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ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1
Objectives
Identify a router as a computer with an OS and
hardware designed for the routing process.
Demonstrate the ability to configure devices and
apply addresses.
Describe the structure of a routing table.
Describe how a router determines a path and
switches packets
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 2
Router as a Computer
Describe the basic purpose of a router
-Computers that specialize in sending packets over the data
network. They are responsible for interconnecting networks by
selecting the best path for a packet to travel and forwarding
packets to their destination
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Data is sent in form of packets between 2 end devices
Routers are used to direct packet to its destination
(routing table)
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Routers examine a packet’s destination IP address and
determine the best path by enlisting the aid of a routing
table
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Router components and their functions:
CPU - Executes operating system instructions
Random access memory (RAM) - Contains the running copy of
configuration file. Stores routing table. RAM contents lost when power
is off
Read-only memory (ROM) - Holds diagnostic software used when
router is powered up. Stores the router’s bootstrap program.
Non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) - Stores startup configuration. This may
include IP addresses (Routing protocol, Hostname of router)
Flash memory - Contains the operating system (Cisco IOS)
Interfaces - There exist multiple physical interfaces that are used to
connect network. Examples of interface types:
-Ethernet / fast Ethernet interfaces
-Serial interfaces
-Management interfaces
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Router components
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Major phases to the
router boot-up process
Test router hardware
Power-On Self Test
(POST)
Execute bootstrap loader
Locate & load Cisco IOS
software
-Locate IOS
-Load IOS
Locate & load startup
configuration file or enter
setup mode
-Bootstrap program looks
for configuration file
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Verify the router boot-up process:
-The show version command is used to view information about
the router during the bootup process. Information includes:
Platform model number
Image name & IOS version
Bootstrap version stored in ROM
Image file name & where it was loaded from
Number & type of interfaces
Amount of NVRAM
Amount of flash
Configuration register
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 10
Router as a Computer
Router Interface is a physical connector that enables a
router to send or receive packets
Each interface connects to a separate network
Consist of socket or jack found on the outside of a router
Types of router interfaces:
-Ethernet
-Fastethernet
-Serial
-DSL
-ISDN
-Cable
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Two major groups of Router Interfaces
LAN Interfaces:
Are used to connect router to LAN
network
Has a layer 2 MAC address
Can be assigned a Layer 3 IP
address
Usually consist of an RJ-45 jack
WAN Interfaces
Are used to connect routers to external networks that
interconnect LANs.
Depending on the WAN technology, a layer 2 address
may be used.
Uses a layer 3 IP address
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Routers and the Network Layer
Routers use destination IP address to forward packets
The path a packet takes is determined after a router
consults information in the routing table.
After router determines the best path
Packet is encapsulated into a frame
Frame is then placed on network medium in form of Bits
ITE PC v4.0
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Router as a Computer
Routers Operate at Layers 1, 2 & 3
Router receives a stream of encoded bits
Bits are decoded and passed to layer 2
Router de-encapsulates the frame
Remaining packet passed up to layer 3
-Routing decision made at this layer by examining
destination IP address
Packet is then re-encapsulated & sent out outbound interface
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 14
Configure Devices and Apply Addresses
Implementing Basic Addressing Schemes
When designing a new network or mapping an existing
network you must provide the following information in
the form of a document:
-Topology drawing that Illustrates physical connectivity
–Address table that provides the following information:
Device name
Interfaces used
IP addresses
Default gateway
Ex. 1.2.1.1
ITE PC v4.0
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Configure Devices and Apply Addresses
Basic Router Configuration
A basic router configuration should contain the following:
-Router name - Host name should be unique
-Banner - At a minimum, banner should warn against
unauthorized use
-Passwords - Use strong passwords
-Interface configurations - Specify interface type, IP address
and subnet mask. Describe purpose of interface. Issue no
shutdown command. If DCE serial interface issue clock rate
command.
After entering in the basic configuration the following tasks should
be completed
-Verify basic configuration and router operations.
-Save the changes on a router
ITE PC v4.0
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Configure Devices and Apply Addresses
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 17
Configure Devices and Apply Addresses
Verify Basic Router Configuration
-Issue the show running-config command
-Save the basic router configuration by Issuing the copy
running-config startup-config command
-Additional commands that will enable you to further verify
router configuration are:
Show running-config - Displays configuration currently in
RAM
Show startup-config - Displays configuration file NVRAM
Show IP route - Displays routing table
Show interfaces - Displays all interface configurations
Show IP int brief - Displays abbreviated interface
configuration information
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 18
Routing Table Structure
Routing Table is stored in ram and contains information
about:
Directly connected networks - this occurs when a device is
connected to another router interface
Remotely connected networks - this is a network that is not
directly connected to a particular router
Detailed information about the networks include source of
information, network address & subnet mask, and Ip address of
next-hop router
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 19
Routing Table Structure
Adding a connected network to the routing table
-Router interfaces
Each router interface is a member of a different network
Activated using the no shutdown command
In order for static and dynamic routes to exist in routing
table you must have directly connected networks
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 20
Routing Table Structure
Static routes in the routing table
-Includes: network address and subnet mask and IP address of
next hop router or exit interface
-Denoted with the code S in the routing table
-Routing tables must contain directly connected networks used
to connect remote networks before static or dynamic routing
can be used
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table Structure
Connected and Static routes
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table Structure
Dynamic routing protocols
-Used to add remote networks to a routing table
-Are used to discover networks
-Are used to update and maintain routing tables
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table Structure
Maintaining routing tables
-Dynamic routing protocols are used to share routing information with
other router & to maintain and up date their own routing table.
IP routing protocols. Example of routing protocols include:
-RIP
-IGRP
-EIGRP
-OSPF
-IS-IS
-BGP
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table Structure
Routing Table Principles
-3 principles regarding routing tables:
Every router makes its decisions alone, based on the
information it has in its routing table.
Different routing table may contain different information
A routing table can tell how to get to a destination but not
how to get back
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table Structure
Effects of the 3 Routing Table Principles
-Packets are forwarded through the network from one router
to another, on a hop by hop basis.
-Packets can take path “X” to a destination but return via
path “Y” (Asymmetric routing).
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 26
Router Paths and Packet Switching
Internet Protocol (IP) packet format contains fields that
provide information about the packet and the sending
and receiving hosts
Fields that are important for CCNA students:
-Destination IP address
-Source IP address
-Version & TTL
-IP header length
-Precedence & type of service
-Packet length
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
MAC Layer Frame Format
MAC Frames are also divided into fields. They include:
-Preamble
-Start of frame delimiter
-Destination MAC address
-Source MAC address
-Type/length
-Data and pad
-Frame check sequence
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
A Metric is a numerical value used by routing protocols help
determine the best path to a destination
–The smaller the metric value the better the path
2 types of metrics used by routing protocols are:
-Hop count - this is the number of routers a packet must travel
through to get to its destination
-Bandwidth - this is the “speed” of a link also known as the data
capacity of a link
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 29
Router Paths and Packet Switching
Equal cost metric is a condition where a router has multiple paths
to the same destination that all have the same metric
To solve this dilemma, a router will use Equal Cost Load
Balancing. This means the router sends packets over the multiple
exit interfaces listed in the routing table.
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
Path determination is a process used by a router to pick the best
path to a destination
One of 3 path determinations results from searching for the best
path
Directly connected network
Remote network
No route determined
->ICMP unreachable
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 31
Router Paths and Packet Switching
Switching Function of Router is the process used by a
router to switch a packet from an incoming interface to
an outgoing interface on the same router.
-A packet received by a router will do the following:
Strips off layer 2 headers.
Examines destination IP address located in Layer 3
header to find best route to destination.
Re-encapsulates layer 3 packet into layer 2 frame.
Forwards frame out exit interface.
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
As a packet travels from one networking device to another
-The Source and Destination IP addresses NEVER change
-The Source & Destination MAC addresses CHANGE as packet
is forwarded from one router to the next.
-TTL field decrement by one until a value of zero is reached at
which point router discards packet (prevents packets from
endlessly traversing the network)
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
Path determination and switching function details. PC1
Wants to send something to PC 2 here is part of what
happens
Step 1 - PC1 encapsulates packet into a frame. Frame
contains R1’s destination MAC address
ITE PC v4.0
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Router Paths and Packet Switching
Step 2 - R1 receives Ethernet frame.
R1 sees that destination MAC address matches its own
MAC.
R1 then strips off Ethernet frame.
R1 Examines destination IP.
R1 consults routing table looking for destination IP.
After finding destination IP in routing table, R1 now looks up
next hop IP address.
R1 re-encapsulates IP packet with a new Ethernet frame.
R1 forwards Ethernet packet out Fa0/1 interface.
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 35
Router Paths and Packet Switching
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 36
Router Paths and Packet Switching
Path determination and switching function details. PC1 Wants to
send something to PC 2 here is part of what happens
Step 3 - Packet arrives at R2
R2 receives Ethernet frame
R2 sees that destination MAC address matches its own
MAC
R2 then strips off Ethernet frame
R2 Examines destination IP
R2 consults routing table looking for destination IP
After finding destination IP in routing table, R2 now looks up
next hop IP address
R2 re-encapsulates IP packet with a new data link frame
R2 forwards Ethernet packet out S0/0 interface
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 37
Router Paths and Packet Switching
Path determination and switching function details. PC1 Wants to
send something to PC 2 here is part of what happens
Step 4 - Packet arrives at R3
R3 receives PPP frame
R3 then strips off PPP frame
R3 Examines destination IP
R3 consults routing table looking for destination IP
After finding destination IP in routing table, R3 is directly
connected to destination via its fast Ethernet interface
R3 re-encapsulates IP packet with a new Ethernet frame
R3 forwards Ethernet packet out Fa0/0 interface
Step 5 - IP packet arrives at PC2. Frame is decapsulated &
processed by upper layer protocols.
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 38
Summary
Routers are computers that specialize in sending data over a network.
Routers are composed of:
-Hardware i.e. CPU, Memory, System bus, Interfaces
-Software used to direct the routing process
IOS
Configuration file
Routers need to be configured. Basic configuration consists of:
-Router name
-Router banner
-Password(s)
-Interface configurations i.e. IP address and subnet mask
Routing tables contain the following information
-Directly connected networks
-Remotely connected networks
-Network addresses and subnet masks
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1
-IP address of next hop address
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 39
Summary
Routers determine a packets path to its destination by
doing the following
Receiving an encapsulated frame & examining destination
MAC address.
If the MAC address matches then Frame is de-encapsulated
so that router can examine the destination IP address.
If destination IP address is in routing table or there is a static
route then Router determines next hop IP address. Router will
re-encapsulate packet with appropriate layer 2 frame and send
it out to next destination.
Process continues until packet reaches destination.
Note - only the MAC addresses will change the source and
destination IP addresses do not change.
ITE PC v4.0
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ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routing
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1
Objectives
Define the general role a router plays in networks.
Describe the directly connected networks, different
router interfaces
Examine directly connected networks in the routing
table and use the CDP protocol
Describe static routes with exit interfaces
Describe summary and default route
Examine how packets get forwarded when using
static routes
Identify how to manage and troubleshoot static routes
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 2
General Role of the Router
Functions of a Router
-Best Path Selections
-Forwarding packets to destination
ITE PC v4.0
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General Role of the Router
Connections of a Router for WAN
-A router has a DB-60 port that can support 5 different cabling
standards
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Examining Router Interfaces
-Show IP router command – used to view routing table
-Show Interfaces command – used to show status of an
interface
-Show IP Interface brief command – used to show a portion of
the interface information
-Show running-config command – used to show configuration
file in RAM
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Configuring an Ethernet interface
-By default all serial and Ethernet interfaces are down
-To enable an interface use the No Shutdown command
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Verifying Ethernet interface
-Show interfaces for fastEthernet 0/0 – command used to show
status of fast Ethernet
port
-Show ip interface brief
-Show running-config
Ethernet interfaces participate in ARP
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Configuring a Serial interface
-Enter interface configuration mode
-Enter in the ip address and subnet mask
-Enter in the no shutdown command
Example:
-R1(config)#interface serial 0/0
-R1(config-if)#ip address 172.16.2.1 255.255.255.0
-R1(config-if)#no shutdown
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Examining Router Interfaces
-Physically connecting a WAN Interface.
-A WAN Physical Layer connection has sides:
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) – This is the
service provider. CSU/DSU is a DCE device.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) – Typically the router is the
DTE device.
ITE PC v4.0
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Interfaces
Configuring serial links in a lab environment
One side of a serial connection must be considered a DCE
This requires placing a clocking signal – use the clock rate
command.
Example:
-R1(config)#interface serial 0/0
-R1(config-if)#clockrate 64000
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
Purpose of the debug ip routing command
Allows you to view changes that the router performs when
adding or removing routes
Example:
-R2#debug ip routing
-IP routing debugging is on
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
To configure an Ethernet interface
Example:
-R2(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
-R2(config-if)#ip address 172.16.1.1 255.255.255.0
-R2(config-if)#no shutdown
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
When a router only has its interfaces configured & no
other routing protocols are configured then:
-The routing table contains only the directly connected networks
-Only devices on the directly connected networks are reachable
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
Checking each
route in turn
The ping
command is
used to check
end to end
connectivity
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 15
Routing Table and CDP Protocol
Purpose of CDP
A layer 2 cisco proprietary tool used to gather information about
other directly connected Cisco devices.
Concept of neighbors
-2 types of neighbors
Layer 3 neighbors
Layer 2 neighbors
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
CDP show commands
Show cdp neighbors command
-Displays the following information:
Neighbor device ID
Local interface
Holdtime value, in seconds
Neighbor device capability code
Neighbor hardware platform
Neighbor remote port ID
Show cdp neighbors detail command
-Useful in determining if an IP address configuration error
ITE PC v4.0
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Routing Table and CDP Protocol
Disabling CDP
To disable CDP globally use
the following command
Router(config)#no cdp run
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Purpose of a static route
A manually configured route used when routing from a network
to a stub network (a network accessed by a single route)
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
IP route command
To configure a static route use the following command: ip route
Example:
-Router(config)# ip route network-address subnet-mask {ip-
address | exit-interface }
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Dissecting static route syntax
ip route - Static route command
172.16.1.0 – Destination network address
255.255.255.0 - Subnet mask of destination network
172.16.2.2 - Serial 0/0/0 interface IP address on R2, which is
the "next-hop" to this network
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Configuring routes to 2 or more remote networks
Use the following commands for R1
-R1(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.2
-R1(config)#ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.2
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Zinin’s 3 routing principles
Principle 1: "Every router makes its decision alone, based on
the information it has in its own routing table.“
Principle 2: "The fact that one router has certain information in
its routing table does not mean that other routers have the same
information.“
Principle 3: "Routing information about a path from one
network to another does not provide routing information about
the reverse, or return path."
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Using Zinin’s 3 routing principles, how would you
answer the following?
-Would packets from PC1 reach their destination?
Yes, packets destined for 172.16.1.0/24 and 192.168.1.0/24
networks would reach their destination.
-Does this mean that any packets from these networks destined
for 172.16.3.0/24 network will reach their destination?
No, because neither R2 nor R3 router has a route to the
172.16.3.0/24 network.
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Resolving to an Exit Interface
-Recursive route lookup - Occurs when the router has to perform multiple
lookups in the routing table before forwarding a packet. A static route that
forwards all packets to the next-hop IP address goes through the following
process (reclusive route lookup)
The router first must match static route’s destination IP address with the
Next hop address
The next hop address is then matched to an exit interface
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Configuring a Static route with an Exit Interface
-Static routes configured with an exit interface are more efficient
–The routing table can resolve the exit interface in a single search instead
of 2 searches
-Example of syntax require to configure a static route with an exit interface
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Modifying Static routes
Existing static routes cannot be modified. The old static route
must be deleted by placing no in front of the ip route
Example:
-no ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.2
A new static route must be rewritten in the configuration
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Verifying the Static Route Configuration
-Use the following commands
Step 1 show running-config
Step 2 verify if static route has been entered correctly
Step 3 show ip route
Step 4 verify if route was configured in routing table
Step 5 issue ping command to verify packets can reach
destination and that Return path is working
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes with Exit Interfaces
Ethernet interfaces and ARP.
– If a static route is configured on an Ethernet link
-If the packet is sent to the next-hop router then…
the destination MAC address will be the
address of the next hop’s Ethernet interface
This is found by the router consulting the
ARP table.
If an entry isn’t found then an ARP
request will be sent out
ITE PC v4.0
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Summary and Default Route
Summarizing routes reduces the size of the routing table.
Route summarization is the process of combining a number
of static routes into a single static route.
ITE PC v4.0
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Summary and Default Route
Configuring a summary route
Step 1: Delete the current static route
Step 2: Configure the summary static route
Step 3: Verify the new static route
ITE PC v4.0
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Summary and Default Route
Default Static Route
This is a route that will match all packets. Stub routers that
have a number of static routes all exiting the same interface are
good candidates for a default route.
-Like route summarization this will help reduce the size of the
routing table
ITE PC v4.0
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Summary and Default Route
Static routes and subnet masks
The routing table lookup process will use the most specific
match when comparing destination IP address and subnet
mask
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Packet forwarding with
static routes. (recall
Zinin’s 3 routing
principles)
Router 1
Packet arrives on R1’s
Fastethernet 0/0
interface
-R1 does not have a
route to the destination
network,
192.168.2.0/24
-R1 uses the default
static route.
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 34
Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Packet forwarding with static routes. (recall Zinin’s 3
routing principles)
Router 2
-The packet arrives on the Serial 0/0/0 interface on R2.
-R2 has a static route to 192.168.2.0/24 out Serial0/0/1.
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 35
Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Packet forwarding with static routes. (recall Zinin’s 3
routing principles)
Router 3
-The packet arrives on the Serial0/0/1 interface on R3.
-R3 has a connected route to 192.168.2.0/24 out Fastethernet
0/1.
ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 36
Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Troubleshooting a Missing Route
Tools that can be used to isolate routing problems
include:
-Ping– tests end to end connectivity
-Traceroute– used to discover all of the hops (routers) along the
path between 2 points
-Show IP route– used to display routing table & ascertain
forwarding process
-Show ip interface brief- used to show status of router interfaces
-Show cdp neighbors detail– used to gather configuration
information about directly connected neighbors
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Solving a Missing Route
Finding a missing or mis-configured route requires
methodically using the correct tools
-Start with PING. If ping fails then use traceroute to determine
where packets are failing to arrive
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Solving a Missing Route
ITE PC v4.0
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Static Routes and Packet Forwarding
Solving a Missing Route
ITE PC v4.0
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Summary
Routers
-Operate at layer 3
-Functions include best path selection & forwarding packets
Connecting Networks
WANs
Serial cables are connected to router serial ports.
In the lab environment clock rates must be configured for DCE
LANs
Straight through cables or cross over cables are used to
connect to fastethernet port. (The type of cable used depends
on what devices are being connected)
Cisco Discovery Protocol
A layer 2 proprietary protocol
Used to discover information about directly connected Cisco
devices
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Summary
Static Routes
-This is a manually configured path that specifies how the router
will get to a certain point using a certain path.
Summary static routes
-This is several static routes that have been condensed into a
single static route.
Default route
-It is the route packets use if there is no other possible match for
their destination in the routing table.
Forwarding of packets when static route is used
-Zinin’s 3 routing principles describe how packets are forwarded
Troubleshooting static routes may require some of the following
commands:
-Ping
-Traceroute
-Show IP route
-Show ip interface brief
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-Show cdp neighbors detail
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Introduction to Dynamic
Routing Protocol
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Objectives
Describe the role of dynamic routing protocols and
place these protocols in the context of modern
network design.
Identify several ways to classify routing protocols.
Describe how metrics are used by routing protocols
and identify the metric types used by dynamic routing
protocols.
Determine the administrative distance of a route and
describe its importance in the routing process.
Identify the different elements of the routing table.
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Dynamic Routing Protocols - History
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Dynamic Routing Protocols
Function(s) of Dynamic Routing Protocols:
-Dynamically share information between routers.
-Automatically update routing table when topology changes.
-Determine best path to a destination.
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Dynamic Routing Protocols
The purpose of a dynamic routing protocol is to:
-Discover remote networks
-Maintaining up-to-date routing information
-Choosing the best path to destination networks
-Ability to find a new best path if the current path is no longer
available
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Dynamic Routing Protocols
Components of a routing protocol
Algorithm
In the case of a routing protocol algorithms are used for
facilitating routing information and best path determination
Routing protocol messages
These are messages for discovering neighbors and
exchange of routing information
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Static Routing Protocols
Advantages of static routing
-It can backup multiple interfaces/networks on a router
-Easy to configure
-No extra resources are needed
-More secure
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Static vs Dynamic Routing Protocols
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Classifying Routing Protocols
Dynamic routing protocols are grouped according
to characteristics. Examples include:
-RIP
-IGRP
-EIGRP
-OSPF
-IS-IS
-BGP
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Classifying Routing Protocols
Interior Gateway Routing Protocols (IGP)
-Used for routing inside an autonomous system & used to route
within the individual networks themselves.
-Examples: RIP, EIGRP, OSPF
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Classifying Routing Protocols
IGP: Comparison of Distance Vector & Link State
Routing Protocols
Distance vector
– routes are advertised as vectors
of distance & direction.
– incomplete view of network
topology.
–Generally, periodic
updates.
Link state
– complete view of network
topology is created.
– updates are not
periodic.
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Classifying Routing Protocols
Classful routing
protocols
Do NOT send subnet mask
in routing updates
Classless routing
protocols
Do send subnet mask in
routing updates.
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Classifying Routing Protocols
Convergence is defined as when all routers’ routing
tables are at a state of consistency
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Routing Protocols Metrics
Metric
A value used by a routing protocol to determine which
routes are better than others.
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Routing Protocols Metrics
Metrics used in IP routing protocols
-Bandwidth
-Cost
-Delay
-Hop count
-Load
-Reliability
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Routing Protocols Metrics
The Metric Field in the
Routing Table
Metric used for each
routing protocol
-RIP - hop count
-IGRP & EIGRP -
Bandwidth (used by
default), Delay (used by
default), Load, Reliability
-IS-IS & OSPF – Cost,
Bandwidth (Cisco’s
implementation)
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Routing Protocols Metrics
Load balancing
This is the ability of a router to distribute packets among
multiple same cost paths
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Administrative Distance of a Route
Purpose of a metric
It’s a calculated value used to determine the best path to a
destination
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Administrative Distance of a Route
Identifying the Administrative Distance (AD) in a
routing table
It is the first number in the brackets in the routing table
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Administrative Distance of a Route
Dynamic Routing Protocols
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Administrative Distance of a Route
Directly connected routes
Have a default AD of 0
Static Routes
Administrative distance of a static route has a default value of
1
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Administrative Distance of a Route
Directly connected routes
-Immediately appear in the routing table as soon as the
interface is configured
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Summary
Dynamic routing protocols fulfill the following functions
-Dynamically share information between routers
-Automatically update routing table when topology changes
-Determine best path to a destination
Routing protocols are grouped as either
-Interior gateway protocols (IGP)Or
-Exterior gateway protocols(EGP)
Types of IGPs include
-Classless routing protocols - these protocols include subnet mask
in routing updates
-Classful routing protocols - these protocols do not include subnet
mask in routing update
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Summary
Metrics are used by dynamic routing protocols to calculate the
best path to a destination.
Administrative distance is an integer value that is used to
indicate a router’s “trustworthiness”
Components of a routing table include:
-Route source
-Administrative distance
-Metric
Excercise 3.5.1 ☺
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Distance Vector Routing
Protocols
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Objectives
Identify the characteristics of distance vector routing
protocols.
Describe the network discovery process of distance
vector routing protocols using Routing Information
Protocol (RIP).
Describe the processes to maintain accurate routing
tables used by distance vector routing protocols.
Identify the conditions leading to a routing loop and
explain the implications for router performance.
Recognize that distance vector routing protocols are
in use today
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Static routes VS scalability
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Examples of Distance Vector routing protocols:
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Hop count, max 15
Sent every 30 sec
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Bandwidth, delay, load and reliability
Sent every 90 sec
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Characteristics of Distance Vector routing protocols:
Periodic updates
Neighbors
Broadcast updates
Entire routing table is included with routing update
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Routing Protocol Algorithm:
-Defined as a procedure for accomplishing a certain task
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Routing Protocol Characteristics
–Criteria used to compare routing protocols includes
Time to convergence
Scalability
Classless or VLSM
Resource usage
Implementation & maintenance
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols
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Network Discovery
Router initial start up (Cold Starts)
-Initial network discovery
Directly connected networks are initially placed in
routing table
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Network Discovery
Initial Exchange of Routing Information
–If a routing protocol is configured then
-Routers will exchange routing information
Routing updates received from other routers
-Router checks update for new information
If there is new information:
-Metric is updated
-New information is
stored in routing table
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Network Discovery
Exchange of Routing Information
–Router convergence is reached when
-All routing tables in the network contain the same
network information
–Routers continue to exchange routing information
-If no new information is found then Convergence is
reached
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Network Discovery
Convergence must be reached before a network is
considered completely operable
Speed of achieving convergence consists of 2
interdependent categories
-Speed of broadcasting routing information
-Speed of calculating routes
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Routing Table Maintenance
Periodic Updates: RIPv1 & RIPv2
These are time intervals in which a router sends
out its entire routing table.
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Routing Table Maintenance
RIP uses 4 timers
Update timer 30s
Invalid timer 180s,
metric = 16
Holddown timer 180s
after route marked unreachable
Flush timer 240s
remove route
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Routing Table Maintenance
Bounded Updates: EIGRP
EIRPG routing updates are
-Partial updates
-Triggered by topology changes
-Bounded
-Non periodic
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Routing Table Maintenance
Triggered Updates
–Conditions in which triggered updates are sent
-Interface changes state
-Route becomes unreachable
-Route is placed in routing table
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Routing Table Maintenance
Random Jitter
Synchronized updates
A condition where multiple routers on multi access LAN
segments transmit routing updates at the same time.
Problems with synchronized updates
-Bandwidth consumption
-Packet collisions
Solution to problems with
synchronized updates
- Used of random variable
called RIP_JITTER 0-25% of
default interval
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Routing Loops
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Routing Loops
Routing loops may be caused by:
-Incorrectly configured static routes
-Incorrectly configured route redistribution
-Slow convergence
-Incorrectly configured discard routes
Routing loops can create the following issues
-Excess use of bandwidth
-CPU resources may be strained
-Network convergence is degraded
-Routing updates may be lost or not processed in a timely
manner
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Routing Loops
Count to Infinity
This is a routing loop whereby packets bounce
infinitely around a network.
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Routing Loops
Setting a maximum (RIP = 15)
Distance Vector routing protocols set a specified
metric value to indicate infinity
Once a router “counts to infinity” it marks the route
as unreachable
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Routing Loops
Preventing loops with holddown timers
-Holddown timers allow a router to not accept any changes to a
route for a specified period of time.
-Point of using holddown timers
Allows routing updates to propagate through network with
the most current information.
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Routing Loops
The Split Horizon Rule is used to prevent routing
loops
Split Horizon rule:
A router should not advertise a network through the
interface from which the update came.
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Routing Loops
Split horizon with poison
reverse
The rule states that
once a router learns of
an unreachable route
through an interface,
advertise it as
unreachable
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Routing Loops
IP & TTL
–Purpose of the TTL field
The TTL field is found in an IP header and is
used to prevent packets from endlessly
traveling on a network
How the TTL field works
-TTL field contains a numeric value
The numeric value is decreased by one by
every router on the route to the destination.
If numeric value reaches 0 then Packet
is discarded.
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Routing Protocols Today
Factors used to determine whether to use RIP or EIGRP
include
-Network size
-Compatibility between models of routers
-Administrative knowledge
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Routing Protocols Today
RIP
Features of RIP:
-Supports split horizon & split horizon with
poison reverse
-Capable of load balancing
-Easy to configure
-Works in a multi vendor router environment
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Routing Protocols Today
EIGRP
Features of EIGRP:
-Triggered updates
-EIGRP hello protocol used to establish
neighbor adjacencies
-Supports VLSM & route summarization
-Use of topology table to maintain all routes
-Classless distance vector routing protocol
-Cisco proprietary protocol
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Summary
Characteristics of Distance Vector routing
protocols
–Periodic updates
–RIP routing updates include the entire routing table
–Neighbors are defined as routers that share a link and are
configured to use the same protocol
The network discovery process for D.V. routing
protocol
–Directly connected routes are placed in routing table 1st
–If a routing protocol is configured then
•Routers will exchange routing information
–Convergence is reached when all network routers have the
same network information
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Summary
D.V. routing protocols maintains routing tables by
–RIP sending out periodic updates
–RIP using 4 different timers to ensure information is accurate
and convergence is achieved in a timely manner
–EIGRP sending out triggered updates
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Summary
Conditions that can lead to routing loops include
–Incorrectly configured static routes
–Incorrectly configured route redistribution
–Slow convergence
–Incorrectly configured discard routes
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Summary
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
A distance vector protocol that has 2 versions
RIPv1 – a classful routing protocol
RIPv2 - a classless routing protocol
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RIP version 1
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Objectives
Describe the functions, characteristics, and operation
of the RIPv1 protocol.
Configure a device for using RIPv1.
Verify proper RIPv1 operation.
Describe how RIPv1 performs automatic
summarization.
Configure, verify, and troubleshoot default routes
propagated in a routed network implementing RIPv1.
Use recommended techniques to solve problems
related to RIPv1
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RIPv1
RIP Characteristics
-A classful, Distance Vector (DV) routing protocol
-Metric = hop count
-Routes with a hop count > 15 are unreachable
-Updates are broadcast every 30 seconds
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RIPv1
RIP Message Format
RIP header - divided into
3 fields
-Command field
-Version field
-Must be zero
Route Entry - composed
of 3 fields
-Address family
identifier
-IP address
-Metric
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RIPv1
RIP Operation
–RIP uses 2 message types:
Request message
-This is sent out on startup by each RIP
enabled interface
-Requests all RIP enabled neighbors to send
routing table
Response message
-Message sent to requesting router
containing routing table
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RIPv1
IP addresses initially divided
into classes
-Class A
-Class B
-Class C
RIP is a classful routing
protocol
-Does not send subnet
masks in routing updates
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RIPv1
Administrative Distance
–RIP’s default administrative distance is 120
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Basic RIPv1 Configuration
A typical topology suitable for
use by RIPv1 includes:
-Three router set up
-No PCs attached to LANs
-Use of 5 different IP
subnets
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Basic RIPv1 Configuration
Router RIP Command
–To enable RIP enter:
-Router rip at the global configuration prompt
-Prompt will look like R1(config-router)#
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Basic RIPv1 Configuration
Specifying Networks
–Use the network
command to:
-Enable RIP on all
interfaces that
belong to this
network
-Advertise this
network in RIP
updates
sent to other
routers
every 30 seconds
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Verification and Troubleshooting
Show ip Route
To verify and
troubleshoot routing
-Use the following
commands:
-show ip route
-show ip protocols
-debug ip rip
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Verification and Troubleshooting
show ip
protocols
command
-Displays
routing
protocol
configured
on router
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Verification and Troubleshooting
Debug ip rip command
-Used to display RIP routing updates as they are
happening
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Verification and Troubleshooting
Passive interface command
-Used to prevent a router from sending updates through
an interface
-Example:
Router(config-router)#passive-interface interface-type interface-number
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Verification and Troubleshooting
Passive interfaces
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Automatic Summarization
Modified Topology
The original scenario has been
modified such that:
Three classful networks are used:
172.30.0.0/16
192.168.4.0/24
192.168.5.0/24
The 172.30.0.0/16 network is
subnetted into three subnets:
172.30.1.0/24
172.30.2.0/24
172.30.3.0/24
The following devices are part of the
172.30.0.0/16 classful network address:
All interfaces on R1
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Automatic Summarization
Configuration Details
-To remove the RIP routing
process use the following
command
No router rip
-To check the configuration
use the following command
Show run
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Automatic Summarization
Boundary Routers
–RIP automatically summarizes classful networks
–Boundary routers summarize RIP subnets from one
major network to another.
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Automatic Summarization
Processing RIP Updates
2 rules govern RIPv1 updates:
-If a routing update and the interface it’s
received on belong to the same
network then
The subnet mask of the
interface is applied to the
network in the routing update
-If a routing update and the interface it’s
received on belong to a different
network then
The classful subnet mask of the
network is applied to the
network in the routing update.
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Automatic Summarization
Sending RIP
Updates
–RIP uses
automatic
summarizatio
n to reduce
the size of a
routing table.
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Automatic Summarization
Advantages of automatic
summarization:
-The size of
routing updates is
reduced
-Single routes are
used to represent
multiple routes
which results in
faster lookup in the
routing table.
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Automatic Summarization
Disadvantage of Automatic Summarization:
-Does not support discontiguous networks
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Automatic Summarization
Discontiguous
Topologies do not
converge with RIPv1
A router will only
advertise major
network addresses
out interfaces that do
not belong to the
advertised route.
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Default Route and RIPv1
Modified Topology: Scenario C
Default routes
Packets that are not defined specifically in a routing
table will go to the specified interface for the default
route
Example: Customer routers use default routes to
connect to an ISP router.
Command used to configure a default route is
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0/1
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Default Route and RIPv1
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Default Route and RIPv1
Default-information
originate command
-This command is used to specify that the
router is to originate default information,
by propagating the static default route in
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RIP update.
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Summary
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Summary: Commands used by RIP
Command Command’s purpose
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VLSM and CIDR
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Objectives
Compare and contrast classful and classless IP
addressing.
Review VLSM and explain the benefits of classless IP
addressing.
Describe the role of the Classless Inter-Domain
Routing (CIDR) standard in making efficient use of
scarce IPv4 addresses
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Introduction
Prior to 1981, IP addresses used only the first 8 bits to
specify the network portion of the address
In 1981, RFC 791 modified the IPv4 32-bit address to
allow for three different classes
IP address space was depleting rapidly
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
introduced Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
–CIDR uses Variable Length Subnet Masking
(VLSM) to help conserve address space.
-VLSM is simply subnetting a subnet
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classful IP addressing
As of January 2007, there
are over 433 million hosts
on Internet
Initiatives to conserve IPv4
address space include:
-VLSM & CIDR notation
(1993, RFC 1519)
-Network Address
Translation (1994, RFC
1631)
-Private Addressing
(1996, RFC 1918)
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classes of IP addresses are identified by the decimal number of
the 1st octet
Class A address begin with a 0 bit
Range of class A addresses = 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B address begin with a 1 bit and a 0 bit
Range of class B addresses = 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C addresses begin with two 1 bits & a 0 bit
Range of class C addresses = 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
The IPv4 Classful Addressing Structure (RFC 790)
An IP address has 2 parts:
-The network portion
Found on the left side of an IP address
-The host portion
Found on the right side of an IP address
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classful Routing Updates
-Recall that classful routing protocols (i.e. RIPv1)
do not send subnet masks in their routing updates
The reason is that the Subnet mask is
directly related to the network address
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR – RFC 1517)
Advantage of CIDR :
-More efficient use of IPv4 address
space
-Route summarization
Requires subnet mask to be included in routing update
because address class is meaningless
Recall purpose of a subnet mask:
-To determine the network and host portion
of an IP address
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classless IP Addressing
CIDR & Route Summarization
-Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM)
-Allows a subnet to be further sub-netted
according to individual needs
-Prefix Aggregation a.k.a. Route Summarization
-CIDR allows for routes to be summarized as a
single route
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classless Routing Protocol
Characteristics of classless routing protocols:
-Routing updates include the subnet mask
-Supports VLSM
Supports Route Summarization
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
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Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classless Routing Protocol
Classful No No No
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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
Steps to calculate a route
summary
-List networks in binary
format
-Count number of left
most matching bits to
determine summary
route’s mask
-Copy the matching
bits and add zero bits
to determine the
summarized
network address
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Summary
Classful IP addressing
IPv4 addresses have 2 parts:
-Network portion found on left side of an IP
address
-Host portion found on right side of an IP
address
Class A, B, & C addresses were designed to provide IP
addresses for different sized organizations
The class of an IP address is determined by the decimal
value found in the 1st octet
IP addresses are running out so the use of Classless Inter
Domain Routing (CIDR) and Variable Length Subnet Mask
(VLSM) are used to try and conserve address space
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Summary
Classful Routing Updates
–Subnet masks are not sent in routing updates
Classless IP addressing
–Benefit of classless IP addressing
Can create additional network
addresses using a subnet mask
that fits your needs
–Uses Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
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Summary
CIDR
Uses IP addresses more efficiently through
use of VLSM
-VLSM is the process of
subnetting a subnet
Allows for route summarization
-Route summarization is
representing multiple contiguous
routes with a single route
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Summary
Classless Routing Updates
Subnet masks are included in updates
LAB 6.4.1
LAB 6.4.2 ☺
LAB 6.4.3
LAB 6.4.4
LAB 6.4.5 ☺
LAB 6.4.6
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RIPv2
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Objectives
Encounter and describe the limitations of RIPv1’s
limitations.
Apply the basic Routing Information Protocol Version
2 (RIPv2) configuration commands and evaluate
RIPv2 classless routing updates.
Analyze router output to see RIPv2 support for VLSM
and CIDR
Identify RIPv2 verification commands and common
RIPv2 issues.
Configure, verify, and troubleshoot RIPv2 in “hands-
on” labs
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Introduction
Chapter focus
-Difference between RIPv1 & RIPv2
RIPv1
-A classful distance vector routing protocol
-Does not support discontiguous subnets
-Does not support VLSM
-Does not send subnet mask in routing update
-Routing updates are broadcast
RIPv2
-A classless distance vector routing protocol that is an
enhancement of RIPv1’s features.
-Next hop address is included in updates
-Routing updates are multicast
-The use of authentication is an option
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Introduction
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RIPv1 Limitations
Lab Topology
Scenario:
3 router set up
Topology is discontiguous
There exists a static summary
route
Static route information can be
injected into routing table updates
using redistribution.
Routers 1 & 3 contain VLSM
networks
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RIPv1 Limitations
Scenario Continued
VLSM
-Recall this is sub netting
the subnet
Private IP addresses are
on LAN links
Public IP addresses are
used on WAN links
Loopback interfaces
-These are virtual
interfaces that can be
pinged and added to
routing table
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RIPv1 Limitations
Null Interfaces
This is a virtual interface that does not need to be
created or configured
-Traffic sent to a null interface is discarded
-Null interfaces do not send or receive traffic
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RIPv1 Limitations
Route redistribution
-Redistribution command is way to disseminate a
static route from one router to another via a routing
protocol
-Example
R2(config-router)#redistribute static
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RIPv1 Limitations
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RIPv1 Limitations
RIPv1 – a classful routing protocol
-Subnet mask are not sent in updates
-Summarizes networks at major network boundaries
-if network is discontiguous and RIPv1 configured
convergence
will not be reached
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RIPv1 Limitations
Examining the routing tables
-To examine the contents of
routing updates use the
debug ip rip command
-If RIPv1 is
configured then
Subnet masks will not be
included with the
network address
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RIPv1 Limitations
RIPv1 does not support
VLSM
Reason: RIPv1 does not
send subnet mask
in routing updates
RIPv1 does summarize
routes to the Classful
boundary
Or uses the Subnet mask
of the outgoing interface
to determine which
subnets to advertise
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RIPv1 Limitations
No CIDR Support
In the diagram R2 will not
include the static route in its
update
Reason: Classful routing
protocols do not support
CIDR routes that are
summarized with a smaller
mask than the classful
subnet mask
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Configuring RIPv2
Comparing RIPv1 & RIPv2 Message Formats
-RIPv2 Message format is similar to RIPv1 but has 2
extensions
1st extension is the subnet mask field
2nd extension is the addition of next hop
address
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Configuring RIPv2
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Configuring RIPv2
Configuring RIPv2 on a
Cisco router
-Requires using the
version 2 command
-RIPv2 ignores RIPv1
updates
To verify RIPv2 is
configured use the
show ip protocols
command
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Configuring RIPv2
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Configuring RIPv2
Disabling Auto-
Summary in RIPv2
To disable automatic
summarization issue
the no auto-summary
command
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Configuring RIPv2
Verifying RIPv2 Updates
When using RIPv2 with automatic summarization turned off
Each subnet and mask has its own specific entry, along
with the exit interface and next-hop address to reach that
subnet.
To verify information being sent by RIPv2 use the
debug ip rip command
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VLSM & CIDR
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VLSM & CIDR
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VLSM & CIDR
To verify that
supernets are
being sent and
received use the
following commands
-Show ip route
-Debug ip rip
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Verifying & Troubleshooting RIPv2
Basic Troubleshooting steps
-Check the status of all links
-Check cabling
-Check IP address & subnet mask configuration
-Remove any unneeded configuration commands
Commands used to verify proper operation of RIPv2
–Show ip interfaces brief
–Show ip protocols
–Debug ip rip
–Show ip route
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Verifying & Troubleshooting RIPv2
Common RIPv2 Issues
When trouble shooting RIPv2 examine the following issues:
Version
Check to make sure you are using version 2
Network statements
Network statements may be incorrectly typed
or missing
Automatic summarization
If summarized routes are not needed then disable
automatic summarization
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Verifying & Troubleshooting RIPv2
Reasons why it’s good to authenticate routing information
-Prevent the possibility of accepting invalid routing
updates
-Contents of routing updates are encrypted
Types of routing protocols that can use authentication
-RIPv2
-EIGRP
-OSPF
-IS-IS
-BGP
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Summary
Routing Distance Classless Uses Use of Max Auto Support Supports Uses
Protocol Vector Routing Hold- Split Hop Summary CIDR VLSM Authen-
Protocol Down Horizon count tication
Timers or = 15
Split
Horizon
w/
Poison
Reverse
RIPv2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
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The Routing Table: A
Closer Look
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Objectives
Describe the various route types found in the routing
table structure
Describe the routing table lookup process.
Describe routing behavior in routed networks.
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Introduction
Chapter Focus
-Structure of the routing table
-Lookup process of the routing table
-Classless and classful routing behaviors
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Routing Table Structure
Lab Topology
3 router setup
-R1 and R2 share a common 172.16.0.0/16 network with
172.16.0.0/24 subnets.
-R2 and R3 are connected by the 192.168.1.0/24 network.
-R3 also has a 172.16.4.0/24 subnet, which is disconnected, or
discontiguous, from the 172.16.0.0 network that R1 and R2
share.
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Routing Table Structure
Routing table entries come from the following sources
-Directly connected networks
-Static routes
-Dynamic routing protocols
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Routing Table Structure
Level 1 Routes
As soon as the no shutdown command is issued the
route is added to routing table
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Routing Table Structure
Cisco IP routing table
is a hierarchical
structure
-The reason for this is
to speed up lookup
process
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Routing Table Structure
Level 1 Routes
-Have a subnet mask equal to or less than the
classful mask of the network address.
Level 1 route can function as:
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Routing Table Structure
Level 1 Routes
-Ultimate Route
Includes either:
-A next-hop address
OR
-An exit interface
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Routing Table Structure
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Routing Table Structure
Automatic creation of parent
routes
-Occurs any time a
subnet is added to the
routing table
Child routes
-Child routes are level
2 routes
-Child routes are a
subnet of a classful
network address
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Routing Table Structure
Level 2 child routes contain route source & the network
address of the route
Level 2 child routes are also considered ultimate
routes
Reason: they contain the next hop address
&/or exit interface
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Routing Table Structure
Both child routes have the same subnet mask
-This means the parent route maintains the /24 mask
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Routing Table Structure
Diagram illustrates 2 child networks belonging to the
parent route 172.16.0.0 / 24
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Routing Table Structure
In classless networks, child routes do not have to share
the same subnet mask
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Routing Table Structure
Parent & Child Routes: Classless Networks
Class- No No No No
ful
Class- Yes Yes Yes Yes
less
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Routing Table Structure
Parent & Child Routes: Classless Networks
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Routing Table Lookup Process
The Route Lookup Process
Examine level 1 routes
-If best match a level 1 ultimate route and is not a parent
route this route is used to forward packet
Router examines level 2 (child) routes
-If there is a match with level 2 child route then
that subnet is used to forward packet
-If no match then
determine routing behavior type
Router determines classful or classless routing behavior
-If classful then packet is dropped
-If classless then router searches level one supernet and
default routes
-If there exists a level 1 supernet or default route match
then Packet is forwarded. If not packet is dropped
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Routing Table Lookup Process
Longest Match: Level 1 Network Routes
–Best match is also known as the longest match
–The best match is the one that has the most number of left
most bits matching between the destination IP address and the
route in the routing table.
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Routing Table Lookup Process
Finding the subnet mask
used to determine the
longest match
Scenario:
–PC1 pings 192.168.1.2
–Router examines level 1
route for best match
–There exist a match
between192.168.1.2 &
192.168.1.0 / 24
–Router forwards packets
out s0/0/0
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Routing Table Lookup Process
The process of matching
-1st there must be a match made between the
parent route & destination IP
-If a match is made then an attempt at finding a
match between the destination IP and the child route
is made.
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Routing Table Lookup Process
Finding a match between packet’s destination IP address
and the next route in the routing table
-The figure shows a match between the destination IP of
192.168.1.0 and the level one IP of 192.168.1.0 / 24
then packet forwarded out s0/0/0
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Routing Table Lookup Process
Level 1 Parent & Level 2 Child Routes
Before level 2 child routes are examined
-There must be a match between classful level one
parent route and destination IP address.
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Routing Table Lookup Process
After the match with parent route has been made Level 2 child
routes will be examined for a match
-Route lookup process searches for child
routes with a match with destination IP
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Routing Table Lookup Process
How a router finds a match with one of the level 2 child
routes
-First router examines parent routes for a match
-If a match exists then:
Child routes are examined
Child route chosen is the one with the
longest match
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Routing Table Lookup Process
Example: Route Lookup
Process with VLSM
-The use of VLSM does not
change the lookup process
-If there is a match between
destination IP address and the
level 1 parent route then
-Level 2 child routes will be
searched
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Routing Behavior
Classful & classless routing protocols
Influence how routing table is populated
Classful & classless routing behaviors
Determines how routing table is searched after it is
filled
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Routing Behavior
Classful Routing
Behavior:
no ip classless
What happens if there is
not a match with any
level 2 child routes of the
parent?
-Router must determine if
the routing behavior is
classless or classful
-If router is utilizing classful
routing behavior then
-Lookup process is
terminated and
packet is dropped
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Routing Behavior
Classful Routing Behavior – Search Process
An example of when classful routing behavior is in effect and
why the router drops the Packet
-The destination’s subnet mask is a /24 and none of the child
routes left most bits match the first 24 bits. This means packet
is dropped
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Routing Behavior
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Routing Behavior
ip classless
Beginning with IOS 11.3, ip classless was configured
by default
Classless routing behavior works for
-Discontiguous networks
And
-CIDR supernets
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Routing Behavior
Classless Routing Behavior: ip classless
Route lookup process when ip classless is in use
-If classless routing behavior in effect then
Search level 1 routes
Supernet routes Checked first
-If a match exists then forward packet
Default routes Checked second
If there is no match or no default
route then the
Packet is dropped
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Routing Behavior
Classless Routing Behavior – Search Process
Router begins search process by finding a match between
destination IP and parent route
After finding the above mentioned match, then
there is a search of the child route
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Routing Behavior
Classless Routing Behavior – Search Process
If no match is found in child routes of previous slide then
Router continues to search the routing table for a
match that may have fewer bits in the match
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Routing Behavior
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Summary
Content/structure of a routing table
Routing table entries
-Directly connected networks
-Static route
-Dynamic routing protocols
Routing tables are hierarchical
-Level 1 route
Have a subnet mask that is less than or equal to
classful subnet mask for the network address
-Level 2 route
These are subnets of a network address
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Summary
Routing table lookup process
Begins with examining level 1 routes for best match with packet’s destination IP
If the best match = an ultimate route then
-Packet is forwarded -Else-
-Parent route is examined
If parent route & destination IP match then Level 2 (child)
routes are examined
Level 2 route examination
If a match between destination IP and child route found then
Packet forwarded -Else
If Router is using classful routing behavior then
Packet is dropped -Else
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Summary
Routing behaviors
-This refers to how a routing table is searched
Classful routing behavior
-Indicated by the use of the no ip classless command
-Router will not look beyond child routes for a lesser
match
Classless routing behavior
-Indicated by the use of the ip classless command
-Router will look beyond child routes for a lesser match
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Link-State Routing
Protocols
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Objectives
Describe the basic features & concepts of link-state
routing protocols.
List the benefits and requirements of link-state routing
protocols.
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Link-State Routing
Link state routing protocols
-Also known as shortest path first algorithms
-These protocols are built around Dijkstra’s
SPF
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Link-State Routing
Dikjstra’s algorithm also known as the shortest path first
(SPF) algorithm
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Link-State Routing
The shortest path to a destination is not necessarily the
path with the least number of hops
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Link-State Routing
Link-State Routing Process
How routers using Link State Routing Protocols reach
convergence
-Each routers learns about its own directly connected networks
-Link state routers exchange hello packet to “meet” other
directly
connected link state routers.
-Each router builds its own Link State Packet (LSP) which
includes information about neighbors such as neighbor ID, link
type, & bandwidth.
-After the LSP is created the router floods it to all neighbors who
then store the information and then forward it until all routers
have the same information.
-Once all the routers have received all the LSPs, the routers
then construct a topological map of the network which is used to
determine the best routes to a destination
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Link-State Routing
Directly Connected
Networks
Link
This is an interface on a
router
Link state
This is the information
about the state of the
links
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Link-State Routing
Sending Hello Packets to Neighbors
Link state routing protocols use a hello protocol
Purpose of a hello protocol:
-To discover neighbors (that use the same
link state routing protocol) on its link
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Link-State Routing
Sending Hello Packets to
Neighbors
Connected interfaces that are using
the same link state routing protocols
will exchange hello packets.
Once routers learn it has neighbors
they form an adjacency
-2 adjacent neighbors will
exchange hello packets
-These packets will serve as a
keep alive function
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Link-State Routing
Building the Link State Packet
Each router builds its own Link State Packet (LSP)
Contents of LSP:
-State of each directly connected link
-Includes information about neighbors such as neighbor ID, link type, &
bandwidth.
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Link-State Routing
Flooding LSPs to Neighbors
Once LSP are created they are forwarded out to neighbors.
-After receiving the LSP the neighbor continues to forward it
throughout routing area.
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Link-State Routing
LSPs are sent out under the following conditions
-Initial router start up or routing process
-When there is a change in topology
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Link-State Routing
Final Step: Constructing a link state data base
Routers use a database to construct a topology map of
the network
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Link-State Routing
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Link-State Routing
Shortest Path First (SPF) Tree
Building a portion of the SPF tree
Process begins by examining R2’s LSP information
-R1 ignores 1st LSP
Reason: R1 already knows it’s connected to R2
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Link-State Routing
Building a portion of the SPF tree
-R1 uses 2nd LSP
Reason: R1 can create a link from R2 to R5.
This information is added to R1’s SPF tree
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Link-State Routing
Building a portion of the SPF tree
-R1 uses 3rd LSP
Reason: R1 learns that R2 is connected to
10.5.0.0/16.
This link is added to R1’s SPF tree.
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Link-State Routing
Determining the shortest path
The shortest path to a destination determined by adding the
costs & finding the lowest cost
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Link-State Routing
Once the SPF algorithm has determined the shortest
path routes, these routes are placed in the routing
table.
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Link-State Routing Protocols
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Link-State Routing Protocols
Advantages of a Link-State Routing Protocol
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Link-State Routing Protocols
Requirements for using a link state routing protocol
Memory requirements
Typically link state routing protocols use more
memory
Processing Requirements
More CPU processing is required of link state
routing protocols
Bandwidth Requirements
Initial startup of link state routing protocols can
consume lots of bandwidth
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Link-State Routing Protocols
2 link state routing protocols used for routing IP
-Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
-Intermediate System-Intermediate System (IS-IS)
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Summary
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Summary
Link
An interface on the router
Link State
Information about an interface such as
-IP address
-Subnet mask
-Type of network
-Cost associated with link
-Neighboring routers on the link
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Summary
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OSPF
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Objectives
Describe the background and basic features of OSPF
Identify and apply the basic OSPF configuration
commands
Describe, modify and calculate the metric used by
OSPF
Describe the Designated Router/Backup Designated
Router (DR/BDR) election process in multiaccess
networks
Describe the uses of additional configuration
commands in OSPF
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Introduction
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Introduction to OSPF
Background of OSPF
Began in 1987
1989 OSPFv1 released in RFC 1131
This version was experimental & never deployed
1991 OSPFv2 released in RFC 1247
1998 OSPFv2 updated in RFC 2328
1999 OSPFv3 published in RFC 2740
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Introduction to OSPF
OSPF Message Encapsulation
Data link frame header
Contains - Source MAC address and Destination MAC address
DstAddr = 01-00-5E-00-00-05 or 01-00-5E-00-00-06
IP packet header
Contains - Source IP address, Destination IP address & Protocol field
Proto = 89
DstAddr = 224.0.0.5 or 224.0.0.6
OSPF packet header
Contains - Router ID and area ID and Type code for OSPF packet type
OSPF packet type
There exist 5 types
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Introduction to OSPF
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Introduction to OSPF
OSPF Packet Types
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Introduction to OSPF
Hello Protocol
OSPF Hello Packet
–Purpose of Hello Packet
Discover OSPF neighbors & establish adjacencies
Advertise guidelines on which routers must agree to become
neighbors
Used by multi-access networks to elect a designated router and
a backup designated router
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Introduction to OSPF
Hello Packets continued
Contents of a Hello Packet
router ID of transmitting router
OSPF Hello Intervals
–Usually multicast (224.0.0.5)
–Sent every 30 seconds for NBMA segments
OSPF Dead Intervals
–This is the time that must transpire
before the neighbor is considered
down
–Default time is 4 times
the hello interval
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Introduction to OSPF
Hello protocol packets contain information that is used
in electing
-Designated Router (DR)
DR is responsible for updating all other OSPF routers
-Backup Designated Router (BDR)
This router takes over DR’s responsibilities if DR fails
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Introduction to OSPF
OSPF Link-state Updates
Purpose of a Link State Update (LSU)
Used to deliver link state advertisements
Purpose of a Link State Advertisement (LSA)
Contains information about neighbors & path costs
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Introduction to OSPF
OSPF Algorithm
OSPF routers build &
maintain link-state
database containing LSA
received from other routers
–Information found in
database is utilized upon
execution of Dijkstra SPF
algorithm
–SPF algorithm used to
create SPF tree
–SPF tree used to populate
routing table
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Introduction to OSPF
Administrative Distance
Default Administrative Distance for OSPF is 110
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Introduction to OSPF
OSPF Authentication
–Purpose is to encrypt & authenticate routing
information
–This is an interface specific configuration
–Routers will only accept routing information from
other routers that have been configured with the
same password or authentication information
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Lab Topology
Topology used for this chapter
Discontiguous IP addressing scheme
Since OSPF is a classless routing protocol the subnet mask is
configured
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Basic OSPF Configuration
The router ospf command
To enable OSPF on a router use the following
command
R1(config)#router ospf process-id
Process id
A locally significant number between 1 and 65535
-this means it does not have to match other OSPF
routers
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Basic OSPF Configuration
OSPF network command
-Requires entering: network address
wildcard mask - the inverse of the subnet
mask
area-id - area-id refers to the OSPF area.
OSPF area is a group of routers that
share link state information
-Example: Router(config-router)#network network-address
wildcard-ask area area-id
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Router ID
–This is an IP address used to identify a router
–3 criteria for deriving the router ID
Use identifier configured with OSPF router-id command
-Takes precedence over loopback and physical interface
addresses
If router-id command not used then router chooses highest
IP address of any loopback interfaces
If no loopback interfaces are configured then the highest IP
address on any active interface is used
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Basic OSPF Configuration
OSPF Router ID
Commands used to verify current router ID
–Show ip protocols
–Show ip ospf
–Show ip ospf interface
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Basic OSPF Configuration
OSPF Router ID
Router ID & Loopback addresses
-Highest loopback address will be used as router ID if router-id
command isn’t used
-Advantage of using loopback address
the loopback interface cannot fail Æ OSPF stability
The OSPF router-id command
–Introduced in IOS 12.0
–Command syntax
Router(config)#router ospfprocess-id
Router(config-router)#router-idip-address
Modifying the Router ID
–Use the command Router#clear ip ospf process
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Verifying OSPF
Use the show ip ospf neighbor command to verify &
trouble shoot OSPF networks
Command will display the following:
Neighbor adjacency
-No adjacency indicated by -
Neighboring router’s Router ID is not displayed
A state of full is not displayed
-Consequence of no adjacency-
No link state information exchanged
Inaccurate SPF trees & routing tables
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Verifying OSPF - Additional Commands
Command Description
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Examining the routing table
Use the show ip route command to display the routing
table
-An “O’ at the beginning of a route indicates that the router
source is OSPF
-Note OSPF does not automatically summarize at major
network boundaries
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OSPF Metric
OSPF uses cost as the metric for determining the
best route
-The best route will have the lowest cost
-Cost is based on bandwidth of an interface
Cost is calculated using the formula
108 / bandwidth
-Reference bandwidth
defaults to 100Mbps
can be modified using
auto-cost reference-bandwidth command
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OSPF Metric
COST of an OSPF route
Is the accumulated value from one router to the next
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OSPF Metric
Usually the actual speed of a link is different than the
default bandwidth
–This makes it imperative that the bandwidth value reflects
link’s actual speed
Reason: so routing table has best path information
The show interface command will display interface’s
bandwidth
-Most serial link default to 1.544Mbps
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Modifying the Cost of a link
Both sides of a serial link should be configured with the
same bandwidth
–Commands used to modify bandwidth value
Bandwidth command
–Example: Router(config-if)#bandwidthbandwidth-kbps
ip ospf cost command – allows you to directly specify
interface cost
-Example:R1(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
R1(config-if)#ip ospf cost 1562
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Basic OSPF Configuration
Modifying the Cost of the link
Difference between bandwidth command & the ip ospf
cost command
–Ip ospf cost command
Sets cost to a specific value
–Bandwidth command
Link cost is calculated
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OSPF and Multiaccess Networks
Challenges in Multiaccess Networks
OSPF defines five network types:
–Point-to-point
–Broadcast Multiaccess
–Nonbroadcast Multiaccess (NBMA)
–Point-to-multipoint
–Virtual links
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
2 challenges presented by multiaccess networks
–Multiple adjacencies
–Extensive LSA flooding
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
Extensive flooding of LSAs
For every LSA sent out there must be an acknowledgement of
receipt sent back to transmitting router.
consequence: lots of bandwidth consumed and chaotic traffic
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
Solution to LSA flooding issue
is the use of
–Designated router (DR)
–Backup designated router (BDR)
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
DR/BDR elections will take place on multiaccess
networks as shown below
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
Criteria for getting elected DR/BDR
1. DR: Router with the highest OSPF
interface priority.
2. BDR: Router with the second highest
OSPF interface priority.
3. If OSPF interface priorities are equal, the
highest router ID is used to break the tie.
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
Manipulating the election process
-If you want to influence the election of DR & BDR then do one
of the following
Boot up the DR first, followed by the BDR, and then boot all
other routers,
OR
Shut down the interface on all routers, followed by a no
shutdown on the DR, then the BDR, and then all other
routers.
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OSPF in Multiaccess Networks
OSPF Interface Priority
Manipulating the DR/BDR election process continued
–Use the ip ospf priority interface command.
–Example:Router(config-if)#ip ospf priority {0 - 255}
Priority number range 0 to 255
–0 means the router cannot become the DR or BDR
–1 is the default priority value
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More OSPF Configuration
Redistributing an OSPF Default Route
Topology includes a link to ISP
–Router connected to ISP
Called an autonomous system border router
Used to propagate a default route
–Example of static default route
R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 loopback 1
–Requires the use of the default-information originate
command
–Example of default-information originate command
R1(config-router)#default-information originate
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More OSPF Configuration
Fine-Tuning OSPF
Since link speeds are getting
faster it may be necessary to
change reference bandwidth
values
–Do this using the auto-cost
reference-bandwidth command
–Example:
R1(config-router)#auto-cost
reference-bandwidth 10000
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More OSPF Configuration
Fine-Tuning OSPF
Modifying OSPF timers
–Reason to modify timers
Faster detection of network failures
–Manually modifying Hello & Dead intervals
Router(config-if)#ip ospf hello-interval seconds
Router(config-if)#ip ospf dead-interval seconds
–Point to be made
Hello & Dead intervals must be the same between
neighbors
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Summary
RFC 2328 describes OSPF link state concepts and
operations
OSPF Characteristics
–A commonly deployed link state routing protocol
–Employs DRs & BDRs on multi-access networks
DRs & BDRs are elected
DR & BDRs are used to transmit and receive LSAs
–Uses 5 packet types:
1: HELLO
2: DATABASE DESCRIPTION
3: LINK STATE REQUEST
4: LINK STATE UPDATE
5: LINK STATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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Summary
OSPF Characteristics
–Metric = cost
Lowest cost = best path
Configuration
–Enable OSPF on a router using the following command
R1(config)#router ospf process-id
–use the network command to define which interfaces will
participate in a given OSPF process
Router(config-router)#network network-address
wildcard-mask area area-id
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Summary
Verifying OSPF configuration
–Use the following commands
show ip protocol
show ip route
show ip ospf interface
show ip ospf neighbor
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