PRESENT

There are four present tenses in English. Use the present tense to talk about something that is going on
now or that is true now and any time.

Simple present to express habits and general truths.

Present continuous to talk about an action happening now.

Present perfect for repeated actions, actions where the time is not important, and actions that
began in the past but are not finished yet.

Present perfect continuous to talk about ongoing actions where both the process and the result are
important.

NOUNS
Using nouns correctly in English is relatively simple, with standard rules and only a few exceptions. Use
these pages to learn about the English grammar rules for gender, plurals, countable and uncountable
nouns, compound nouns, capitalization, nationalities, and forming the possessive.

NOUNS IN ENGLISH

Gendered nouns

Singular and plural nouns including irregular plural nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Definite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns

Compound nouns

Capitalization rules for nouns

Nationalities in English

Forming the possessive

NOUN GENDER

Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" They give names to things, people, and
places.

EXAMPLES

dog

bicycle

Mary

girl

beauty

France

world

In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine in English nouns. However, gender is
sometimes shown by different forms or different words when referring to people or animals.

EXAMPLES
Masculine

Feminine

Gender neutral

man

woman

person

father

mother

parent

boy

girl

child

uncle

aunt

husband

wife

actor

actress

spouse

Masculine

Feminine

Gender neutral

prince

princess

waiter

waitress

server

rooster

hen

chicken

stallion

mare

horse

Many nouns that refer to people's roles and jobs can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject,
like for example cousin, teenager, teacher, doctor, student, friend, colleague

EXAMPLES

Mary is my friend. She is a doctor.

Peter is my cousin. He is a doctor.

Arthur is my friend. He is a student.

Jane is my cousin. She is a student.

It is possible to make the distinction for these neutral words by adding the words male or female.

EXAMPLES

Sam is a female doctor.

No, he is not my boyfriend, he is just a male friend.

I have three female cousins and two male cousins.

Infrequently, nouns describing things without a gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to show
familiarity. It is also correct to use the gender-neutral pronoun (it).

EXAMPLES

I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.

France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment.

I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth; she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a
great ship.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

NOUNS
REGULAR NOUNS
Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s.

EXAMPLES
Singular

Plural

boat

boats

house

houses

cat

cats

river

rivers

A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es.

EXAMPLES
Singular

Plural

bus

buses

wish

wishes

Singular

Plural

pitch

pitches

box

boxes

A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies.

EXAMPLES
Singular

Plural

penny

pennies

spy

spies

baby

babies

city

cities

daisy

daisies

IRREGULAR NOUNS
There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below.

EXAMPLES
Singular

Plural

woman

women

man

men

child

children

tooth

teeth

foot

feet

person

people

leaf

leaves

mouse

mice

goose

geese

half

halves

knife

knives

wife

wives

life

lives

elf

elves

Singular

Plural

loaf

loaves

potato

potatoes

tomato

tomatoes

cactus

cacti

focus

foci

fungus

fungi

nucleus

nuclei

syllabus

syllabi/syllabuses

analysis

analyses

diagnosis

diagnoses

oasis

oases

thesis

theses

crisis

crises

phenomenon

phenomena

criterion

criteria

Singular

Plural

datum

data

Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

EXAMPLES
Singular

Plural

sheep

sheep

fish

fish

deer

deer

species

species

aircraft

aircraft

IRREGULAR VERB/NOUN AGREEMENT

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Plural nouns used with a singular verb

Sentence

news

The news is at 6.30 p.m.

athletics

Athletics is good for young people

Plural nouns used with a singular verb

Sentence

linguistics

Linguistics is the study of languag

darts

Darts is a popular game in Englan

billiards

Billiards is played all over the wor

Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they
have a different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings,
thanks, steps, stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

Plural noun with plural verb

Sentence

trousers

My trousers are too tight.

jeans

Her jeans are black.

glasses

Those glasses are his.

COUNTABLE AND
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
It's important to distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns in English because their usage is
different in regards to both determiners and verbs.

COUNTABLE NOUNS
Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and a plural form. The
singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask about the quantity of a countable
noun, you ask "How many?" combined with the plural countable noun.

Singular

Plural

one dog

two dogs

one horse

two horses

one man

two men

one idea

two ideas

one shop

two shops

EXAMPLES

She has three dogs.

I own a house.

I would like two books please.

How many friends do you have?

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. They may be the names for
abstract ideas or qualities or for physical objects that are too small or too amorphous to be counted
(liquids, powders, gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb. They usually do not
have a plural form.

EXAMPLES

tea

sugar

water

air

rice

knowledge

beauty

anger

fear

love

money

research

safety

evidence

We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of an uncountable noun, use a word or
expression like some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of , or else use an exact measurement like a
cup of, a bag of, 1kg of, 1L of, a handful of, a pinch of, an hour of, a day of. If you want to ask about the
quantity of an uncountable noun, you ask "How much?"

EXAMPLES

There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.

He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.

Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?

He did not have much sugar left.

Measure 1 cup of water, 300g of flour, and 1 teaspoon of salt.

How much rice do you want?

TRICKY SPOTS
Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. They must follow the rules for
uncountable nouns. The most common ones are:
accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, furniture, information, luggage, news, progress,
traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work

EXAMPLES

I would like to give you some advice.

How much bread should I bring?

I didn't make much progress today.

This looks like a lot of trouble to me.

We did an hour of work yesterday.

Be careful with the noun hair which is normally uncountable in English, so it is not used in the plural. It
can be countable only when referring to individual hairs.

EXAMPLES

She has long blond hair.

The child's hair was curly.

I washed my hair yesterday.

My father is getting a few grey hairs now. (refers to individual hairs)

I found a hair in my soup! (refers to a single strand of hair)

PRONOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns. A different pronoun is required depending on two elements: the noun being
replaced and the function that noun has in the sentence. In English, pronouns only take the gender of the
noun they replace in the 3rd person singular form. The 2nd person plural pronouns are identical to the
2nd person singular pronouns except for the reflexive pronoun.

Subject
Pronoun

Object
Pronoun

Possessive Adjective
(Determiner)

Possessive
Pronoun

1st person singular

me

my

mine

2nd person singular

you

you

your

yours

Subject
Pronoun

Object
Pronoun

Possessive Adjective
(Determiner)

Possessive
Pronoun

3rd person singular,

male

he

him

his

his

3rd person singular,

female

she

her

her

hers

3rd person singular,

neutral

it

it

its

1st person plural

we

us

our

ours

2nd person plural

you

you

your

yours

3rd person plural

they

them

their

theirs

SUBJECT PRONOUNS
Subject pronouns replace nouns that are the subject of their clause. In the 3rd person, subject pronouns
are often used to avoid repetition of the subject's name.

EXAMPLES

I am 16.

You seem lost.

Jim is angry, and he wants Sally to apologize.

This table is old. It needs to be repainted.

We aren't coming.

They don't like pancakes.

OBJECT PRONOUNS
Object pronouns are used to replace nouns that are the direct or indirect object of a clause.

EXAMPLES

Give the book to me.

The teacher wants to talk to you.

Jake is hurt because Bill hit him.

Rachid recieved a letter from her last week.

Mark can't find it.

Don't be angry with us.

Tell them to hurry up!

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (DETERMINERS)

Possessive adjectives are not pronouns, but rather determiners. It is useful to learn them at the same
time as pronouns, however, because they are similar in form to the possessive pronouns. Possessive
adjectives function as adjectives, so they appear before the noun they modify. They do not replace a noun
as pronouns do.

EXAMPLES

Did mother find my shoes?

Mrs. Baker wants to see your homework.

Can Jake bring over his baseball cards?

Samantha will fix her bike tomorrow.

The cat broke its leg.

This is our house.

Where is their school?

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns as either the subject or the object of a clause. Because
the noun being replaced doesn't appear in the sentence, it must be clear from the context.

EXAMPLES

This bag is mine.

Yours is not blue.

That bag looks like his.

These shoes are not hers.

That car is ours.

Theirs is parked in the garage.

REFLEXIVE & INTENSIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive and intensive pronouns are the same set of words but they have different functions in a
sentence.
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause because the subject of the action is also the
direct or indirect object. Only certain types of verbs can be reflexive. You cannot remove a reflexive
pronoun from a sentence because the remaining sentence would be grammatically incorrect.

EXAMPLES

I told myself to calm down.

You cut yourself on this nail?

He hurt himself on the stairs.

She found herself in a dangerous part of town.

The cat threw itself under my car!

We blame ourselves for the fire.

The children can take care of themselves.

Intensive pronouns emphasize the subject of a clause. They are not the object of the action. The intensive
pronoun can always be removed from a sentence without changing the meaning significantly, although
the emphasis on the subject will be removed. Intensive pronouns can be placed immediately after the
subject of the clause, or at the end of the clause.

EXAMPLES

I made these cookies myself.

You yourself asked Jake to come.

The Pope himself pardoned Mr. Brown.

My teacher didn't know the answer herself.

The test itself wasn't scary, but my teacher certainly is.

We would like to finish the renovation before Christmas ourselves.

They themselves told me the lost shoe wasn't a problem.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English, there is a particular group
of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive preceeded by any, some, every and no.

Person

Place

Th

All

everyone
everybody

everywhere

ev

Part (positive)

someone
somebody

somewhere

som

Part (negative)

anyone
anybody

anywhere

an

None

no one

nowhere

no

Person

Place

Th

nobody

Indefinite pronouns with some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the
same way that some and any are used alone.
Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the sentence.

Noun

Indefinite pronoun

I would like to go to Paris this summer.

I would like to go somewhere this sum

Jim gave me this book.

Someone gave me this book.

I won't tell your secret to Sam.

I won't tell your secret to anyone.

I bought my school supplies at the mall.

I bought everything at the mall.

AFFIRMATIVE
In affirmative sentences, indefinite pronouns using some are used to describe an indefinite quantity, the
indefinite pronouns with every are used to describe a complete quantity, and the pronouns with no are
used to describe an absence. Indefinite pronouns with no are often used in affirmative sentences with a
negative meaning, but these are nevertheless not negative sentences because they are lacking the
word not.

EXAMPLES

Everyone is sleeping in my bed.

Someone is sleeping in my bed.

No one is sleeping in my bed.

I gave everything to Sally.

He saw something in the garden.

There is nothing to eat.

I looked everywhere for my keys.

Keith is looking for somewhere to live.

There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris.

Any and the indefinite pronouns formed with it can also be used in affirmative sentences with a meaning
that is close to every: whichever person, whichever place, whichever thing, etc.

EXAMPLES

They can choose anything from the menu.

You may invite anybody you want to your birthday party.

We can go anywhere you'd like this summer.

He would give anything to get into Oxford.

Fido would follow you anywhere.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Negative sentences can only be formed with the indefinite pronouns that include any.

EXAMPLES

I don't have anything to eat.

She didn't go anywhere last week.

I can't find anyone to come with me.

Many negative sentences that include an indefinite pronoun with any can be turned into affirmative
sentences with a negative meaning by using an indefinite pronoun with no. However, there is a change in
meaning with this transformation: the sentence that includes an indefinite pronoun withno is stronger, and
can imply emotional content such as definsiveness, hopelessness, anger, etc.

EXAMPLES

I don't know anything about it. = neutral

I know nothing about it. = defensive

I don't have anybody to talk to. = neutral

I have nobody to talk to. = hopeless

There wasn't anything we could do. = neutral

There was nothing we could do. = defensive/angry

NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
Indefinite pronouns with every, some, and any can be used to form negative questions. These questions
can usually be answered with a "yes" or a "no"
Pronouns formed with anyand every are used to form true questions, while those with some generally
imply a question to which we already know or suspect the answer.

EXAMPLES

Is there anything to eat?

Did you go anywhere last night?

Is everyone here?

Have you looked everywhere?

These questions can be turned in to false or rhetorical questions by making them negative. The speaker,
when posing a question of this type, is expecting an answer of "no".

EXAMPLES

Isn't there anything to eat?

Didn't you go anywhere last night?

Isn't everyone here?

Haven't you looked everywhere?

Some and pronouns formed with it is only used in questions to which we think we already know the
answer, or questions which are not true questions (invitations, requests, etc.) The person asking these
questions is expecting an answer of "Yes".

EXAMPLES

Are you looking for someone?

Have you lost something?

Are you going somewhere?

Could somebody help me, please? = request

Would you like to go somewhere this weekend? = invitation

These questions can be made even more definite if they are made negative. In this case, the speaker is
absolutely certain he will receive the answer "Yes".

EXAMPLES

Aren't you looking for someone?

Haven't you lost something?

Aren't you going somewhere?

Couldn't somebody help me, please?

Wouldn't you like to go somewhere this weekend?

COMPOUND NOUNS
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are
invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The first part tells us what kind of object or person it
is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question. Compound nouns
often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than the two separate words.

First part: type or purpose

Second part: what or who

Comp

police

man

police

First part: type or purpose

Second part: what or who

Comp

boy

friend

boyfri

fish

tank

water

dining

table

dining

You have noticed that the compound noun can be written either as a single word, as a word with a
hyphen, or as two words. There are no clear rules about this. A good rule of thumb is to write the most
common compound nouns as one word, and the others as two words.
The elements in a compound noun are very diverse parts of speech.

Compound elements

Examples

noun + noun

bedroom
water tank
motorcycle
printer cartridge

noun + verb

rainfall
haircut
train-spotting

noun + adverb

hanger-on
passer-by

verb + noun

washing machine
driving licence
swimming pool

verb + adverb

lookout

Compound elements

Examples

take-of
drawback

adverb + noun

onlooker
bystander

adjective + verb

dry-cleaning
public speaking

adjective + noun

greenhouse
software
redhead

adverb + verb

output
overthrow
upturn
input

PRONUNCIATION
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun and an adjective with
a noun. In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable.

EXAMPLES

a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun)

a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun)

a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun)

a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)

CAPITALISATION RULES

Capital letters are used with particular types of nouns, in certain positions in sentences, and with some
adjectives. You must always use capital letters for:
The beginning of a sentence

EXAMPLES

Dogs are noisy.

Children are noisy too.

The first person personal pronoun, I

EXAMPLES

Yesterday, I went to the park.

He isn't like I am.

Names and titles of people

EXAMPLES

Winston Churchill

Marilyn Monroe

the Queen of England

the President of the United States

the Headmaster of Eton

Doctor Mathews

Professor Samuels

Titles of works, books, movies

EXAMPLES

War and Peace

The Merchant of Venice

Crime and Punishment

Spider Man II

Months of the year

EXAMPLES

January

July

February

August

Days of the week

EXAMPLES

Monday

Friday

Tuesday

Saturday

Seasons

EXAMPLES

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Holidays

EXAMPLES

Christmas

Easter

New Year's Day

Thanksgiving Day

Names of countries and continents

EXAMPLES

America

England

Scotland

China

Names of regions, states, districts

EXAMPLES

Sussex

California

Provence

Tuscany

Names of cities, towns, villages

EXAMPLES

London

Cape Town

Florence

Vancouver

Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes

EXAMPLES

the Atlantic

the Pacific

Lake Victoria

the Rhine

the Thames

Names of geographical formations

EXAMPLES

the Himalayas

the Alps

the Sahara

Adjectives relating to nationality

EXAMPLES

French music

Australian animals

German literature

Arabic writing

Collective nouns for nationalities

EXAMPLES

the French

the Germans

the Americans

the Chinese

Language names

EXAMPLES

I speak Chinese.

He understands English.

Names of streets, buildings, parks

EXAMPLES

Park Lane

Sydney Opera House

Central Park

the Empire State Building

Wall Street

NATIONALITIES
Forming nationality adjectives and nouns from country names is not always simple in English. Use the
nationality adjective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality. The
adjective listed also often refers to the language spoken in the country, although this is not always the
case.

EXAMPLES

Country: I live in Japan.

Adjective: He likes Japanese food.

Origins: She is a Japanese person. = She is from Japan. = She is Japanese.

Language: She speaks Japanese.

Describing a group: Spaniards often drink wine. = Spanish people often drink wine.

Describing a group: The Chinese enjoy fireworks. = Chinese people enjoy fireworks.

In some cases, a nationality or regional noun may be negatively corrolated for some people, for historic or
political reasons. When this is the case, many people will not use it, but will instead use a more neutral
adjective + "people" formulation or "people from" + country name. This is the case for the examples with
an asterix below. Alternative formulations, less likely to give offense, are given in parentheses.

Geographic Region/Continent

Adjective

Noun

Africa

African

an African* (an African person, someo

Asia

Asian

an Asian* (an Asian person, someone

Europe

European

a European

Central America

Central American

a Central American

Middle East

Middle Eastern

a Middle Easterner

North Africa

North African

a North African

South America

South American

a South American

Southeast Asia

Southeast Asian

a Southeast Asian person

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Afghanistan

Afghan

an Afghan

Algeria

Algerian

an Algerian

Angola

Angolan

an Angolan

Argentina

Argentine

an Argentine

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Austria

Austrian

an Austrian

Australia

Australian

an Australian

Bangladesh

Bangladeshi

a Bangladeshi

Belarus

Belarusian

a Belarusian

Belgium

Belgian

a Belgian

Bolivia

Bolivian

a Bolivian

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnian/Herzegovi
nian

a Bosnian/a Herzegovinian

Brazil

Brazilian

a Brazilian

Britain

British

a Briton (informally: a Brit)

Bulgaria

Bulgarian

a Bulgarian

Cambodia

Cambodian

a Cambodian

Cameroon

Cameroonian

a Cameroonian

Canada

Canadian

a Canadian

Central African Republic

Central African

a Central African

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Chad

Chadian

a Chadian

China

Chinese

a Chinese person

Colombia

Colombian

a Colombian

Costa Rica

Costa Rican

a Costa Rican

Croatia

Croatian

a Croat

the Czech Republic

Czech

a Czech person

Democratic Republic of
the Congo

Congolese

a Congolese person (note: this refers to people fr

the Congo as well)

Denmark

Danish

a Dane

Ecuador

Ecuadorian

an Ecuadorian

Egypt

Egyptian

an Egyptian

El Salvador

Salvadoran

a Salvadoran (also accepted are Salvadorian & S

England

English

an Englishman/Englishwoman

Estonia

Estonian

an Estonian

Ethiopia

Ethiopian

an Ethiopian

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Finland

Finnish

a Finn

France

French

a Frenchman/Frenchwoman

Germany

German

a German

Ghana

Ghanaian

a Ghanaian

Greece

Greek

a Greek

Guatemala

Guatemalan

a Guatemalan

Holland

Dutch

a Dutchman/Dutchwoman

Honduras

Honduran

a Honduran

Hungary

Hungarian

a Hungarian

Iceland

Icelandic

an Icelander

India

Indian

an Indian

Indonesia

Indonesian

an Indonesian

Iran

Iranian

an Iranian

Iraq

Iraqi

an Iraqi

Ireland

Irish

an Irishman/Irishwoman

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Israel

Israeli

an Israeli

Italy

Italian

an Italian

Ivory Coast

Ivorian

an Ivorian

Jamaica

Jamaican

a Jamaican

Japan

Japanese

a Japanese person

Jordan

Jordanian

a Jordanian

Kazakhstan

Kazakh

a Kazakhstani (used as a noun, "a Kazakh" refers

not a nationality)

Kenya

Kenyan

a Kenyan

Laos

Lao

a Laotian (used as a noun, "a Lao" refers to an et

nationality)

Latvia

Latvian

a Latvian

Libya

Libyan

a Libyan

Lithuania

Lithuanian

a Lithuanian

Madagascar

Malagasy

a Malagasy

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Malaysia

Malaysian

a Malaysian

Mali

Malian

a Malian

Mauritania

Mauritanian

a Mauritanian

Mexico

Mexican

a Mexican* (may be ofensive in the USA. Use "so

instead.)

Morocco

Moroccan

a Moroccan

Namibia

Namibian

a Namibian

Nicaragua

Nicaraguan

a Nicaraguan

Niger

Nigerien

a Nigerien

Nigeria

Nigerian

a Nigerian

Norway

Norwegian

a Norwegian

Oman

Omani

an Omani

Pakistan

Pakistani

a Pakistani* (may be ofensive in the UK. Use "so

instead.)

Panama

Panamanian

a Panamanian

Paraguay

Paraguayan

a Paraguayan

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Peru

Peruvian

a Peruvian

The Philippines

Philippine

a Filipino* (someone from the Philippines)

Poland

Polish

a Pole* (someone from Poland, a Polish person)

Portugal

Portuguese

a Portuguese person

Republic of the Congo

Congolese

a Congolese person (note: this refers to people fr

Republic of the Congo as well)

Romania

Romanian

a Romanian

Russia

Russian

a Russian

Saudi Arabia

Saudi, Saudi
Arabian

a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian

Scotland

Scottish

a Scot

Senegal

Senegalese

a Senegalese person

Serbia

Serbian

a Serbian (used as a noun, "a Serb" refers to an e

nationality

Singapore

Singaporean

a Singaporean

Slovakia

Slovak

a Slovak

Somalia

Somalian

a Somalian

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

South Africa

South African

a South African

Spain

Spanish

a Spaniard* (a Spanish person, someone from Sp

Sudan

Sudanese

a Sudanese person

Sweden

Swedish

a Swede

Switzerland

Swiss

a Swiss person

Syria

Syrian

a Syrian

Thailand

Thai

a Thai person

Tunisia

Tunisian

a Tunisian

Turkey

Turkish

a Turk

Turkmenistan

Turkmen

a Turkmen / the Turkmens

Ukraine

Ukranian

a Ukranian

The United Arab

Emirates

Emirati

an Emirati

The United States

American

an American

Country or region

Adjective

Noun

Uruguay

Uruguayan

a Uruguayan

Vietnam

Vietnamese

a Vietnamese person

Wales

Welsh

a Welshman/Welshwoman

Zambia

Zambian

a Zambian

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwean

a Zimbabwean

Cities also can be transformed into adjectives and nouns, although they are highly irregular and the
nominal form is not always agreed upon (there may be several). Some examples of transformed city
names are below.

City

Adjective

Noun

Paris

Parisian

a Parisian

New York

New York

a New Yorker

Sydney

Sydney

a Sydney-sider

London

London

a Londoner

So Paulo

So Paulo

a Paulistano

New Delhi

New Delhi

a Delhiite

Cape Town

Cape Town

a Capetonian

FORMING THE
POSSESSIVE
The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. It
shows a relationship of belonging between one thing and another. To form the possessive, add
apostrophe + s to the noun. If the noun is plural, or already ends in s, just add an apostrophe after the s.

EXAMPLES

the car of John = John's car

the room of the girls = the girls' room

clothes for men = men's clothes

the boat of the sailors = the sailors' boat

For names ending in s, you can either add an apostrophe + s, or just an apostrophe. The first option is
more common. When pronouncing a possessive name, we add the sound /z/ to the end of the name.

EXAMPLES

Thomas's book (or Thomas' book)

James's shop (or James' shop)

the Smiths's house (or the Smiths' house)

FUNCTIONS OF THE POSSESSIVE

'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is the most common relationship the possessive expresses.

EXAMPLES

John owns a car. = It is John's car.

America has some gold reserves. = They are America's gold reserves.

The possessive can also express where someone works, studies or spends time

EXAMPLES

John goes to this school. = This is John's school.

John sleeps in this room. = This is John's room.

The possessive can express a relationship between people.

EXAMPLES

John's mother is running late.

Mrs Brown's colleague will not be coming to the meeting.

The possessive can express intangible things as well.

EXAMPLES

John's patience is running out.

The politician's hypocrisy was deeply shocking.

FIXED EXPRESSIONS
There are also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used.

EXAMPLES WITH TIME

a day's work

a month's pay

today's newspaper

in a year's time

OTHER EXAMPLES

For God's sake! (= exclamation of exasperation)

a stone's throw away (= very near)

at death's door (= very ill)

in my mind's eye (= in my imagination)

The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job
title of the owner.

EXAMPLES

Shall we go to Luigi's for lunch?

I've got an appointment at the dentist's at eleven o'clock.

Is Saint Mary's an all-girls school?

FUNCTIONS OF
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe the aspects of nouns. When an adjective is describing a noun, we say it is "modifying"
it. Adjectives can:
Describe feelings or qualities

EXAMPLES

He is a lonely man.

They are honest.

Give nationality or origin

EXAMPLES

I heard a French song.

This clock is German.

Our house is Victorian.

Tell more about a thing's characteristics

EXAMPLES

That is a flashy car.

The knife is sharp.

Tell us about age

EXAMPLES

He's a young man.

My coat is old.

Tell us about size and measurement

EXAMPLES

John is a tall man.

This film is long.

Tell us about colour

EXAMPLES

Paul wore a red shirt.

The sunset was crimson.

Tell us what something is made of

EXAMPLES

The table is wooden.

She wore a cotton dress.

Tell us about shape

EXAMPLES

I sat at a round table.

The envelope is square.

Express a judgement or a value

EXAMPLES

That was a fantastic film.

Grammar is complicated.

USING ADJECTIVES IN
ENGLISH
Adjectives in English are invariable. They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of
the noun.

EXAMPLES

This is a hot potato.

Those are some hot potatoes.

To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective, use the adverbs very or really in front of the
adjective you want to strengthen.

EXAMPLES

This is a very hot potato

Those are some really hot potatoes.

Adjectives in English usually appear in front of the noun that they modify.

EXAMPLES

The beautiful girl ignored me.

The fast red car drove away.

Adjectives can also appear after being and sensing verbs like to be, to seem , to look & to taste.

EXAMPLES

Italy is beautiful.

I don't think she seems nice at all.

You look tired.

This meat tastes funny.

SOME EXCEPTIONS
Adjectives appear after the noun in some fixed expressions.

EXAMPLES

The Princess Royal is visiting Oxford today.

The President elect made a speech last night.

He received a court martial the following week.

The adjectives involved, present & concerned can appear either before or after the noun that they modify,
but with a different meaning depending on the placement.

EXAMPLES
Adjective placed after
the noun

Meaning

Adjective placed before

the noun

Me

I want to see the

peopleinvolved.

I want to see the people who

have something to do with this
matter.

It was
an involveddiscussion.

Th
de

Here is a list of the

peoplepresent at the
meeting.

Here is a list of the people who

were at the meeting.

The present situation is

not sustainable.

Th
is n

I need to see the

man concernedby this
accusation.

I need to see the man who has

been accused.

A concerned father came

to see me today.

Aw
cam
tod

ORDERING MULTIPLE
ADJECTIVES
When a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The
usual order is:
Quantity, Value/opinion, Size, Temperature, Age, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material

What the adjective expresses

Examples

Quantity

four, ten, a few, several

Value/Opinion

delicious, charming, beautiful

Size

tall, tiny, huge

Temperature

hot, cold

Age

old, young, new, 14-year-old

Shape

square, round

Color

red, purple, green

Origin

Swedish, Victorian, Chinese

Material

glass, silver, wooden

EXAMPLES

They have a lovely old red post-box.

The playroom has six small round plastic tables.

I bought some charming Victorian silver ornaments at the flea market.

She is selling her flashy 3-year-old Italiancar.

It was a beautiful cold day.

THE COMPARATIVE AND

THE SUPERLATIVE
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they modify (larger,
smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in this pattern:
Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).
The second item of comparison can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final example below).

EXAMPLES

My house is larger than hers.

This box is smaller than the one I lost.

Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.

The rock flew higher than the roof.

Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is understood)

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a quality (the
tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences where a subject is compared to
a group of objects.
Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).

The group that is being compared with can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final example below).

EXAMPLES

My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.

This is the smallest box I've ever seen.

Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race.

We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all the rocks" is
understood)

FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES AND

SUPERLATIVES
Forming comparatives and superlatives is easy. The form depends on the number of syllables in the
original adjective.

ONE SYLLABLE ADJECTIVES

Add -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative. If the adjective has a consonant + single vowel +
consonant spelling, the final consonant must be doubled before adding the ending.

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

tall

taller

tallest

fat

fatter

fattest

big

bigger

biggest

sad

sadder

saddest

TWO SYLLABLES
Adjectives with two syllables can form the comparative either by adding -er or by preceeding the adjective
with more. These adjectives form the superlative either by adding -est or by preceeding the adjective

with most. In many cases, both forms are used, although one usage will be more common than the other.
If you are not sure whether a two-syllable adjective can take a comparative or superlative ending, play it
safe and use moreand most instead. For adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i before adding the
ending.

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

happy

happier

happiest

simple

simpler

simplest

busy

busier

busiest

tilted

more tilted

most tilted

tangled

more tangled

most tangled

THREE OR MORE SYLLABLES

Adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative by putting more in front of the adjective, and
the superlative by putting most in front.

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

important

more important

most important

expensive

more expensive

most expensive

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

These very common adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

bad

worse

worst

little

less

least

much

more

most

far

further / farther

furthest / farthest

EXAMPLES

Today is the worst day I've had in a long time.

You play tennis better than I do.

This is the least expensive sweater in the store.

This sweater is less expensive than that one.

I ran pretty far yesterday, but I ran even farther today.

COMPARING ATTRIBUTES
When comparing the attributes of two things, we use a standard set of constructions.

WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE EQUAL

Comparing equal attributes is simple. To compare the attributes of two things that are equal, we use the
pattern:
as + adjective describing the attribute + as

EXAMPLES

Tom is as tall as his brother.

I am as hungry as you are.

Sally is as nice as Jane.

WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE NOT EQUAL

When the two attributes are not equal, there are three constructions with equivalent meanings.
Either use the pattern:
not as + adjective describing the attribute + as
Or use the pattern:
less + adjective describing the attribute + than : This construction is more frequent with some
adjectives than with others.
Or use the pattern:
comparative adjective + than : This construction may require changing the order of the phrase or using
the opposing adjective.

EXAMPLES

Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest.

Mont Blanc is less high than Mount Everest.

Mont Blanc is lower than Mount Everest.

Mount Everest is higher than Mont Blanc.

Norway is not as sunny as Thailand.

Norway is less sunny than Thailand.

Thailand is sunnier than Norway.

Norway is cloudier than Thailand.

ADJECTIVES COMPARING
EQUAL QUANTITIES
To compare two things that are equal, we use the pattern:
as + adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + as
The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or
uncountable.
COUNTABLE NOUNS
Use as many and as few with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.

EXAMPLES

They have as many children as we do.

We have as many customers as they do.

Tom has as few books as Jane.

There are as few houses in his village as in mine.

You know as many people as I do.

I have visited the States as many times as he has.

I have three brothers. That's as many as you have. ("brothers" is

understood)

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Use as much or as little with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.

EXAMPLES

John eats as much food as Peter.

Jim has as little patience as Sam.

You've heard as much news as I have.

He's had as much success as his brother has.

They've got as little water as we have.

I'm not hungry. I've had as much as I want. ("food" is understood)

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ADJECTIVES COMPARING
UNEQUAL QUANTITIES
To compare two things that are unequal, we use the pattern:
adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + than
The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or
uncountable.
COUNTABLE NOUNS
Use more and fewer with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.

EXAMPLES

They have more children than we do.

We have more customers than they do.

Tom has fewer books than Jane.

There are fewer houses in his village than in mine.

You know more people than I do.

I have visited the States more times than he has.

I have three brothers. That's more than you have. ("brothers" is understood)

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Use more or less with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be omitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.

EXAMPLES

John eats more food than Peter.

Jim has less patience than Sam.

You've heard more news than I have.

He's had more success than his brother has.

They've got less water than we have.

I'm not hungry at all. I've had more than I want. ("food" is understood)

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USING ADVERBS IN
ENGLISH
Adverbs modify, or tell us more about, other words. Usually adverbs modify verbs, telling us how, how
often, when, or where something was done. The adverb is placed after the verb it modifies.

EXAMPLES

The bus moved slowly.

The bears ate greedily.

The car drove fast.

Sometimes adverbs modify adjectives, making them stronger or weaker.

EXAMPLES

You look absolutely fabulous!

He is slightly overweight.

You are very persistent.

Some types of adverbs can modify other adverbs, changing their degree or precision.

EXAMPLES

She played the violin extremely well.

You're speaking too quietly.

FORMING ADVERBS FROM

ADJECTIVES
In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding -ly to an adjective

Adjective

Adverb

cheap

cheaply

quick

quickly

slow

slowly

If the adjective ends in -y, replace the y with i and add -ly

Adjective

Adverb

easy

easily

angry

angrily

happy

happily

lucky

luckily

If the adjective ends in -able, -ible, or -le, replace the -e with -y.

Adjective

Adverb

probable

probably

terrible

terribly

gentle

gently

If the adjective ends in -ic, add -ally. Exception: public -> publicly

Adjective

Adverb

basic

basically

tragic

tragically

economic

economically

Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: early, fast, hard, high, late, near, straight, & wrong

EXAMPLES

It is a fast car.

He drives very fast.

This is a hard exercise.

He works hard.

We saw many high buildings.

The bird flew high in the sky.

Well is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective good.

EXAMPLES

He is a good student.

He studies well.

She is a good pianist.

She plays the piano well.

They are good swimmers.

They swim well.

COMPARATIVE AND
SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS
With adverbs ending in -ly, you must use more to form the comparative, and most to form the superlative.

Adverb

Comparative

Superlative

quietly

more quietly

most quietly

slowly

more slowly

most slowly

seriously

more seriously

most seriously

EXAMPLES

The teacher spoke more slowly to help us to understand.

Could you sing more quietly please?

With short adverbs that do not end in -ly comparative and superlative forms are identical to adjectives:
add -er to form the comparative and -est to form the superlative. If the adverb ends in e, remove it before
adding the ending.

Adverb

Comparative

Superlative

hard

harder

hardest

fast

faster

fastest

late

later

latest

EXAMPLES

Jim works harder than his brother.

Everyone in the race ran fast, but John ran the fastest of all.

Some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Adverb

Comparative

Superlative

badly

worse

worst

far

farther/further

farthest/furthest

little

less

least

well

better

best

EXAMPLES

The little boy ran farther than his friends.

You're driving worse today than yesterday !

He played the best of any player.

ADVERBS OF PLACE
Adverbs of place tell us where something happens. They are usually placed after the main verb or after
the clause that they modify. Adverbs of place do not modify adjectives or other adverbs.

EXAMPLES

John looked around but he couldn't see the monkey.

I searched everywhere I could think of.

I'm going back to school.

Come in!

They built a house nearby.

She took the child outside.

HERE AND THERE

Here and there are common adverbs of place. They give a location relative to the speaker. With verbs of
movement, here means "towards or with the speaker" and there means "away from, or not with the
speaker".

Sentence

Meaning

Come here!

Come towards me.

The table is in here.

Come with me; we will go see it together.

Put it there.

Put it in a place away from me.

The table is in there.

Go in; you can see it by yourself.

Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial phrases.

EXAMPLES

What are you doing up there?

Come over here and look at what I found!

The baby is hiding down there under the table.

I wonder how my driver's license got stuck under here.

Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations or when emphasis is needed.
They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun or by a pronoun if the subject is a pronoun.

EXAMPLES

Here comes the bus!

There goes the bell!

There it is!

Here they are!

ADVERBS OF PLACE THAT ARE ALSO PREPOSITIONS

Many adverbs of place can also be used as prepositions. When used as prepositions, they must be
followed by a noun.

Word

Used as an adverb of place, modifying a verb

Used as a preposition

around

The marble rolled around in my hand.

I am wearing a necklace aro

behind

Hurry! You are getting behind.

Let's hide behind the shed.

down

Mary fell down.

John made his way carefully

in

We decided to drop in on Jake.

I dropped the letter in the m

of

Let's get of at the next stop.

The wind blew the flowers of

on

We rode on for several more hours.

Please put the books on the

over

He turned over and went back to sleep.

I think I will hang the picture

ADVERBS OF PLACE ENDING IN -WHERE

Adverbs of place that end in -where express the idea of location without specifying a specific location or
direction.

EXAMPLES

I would like to go somewhere warm for my vacation.

Is there anywhere I can find a perfect plate of spaghetti around here?

I have nowhere to go.

I keep running in to Sally everywhere!

ADVERBS OF PLACE ENDING IN -WARDS

Adverbs of place that end in -wards express movement in a particular direction.

EXAMPLES

Cats don't usually walk backwards.

The ship sailed westwards.

The balloon drifted upwards.

We will keep walking homewards until we arrive.

Be careful: Towards is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always followed by a noun or a pronoun.

EXAMPLES

He walked towards the car.

She ran towards me.

ADVERBS OF PLACE EXPRESSING BOTH MOVEMENT

& LOCATION
Some adverbs of place express both movement & location at the same time.

EXAMPLES

The child went indoors.

He lived and worked abroad.

Water always flows downhill.

The wind pushed us sideways.

ADVERBS OF TIME

Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often.

ADVERBS THAT TELL US WHEN

Adverbs that tell us when are usually placed at the end of the sentence.

EXAMPLES

Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.

I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow.

I saw Sally today.

I will call you later.

I have to leave now.

I saw that movie last year.

Putting an adverb that tells us when at the end of a sentence is a neutral position, but these adverbs can
be put in other positions to give a different emphasis. All adverbs that tell us when can be placed at the
beginning of the sentence to emphasize the time element. Some can also be put before the main verb in
formal writing, while others cannot occupy that position.

EXAMPLES

Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is important)

Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's report)

Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis)

ADVERBS THAT TELL US FOR HOW LONG

Adverbs that tell us for how long are also usually placed at the end of the sentence.

EXAMPLES

She stayed in the Bears' house all day.

My mother lived in France for a year.

I have been going to this school since 1996.

In these adverbial phrases that tell us for how long, for is always followed by an expression of duration,
while since is always followed by an expression of a point in time.

EXAMPLES

I stayed in Switzerland for three days.

I am going on vacation for a week.

I have been riding horses for several years.

The French monarchy lasted for several centuries.

I have not seen you since Monday.

Jim has been working here since 1997.

There has not been a more exciting discovery since last century.

ADVERBS THAT TELL US HOW OFTEN

Adverbs that tell us how often express the frequency of an action. They are usually placed before the
main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, & must). The only exception is when the main
verb is "to be", in which case the adverb goes after the main verb.

EXAMPLES

I often eat vegetarian food.

He never drinks milk.

You must always fasten your seat belt.

I am seldom late.

He rarely lies.

Many adverbs that express frequency can also be placed at either the beginning or the end of the
sentence, although some cannot be. When they are placed in these alternate positions, the meaning of
the adverb is much stronger.

Adverb that can be used in two

positions

Stronger position

Weaker pos

frequently

I visit France frequently.

I frequently

generally

Generally, I don't like spicy foods.

I generally d

normally

I listen to classical music normally.

I normally lis

occasionally

I go to the opera occasionally.

I occasionall

often

Often, I jog in the morning.

I often jog in

regularly

I come to this museum regularly.

I regularly c

sometimes

I get up very early sometimes.

I sometimes

usually

I enjoy being with children usually.

I usually enjo

Some other adverbs that tell us how often express the exact number of times an action happens or
happened. These adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence.

EXAMPLES

This magazine is published monthly.

He visits his mother once a week.

I work five days a week.

I saw the movie seven times.

USING YET
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences to indicate that something that has not happened or
may not have happened but is expected to happen. It is placed at the end of the sentence or after not.

EXAMPLES

Have you finished your work yet? (= simple request for information)

No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)

They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)

Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing surprise)

USING STILL
Still expresses continuity. In positive sentences it is placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs
such as be, have, might, will. If the main verb is to be, then place still after it rather than before. In
questions, still goes before the main verb.

EXAMPLES

She is still waiting for you.

Jim might still want some.

Do you still work for the BBC?

Are you still here?

I am still hungry.

ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME

If you need to use more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in this order:
1: how long 2: how often 3: when

EXAMPLES

1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day

2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.

1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.

1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.

ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. They are usually placed either after the main verb or
after the object.

EXAMPLES

He swims well.

He ran quickly.

She spoke softly.

James coughed loudly to attract her attention.

He plays the flute beautifully. (after the direct object)

He ate the chocolate cake greedily. (after the direct object)

An adverb of manner cannot be put between a verb and its direct object. The adverb must be placed
either before the verb or at the end of the clause.

EXAMPLES

He ate greedily the chocolate cake. [incorrect]

He ate the chocolate cake greedily. [correct]

He greedily ate the chocolate cake. [correct]

He gave us generously the money. [incorrect]

He gave us the money generously. [correct]

He generously gave us the money. [correct]

If there is a preposition before the verb's object, you can place the adverb of manner either before the
preposition or after the object.

EXAMPLES

The child ran happily towards his mother.

The child ran towards his mother happily.

Adverbs of manner should always come immediately after verbs which have no object (intransitive verbs).

EXAMPLES

The town grew quickly after 1997.

He waited patiently for his mother to arrive.

These common adverbs of manner are almost always placed directly after the verb: well, badly, hard, &
fast

EXAMPLES

He swam well despite being tired.

The rain fell hard during the storm.

The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in a sentence. If the adverb is
placed before or after the main verb, it modifies only that verb. If the adverb is placed after a clause, then
it modifies the whole action described by the clause. Notice the difference in meaning between the
following sentences.

Example

Meaning

She quickly agreed to re-type the letter.

the agreement is qui

She agreed quickly to re-type the letter.

the agreement is qui

She agreed to re-type the letter quickly.

the re-typing is quick

He quietly asked me to leave the house.

the request is quiet

He asked me quietly to leave the house.

the request is quiet

He asked me to leave the house quietly.

the leaving is quiet

LITERARY USAGE
Sometimes an adverb of manner is placed before a verb + object to add emphasis.

EXAMPLES

He gently woke the sleeping woman.

She angrily slammed the door.

Some writers put an adverb of manner at the beginning of the sentence to catch our attention and make
us curious.

EXAMPLES

Slowly she picked up the knife.

Roughly he grabbed her arm.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.
Adverbs of degree are usually placed before the adjective, adverb, or verb they are modifying, although
there are some exceptions discussed below.

Adverb of degree

Modifying

Example

extremely

adjective

The water was extremely cold.

quite

adjective

The movie is quite interesting.

just

verb

He was just leaving.

almost

verb

She has almost finished.

very

adverb

She is running very fast.

Adverb of degree

Modifying

Example

too

adverb

You are walking too slowly.

enough

adverb

You are running fast enough.

USAGE OF "ENOUGH"
Enough can be used as both an adverb and as a determiner.

ENOUGH AS AN ADVERB
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after the adjective or adverb that it is
modifying, and not before it as other adverbs do. It can be used both in positive and negative sentences.

EXAMPLES

Is your coffee hot enough?

This box isn't big enough.

He didn't work hard enough.

I got here early enough.

Enough is often followed by "to" + the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.

Is your coffee hot enough to drink?

She's not old enough to get married.

I got here early enough to sign up.

Enough can also be followed by "for someone" or "for something".

EXAMPLES

The dress was big enough for me.

She's not experienced enough for this job.

Is the coffee hot enough for you?

He didn't work hard enough for a promotion.

ENOUGH AS A DETERMINER
Enough as a determiner meaning 'as much/many as necessary' goes before the noun it modifies. It is
used with countable nouns in the plural and with uncountable nouns.

EXAMPLES

We have enough bread.

You have enough children.

They don't have enough food.

I don't have enough apples.

USAGE OF "TOO"
"Too" is always an adverb, but it has two distinct meanings, each with its own usage patterns.

TOO MEANING "ALSO"

Too as an adverb meaning "also" goes at the end of the phrase it modifies.

EXAMPLES

I would like to go swimming too, if you will let me come.

Can I go to the zoo too?

Is this gift for me too?

I'm not going to clean your room too!

TOO MEANING "EXCESSIVELY"

Too as an adverb meaning "excessively" goes before the adjective or adverb it modifies. It can be used in
both affirmative and negative sentences.

EXAMPLES

This coffee is too hot.

He works too hard.

Isn't she too young?

I am not too short!

Too is often followed by "to" + the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

The coffee was too hot to drink.

You're too young to have grandchildren!

I am not too tired to go out tonight.

Don't you work too hard to have any free time?

Too can also be followed by "for someone" or "for something".

EXAMPLES

The coffee was too hot for me.

The dress was too small for her.

He's not too old for this job.

Sally's not too slow for our team.

USAGE OF "VERY"
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.

EXAMPLES

The girl was very beautiful.

The house is very expensive.

He worked very quickly.

She runs very fast.

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can add "not" to the verb, we can use an
adjective or adverb of opposite meaning, or we can use "not very" with the original adjective or adverb.
The meanings of the phrases are not identical. Usually the phrase using "not very" is less direct, and thus
more polite, than the other phrases.

EXAMPLES
Original phrase

Opposite meaning
with "not"

Opposite meaning with

"not very"

Opposite mean
opposite word

The girl was

beautiful.

The girl was not

beautiful.

The girl was not very

beautiful.

The girl was ugly.

He worked
quickly.

He did not work quickly.

He did not work very quickly.

He worked slowly

DIFFERENCE IN MEANING BETWEEN "VERY" AND "TOO"

There is a big difference in meaning between "too" and "very". "Very" expresses a fact while "too"
suggests there is a problem.

EXAMPLES

He speaks very quickly.

He speaks too quickly for me to understand.

It is very hot outside.

It is too hot outside to go for a walk.

OTHER ADVERBS USED LIKE "VERY"

Some common adverbs are used in the same way as "very" to heighten the degree of adjectives and
adverbs.

Expressing very strong feelings

Expressing strong feelings

Expressing
feelings

extremely, terribly, amazingly,

wonderfully, insanely

especially, particularly, uncommonly,

unusually, remarkably, quite

pretty, rathe
especially, n

The movie was amazingly

interesting.

The movie was particularly interesting.

The movie w

She sang wonderfully well.

She sang unusually well.

She sang pr

The lecture was terribly boring.

The lecture was quite boring.

The lecture

INVERSION WITH NEGATIVE ADVERBS

Normally the subject goes before the verb, however, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion
when placed at the beginning of the clause. The order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject.
This inversion is only used in writing, not in speaking.

Adverb

Normal word order

Inversion

Never

I have never seen such courage.

Never have I seen such courage

Rarely

She rarely left the house.

Rarely did she leave the house

Not only

She did not only the cooking but the cleaning as

well.

Not only did she do the cooking

well.

Scarcely

I scarcely closed the door before he started talking.

Scarcely did I close the door be

Adverb

Normal word order

Inversion

talking.

Seldom

We seldom cross the river after sunset.

Seldom do we cross the river su

ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY
Adverbs of certainty express how certain we feel about an action or event. Adverbs of certainty go before
the main verb unless the main verb is 'to be', in which case the adverb of certainty goes after. certainly,
definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely

EXAMPLES

He definitely left the house this morning.

He surely won't forget.

He is probably in the park.

He is certainly a smart man.

If there is an auxiliary verb, the adverb of certainty goes between the auxiliary and the main verb.

EXAMPLES

He has certainly forgotten the meeting.

He will probably remember tomorrow.

He is definitely running late.

Sometimes these adverbs of certainty can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

EXAMPLES

Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.

Certainly, I will be there.

Probably, he has forgotten the meeting.

When the adverb of certainty surely is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it means the speaker
thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation.

EXAMPLES

Surely you've got a bicycle.

Surely you're not going to wear that to the party.

VIEWPOINT AND
COMMENTING ADVERBS
There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the speaker's viewpoint or opinion
about an action, or make some comment on the action. These adverbs are different from other adverbs
because they do not tell us how an action occurred. Commenting and viewpoint adverbs modify entire
clauses rather than single verbs, adverbs, or adjectives. There is no real distinction between commenting
adverbs and viewpoint adverbs, except in their sentence placement. Many adverbs that can be used as
viewpoint adverbs can also be used as commenting adverbs. However, in some cases, an adverb is far
more common as one or the other.

SENTENCE PLACEMENT
Viewpoint adverbs are placed at the beginning, or more rarely, at the end of the sentence. They are
usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Commenting adverbs are placed before the
main verb unless the verb "to be" is used, in which case placement can be either before or after the verb.
In some cases, commenting adverbs placed before the main verb will also be separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas, although in most cases they will not be. In the examples below, viewpoint and
commenting adverbs are shown in the correct sentence placements. When a sentence placement is
unusual, stilted, or too formal for spoken language, it is marked with an asterisk.

Viewpoint or
commenting
adverb

At the start of a
sentence

Before the main verb

At the

clearly

Clearly, he doesn't

He clearly doesn't know what he is doing.

He do

Viewpoint or
commenting
adverb

At the start of a
sentence

Before the main verb

know what he is doing.

At the

doing,

obviously

Obviously, you are

acting silly.

You are obviously acting silly

You ar
silly, o

personally

Personally, I'd rather

go by train.

I'd personally rather go by train.

I'd rat
train,p

presumably

Presumably, he didn't
have time to go to the
post office.

He presumably didn't have time to go to

the post office.

He did
the po
office,

seriously

Seriously, I can't give

this speech.

I seriously can't give this speech.

I can't
speec

surely

Surely you tried to get

here on time.

You surely tried to get here on time.

You tr
time,s

technically

Technically, we cannot
fly to Mars and back.

We technically cannot fly to Mars and

back.

We ca
back,

undoubtedly

Undoubtedly, he has a
good reason not to
come.

He undoubtedly has a good reason not

to come.

He ha
come,

bravely

Bravely, I kept on
walking.

I bravely kept on walking.

*I kep

carelessly

Carelessly, she threw

her book into the pond.

She carelessly threw her book into the

pond.

*She t
the po

Viewpoint or
commenting
adverb

At the start of a
sentence

Before the main verb

At the

certainly

Certainly you should

be there.

You certainly should be there. / You

should certainlybe there.

You sh
there,

cleverly

Cleverly, Sally hid the

jellybeans.

Sally cleverly hid the jellybeans.

*Sally
jellybe

definitely

*Definitely, you are

smart.

You defintely are smart. / You

are definitely smart.

*You a

foolishly

Foolishly, they cried

out.

They foolishly cried out.

They c

generously

Generously, he
donated the money.

He generously donated the money.

*He do
mone

stupidly

Stupidly, they played

in the street.

They stupidly played in the street.

*They
street

obviously

Obviously, we are lost.

We are obviously lost. /

*We obviously are lost.

We ar

kindly

Kindly, she fed the cat

first.

She kindly fed the cat first.

She fe

luckily

Luckily, you got here

on time.

You luckily got here on time.

You go
time,

fortunately

Fortunately, we found
the boat.

We fortunately found the boat.

We fou
boat,f

naturally

Naturally, you cannot

You naturally cannot be in the circus

You ca

Viewpoint or
commenting
adverb

At the start of a
sentence

Before the main verb

At the

be in the circus now.

now.

now, n

wisely

Wisely, she stayed

home to take a nap.

She wisely stayed home to take a nap.

She st
nap,w

confidentially

Confidentially, I never
gave him the envelope.

theoretically

Theoretically, we
could send astronauts
to Mars.

We could theoretically send astronauts

to Mars. / We theoretically could send
astronauts to Mars.

We co
Mars,

truthfully

Truthfully, I don't like

chocolate much.

I truthfully don't like chocolate much.

I don't
much,

disappointingly

Disappointingly, she
got fourth place.

She disappointingly got fourth place.

She g
place,

thoughtfully

Thoughtfully, I turned
away.

I thoughtfully turned away.

I turne
away,

simply

*Simply, I don't want to

come.

I simply don't want to come.

unbelievably

Unbelievably, she
showed up late again.

She unbelievably showed up late again.

She sh
again,

unfortunately

Unfortunately, there is
no more room.

There is unfortunately no more room. /

Thereunfortunately is no more room.

There
room,

I neve
envelo

RELATIVE ADVERBS
The relative adverbs where, when & why can be used to join sentences or clauses. They replace the
more formal structure of preposition + which used to introduce a relative clause.

Formal structure, preposition + which

More common stucture using a relat

That's the restaurant in which we met for the first time.

That's the restaurant where we met for

That picture was taken in the park at which I used to play.

That picture was taken in the park whe

I remember the day on which we first met.

I remember the day when we first met.

There was a very hot summer the year in which he was born.

There was a very hot summer the year

Tell me the reason for which you came home late.

Tell me (the reason) why you came hom

Do you want to know the reason for which he is angry with Sally?

Do you want to know (the reason) why

INTERROGATIVE
ADVERBS
The interrogative adverbs why, where, how, & when are placed at the beginning of a question. These
questions can be answered with a sentence or a prepositional phrase. After an interrogative adverb in a
question, you must invert the subject and verb so that the verb comes first.

EXAMPLES

Why are you so late? There was a lot of traffic.

Where is my passport? In the drawer.

How are you? I'm fine.

When does the train arrive? At 11:15.

USES OF HOW
How can be used to form questions in four different ways. How can be used by itself to mean "in what
way".

EXAMPLES

How did you make this sauce?

How do you start the car?

How can I get to your house?

How can be used with adjectives to ask about the degree of an attribute.

EXAMPLES

How tall are you?

How old is your house?

How angry is mother?

How can be used with much and many to ask about quantity. Much is used with uncountable nouns
and many is used with countable nouns.

EXAMPLES

How many people are coming to the party?

How much flour do I need?

How much are these tomatoes?

How can be used with other adverbs to ask about the frequency or degree of an action.

EXAMPLES

How quickly can you read this?

How often do you go to London?

How loudly does your brother scream?

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IS USED:

To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and wishes:
I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large city (general
truth)

To give instructions or directions:

You walk for two hundred metres, then you turn left.

To express fixed arrangements, present or future:

Your exam starts at 09.00

To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as soon as, until:
He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.
Be careful! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now.

EXAMPLES

For habits
He drinks tea at breakfast.
She only eats fish.
They watch television regularly.

For repeated actions or events

We catch the bus every morning.
It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
They drive to Monaco every summer.

For general truths

Water freezes at zero degrees.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Her mother is Peruvian.

For instructions or directions

Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.

For fixed arrangements

His mother arrives tomorrow.
Our holiday starts on the 26th March

With future constructions

She'll see you before she leaves.
We'll give it to her when she arrives.

FORMING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: TO THINK

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I think

Do I think?

I do not think

You think

Do you think?

You do not think

He thinks

Does he think?

He does not think

She thinks

Does she think?

She does not think

It thinks

Does it think?

It does not think

We think

Do we think?

We do not think.

They think

Do they think?

They do not think.

NOTES ON THE SIMPLE PRESENT, THIRD PERSON SINGULAR

In the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:

he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks.

Negative and question forms use DOES (= the third person of the auxiliary 'DO') + the infinitive
of the verb.
He wants ice cream. Does he want strawberry? He does not want vanilla.

Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:

fly --> flies, cry --> cries
Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y:
play --> plays, pray --> prays

Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:

he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes

EXAMPLES

He goes to school every morning.

She understands English.

It mixes the sand and the water.

He tries very hard.

She enjoys playing the piano.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

FORMING THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present tense of the verb to be + the
present participle of the main verb.
(The form of the present participle is: base+ing, e.g. talking, playing, moving, smiling)
Affirmative
Subject

+ to be

+ base + ing

She

is

talking.

Subject

+ to be + not

+ base + ing

She

is not (isn't)

talking

to be

+ subject

+ base + ing

Is

she

talking?

Negative

Interrogative

EXAMPLES: TO GO, PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I am going

I am not going

Am I going?

You are going

You aren't going.

Are you going?

He, she, it is going

He, she, it isn't going

Is he, she, it going?

We are going

We aren't going

Are we going?

You are going

You aren't going

Are you going?

They are going

They aren't going

Are they going?

Note: alternative negative contractions: I'm not going, you're not going, he's not going etc.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
As with all tenses in English, the speaker's attitude is as important as the time of the action or event.
When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something that is unfinished or
incomplete

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS IS USED:

to describe an action that is going on at this moment: You are using the Internet. You are
studying English grammar.

to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend: Are you still
working for the same company? More and more peopleare becoming vegetarian.

to describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared: We're
going on holiday tomorrow. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight. Are they visiting you next winter?

to describe a temporary event or situation: He usually plays the drums, but he's playing bass
guitar tonight. The weather forecast was good, butit's raining at the moment.

with "always, forever, constantly", to describe and emphasise a continuing series of repeated
actions: Harry and Sally are always arguing!You're constantly complaining about your motherin-law!
BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form

VERBS THAT ARE NOT USUALLY USED IN THE CONTINUOUS FORM

The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form because they refer to states, rather than
actions or processes.
SENSES / PERCEPTION

to feel*

to hear

to see*

to smell

to taste

OPINION

to assume

to believe

to consider

to doubt

to feel (= to think)

to find (= to consider)

to suppose

to think*

MENTAL STATES

to forget

to imagine

to know

to mean

to notice

to recognise

to remember

to understand

EMOTIONS / DESIRES

to envy

to fear

to dislike

to hate

to hope

to like

to love

to mind

to prefer

to regret

to want

to wish

MEASUREMENT

to contain

to cost

to hold

to measure

to weigh

OTHERS

to look (=resemble)

to seem

to be (in most cases)

to have(when it means "to possess")*

EXCEPTIONS
Perception verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with can: : I can see... These verbs may be
used in the continuous form but with a different meaning

This coat feels nice and warm. (your perception of the coat's qualities)

John's feeling much better now (his health is improving)

She has three dogs and a cat. (possession)

She's having supper. (She's eating)

I can see Anthony in the garden (perception)

I'm seeing Anthony later (We are planning to meet)

PRESENT PERFECT
FORMING THE PRESENT PERFECT
The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the auxiliary
verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past participle of a regular verb

is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the
section called 'Verbs'.
Affirmative
Subject

to have

past participle

She

has

visited.

Subject

to have + not

past participle

She

has not (hasn't)

visited.

to have

subject

past participle

Has

she

visited?

to have + not

subject

past participle

Hasn't

she

visited?

Negative

Interrogative

Negative interrogative

TO WALK, PRESENT PERFECT

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I have walked

I haven't walked

Have I walked?

You have walked

You haven't walked.

Have you walked?

He, she, it has walked

He, she, hasn't walked

Has he, she, it walked?

We have walked

We haven't walked

Have we walked?

You have walked

You haven't walked

Have you walked?

They have walked

They haven't walked

Have they walked?

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action
is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself.

BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the meaning is
probably NOT the same.
THE PRESENT PERFECT IS USED TO DESCRIBE

An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. I have lived in Bristol
since 1984 (= and I still do.)

An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. Shehas beento the cinema twice
this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)

A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. We have visited Portugal
several times.

An action that was completed in the very recent past, expressed by 'just'. I have just finished my
work.

An action when the time is not important. He has read 'War and Peace'. (= the result of his
reading is important)

Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past. Read more
about choosing between the present perfect and the simple past tenses.
ACTIONS STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUING IN THE PRESENT

They haven't lived here for years.

She has worked in the bank for five years.

We have had the same car for ten years.

Have you played the piano since you were a child?

WHEN THE TIME PERIOD REFERRED TO HAS NOT FINISHED

I have worked hard this week.

It has rained a lot this year.

We haven't seen her today.

ACTIONS REPEATED IN AN UNSPECIFIED PERIOD BETWEEN THE PAST AND NOW.

They have seen that film six times

It has happened several times already.

She has visited them frequently.

We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

ACTIONS COMPLETED IN THE VERY RECENT PAST (+JUST)

Have you just finished work?

I have just eaten.

We have just seen her.

Has he just left?

WHEN THE PRECISE TIME OF THE ACTION IS NOT IMPORTANT OR NOT KNOWN

Someone has eaten my soup!

Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?

She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.

Read more about using the present perfect with the words "ever", "never", "already", and "yet", and
about using the present perfect with the words "for" and "since".
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORMING THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements: the present perfect of the verb 'to
be' (have/has been), and the present participle of the main verb (base+ing)
Subject

has/have been

base+ing

She

has been

swimming

Affirmative: She has been / She's been running.

Negative: She hasn't been running.
Interrogative : Has she been running?
Interrogative negative: Hasn't she been running?
EXAMPLE: PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, TO LIVE
Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I have been living

I haven't been living

Have I been living?

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

You have been living

You haven't been living

Have you been living?

He, she, it has been

living

He hasn't been living

Has she been living?

We have been living

We haven't been living

Have we been living?

You have been living

You haven't been living

Have you been living?

They have been living

They haven't been living

Have they been living?

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker
is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is
interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just
finished.
ACTIONS THAT STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUE IN THE PRESENT
She has been waiting for you all day (= and she's still waiting now).
I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= and I still haven't finished it).
They have been travelling since last October (= and they're not home yet).
ACTIONS THAT HAVE JUST FINISHED, BUT WE ARE INTERESTED IN THE RESULTS
She has been cooking since last night (= and the food on the table looks delicious).
It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).
Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).
VERBS WITHOUT CONTINUOUS FORMS
With verbs not normally used in the continuous form, use the simple present perfect. For example: I've
wanted to visit China for years.
She's known Robert since she was a child.
I've hated that music since I first heard it.
I've heard a lot about you recently.
We've understood everything.
we've heard this morning.
PAST
There are four past tenses in English. Use them to talk about things that started and ended in the past or
things that started in the past and continue to the present.

Simple Past for actions starting and ending in the past.

Past Continuous for actions starting in the past and continuing to the present.

Past Perfect for actions that started and ended in the past before another action that is also in the
past.

Past Perfect Continuous for actions that were going on in the past up until another action in the
past happened.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

FUNCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE
The simple past is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. Duration is not important.
The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past.
EXAMPLES

John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.

My father died last year.

He lived in Fiji in 1976.

We crossed the Channel yesterday.

You always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is associated with certain
past time expressions

frequency: often, sometimes, always

I sometimes walked home at lunchtime.
I often brought my lunch to school.

a definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks ago
We saw a good film last week.
Yesterday, I arrived in Geneva.
She finished her work atseven o'clock
I went to the theatre last night

an indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago People lived in caves a long
time ago.

She played the piano when she was a child.

Note: the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is placed after the period of
time: a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago.
Be Careful: The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own language, but the meaning may
be different.

FORMING THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

PATTERNS OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE FOR REGULAR VERBS
Affirmative
Subject

+ verb + ed

skipped.

Negative
Subject

+ did not

+ infinitive without to

They

didn't

go.

Did

+ subject

+ infinitive without to

Did

she

arrive?

Did not

+ subject

+ infinitive without to

Didn't

you

play?

Interrogative

Interrogative negative

TO WALK
Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I walked

I didn't walk

Did I walk?

You walked

You didn't walk

Did you walk?

He walked

He didn't walk

Did he walk?

We walked

We didn't walk

Did we walk?

They walked

They didn't walk

Did they walk?

SIMPLE PAST TENSE OF TO BE, TO HAVE, TO DO

Subject

Verb
Be

Have

was

had

You

were

had

Subject

Verb

He/She/It

was

had

We

were

had

You

were

had

They

were

had

NOTES ON AFFIRMATIVE, NEGATIVE, & INTERROGATIVE FORMS

AFFIRMATIVE
The affirmative of the simple past tense is simple.

I was in Japan last year

She had a headache yesterday.

We did our homework last night.

NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE

For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "do" as an ordinary verb, use the
auxiliary "do", e.g. We didn't do our homework last night.
The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the auxiliary "do", but sometimes by
simply adding not or the contraction "n't".
The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary "do".
EXAMPLES

They weren't in Rio last summer.

We didn't have any money.

We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.

We didn't do our exercises this morning.

Were they in Iceland last January?

Did you have a bicycle when you were young?

Did you do much climbing in Switzerland?

Note: For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past, always use the
auxiliary 'did''.
SIMPLE PAST, IRREGULAR VERBS
Some verbs are irregular in the simple past. Here are the most common ones.
TO GO

He went to a club last night.

Did he go to the cinema last night?

He didn't go to bed early last night.

TO GIVE

We gave her a doll for her birthday.

They didn't give John their new address.

Did Barry give you my passport?

TO COME

My parents came to visit me last July.

We didn't come because it was raining.

Did he come to your party last week?

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

FUNCTIONS OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS
The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and is still
going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the
past.
It is used:

Often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was
shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other
animals were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was
looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his
binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."

to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action, e.g. "I was
having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."

to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to
get my homework done instead."

with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me
tonight."

EXAMPLES

They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.

Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.

When we arrived he was having a bath.

When the fire started I was watching television.

Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used.
FORMING THE PAST CONTINUOUS
The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb "to be" (was/were),
and the base of the main verb +ing.
Subject

was/were

base + ing

They

were

watching

was

reading

wasn't

reading

she

reading?

she

reading?

Affirmative
She
Negative
She
Interrogative
Was
Interrogative negative
Wasn't

TO PLAY, PAST CONTINUOUS

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I was playing

I was not playing

Was I playing?

You were playing

You were not playing

Were you playing?

He was playing

He wasn't playing

Was he playing?

We were playing

We weren't playing

Were we playing?

They were playing

They weren't playing

Were they playing?

PAST PERFECT TENSE

FUNCTIONS OF THE PAST PERFECT
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event
happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes
it clear which one happened first.
In these examples, Event A is the event that happened first and Event B is the second or more recent
event:
Event A

Event B

John had gone out

when I arrived in the office.

Event A

Event B

I had saved my document

before the computer crashed.

Event B

Event A

When they arrived

we had already started cooking.

Event B

Event A

He was very tired

because he hadn't slept well.

FORMING THE PAST PERFECT

The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the
past participle of the main verb.

Subject

had

past participle

had

given

hadn't

asked.

they

arrived?

you

finished?

Affirmative
She
Negative
She
Interrogative
Had
Interrogative Negative
Hadn't
TO DECIDE, PAST PERFECT
Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I had decided

I hadn't decided

Had I decided?

You had decided

You hadn't decided

Had you decided?

She had decided

She hadn't decided

Had she decided?

We had decided

We hadn't decided

Had we decided?

They had decided

They hadn't decided

Had they decided?

PAST PERFECT + JUST

'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now,
e.g.

The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

She had just left the room when the police arrived.

I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FUNCTIONS OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time
earlier than 'before now'. As with the present perfect continuous, we are more interested in the process.

EXAMPLES

Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?

We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.

It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.

Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.

This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the present
perfect continuous in direct speech:

Jane said, "I have been gardening all afternoon." = Jane said she had been gardening all
afternoon.

When the police questioned him, John said, "I was working late in the office that night." = When
the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that night.

FORMING THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to be (=had
been) + the present participle (base+ing).
Subject

had been

verb + ing

had been

walking

had been

trying

hadn't been

sleeping

been

eating?

been

living?

Affirmative
She
Negative
She
Interrogative
Had you
Interrogative negative
Hadn't they

TO BUY, PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I had been buying

I hadn't been buying

Had I been buying

You had been buying

You hadn't been buying

Had you been buying

She had been buying

She hadn't been buying

Had she been buying

We had been buying

We hadn't been buying

Had we been buying

They had been buying

They hadn't been buying

Had they been buying

FUTURE
There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to remember that
we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event. Obviously, any 'future' tense will
always refer to a time 'later than now', but it may also express our attitude to the future event.
All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:

Simple prediction: There will be snow in many areas tomorrow.

Arrangements: I'm meeting Jim at the airport.

Plans and intentions: We're going to spend the summer abroad.

Time-tabled events: The plane takes off at 3 a.m.

Prediction based on present evidence: I think it's going to rain!

Willingness: We'll give you a lift to the cinema.

An action in progress in the future: This time next week I'll be sun-bathing.

An action or event that is a matter of routine: You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow, won't
you?

Obligation: You are to travel directly to London.

An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon: The train is about to leave.

Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action: A month from now
he will have finished all his exams.
It is clear from these examples that several tenses are used to express the future. The future tense section
shows the form and function of each of these uses of future tenses.
There are four future verb tenses in English.

Simple future tense

Future continuous tense

Future perfect tense

Future perfect continuous tense

There are also several other ways to talk about the future without using a future verb tense.

Using the present continuous to talk about future arrangements

Using the simple present to talk about scheduled events

Using "going" to talk about the future

Future obligations

The immediate future

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

FUNCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty. In this case there is no
'attitude'.
The simple future is used:

To predict a future event:

It will rain tomorrow.

With I or We, to express a spontaneous decision:

I'll pay for the tickets by credit card.

To express willingness: I'll do the washing-up.

He'll carry your bag for you.

In the negative form, to express unwillingness:

The baby won't eat his soup.
I won't leave until I've seen the manager!

With I in the interrogative form using "shall", to make an offer:

Shall I open the window?

With we in the interrogative form using "shall", to make a suggestion:

Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

With I in the interrogative form using "shall", to ask for advice or instructions:
What shall I tell the boss about this money?

With you, to give orders:

You will do exactly as I say.

With you in the interrogative form, to give an invitation:

Will you come to the dance with me?
Will you marry me?

Note:In modern English will is preferred to shall. Shall is mainly used with I and we to make an offer or
suggestion, or to ask for advice (see examples above). With the other persons (you, he, she, they) shall is
only used in literary or poetic situations, e.g. "With rings on her fingers and bells on her toes, She shall
have music wherever she goes."
FORMING THE SIMPLE FUTURE
The simple future tense is composed of two parts: will / shall + the infinitive without to
Subject

will

infinitive without to

will

go

shall

go

They

will not

see

They

won't

see

she

ask?

they

try?

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative
Will
Interrogative negative
Won't
CONTRACTIONS
I will = I'll
We will = we'll
You will = you'll
He will = he'll
She will = she'll
They will = they'll
Will not = won't
The form "it will" is not normally shortened.

TO SEE: SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Interrogative Negat

I will see

I won't see

Will I see?

Won't I see?

*I shall see

*Shall I see?

You will see

You won't see

Will you see?

Won't you see?

He will see

He won't see

Will he see?

Won't he see?

We will see

We won't see

Will we see?

Won't we see?

*We shall see

*Shall we see?

They will see

They won't see

Will they see?

Won't they see?

FUTURE CONTINUOUS
FORM
The future continuous is made up of two elements:
the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing)
Subject

simple future of the verb 'to be'

present particip

You

will be

watching

will be

staying

TO STAY, FUTURE CONTINUOUS

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Negative

I will be staying.

I won't be staying.

Will I be staying?

Won't I be

You will be staying.

You won't be staying.

Will you be staying?

Won't you

He will be staying.

He won't be staying.

Will he be staying?

Won't he

She will be staying.

She won't be staying.

Will she be staying?

Won't she

It will be staying.

It won't be staying.

Will it be staying?

Won't it b

We will be staying.

We won't be staying.

Will we be staying?

Won't we

They will be staying.

They won't be staying.

Will they be staying?

Won't the

FUNCTIONS
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than
now. The future continuous is used for quite a few different purposes.
The future continuous can be used to project ourselves into the future.
EXAMPLES

This time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali.

By Christmas I will be skiing like a pro.

Just think, next Monday you will be working in your new job.

The future continuous can be used for predicting or guessing about future events.
EXAMPLES

He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect.

I guess you'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.

You'll be missing the sunshine once you're back in England.

In the interrogative form, the future continuous can be used to ask politely for information about the
future.
EXAMPLES

Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?

Will Jim be coming with us?

Will she be going to the party tonight?

Will I be sleeping in this room?

The future continuous can be used to refer to continuous events that we expect to happen in the future.
EXAMPLES

I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week.

When he is in Australia he will be staying with friends.

I'll be eating with Jane this evening so I can tell her.

When combined with still, the future continuous refers to events that are already happening now and that
we expect to continue some time into the future.
EXAMPLES

In an hour I'll still be ironing my clothes.

Tomorrow he'll still be suffering from his cold.

Next year will she still be wearing a size six?

Won't stock prices still be falling in the morning?

Unfortunately, sea levels will still be rising in 20 years.

FUTURE PERFECT
FORM
The future perfect is composed of two elements
the simple future of the verb "to have" (will have) + the past participle of the main verb
Subject

+ will have

+ past participle of the main verb

He

will have

finished.

will have

finished.

TO ARRIVE, FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Negative

I will have arrived

I won't have arrived

Will I have arrived?

Won't I h

You will have arrived

You won't have arrived

Will you have arrived?

Won't yo

He will have arrived

He won't have arrived

Will he have arrived?

Won't he

We will have arrived

We won't have arrived

Will we have arrived?

Won't we

They will have arrived

They won't have arrived

Will they have arrived?

Won't th

FUNCTION
The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are
projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed some
time later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.

EXAMPLES

I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.

By the time you read this I will have left.

You will have finished your report by this time next week.

Won't they have arrived by 5:00?

Will you have eaten when I pick you up?

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORM
The future perfect continuous is composed of two elements
the future perfect of the verb "to be" (will have been) + the present participle of the main verb
(base + ing)
Subject

+ will have been

+ present participle

He

will have been

playing.

will have been

playing.

TO LIVE, FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Negativ

I will have been living

I won't have been living

Will I have been living?

Won't I h

You will have been living

You won't have been living

Will you have been living?

Won't yo

He will have been living

He won't have been living

Will he have been living?

Won't he

We will have been living

We won't have been living

Will we have been living?

Won't w

They will have been living

They won't have been living

Will they have been living?

Won't th

FUNCTION
Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in time and to look back. It
refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time are unfinished. It is most often
used with a time expression.

EXAMPLES

I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.

By 2001 I will have been living in London for sixteen years.

When I finish this course, I will have been learning English for twenty years.

Next year I will have been working here for four years.

When I come at 6:00, will you have been practicing long?

CONDITIONAL
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what
we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many
conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage
is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to
something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in
English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative
conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".
Conditional sentence
type

Usage

If clause verb
tense

Main clause verb

Zero

General truths

Simple present

Simple present

Type 1

A possible condition and its probable result

Simple present

Simple future

Type 2

A hypothetical condition and its probable result

Simple past

Present condition
conditional

Type 3

An unreal past condition and its probable result in

the past

Past perfect

Perfect conditiona

Mixed type

An unreal past condition and its probable result in

the present

Past perfect

Present contdition

THE ZERO CONDITIONAL

The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation is real
and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both parts of the
sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be replaced by the
word "when" without changing the meaning.

If clause

Main clause

If + simple present

simple present

If this thing happens

that thing happens.

If you heat ice

it melts.

If it rains

the grass gets wet.

Read more about how to use the zero conditional.

TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The type 1
conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the
simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.
If clause

Main clause

If + simple present

simple future

If this thing happens

that thing will happen.

If you don't hurry

you will miss the train.

If it rains today

you will get wet.

Read more about how to use the type 1 conditional.

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal.
These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition
and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main
clause uses the present conditional.
If clause

Main clause

If + simple past

present conditional or present continuous conditional

If this thing happened

that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) OR
that thing would be happening.

If you went to bed earlier

you would not be so tired.

If it rained

you would get wet.

If clause

Main clause

If I spoke Italian

I would be working in Italy.

Read more about how to use the type 2 conditional with the present conditional and how to use the
present continuous conditional in type 2 conditional sentence.
TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to
reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used
to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if
clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.
If clause

Main clause

If + past perfect

perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional

If this thing had happened

that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really happened)
that thing would have been happening.

If you had studied harder

you would have passed the exam.

If it had rained

you would have gotten wet.

If I had accepted that promotion

I would have been working in Milan.

Read more about how to use the type 3 conditional with the perfect conditional tense, and how to use the
perfect continuous conditional in type 3 conditional sentences.
MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL
The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is ongoing
into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The mixed type
conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. In mixed type
conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the present conditional.
If clause

Main clause

If + past perfect or simple past

present conditional or perfect conditional

If this thing had happened

that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing isn't happe

If I had worked harder at school

I would have a better job now.

If we had looked at the map

we wouldn't be lost.

If clause

Main clause

If you weren't afraid of spiders

you would have picked it up and put it outside.

Read more about how to use the mixed conditional.

TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main
clause is the simple future.
If clause (condition)

Main clause (result)

If + simple present

simple future

If this thing happens

that thing will happen.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES

If it rains, you will get wet.

You will get wet if it rains.

If Sally is late again I will be mad.

I will be mad if Sally is late again.

If you don't hurry, you will miss the bus.

You will miss the bus if you don't hurry.

FUNCTION
The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. These sentences are based on
facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We often
use such sentences to give warnings. In type 1 conditional sentences, the time is the present or
future and the situation is real.
EXAMPLES

If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

What will you do if you miss the plane?

Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.

If you drop that glass, it will break.

If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!

If you don't leave, I'll call the police.

In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of the future tense to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES

If you drop that glass, it might break.

I may finish that letter if I have time.

If he calls you, you should go.

If you buy my school supplies for me, I will be able to go to the park.

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main
clause is the present conditional or thepresent continuous conditional.
If clause (condition)

Main clause (result)

If + simple past

present conditional or present continuous conditional

If this thing happened

that thing would happen.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES

If it rained, you would get wet.

You would get wet if it rained.

If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.

You wouldn't be so tired if you went to bed earlier.

If she fell, she would hurt herself.

She would hurt herself if she fell.

FUNCTION
The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. These
sentences are not based on the actual situation. In type 2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any
time and the situation is hypothetical.
EXAMPLES

If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is bad so we can't go.)

If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone a chicken. (But I am not the Queen.)

If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.

If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.

It is correct, and very common, to say "if I were" instead of "if I was".
EXAMPLES

If I were taller, I would buy this dress.

If I were 20, I would travel the world.

If I were you, I would give up smoking.

If I were a plant, I would love the rain.

In type 2 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES

We might buy a larger house if we had more money

He could go to the concert if you gave him your ticket.

If he called me, I couldn't hear.

THE PRESENT CONDITIONAL TENSE

The present conditional of any verb is composed of two elements:
would + the infinitive of the main verb, without "to"
Subject

+ would

+ infinitive

He

would

go

They

would

stay

TO GO: PRESENT CONDITIONAL

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Interrogative Ne

I would go

I wouldn't go

Would I go?

Wouldn't I go?

You would go

You wouldn't go

Would you go?

Wouldn't you go?

He would go

He wouldn't go

Would he go?

Wouldn't he go?

She would go

She wouldn't go

Would she go?

Wouldn't she go?

We would go

We wouldn't go

Would we go?

Wouldn't we go?

They would go

They wouldn't go

Would they go?

Wouldn't they go?

TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main
clause is the perfect conditional or theperfect continuous conditional.
If clause (condition)

Main clause (result)

If + past perfect

perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional

If this thing had happened

that thing would have happened.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES

If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.

You would have gotten wet if it had rained.

You would have passed your exam if you had worked harder.

If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

I would have believed you if you hadn't lied to me before.

If you hadn't lied to me before, I would have believed you.

FUNCTION
The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable result in the past.
These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or its result
to exist. There is always some implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the
opposite of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional sentences, the time is
the past and the situation ishypothetical.
EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass
the exam.)

If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. (But I didn't know and I didn't bake
a cake.)

I would have been happy if you had called me on my birthday. (But you didn't call me and I am
not happy.)

In type 3 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder I might have passed the exam.

You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.

If he called you, you could go.

If you bought my school supplies for me, I might be able to go to the park.

CONTRACTIONS
Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing if you are not confident with type 3
conditional sentences. Remember 2 rules:
1. would never appears in the if-clause so if 'd appears in the if clause, it must be abbreviating had.

2. had never appears before have so if 'd appears on a pronoun just before have, it must be
abbreviating would.
EXAMPLES

If I'd known you were in hospital, I'd have visited you.

If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.

I'd have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.

I would have bought you a present if I had known it was your birthday.

If you'd given me your e-mail, I'd have written to you.

If you had given me your e-mail, I would have written to you.

THE PERFECT CONDITIONAL TENSE

The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of three elements:
would + have + past participle
Have followed by the past participle is used in other constructions as well. it is called the "perfect
infinitive".
Subject

+ would

+ have

+ past participle

He

would

have

gone

They

would

have

stayed

TO GO: PERFECT CONDITIONAL

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Interrog

I would have gone

I wouldn't have gone

Would I have gone?

Wouldn't

You would have gone

You wouldn't have gone

Would you have gone?

Wouldn't

He would have gone

He wouldn't have gone

Would he have gone?

Wouldn't

She would have gone

She wouldn't have gone

Would she have gone?

Wouldn't

We would have gone

We wouldn't have gone

Would we have gone?

Wouldn't

They would have gone

They wouldn't have gone

Would they have gone?

Wouldn't

MIXED CONDITIONAL

It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting
sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence.
PRESENT RESULT OF A PAST CONDITION
FORM
In this type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in
the main clause is the present conditional.
If clause (condition)

Main clause (result)

If + past perfect

present conditional

If this thing had happened

that thing would happen.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder at school, I would have a better job now.

I would have a better job now if I had worked harder at school.

If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.

We wouldn't be lost if we had looked at the map.

If you had caught that plane you would be dead now.

You would be dead now if you had caught that plane.

FUNCTION
This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
These sentences express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present. In these
mixed conditional sentences, the time is the past in the "if" clause and in the presentin the main clause.
EXAMPLES

If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't have my
license)

I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job and I'm not a
millionaire)

If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't spend all your
money and now you can buy this jacket)

In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of would to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES

If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.

I could be a millionaire now if I had invested in ABC Plumbing.

If I had learned to ski, I might be on the slopes right now.

PAST RESULT OF PRESENT OR CONTINUING CONDITION

FORM
In this second type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the
tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional.
If clause (condition)

Main clause (result)

If + simple past

perfect conditional

If this thing happened

that thing would have happened.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES

If I wasn't afraid of spiders, I would have picked it up.

I would have picked it up if I wasn't afraid of spiders.

If we didn't trust him we would have sacked him months ago.

We would have sacked him months ago if we didn't trust him.

If I wasn't in the middle of another meeting, I would have been happy to help you.

I would have been happy to help you if I wasn't in the middle of another meeting.

FUNCTION
These mixed conditional sentences refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) pas
result. In these mixed conditional sentences, the time in the if clause is now or always and the time in the
main clause is before now. For example, "If I wasn't afraid of spiders" is contrary to present reality. I am
afraid of spiders. "I would have picked it up" is contrary to past reality. I didn't pick it up.
EXAMPLES

If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.

I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.

If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch.

If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.

THE -ING FORMS

A verb ending in -ing is either a present participle or a gerund. These two forms look identical. The
difference is in their functions in a sentence.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
A present participle is most commonly used as part of the continuous form of a verb, after verbs of
perception, after verbs of movement, or as an adjective.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES AS PART OF THE CONTINUOUS FORM OF A VERB
Present participles are an element in all continuous verb forms (past, present, future, conditional, etc.).
The helping verb will indicate the tense, while the present participle remains unchanging.
EXAMPLES

He is painting.

She was waiting.

They will be coming.

We would be staying.

I would have been leaving.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES AFTER VERBS OF PERCEPTION

Present participles can be used after verbs of perception in the pattern verb + object + present
participle to indicate the action being perceived.

EXAMPLES

We saw him swimming across the pond.

I watched her painting Sarah's portrait.

I couldn't hear her singing because of the noise.

I would like to see you knitting sometime.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES AFTER VERBS OF MOVEMENT, ACTION, OR POSITION, TO

INDICATE PARALLEL ACTIVITY.
EXAMPLES

She sat looking at the sea.

He walks reading his newspaper.

I cook listening to the radio.

Sally lay listening to the bugs in the grass.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES

EXAMPLES

Did you read that amazing book?

This movie is so exciting!

His economics class is boring.

Read more about using present participles.

GERUNDS
The gerund always has the same function as a noun, although it looks like a verb. It can be used in the
same way as a noun.
A GERUND AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
EXAMPLES

Eating people is wrong.

Driving too fast is dangerous.

Walking is good for you.

Your knitting it beautiful.

A GERUND AFTER PREPOSITIONS

EXAMPLES

Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

She is good at painting.

I was the fastest at climbing the rope.

He learns music by listening to the chords.

A GERUND AFTER CERTAIN SPECIFIC VERBS

EXAMPLES

I like cooking.

He enjoys walking.

They hate milking cows.

I can imagine drifting away in a balloon.

A GERUND IN COMPOUND NOUNS

EXAMPLES

I took her to her driving lessons.

We are going to the swimming pool.

My uncle does a lot of bird-watching.

I found this pie by dumpster-diving.

Read more about using gerunds.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE
The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing. It is used in many different ways.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE AS PART OF THE CONTINUOUS FORM OF A VERB

EXAMPLES

I am working.

He was singing.

They have been walking.

We will be staying.

She would have been expecting me.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE AFTER VERBS OF MOVEMENT & POSITION

This construction is particularly useful with the verb to go.
EXAMPLES

She went shopping.

I go running every morning.

He lay looking up at the clouds.

She came running towards me.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE AFTER VERBS OF PERCEPTION

The pattern for this usage is verb + object + present participle. There is a difference in meaning when
such a sentence contains a zero infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action
while the present participle refers to an ongoing action.
EXAMPLES

I heard someone singing.

He saw his friend walking along the road.

I can smell something burning!

I watched the birds flying away.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE AS AN ADJECTIVE

EXAMPLES

It was an amazing film.

Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.

He was trapped inside the burning house.

Many of his paintings show the setting sun.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE WITH THE VERBS SPEND AND WASTE

The pattern with these verbs is verb + time/money expression + present participle.
EXAMPLES

My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.

Don't waste time playing computer games!

They've spent the whole day shopping.

I wasted money buying this game.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE WITH THE VERBS CATCH AND FIND

The pattern with these verbs is verb + object + present participle. With catch, the participle always
refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger. This is not the case with find, which is unemotional.
EXAMPLES

If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!

Don't let him catch you reading his letters.

I caught him going through my bag.

We found some money lying on the ground.

They found their mother sitting in the garden.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE FOR TWO ACTIONS AT THE SAME TIME

When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present
participle to describe one of them. When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same
person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle.
EXAMPLES

Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. = He whistled to himself as he walked down the
road.

They went laughing out into the snow. = They laughed as they went out into the snow.

Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. = She dropped the gun and put her hands in the
air.

Putting on his coat, he left the house. = He put on his coat and left the house.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE TO EXPLAIN A REASON

The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting with as, since, or because. In this usage the
participial phrase explains the cause or reason for an action.
EXAMPLES

Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.

Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.

Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.

He whispered, thinking his brother was still asleep.

GERUND
The gerund looks exactly the same as a present participle, but it is useful to understand the difference
between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb). Some
uses of the gerund are covered on this page. A separate page deals with verbs that are followed by the
gerund.
THE GERUND AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
EXAMPLES

Eating people is wrong.

Hunting tigers is dangerous.

Flying makes me nervous.

Brushing your teeth is important.

Smoking causes lung cancer.

THE GERUND AS THE COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB 'TO BE'

EXAMPLES

One of his duties is attending meetings.

The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.

One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.

THE GERUND AFTER PREPOSITIONS

The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. This is also true of certain expressions
ending in a preposition, for example the expressions in spite of & there's no point in.
EXAMPLES

Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

She is good at painting.

She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.

We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.

My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.

There's no point in waiting.

In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

THE GERUND AFTER PHRASAL VERBS

Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb + preposition or adverb.
EXAMPLES

When will you give up smoking?

She always puts off going to the dentist.

He kept on asking for money.

Jim ended up buying a new TV after his old one broke.

There are some phrasal verbs that include the word "to" as a preposition for example to look forward to,
to take to, to be accustomed to, to get around to, & to be used to. It is important to recognise that the word
"to" is a preposition in these cases because it must be followed by a gerund. It is not part of the infinitive
form of the verb. You can check whether "to" is a preposition or part of the infinitive. If you can put the
pronoun "it" after the word "to" and form a meaningful sentence, then the word "to" is a preposition and
must be followed by a gerund.
EXAMPLES

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

I look forward to it.

I am used to waiting for buses.

I am used to it.

She didn't really take to studying English.

She didn't really take to it.

When will you get around to mowing the grass?

When will you get around to it?

THE GERUND IN COMPOUND NOUNS

In compound nouns using the gerund, it is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous
verb. For example, with the word "swimming pool" it is a pool for swimming in, it is not a pool that is
swimming.
EXAMPLES

I am giving Sally a driving lesson.

They have a swimming pool in their back yard.

I bought some new running shoes.

THE GERUND AFTER SOME EXPRESSIONS

The gerund is necessary after the expressions can't help, can't stand, to be worth, & it's no use.

EXAMPLES

She couldn't help falling in love with him.

I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.

It's no use trying to escape.

It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

INFINITIVE
FORMING THE INFINITIVE
The infinitive is the base form of a verb. In English, when we talk about the infinitive we are usually
referring to the present infinitive, which is the most common. There are, however, four other forms of the
infinititive: the perfect infinitive, the perfect continuous infinitive, the continuous infinitive, & the passive
infinitive.
The infinitive has two forms:

the to-infinitive = to + base

the zero infinitive = base

The present infinitive base is the verb form you will find in a dictionary.
To-infinitive

Zero infinitive

to sit

sit

to eat

eat

to have

have

to remember

remember

The negative infinitive is formed by putting not in front of any form of the infinitive.
EXAMPLES

I decided not to go to London.

He asked me not to be late.

I'd like you not to sing so loudly.

I'd rather not eat meat.

I might not come.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TO-INFINITIVE

The to-infinitive is used in many sentence constructions, often expressing the purpose of something or
someone's opinion about something. The to-infinitive is used following a large collection of different
verbs as well. See this page about verbs followed by infinitives.
THE TO-INFINITIVE TO INDICATE THE PURPOSE OR INTENTION OF AN ACTION
In this case to has the same meaning as in order to or so as to.
EXAMPLES

She came to collect her pay cheque.

The three bears went to find firewood.

I am calling to ask you about dad.

You sister has gone to finish her homework.

THE TO-INFINITIVE AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

This is a formal usage and is far more common in written English than spoken
EXAMPLES

To be or not to be, that is the question.

To know her is to love her.

To visit the Grand Canyon is my life-long dream.

To understand statistics, that is our aim.

THE TO-INFINITIVE TO INDICATE WHAT SOMETHING CAN OR WILL BE USED FOR

In this pattern, the to-infinitive follows a noun or pronoun.
EXAMPLES

The children need a garden to play in.

I would like a sandwich to eat.

I don't have anything to wear.

Would you like something to drink?

THE TO-INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES

There is a common pattern using the to-infinitive with an adjective. These phrases are formed:
subject + to be + adjective + (for/of someone) + to-infinitive + (rest of sentence)
Subject

+ to be

+ adjective

It

is

good

It

is

good

It

is

important

It

is

important

am

The dog

is

(+ for/of someone)

+ to-infinitive

(+ rest of

to talk.
of you

to talk

to me.

to be patient.
for Jake

to be patient

with his lit

happy

to be

here.

naughty

to destroy

our couch.

THE TO-INFINITIVE TO MAKE A COMMENT OR JUDGEMENT

To use the to-infinitive when making a comment or judgement about a noun, the pattern is:
Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive
Subject

+ to be

+ noun phrase

+ to-infini

It

was

a stupid place

to park.

That

is

a dangerous way

to behave.

What you said

was

a rude thing

to say.

This

is

the right thing

to do.

Those

were

the wrong kind of eggs

to buy.

Jim

is

the best person

to hire.

THE TO-INFINITIVE WITH ADVERBS

The to-infinitive is used frequently with the adverbs too and enough to express the reasoning behind our
satisfaction or insatisfaction. The pattern is that too and enough are placed before or after the adjective,
adverb, or noun that they modify in the same way they would be without the to-infinitive. We then follow
them by the to-infinitive to explain the reason why the quantity is excessive, sufficient, or insufficient.

Normally the to-infinitive and everything that follows can be removed, leaving a sentence that still
functions grammatically.
EXAMPLES

There's too much sugar to put in this bowl.

I had too many books to carry.

This soup is too hot to eat.

She was too tired to work.

He arrived too late to see the actors.

I've had enough food to eat.

She's old enough to make up her own mind.

There isn't enough snow to ski on.

You're not old enough to have grand-children!

THE TO-INFINITIVE WITH QUESTION WORDS

The verbs ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, & understand can be followed by a question word
such as where, how, what, who, & when + the to-infinitive.
EXAMPLES

She asked me how to use the washing machine.

Do you understand what to do?

Tell me when to press the button.

I've forgotten where to put this little screw.

I'm not sure I know who to call.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO INFINITIVE

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER AUXILIARIES
EXAMPLES

She can't speak to you.

He should give her some money.

Shall I talk to him?

Would you like a cup of coffee?

I might stay another night in the hotel.

They must leave before 10.00 a.m.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER VERBS OF PERCEPTION

With verbs of perception, the pattern is verb + object + zero infinitive.
EXAMPLES

He saw her fall from the cliff.

We heard them close the door.

They saw us walk toward the lake.

She felt the spider crawl up her leg.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER THE VERBS 'MAKE' AND 'LET'

EXAMPLES

Her parents let her stay out late.

Let's go to the cinema tonight.

You made me come with you.

Don't make me study that boring grammar book!

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER THE EXPRESSION 'HAD BETTER'

EXAMPLES

We had better take some warm clothing.

She had better ask him not to come.

We had better reserve a room in the hotel.

You'd better give me your address.

They had better work harder on their homework.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE WITH "WHY"

The question word why is followed by the zero infinitive when making suggestions.
EXAMPLES

Why wait until tomorrow?

Why not ask him now?

Why leave before the end of the game?

Why walk when we can go in the car?

Why not buy a new bed?

PASSIVE VOICE
FUNCTIONS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action rather than
the person or object that performs the action. In other words, the most important thing or person becomes
the subject of the sentence.
EXAMPLES

The passive voice is used frequently. (= we are interested in the passive voice, not in who uses it.)

The house was built in 1654. (= we are interested in the house, not in who built it.)

The road is being repaired. (= we are interested in the road, not in the people who are doing the
repairs.)

Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or do not want to express who performed the
action.
EXAMPLES

I noticed that a window had been left open.

Every year thousands of people are killed on our roads.

All the cookies have been eaten.

My car has been stolen!

The passive voice is often used in formal texts. Switching to the active voice will make your writing
clearer and easier to read.
Passive

Active

A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words.

A few well-chosen words convey a great

Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases.

A mass of gases wrap around our planet

Waste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways.

The city disposes of waste materials in a

If we want to say who or what performs the action while using the passive voice, we use the
preposition by. When we know who performed the action and are interested in him, it is always better to
switch to the active voice instead.
Passive

Active

"A Hard Day's Night" was written by the Beatles.

The Beatles wrote "A Hard Day's Nig

The movie ET was directed by Spielberg.

Spielberg directed the movie ET.

This house was built by my father.

My father built this house.

Read more about the passive voice and active equivalents for all English verb tenses.
PASSIVE VOICE TO ACTIVE VOICE
Sentences written in the active voice are easier to understand than sentences written in the passive voice.
Switching the passive voice into the active voice is straightforward, but it requires a bit of practice. In the
equivalency table below, notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is always the same as
the tense of the main verb in the active voice. In order to use the active voice, you will have to make the
subject of the action explicit.
TO KEEP, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
Tense

Active
voice

Passive voice

Active sentence

Passive equival

Simple present

keep

is kept

I keep the butter in the fridge.

The butter is kep

Present continuous

is keeping

is being kept

John is keeping my house tidy.

My house is bei

Simple past

kept

was kept

Mary kept her schedule meticulously.

Mary's schedule

Past continuous

was
keeping

was being
kept

The theater was keeping a seat for you.

A seat we being

Present perfect

have kept

have been

I have kept all your old letters.

All your old lett

Tense

Active
voice

Passive voice

Active sentence

Passive equival

kept
Past perfect

had kept

had been kept

He had kept up his training regimen for a

month.

His training regi

month.

Simple Future

will keep

will be kept

Mark will keep the ficus.

The ficus will b

Conditional
Present

would keep

would be kept

If you told me, I would keep your secret.

If you told me, y

Conditional Past

would have
kept

would have
been kept

I would have kept your bicycle here if you had

left it with me.

Your bicycle wo
you had left it w

Present Infinitive

to keep

to be kept

She wants to keep the book.

The book wants

Perfect Infinitive

to have
kept

to have been
kept

Judy was happy to have kept the puppy.

The puppy was

Present Participle
& Gerund

keeping

being kept

I have a feeling that you may be keeping a

secret.

I have a feeling
kept.

Perfect Participle

having kept

having been
kept

Having kept the bird in a cage for so long, Jade

wasn't sure it could survive in the wild.

The bird, having

long, might not

FORMING THE PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice in English is composed of two elements:
the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + past participle
Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Negativ

The house was built in 1899.

The house wasn't built in 1899.

Was the house built in 1899?

Wasn't t

These houses were built in 1899.

These houses weren't built in 1899.

Were these houses built in 1899?

Weren't

TO CLEAN, PASSIVE VOICE

Subject

+ to be (conjugated)

+ past participle

+ rest of senten

is

cleaned

every day.

Simple present
The house

Subject

+ to be (conjugated)

+ past participle

+ rest of senten

is being

cleaned

at the moment.

was

cleaned

yesterday.

was being

cleaned

last week.

has been

cleaned

since you left.

had been

cleaned

before they arri

will be

cleaned

next week.

will be being

cleaned

tomorrow.

would be

cleaned

if they had visit

would have been

cleaned

if it had been di

must be

cleaned

before we arriv

Present continuous
The house
Simple past
The house
Past continuous
The house
Present perfect
The house
Past perfect
The house
Future
The house
Future continuous
The house
Present conditional
The house
Past conditional
The house
Inifinitive
The house

PASSIVE VOICE WITH INFINITIVES

The infinitive passive voice is used after modal verbs and other most verbs normally followed by an
infinitive.
EXAMPLES

You have to be tested on your English grammar.

John might be promoted next year.

She wants to be invited to the party.

I expect to be surprised on my birthday.

You may be disappointed.

PASSIVE VOICE WITH GERUNDS

Gerunds are used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund.
EXAMPLES

I remember being taught to drive.

The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.

The children are excited to be taken to the zoo.

Most film stars hate being interviewed.

Most film stars hate to be interviewed.

Poodles like to be pampered.

Poodles like being pampered.

USING "TO BE BORN"

"To be born" is an passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense. However, in some cases,
the present or future tense is appropriate.
EXAMPLES

I was born in 1976.

Where were you born?

Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.

We don't know on exactly which day the baby will be born.

Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get or to have instead of the verb to be. A separate page
deals with these alternative ways to form the passive voice
ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO FORM THE PASSIVE VOICE

You can form sentences that are passive in meaning but not in form by using the verb to get or the verb to
have in place of the verb to be. These constructions often describe situations where we want someone else
to do something for us or where we are going to hire someone else to do something for us. The subject is
active, but he is only doing the "getting". It is the unnamed person who is gotten who will perform the
action of the main verb in the sentence. That second person is not explicit in the sentence when the
sentence has a passive meaning. We are more interested in the result of the activity than in the person that
performs the activity.
EXAMPLES

I must get my hair cut.

I must have my hair cut.

When are you going to get that window mended?

We're having the house painted.

This type of construction can refer to the completion of an activity, especially if a time expression is used.
EXAMPLES

We'll get the work done as soon as possible.

I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime.

She said she'd have my lunch delivered by noon.

You should have your roof repaired before next winter.

If the verb refers to something unwanted, it has the same meaning as a passive sentence.
EXAMPLES

Jim had his car stolen last night.

Jim's car was stolen.

They had their roof blown off in the storm.

Their roof was blown off in the storm.

USING "TO NEED" IN PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

You can also use the verb to need followed by the gerund in an active construction with a passive
meaning. The important thing in our minds in these sentences is the person or thing that will experience
the action, not the person performing the action.

EXAMPLES

The ceiling needs painting.

The ceiling needs to be painted.

My hair needs cutting.

My hair needs to be cut.

That faucet needs fixing.

That faucet needs to be fixed.