.23938 )
92.76062 C
2nd EFFECT
T2 ( T 1 ( BPR ) 1 t 2 )
( 92.76062027.18147 )
65.57915 C
3rd EFFECT
T3 ( T 2 ( BPR ) 2 t 3 )
( 65.57915030.57915 )
35 C
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
78
5.4 HEAT BALABNCE:

1ST EFFECT
Ws*Ls + Wf*Hf=W1*H1+ (Wf-W1)*h1
Latent heat of steam at 115 C (saturated steam) Ls = 2699.36 KJ/Kg
Mass fraction of oil
61.77333
=0.132018
467.9167
Mass fraction of hexane
406.1433
=0.867982
467.9167
Cp of oil 0.5
Cp of Hexane 0.54
Cpf ( Mass fractionof oilCp of oil ) + ( Mass fraction of hexaneCp of Hexane )
( 0.1320180.5+0.8679820.54 )
0.534719
Enthalpy of feed at inlet temperature (Tf=28 oC) Hf Cpf ( Tf 0 )

0.5347194.18( 280 )
62.58355
H2s=Enthalpy of steam at 100 C
( Cp ) steam=2257
2699.36
KJ
Kg
KJ
Kg
KJ
Kg
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
79
H1-enthalpy of vapor leaving the first effect evaporator

H 2 s+ ( Cp ) steam( BPR 1 ) superheated
2699.36+22570
2699.36
KJ
Kg
KJ
=0.6258355
( 62.58355
)
100
Kg
( Cp1 ) =
( t 1 )=92.76062C
h1- Enthalpy of outlet from 1st effect evaporator at 92.76062C
Cp14.18( t 10 )
242.6611
WsLs+Wf Hf =W 1H 1+(Wf W 1)h1
Ws2699.36+ 0.12997762.58355=W 12699.36+ ( 0.129977W 1 )242.6611

Ws2699.3623.40591=W 12456.699
Ws=
W 12456.699+23.40591
2699.36
Ws=0.91010W 1+ 0.008671 (1)

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
80
2nd EFFECT
W1*L1 + (Wf-W1)*h1=W2*H2+(Wf-W1-W2)*h2
h2s
490
KJ
Kg
Latent heat of steam at 115 C (saturated steam) L1 = H1-h2s

2699.36490
2209.36
H3s=Enthalpy of steam at 65 C
2638.36
KJ
Kg
KJ
Kg
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
81
( Cp ) steam=2257
KJ
Kg

2638.36+22570
2638.36
KJ
Kg
( Cp2 ) =0.5345
KJ
Kg
( t 2 )=65.57915C
h2- Enthalpy of outlet from 2nd effect evaporator at 65.57915C
Cp24.18( t 20 )
146.5176
KJ
Kg
W 1L 1+(Wf W 1)h 1=W 2H 2+(Wf W 1W 2)h 2
W 12209.36+ ( 0.129977W 1 )242.6611=W 22638.36+ ( 0.129977W 1W 2 )146.5176
W 1( 2209.36242.6611+146.5176 ) + ( 0.129977242.66110.129977146.5176 )=W 2(2638.36146.5176
W 12113.2165+ 12.49645=W 22491.8424
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
82
So W 2
W 12113.2165+12.49645
2491.8424
W 2=W 10.848054+0.005015 2
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
83
3rd EFFECT
W2*L2 + (Wf-W1-W2)*h2=W3*H3+(Wf-W1-W2-W3)*h3
h2s
301.76
KJ
Kg
Latent heat of steam at 65.57915C (saturated steam) L2 = H2-h3s

2638.36130 .76
KJ
2336.6
Kg
Hs=Enthalpy of steam at 35 C
( Cp ) steam=2257
2580
KJ
Kg
KJ
Kg

2580+22570
2580
KJ
Kg
( Cp3 )=0.5345
KJ
Kg
( t 3 ) =35C
h3- Enthalpy of outlet from 3rd effect evaporator at 35C
Cp34.18( t 30 )
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
84
78.1974
KJ
Kg
W 2L 2+(Wf W 1W 2)h2=W 3H 3+(Wf W 1W 2W 3)h3
W 22336.6+ ( 0.129977W 1W 2 )146.5176=W 32580+ ( 0.129977W 1W 2W 3 )78.1954
W 2( 2336.6146.5176+78.1954 )+ 0.129977( 146.517678.1954 ) =W 3(258078.1954)+W 1(146.5176
(3)
W 168.3222W 22268.2778+W 32501.8046=8.8803
W2 value putting in equation (3)...

W 168.3222(W 10.848054+0.005015)2268.2778+W 32501.8046=8.8803
W 1( 68.32220.8480542268.2778 )+ W 32501.8046=8.8803+0.0050152268.2778
W 11855.2999+W 32501.8046=20.2557
W 32501.8046=20.2557+W 11855.2999
W3
20.2557+ W 11855.2999
2501.8046
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
85
W 3=0.0080964+W 10.7416 4
W2, W3 values putting in equation (3)
W 168.3222(W 10.848054+0.005015)2268.2778+(0.0080964+W 10.7416)2501.8046=8.8803
W 1( 68.32220.8480542268.2778+ 0.74162501.8046 )=8.8803+ ( 0.0050152268.2778 )(0.008096425
W 10.03843=0.006034
W1
0.006034 Kg
0.03843 sec
W 1=0 . 157
Kg
sec
Similarly:
Ws=0 . 152
Kg
sec
W 2=0 . 138
Kg
sec
W 3=0. 119
Kg
sec
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
86
Now, Q1=Ws*Ls
Q1=0.1522699.36
410.3027
KJ
sec
But, Q1=U1*A1*t1
A1
Q1
U 1 t 1
410.3027
110022 .2394
A 1=16 . 77 m
Q2=W1*L1
Q2=0.1572209.36
346.87
KJ
sec
But, Q2=U1*A2*t2
A2
Q2
U 2 t 2
346.87
90027.18147
A 2=14 . 18 m
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
87
Q3=W2*L2
Q3=0.1382336.6
322.4508
KJ
sec
But, Q3=U3*A3*t3
A3
Q3
U 3 t 3
322.4508
80030.5715
A 3=13 . 18 m
Average Area (A) =14.71m
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
88
620
mmHg
FEED
180
mmHg
330
mmHg
345.2218Kg/hr
45.69113 Kg/hr
15.23038Kg/hr
467.9167
Kg/hr
Total Hexane
evaporate
50C
65C
115 C
35C
65C
406.1433Kg/hr
50C
115
C
STEA
To condenser
To hexane cooler- 1
To hexane cooler-2
Total Oil
122.6948Kg/hr
77.00371Kg/hr
Collected
61.77Kg/Hr
61.77333Kg/hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
89
FIG: (16) TRIPPEL EFFECT EVAPORATOR
CHAPTER: 6
COST ESTIMATION
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
90
Acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions, which will yield profit. Since net profit equals total value minus all expenses, it is
essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in the
manufacturing processes. Capital must allocate for the direct, plant expenses, such as those for
raw material, labor and equipment. Besides direct expenses many others indirect expenses are
incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained.
Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salary, product distribution cost and
cost for interplant communication.
A capital investment is required for every industrial process and determination of
necessary investment is an important part of a plant design process. The total investment for any
process consist fixed capital investment for practical equipment and facilities in the plant plus
working capital, which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw material and products on
hand, and handle other special items requiring the direct cost outline.
When the cost for any type of commercial process is to be determined, sufficient
accuracy has to be provided for reliable decision. There are many factors affecting investment
and production cost. These are;
1. Source of equipment
2. Price fluctuation
3. Company policies
4. Operating and rate of production
5. Governmental policies
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service
facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected completely with all piping, controls and
services. The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called
the fixed-capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of plant is termed the
working capital.
The sum of the fixed capital investment and the working is known as the total capital
investment. Generally, the working capital amounts 10-20% of the total capital investment.
Following is the breakdown of the fixed capital investment for a chemical process.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
91
6.1 DIRECT COST:

1. Purchased equipments
2. Purchased equipment installation
3. Instrumentation and control
4. Piping
5. Electrical equipment and material
6. Building (including services)
7. Yard improvement
8. Land
6. 2 INDIRECT COST:
1. Engineering supervision
2. Construction expenses
3. Contractors fee
4. Contingency
6.3 TYPES OF CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE
Order of magnitude estimate (ratio estimate) based on similar cost data; probable
accuracy of this estimate over 30%.
Study estimate based on knowledge of major items of equipment, probable accuracy of
this estimate up to 30%.
Preliminary estimate (budget authorization estimate scope method): based on sufficient
data to permit the estimate to the budget, probable accuracy of this estimate is within
20%.
Detailed estimate based on complete engineering drawing, specifications and site survey,
probable accuracy of this estimate within 10%.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
92
6.4 COST ESTIMATION

Basic: - 5,000 Kg/day
(a) Dehuling, Grinder ,palletizer cost Approximately =35000 Rs
(b) Extraction unit 10 stage:
Cost of single stage:
2 ( 1.50.150.0254 ) +2 ( 10.2120.0254 )
Total volume for single stage
0.02219 m3
Weight VolumeDensity
0.02219800 0
177.52 Kg
Price of one stage with fabrication 250 Kg

( 177.52250 )
44,380 Rs
Cost of 10 stage=44,38010
4,43,800 Rs
Cost of Belt =13,000 Rs
Cost of Roller, Bearing and Motor 20000 Rs

So, Total Cost for Extraction Unit 4,76,800 Rs
(c) Condenser :- Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
1
=3.80 cm
Inner Pipe Di
and L 3.54 m
2
Outer Pipe Do 5.4 cm
and L 3.54 m
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
93
Cost Approximately
45,000 Rs
(d) Storage Tank:Miscella 10.33 m=12 KL(SS 304)

Oil 1.334 m =2 KL (SS 304 )
Hexane 12 KL (SS 304)
Water 3 KL (SS 304)
Total Cost Approximately 29 Lac
(e) Piping, pump miscellaneous (approximately) 12,00,000 Rs
Total Fixed Capital Investment Cost 41,56,800 Rs
(1) DIRECT COST (D.C)

1) Total Purchased Equipment Cost
(25 of FCI )=
41,56,80025
25
41,56,800 Rs
2) Installation Cost ( 25 of FCI )
41,56,80010
25
16, 62,720 Rs
41,56,8008
3) Instrument & Control Installed ( 8 of FCI )=
25
13,30,176 Rs
4) Piping Installation Cost
( 18 of FCI )=
41,56,80018
25
29,92,896 Rs
5) Electrical Installation Cost
( 6 of FCI )=
41,56,8006
25
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9,97,632 Rs
( 5 of FCI )=
6) Building Process & Auxiliary
41,56,8005
25
8,31,360 Rs
7) Service Facilities
( 1 of FCI )=
41,56,8001
25
1,66,272 Rs
8) Yard Improvement
( 1.5 of FCI )=
41,56,8001.5
25
2,49,408 Rs
9) Land
( 1.5 of FCI )=
41,56,8001.5
25
2,49,408 Rs
TOTAL DIRECT COST
( 76 of FCI )=
41 , 56 , 80076
25
1 ,26 , 36 , 672 Rs
(2) INDIRECT COST (I.C)

Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or
complete facility.
1) Engineering & Supervision Cost ( 7 of D .C )=1,26,36,6720.07
8,84,357.04 Rs
2) Construction Expenses Cost ( 8 of D .C )=1,26,36,6720.08
10,10,933.76 Rs
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3) Contractor Fees ( 2 of D .C )=1,26,36,6720.02

2,52,733.44 Rs
4) Contingency: ( 7 of D .C )=1,26,36,6720.07
8,84,357.04 Rs
TOTAL DIRECT COST ( 24 of D . C ) =1, 26 , 36 , 6720 . 24

30 ,32 , 801 .28 Rs
3) FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (F.C.I):

FCI=DC + IC
1 ,26 , 36 , 672+30 ,32 , 801 .28

1 ,56 , 69 , 473 . 28 Rs
4) WORKING CAPITALA INVESTMENT (WCI):

( 15 of FCI )=1,56,69,473.28.15
23,50,420.992 Rs
5) TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):
TCI=FCI +WCI
1,56,69,473.28+ 23,50,420.992
1,80,19,894.27 Rs
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST (TPC):

FIXED CHARGES:
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A) Depreciation :( 10 % of TCI for machinery )

1,80,19,894.270.10
18,01,989.427 Rs
B) Local taxes :( 3 % of TCI )

1,80,19,894.270.03
5,40,596.83 Rs
C) Insurance:( 1 % of TCI )
1,80,19,894.270.01
1,80,198.9 Rs
D) Rent:( 9 % of TCI) 1,80,19,894.270.09

16,21,790.5 Rs
TOTAL FIXED CHARGES: ( 23 of TCI ) =1,80,19,894.270.23
41,44,575.682 Rs
But, Fixed Charges 10 of TFC

41,44,575.6820.1
4,14,457.5682 Rs
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST 4,14,457 . 5682 Rs

DIRECT PRODUCTION:
a) Raw material: ( 30 of TPC )=4,14,457.56820.30
12,43,337.27 Rs
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b) Operating labour cost: ( 15 of TPC )=4,14,457.56820.15

6,21,668.64 Rs
c) Direct Supervision and Electric labour: ( 15 of TPC )=6,21,668.640.15

93,250.3 Rs
d) Utilities: ( 15 of TPC )=4,14,457.56820.15

6,21,668.64 Rs
e) Maintenance : ( 6 of TPC ) =4,14,457.56820.06

24,867.45 Rs
f) Operating supplies (OS) : ( 15 of maintenance )=24,867.450.15

3,730.19 Rs
g) Laboratory charges:
( 15 of OL ) =6,21,668.640.15
93,250.3 Rs
h) Patent and royalties: ( 4 of TPC )=4,14,457.56820.04

16578.3 Rs
PLANT OVERHEAD COST: (5 of TPC )

414457.56820.05
20 ,722 . 88 Rs
MANUFACTURING COST (MC): (TPC + Fixes charges+ Plant Overhead Cost )

4,14,457.5682+41,44,575.682+20,722.88
45 , 79 ,756 . 13 Rs
GENERAL EXPENSES:
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a) Administration Cost: (4060 of OL)

Assume 55%
93,250.30.55
51287.67 Rs
b) Distribution & selling Cost :(230 of TPC )

Assume
4,14,457.56820.15
62,168.64 Rs
c) Research & Development Cost :(3 of TPC )

4,14,457.56820.03
12,433.73 Rs
GENERAL EXPENSES 51,287.67+62,168.64+12,433.73
1 ,25 , 890 . 04 Rs
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST: MANUFACTURING COST ( MC )+ GENERAL EXPENSES
45,79,756.13+1,25,890.04
47 , 05 , 646 .17 Rs
GROSS EARNING & RATE OF RETURN:

The plant is working for say 300days a year.
Selling Price: 36 Rs/ Kg
Total Income
5000
Kg
Days
Rs
300
(36
)
Days
Year
Kg
)(
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5,40,00,000 Rs
GROSS INCOME TOTAL INCOME+TOTAL PRODUCTION COST

5,40,00,000+ 47,05,646.17
4,92,94,353.83 Rs
TAX =50
NET PROFIT =4,92,94,353.830.50

2 , 46 , 47 , 177
RATE OF RETURN
Rs
Year
NET PROFIT
TOTAL CAPITAL COST
2,46,47,177
1,80,19,894
1. 37
BREAK EVEN POINT CALCULATION (BEP):

The breakeven point occurs when the total annual production cost equals the total annual sales.
The total annual product cost is the sum of fixed costs (including fixed charges, overhead, and
general expenses) and the direct production of units and the selling price per unit.
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Production cost per Kg
Annual Rate
5000
Total Diret Production Cost

Annual Rate
Kg
( 300 Days )
Days
15 , 00 ,000 Kg
Product cost
51,287.67
1500
35
Rs
Kg
Total Fixed Charges:

(GENERAL EXPENSES + Charges+ PLANT OVERHEAD COST )
1,25,890.04+ 41,44,575.682+20,722.88
42 , 91 ,188 . 602 Rs
Now, cost of Jatropha oil per Kg= 36 Rs/Kg
So, Kg of oil at breakeven point 42,91,188.602+ 35n =36n
n=42 , 91 ,188 . 602
Kg
Year
Thus, Break-even point is
42 , 91 ,188 . 602
Kg
Year
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CHAPTER: 7
INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL
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The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:
7.1 SAFE PLANT OPERATION:
To keep the process variable within safe operating limits.
To dictate dangerous situation as they develop and provide alarms automatic shut down system
To provide interlock and alarms to prevent dangerous operating system.
(a) Production Rate: To achieve the desired product output.
(b) Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified quality
standards.
(c) Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but
sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical plant, these objectives are achieved by combination of automatic control,
manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
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7.2 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM:

(A) Level Control
In many equipment, where an interface exists between two phases some means of
maintaining the interface the required level must be provided. This may be incorporated
in the design of the equipment as is usually done for the decanters or by automatic control
of the flow to the equipment.
(B) Pressure Control
Pressure control will be necessary for most system handling vapor or gas, the
method of control will depend on the nature of the process.
(C) Flow control
Flow control is usually associated with inventory control in a storage tank or other
equipment; there must be a reservoir to tank up the change in flow rate. To provide flow
control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying near constant volume
output by a bypass control is used.
(D) Heat Exchanger
In heat exchanger the temp, being controlled by varying the flow of the cooling or
heating medium.
(E) Condenser Control
Temperature control is unlike to e effective for condenser unless the liquid steam
is sub- cooled.
7.3 ALARM AND SAFETY TRIPS AND INTERLOCK

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Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and
visual alarm on the control panels lack of response by the operator is likely to land on the rapid
development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would be fitted with a trip system to take
action automatically to prevent the hazard, such as shutting down pumps, closing valves,
operating energy.
The basic components of an automatic trip system are:
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a
present value is exceeded instrument.
A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system of

pneumatic or electric relays.
An actuator to carry out required action: Close or open value, switch off monitor.
7.4 PROCESS AND INSTUMENT DIAGRAM:

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CHAPTER: 8
UTILITY
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The word utilities are not generally used for the ancillary service needed in the operation of
the any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central site facility,
and will include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Electricity
Steam for process heating
Cooling water
Water for general use
Deminerlised water
Refrigeration
Effluent disposal facilities
8.1 ELECTRICITY
The power required for electro chemical processes , motor drives lighting and general use
may be generated on sight, but will more usually by purchased from the local supply company.
The voltage at which the supply is taken or generated will depend on the demand. For a large site
the supply will be taken at a very high voltage. Transformer will be used to step down the supply
voltage to the voltages used on site.
8.2 STEAM
The steam for heating is usually generated in water boiler using the most economical fuel
level available. The process temperature required can usually be obtained with low temperature
steam and steam distributed at relatively low pressure. High pressure or proprietary heat transfer
fluids, such as down therm will be needed for high process temperature.
8.3 COOLING WATER
Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water
required in a site; unless water can be drawn from a convenient river or lake in sufficient
quantity.
8.4 WATER FOR GENERAL USE
The water required for general purposes on a site will usually be taken from the local
mains supply, unless a cheaper source of suitable quantity water is available from a river, lake or
well.
8.5 DEMINERLISED WATER

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Deminerlised water from which all the minerals have been removed by ion exchange, is
used where pure water is needed for process use, and as boiler feed water. Mixed and multiple
bed ion exchange units are used, one resin converting the cations to hydrogen and the other
removing the acid radicals. Water with less than one ppm of dissolved solids can be produced.
8.6 REFRIGERATION
It will be needed for processes that require temperatures below those that can be
economically obtained with cooling water. For temperatures down to around 10 0 C chilled water
can be used. For lower temperatures, down to -30 0C, salt brines are used to distribute the
refrigeration round the site from a central refrigeration machine.
8.7 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL
Facilities will be required at all sites for the disposal of waste materials without creating a
public nuisance.
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CHAPTER: 9
PLANT LOCATION AND
LAYOUT
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9.1 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the scope
for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site. The factors
to be considered are:
1. Location with respect to the marketing area
2. Raw material supply.
3. Transport facilities.
4. Availability of labor.
5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.
6. Availability of suitable land.
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political and strategic considerations.
Marketing Area:
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as cement, mineral acids and
fertilizers where the cost of the product per ton is relatively low and the cost of transport a
significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should be located close to the primary market.
This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high-priced products, such
as pharmaceuticals.
Raw Materials:
The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the location.
Plant producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material:
where this is also close to the marketing area.
Transport:
The transport of materials & products to & from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, site should be selected that is close to at least two
major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river) or a sea port.
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Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long-distance transport of
bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient & efficient for the movement of personnel &essential
equipment & supplies & the proximity of the site airport should be considered.
Availability of labor:
Labor will be needed for construction of the plant & its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labor available locally; & labor suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled
tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs & restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability & suitability of the local labor for recruitment & training.
Utilities (Services)
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling & general
process use & the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quantity. Process water
may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites the
cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations
cooling tower will be needed.
Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that require large
quantities of power; for example, aluminum smelters need to be located close to a cheap source
of power. A competitive priced fuel must be available on site for steam & power generation.
Environment impact & disposal:
All industrial processes produce waste products & full consideration must be given to the
difficulties & cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic & harmful effluents will be covered by
local regulations & the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be made
for each new project or major modification or addition to an existing process.
Local community considerations:
The proposed plant must fit in with & be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to
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provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: school, banks, housing & recreational &
cultural facilities.
Land (site selection):

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant & for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained & have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full
site evaluation should be made to determine the need of piling or other special formations.
Climate:
Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperatures will
require the prohibition of additional insulation & special heating for equipment & pipe runs.
Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone hurricane areas) or
earthquakes.
Political & Strategic Considerations:
Capital grants tax concessions & other inducements are often given by the government to
direct renew investments to preferred locations, such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
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9.2 SITE LAYOUT:

The process units & ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical
flow of materials & personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the
site. The ancillary buildings & services required on a site, in addition to the main processing
units will include:
1. Storages for raw materials & products: tank farms & warehouses.
2. Maintenance workshops.
3. Stores for maintenance & operating supplies.
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire stations & other emergency services.
6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformer
Stations
7. Effluent disposal plant.
8. Offices for general administration.
9. Canteens & other amenity buildings, such as medical centers.
10. Car parks
When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited
first & arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from
raw material to final product storage.
Process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart; greater spacing may be needed for
hazardous processes. The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided.
They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between
buildings. Administration offices & laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people
will be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
Control rooms will normally be located be located adjacent to the processing units, but
with potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance. The sitting of the
main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys & drains. Access
roads will be needed to each building for construction, & for operation & maintenance.
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Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to & from the
process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of
condensate spray drifts away from the plant area & adjacent properties.
The main storage area should be placed between the loading & unloading facilities & the
process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited at least
70m from the site boundary.
9.3 PLANT LAYOUT:
The economic construction & efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well he plant & equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The principal factors to
be considered are:
1. Economic consideration: construction & operating cost
2. The process requirements
3. Convenience of operation
4. Convenience of maintenance
5. Safety
6. Future expansion
7. Modular construction
Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment & the least amount of structural steel work. However
this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation & maintenance.
Process Requirements
An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the operating
head for a thermosyphon reboiler.
Operator
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and head room must be provided to allow easy
access to equipments.
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Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be cited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing
should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for
maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed under cover.
Safety
Blast walls maybe needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level
in the process buildings.
Plant Expansion
Equipments should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and services pipes
over-sized to allow for future requirements.
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9.4 MODULAR CONSTRUCTIONS

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantage of modular construction is:
(1) Improved quality control
(2) Reduced construction cost
(3) Less need for skilled labor on site.
(4) Less need for a skilled personal on overseas sites.
Some of the disadvantages are:
(1) Higher design costs.
(2) More structural steel work.
(3) More flanged connections.
(4) Possible problems with assembly on site.
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9.5 PLANT LAYOUT FLOWSHEET
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CHAPTER: 10
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
10.1 JATROPHA OIL

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SECTION 1. IDENTIFICATION:
Product name:
Jatropha seed oil
Taxonomy Current name:
Jatropha curcas
Common local names:

Afrikaans
Purgeerboontjie
Arabic
Dand barri, habel meluk
Bengali
Bagbherenda, erandagachh.
Chinese
Yu-Lu-Tzu.
Dutch
Purgeernoot
English
Barbados Nut, Castor Oil, Chinese Castor Oil, Curcas, Fig Nut,
Physic Nut, Pig Nut, Purging Nut, Wild Oil Nut
Filipino
Tubang-Bakod
French
Feuilles Mdecin, Grand Mdecinier, Mdecinier, Mdicinier
Hindi
Bagbherenda, jangliarandi, safedarand
Italian:
Fagiola dIndia
Luganda
Kiryowa
Indonesian
Jarak Budge
Nepali
Kadam
Portuguese
Mundubi-Assu, Purgueira
Sanskrit
Kananaeranda, Kananaerend, Parvataranda
Spanish
Pinol, Pinon,
Tamil
Kadalamanakku, Kattamanakku
Thai
Sabudam
Table 9: Common local names of Jatropha seed oil
Family:
Euphorbiaceous
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Synonym(s):
Curcas purgans Medic; Castiglionia lobata Ruiz and Pav.;

Curcas adansonii Endl. ex Heynh.; Curcas curcas (L.)
Britton and Millsp.; Curcas indica A. Rich.; Curcas purgans
Medic.; Jatropha acerifolia Salisb.; Jatropha edulis Cerv.;
Ricinus americanus Miller.; Ricinus jarak Thunb.
Trade name:
Jatropha oil, Fig nut oil, Physic nut oil, Hell oil
SECTION 2. INGREDIENTS:
Product is supplied as a whole seed / kernel oil. It is a non-food grade material for
industrial use only.
Free fatty acid composition:
Myristic acid (14:0)
0-0.1 %
Palmitic acid (16:0)
14.1-15.3 %
Stearic acid (18:0)
3.7-9.8 %
Arachidic acid (20:0)
0-0.3 %
Behenic acid (22:0)
0-0.2 %
Palmitoleic acid (16:1)
0-1.3 %
Oleic acid (18:1)
34.3-45.8 %
Linoleic acid (18:2)
29.0-44.2 %
Linoleic acid (18:3)
0-0.3 %
Chemical parameters:
Diglycerides (% m/m):
2.7
Triglycerides (% m/m):
97.3
Water (% m/m):
0.07
Phosphorus (mg kg-1):
290
Calcium (mg kg-1):
56
Magnesium (mg kg-1):
103
Iron (mg kg-1):
2.4
Toxic ingredients:
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1. Phorbol esters:
Concentration (2-4 mg/g oil), co-carcinogenic to animals, mutagenic to
mammalian somatic cells, bacteria and yeast. Produce cathartic and degenerative changes
in gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, brain. Ingestion causes bloody diahorrea, collapse,
fall of blood pressure, trachycardia, coma and death (in rats). Repeated application on
skin leads to hyperplasia (in mice).
2. Jatropherol:
Is a phorbol type diterpenes (0.12-0.14 mg/g oil) found highly toxic to silk worm larvae
after ingestion with LC50 values 0.58, 0.22, 0.157 mg/ml at 48, 72, 120 h respectively. The oral
toxicity of jatropherol to mi e was found to be 82.198 mg/kg body weight.
SECTION 3. PHYSICAL DATA:

Density at 15C (gcm-3):
0.92
Viscosity at 30C (C St):
52
Flash point (C):
240
State:
Liquid at room temperature
Solubility:
Organic solvents. Insoluble in water
Appearance:
Similar to Castor oil
Odor:
Similar to raw castor oil
Color:
Golden yellow
Refractive index:
1.4735
Free fatty acids (% as C18:1) 4.54 6.7

Acid value (mg KOH. g-1)
1.24 4.24
Total saturated (%)
22.3
Total mono unsaturated (%) 42 43.1

Total PUFA (%)
34 36
Iodine value (mg.I2.g-1)
97.1111.6
Saponification value (mg KOH.g-1) 169.9197

Calorific value
37.8 MJ/kg
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SECTION 4. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA

Extinguishing media:
Carbon dioxide, dry chemical/powder or foam spray.
Special fire fighting procedures:
If involved in fire, don NIOSH/MSHA approved self-contained breathing apparatus and
flame/chemical resistant.
SECTION 5. HEALTH HAZARD DATA

Signs and symptoms of exposure:
Ingestion
Human:
Data not available but available for seed, Expected to be similar for seeds causing
vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and burning sensation in the throat.
Ruminants:
Data not available. The symptoms are expected to be similar for seeds causing diarrhea,
dyspnea, dehydration, paresis of the hind limbs and recumbency before death. Lack of appetite,
reduced water consumption, sunken eyes and reduction in glycogen content were important
signs. Histopathology showed hemorrhage in rumen, reticulum, kidney, spleen and heart,
emphysema and cyanosis, tracheal froths, as cites and hydro pericardium, congestion of lung.
Rats:
Haemolysis of blood, destruction of mucous layer, intense inflammation in the intestine
in the rats.
Skin contact:
Generally no effect, may cause irritation in some individuals
Eye contact:
Data not available, contact may cause irritation and conjunctivitis.
Acute effects of exposure:
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May cause skin, eye and upper respiratory irritation.

Chronic effects of overexposure:
Harmful to the skin and eyes, may cause tumor promotion. Emergency and First Aid
Procedures:
Swallowing:
If swallowed, wash mouth out with water and immediately call a physician.
Skin:
If skin contact occurs, immediately wash skin with soap and water.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) and call a physician.
Eyes:
If eye contact occurs, flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. Assure adequate
flushing by separating eyelids with fingers. Consult a physician if irritation persists.
SECTION 6. REACTIVITY DATA

Stability
Stable when kept away from light, exposure to atmosphere and other oxidizing agents.
Like any other oil turns rancid on exposure to air
.
SECTION 7. SPILL OR LEAK PROCEDURES:
Waste disposal:
Discharge, treatment or disposal may be subject to local laws.
Steps to be taken if material is spilled or released:

Wear protective gloves, lab coat and safety glasses. Use vermiculite or another suitable
absorbent to clean up the spill. After cleanup, wash down the spill site with water containing
detergent and wash with water, ventilate the area. Prevent from entering drains, surface and
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ground water. Place all contaminated materials in an appropriate waste container and dispose of
in accordance with federal, state and local regulations. III. Handling and Storage
SECTION 8. HANDLING AND STORAGE

Handling:
Avoid contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Protective gloves, lab coat and safety glasses
should be worn when handling this product.
Storage:
Store in a cool area. The oil should be stored in airtight, dark colored container to avoid
direct contact with sunlight. Keep away from oxidizing agents, alkalies, acids and flammable
materials.
Transport:
May be transported in a manner similar to other vegetable oils. The containers used after
transporting Jatropha oil should be thoroughly cleaned and made free of toxins before
transporting other oil, liquid or material
SECTION 9. EXPOSURE CONTROL/PERSONAL

Protection Information:
Wear protective gloves, safety glasses and lab coat when working with this product. An
eyewash station and safety shower should be in proximity to the work area. The working area
should be good ventilated, preferably with an air exhaust. Ensure that all ignition sources are
removed from the area before working with this product. Dispose of all waste in accordance with
federal, state and local regulations.
To the best of our knowledge the above information is true and accurate but does not
purport to be all-inclusive and shall be used only as a guide.
This information relates only to the specific material designated (here Jatropha curcas
oil), and may not be valid for such materials used in combination with any other materials or in
any other process.
10.2 SAFETY SHEET HEXANE

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
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SECTION 1: CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION:

Product Name:
Hexanes
Chemical Name:
Hexane
Chemical Formula:
C6-H14
SECTION 2: COMPOSITION AND INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Toxicological Data on Ingredients:
Hexane: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 25000 mg/kg [Rat].
SECTION 3: HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
Potential Acute Health Effects:
Hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator) of ingestion, of inhalation.
Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant).
Potential Chronic Health Effects:
The substance may be toxic to peripheral nervous system, skin, central nervous system
(CNS).Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.
SECTION 4: FIRST AID MEASURES
Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for
at least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Get medical attention if irritation occurs.
Skin Contact:
Wash with soap and water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Get medical
attention if irritation develops.
Serious Skin Contact:
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
127
Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial
cream. Seek medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not
breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
SECTION 5: FIRE AND EXPLOSION DATA

Flammability of the Product:
Flammable.
Auto-Ignition Temperature:
225C (437F)
Flash Points:
CLOSED CUP: -22.5C (-8.5F). (TAG)
Flammable Limits:
LOWER: 1.15% UPPER: 7.5%
Products of Combustion:
These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2).
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Highly flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat.
Non-flammable in presence of shocks.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
128
Flammable liquid, insoluble in water.

SMALL FIRE:
Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE:
Use water spray or fog.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards:

Extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Vapor may cause flash fire.
SECTION 6: ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Small Spill:
Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste
disposal.
Large Spill:
Flammable liquid, insoluble in water. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of
ignition. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible
material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Prevent entry into
sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Be careful
that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and
with local authorities.
SECTION 7: HANDLING AND STORAGE

Precautions:
Keep locked up.. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all
equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Avoid
contact with skin. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear
suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the
container or the label. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.
Storage:
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
129
Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.
Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of
ignition (spark or flame).
SECTION 8: EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION

Engineering Controls:
Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne
concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash
stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection:
Safety glasses, Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator
or equivalent, Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill
Splash goggles, Full suit, Vapor respirator, Boots, Gloves. A self contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might
not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
SECTION 9: STABILITY AND REACTIVITY DATA
Stability:
The product is stable.
Conditions of Instability:
Heat, ignition sources, incompatibles.
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents.

Special Remarks on Reactivity:
Hexane can react vigorously with strong oxidizers (e.g.

chlorine, bromine, fluorine)
Polymerization:
Will not occur.
SECTION 10: TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

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130
Routes of Entry:
Absorbed through skin, dermal contact, Inhalation, Ingestion.
Toxicity to Animals:
WARNING: THE LC50 VALUES HEREUNDER ARE ESTIMATED ON THE BASIS OF A 4HOUR EXPOSURE.
Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 25000 mg/kg [Rat].
Acute toxicity of the gas (LC50): 48000 ppm 4 hours [Rat].
Chronic Effects on Humans:
Mutagenic Effects: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
May cause damage to the following organs: peripheral nervous system, skin, central
nervous system (CNS).
Other Toxic Effects on Humans:
Very hazardous in case of ingestion, of inhalation.
Hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator).
Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant).
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:
May cause adverse reproductive effects based on animal data.
May be tumorigenic based on animal data.
May affect genetic material.
Passes through the placental barrier in animal.
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
131
Acute Potential Health Effects:

Skin:
May cause mild skin irritation. It can be absorbed through the skin in harmful amounts.
Eyes:
May cause mild eye irritation.
Inhalation:
May be harmful if inhaled. Inhalation of vapors may cause respiratory tract irritation.
Overexposure may affect, brain, spinal cord, behavior/central and peripheral nervous systems
(lightheadness, dizziness, hallucinations, paralysis, blurred vision, memory loss, headache,
euphoria, general anesthetic, muscle weakness, numbness of the extremities, asphyxia,
unconsciousness and possible death), metabolism, respiration, blood, cardiovascular system,
gastrointestinal system (nausea)
Ingestion:
May be harmful if swallowed. May cause gastrointestinal tract irritation with abdominal
pain and nausea. May also affect the liver, blood, brain, peripheral and central nervous systems.
Symptoms of overexposure by ingestion are similar to that of overexposure by inhalation.
SECTION 11: ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Products of Biodegradation:
Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long term
degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation:
The product itself and its products of degradation are not toxic.
SECTION 12: DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental
control regulations.
SECTION 13: TRANSPORT INFORMATION
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DOT Classification: CLASS 3: Flammable liquid.

Identification:
Hexane UNNA: 1208 PG: II
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
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CHAPTER: 11
REFRENCES
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
134
1. Perry, R.H. And Green D, Perry Chemical Engineering Hand Book By

Tata McGraw Hill, 6th Addition,1984
2. Robert E. Treybal For Mass Transfer Operation, 5th Addition
3. Dr.G.K.Roy, Solved Example Of Chemical Engineering Mass Transfer
Operation
4. Dr.G.K.Roy Fundamental Of Heat And Mass Transfer For Chemical
Engineering.
5. S.B.Thakore And B.I.Bhatt Process Equipment Design-I ,McGraw
Hill,2007
6. Richardson And Coulsion Process Equipment Design, 3rd Addition
7. Troika Group Of Industries, Mumbai
8. Bhatt.B.I And S.M.Vora, Stoichiometric,4th Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co.Ltd.,New Delhi, 2004
9. Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, USA,1950.
10.Smith, R.A.,Vaporiser: Selection, Design and Operation, Longmans,
UK,1986
11.Process design of equipment by Dr. Dawande S.D., 2nd Ed.,2000,p-425
12. M.S.PETERS,K.D.TIMMERHAUS,R.E.WEST; Plant Design And
Economics For Chemical Engineering, 5TH Ed.,McGraw-Hill, New
YorK,2003
13.Old Project report,2010.
14. http://www.troikaindia.com
15. WWW.journeytoforever.com
16. http://www.jetrophaoilextraction.com
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
135
CHAPTER: 12
APPENDIX
Appendix-1
VAPOR PRESSURE DATA
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
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Temperature (C)
-53.9
-34.5
-25.0
-14.1
+2.3
+5.4
+15.8
+31.6
+49.6
+68.7
Pressure( mmHg)
1
5
10
20
40
60
100
200
400
760
Vapor Pressure Data for Hexane (PA)
Vapor Pressure Data for Water (PB)

Temperature (C)
-10
-5
0
+5
+10
+15
+20
+22
+25
+30
+35
+40
+50
+60
Pressure (mmHg)
2.1
3.2
4.6
6.5
7.0
9.2
17.5
19.8
23.8
31.8
42.2
55.3
92.5
149.4
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
137
+70
+80
+90
+91
+100
233.7
355.1
525.8
633.9
760
APPENDIX-2
CONVERSION FACTOR
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA
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Fina Finall Report Jatropha

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EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

Scientifically known as Jatropha curcas L.

FIG: 1 JATROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

Jatropha needs minimal input or management.

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

2.2 JATROPHA CHARACTERISTICS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

2.3 JATROPHA SEEDS CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Distillation point (C)

Viscosity (cp) (30 C)

gravity (15 C/4

Solidifying Point (C)

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

Refractive Index (30C)

Gasoline-like or petroleum-like (Slight.)

17.3 kPa (@ 20C)

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

See solubility in water, diethyl ether, and

TABLE: 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXANE

2.5 JATROPHA PARTS AND USES

BOTANICAL FEATURES AND POTENTIAL USES

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

The uses of Jatropha plant is provided in detail.

2.6 OIL YIELD FROM JATROPHA

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

FIG: 2 JATROPHA OIL

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

Mechanical Extraction (by pressing the kernels)

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

FIG.:3 SHELLING OF THE SEEDS

FIG.:4 ROASTING OF KERNELS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

SCRIMMING THE FLOATING OIL(C)

PURIFICATION OF THE SCRIMMED OIL(D)

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

FIG.:5 OIL SAMPLE (e)

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

ADVANCE EXTRACTION PROCESS RECOMMENDED PRESSES

FIG.:6 RAM PRESS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

FIG.:7 SCREW PRESSES

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

ENGINE DRIVEN EXPELLERS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

FIG.:8 TINTECH EXPELLER

FIG.: 9 THE SUNDHARA EXPELLER

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

THE SAYARI EXPELLER

FIG.:10 THE SAYARI EXPELLER

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

2.8 JATROPHA COMPANIES

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

2.9 CURRENT RESEARCH WORK DONE ON JATROPHA OIL

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS

2.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF JATROPHA SEEDS

It starts producing seeds within 12 months