IP Routing - Fundamentals

Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 1
IP Routing Fundamentals
Table of contents: Chapter One
Introduction.
Topology and router configurations.
What does a router do?
How does a router know what to do?
Forwarding:
How are forwading decisions made?
How are forwading decisions made for
multipoint interfaces?
How does an end system send send
packets to other subnets?
Convergence:
What is convergence?
Primary activities involved.
Update / invalid / holddown / flush defined.
With Parallel paths.
View multiple paths in a routing table.
View invalid timer in routing table.
Invalid timer expired.
Invalid timer expired but route is still used.
Invalid and holddown in action.
Holddown.
Converged state.
Invalid, holddown& flush.
Debug messages and reality.
Invalid, holddown& flush, continued
Split horizon.
Convergence:
.Routing advertisements with split horizon.
enabled.
Disable split horizon.
Routing advertisements with split horizon.
disabled.
enabled, continued.
disabled, continued.
Split horizon disabled and poison reverse.
Split horizon and multi-point interfaces.
Split horizon enabled and subinterfaces.
Loss of a conncected route vs. a dynamic
route.
Poison reverse in action.
Summary:
Invalid.
Holddown.
Flush.
Split horizon.
Poison reverse.
:Parallel Paths:
Load balancing & switching paths, fast
switching.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Table of contents: Chapter One
Parallel Paths:
Load balancing & switching paths, process
switching.
Load balancing & switching paths, fast
switching, continued.
Load balancing & switching paths, process
switching, continued.
Summary:
Load balancing and switching paths.
Chapter 1 Page 2
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 3
Introduction
This course covers the generic behaviour of IP routing and packet forwarding using Cisco routers. It will go into
detailed analysis of several scenarios to provide insight into the fundamentals of IP that everybody supporting
IP in a network should know.
This course is not intended to be an in depth analysis of the individual routing protocols presented.
This course is not intended to be a design and implementation guide for building IP networks.
Although this course was created with stand up teaching in mind it will work best if the students also use it as
lab reference material to experiment with the concepts it presents.
Many of the functions & concepts covered in this course have been documented in the multitude of books
available on IP with various levels of success. This document specifically focuses on how Cisco routers
implement these functions and how users can use Cisco routers to learn more about IP.
This course will not cover EIGRP, OSPF, Integrated ISIS, Gateway Protocols such as BGP or RIP V2.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
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Introduction
The appendix includes information on where to find out more about specific routing protocols.
The routers in the topology and configuration section may appear in different topologies throughout this course.
With the exception of removing some links in some examples the actual configurations will not change from
those shown unless specifically noted. Links that have been disconnected or removed in some examples are
shutdown in the related configuration.
Some of the fundamentals such as split-horizon, poison reverse, holddown and invalid also apply to IPX RIP
and Appletalk RIP.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
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Topology and router configurations

Major Net 168.71.0.0
Mask 255.255.255.0
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
171.68.207.164
Secondary
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router A as used in this documentation has a connection to the real Cisco network via its secondary address.
Although the secondary address space may not be mentioned again look for references to it in the sections on
summarisation, default routes and other issues that require access to networks that are not known explicitly by
the routers.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 6

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
171.68.207.164
Secondary
168.71.9.2 S0
Router C
RouterA
!
interface ethernet0
ip address 168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
ip address 171.68.207.164 255.255.128 secondary
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
passive-interface Ethernet0
!
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 7

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S0
Router C
RouterB
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.2 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.7.2 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 64
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 8

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S0
Router C
RouterC
!
interface tokenring0
ip address 168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.7.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 64
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.2 255.0.0.0
bandwidth 128
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 9
What does a router do?
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
Router C
168.71.8.0
Routers forward IP packets towards their destination networks on a hop-by-hop basis.

In most instances the forwading router does not know whether the next hop router is the final router in the
chain or if it is merely another hop in a longer chain.
In the example above if Router A received a packet for 168.71.8.2 (a host on the token ring) Router A would
simply forward the packet to Router B. Router A would neither know nor care that Router B is not actually
connected to 168.71.8.0 and in fact has to hand the packet off to yet another router.
As far as Router A is concerned the route to 168.71.8.0 is known via 168.71.6.2 over serial 0. Known via
means that this is the IP address of the advertising router. On a point to point link the advertising router is
always the only other router on the link. On a multipoint link such as Frame Relay there may be several routers
advertising routes that arrive over a serial interface. In this case it is imperitive to store the next hop address to
identify which router is advertising the routes.
The multipoint example will be covered later in this course.
It is important to note that the destination address of an IP packet never changes at it flows through
the network.
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Version 1.1
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How does a router know what to do?

Router A
Router B
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.6.0
Routers send each other information about networks that they know about. They do this with different types of
protocols that are generically referred to as routing protocols. Routers use this information to build a routing
table that consists of the available networks, the costs associated with reaching the available networks and the
path to the next hop router.
The two primary classes of routing protocols in use today are link state and distance vector.
A router running a Link State protocol sends updates that describe the state of the links attached the router and
the costs associated with using those links. Other routers listen to these updates and build a picture of the
topology of the network based on what networks the other routers have indicated that they are connected to.
The metric for Link State protocols are typically cost based. A low speed link costs more than a high speed link
in terms of performance. Paths that run over lower cost, higher speed links are preferred.
A router running a Distance Vector protocol sends updates that contain all of the networks that the router
knows about, not just the networks it is connected to. The advertising router increases the metric (typically hop
count) of the routes that it has heard about and advertises them to the next routers in the path.
Routers typically do not advertise networks back out the interface they are known via.
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Version 1.1
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Forwarding: How are forwarding decisions made?

Router A
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.6.2
Router B
168.71.8.0
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.8.1
Router B
Protocol
IGRP
Connected
Connected
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.8.0
Interface
Serial0
Serial0
Token0
168.71.8.1
Next Hop
168.71.6.1
IP routing is normally done on a next hop basis. In this example Router A may have told Router B about subnet
168.71.5.0. Router B doesnt really care if Router A is actually attached to 168.71.5.0. If Router A says it can
reach 168.71.5.0 that is sufficient for Router B to make a forwarding decision to send packets destined for
168.71.5.0 to Router A.
Routers take an incoming packet and compare it to entries in their routing table. A longest match lookup is
performed to determine if a route is available for forwarding the packet. If no explicit route is available the
router may chose to forward the packet to a gateway of last resort. This will be covered in a later section.
In this example Router B receives a packet destined for 168.71.5.1. The longest match in the routing table
indicates that that 168.71.5.0 is known via serial 0 with a next hop of 168.71.6.1. In this case the next hop
address is redundant because the serial link is point-to-point.
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7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
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Forwarding: How are forwarding decisions made for multipoint interfaces?

Router C
168.71.9.0
Router B
.2
168.71.8.0
.3
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
Router A
168.71.5.0
168.71.5.1
.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.8.1
Protocol
IGRP
Connected
Connected
IGRP
168.71.8.1
Router B
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.9.0
Interface
Serial0
Serial0
Token0
Serial0
168.71.8.1
Next Hop
168.71.6.1
168.71.6.2
In this example the next hop interface of serial 0 is not sufficient for forwarding the packet to 168.71.5.1
accurately. The further distiction of a next hop IP address eliminates the ambiguity of only pointing to the serial
interface. In this case Router B knows that the next hop is out serial 0 to the next hop address of 168.71.6.1.
Router B will have a frame relay map entry on serial 0 that indicates the appropriate DLCI (100) to send the
packet to.
The frame-relay map for IP address 168.71.61. to dlci 100 is essentially an ARP entry for the layer two and
layer three protocol addresses. This is similar to an ethernet MAC address to IP address ARP entry.
RouterB#show frame-relay map
Serial0 (up): ip 168.71.6.1 dlci 100(0x64,0x1840), static,
broadcast,
CISCO
RouterB#
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Forwarding: How Does An End System Send Packets To Other Subnets?

168.71.5.2
Router A
168.71.5.1
A
0000.0c00.1234
168.71.5.1
E0
0000.0c01.8793
168.71.8.2
168.71.6.1
168.71.6.2
Router B
168.71.8.1
T0
S0
S0
Layer Two
Layer Three
0000.0f00.8674
0000.0d00.5463
168.71.8.1
Before a router can even get involved in forwarding a packet from an end station the end station must figure
how to get the packet to the router in the first place.
When an end system wants to send an IP packet to another end system it compares the destination IP
address with its own address. If the destination address is within the same subnet (on the same local cable) the
originating end station will ARP for the destination end system. If the originating end system determines that
the destination end system is on a different cable it will send the packet to the MAC (cable address) of its
gateway and the IP address of the destination end sysytem.
In this example end system A wants to send a PING to end station B. End system A determines that end
system B is on a different cable segment because the destination IP address is on a different subnet of
168.71.0.0.
End station A has 168.71.5.2 configured as its gateway address. End system A will ARP for the MAC address
of 168.71.5.2 so that it can use this address as the MAC address for delivering packets to 168.71.8.1 The layer
two (MAC) addresses are point-to-point. The layer three (IP addresses) are end to end. The layer two adresses
for the serial links have been ommitted for clarity. Gateways are covered in a later section of this course.
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Version 1.1
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Convergence: What is convergence?
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Convergence - is the process that routers go through when a route (network) or group of routes (networks)
have become unavailable either due to a link going down in the network or extreme packet loss on a link. This
will result in the routers flushing the lost routes and listening to see if there are other routes available. Routers
usually only store the best route to a network in their routing table. Other, higher cost routes may exist but the
router will ignore them while they believe that the better route still exists.
In the example above Router A has had to converge on a new path to 168.71.8.0 because the link between
Router A and Router C has gone down.
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Version 1.1
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Convergence: Primary activities involved

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Convergence involves four primary activities; Update, Invalid, Holddown and Flush. This example shows the
default timers used by RIP. These activities will be explained in this section.
Here you can see the default timers used by RIP
RouterA# show ip protocol

Routing Protocol is "rip"
Sending updates every 30 seconds, next due in 27 seconds
Invalid after 180 seconds, hold down 180, flushed after 240
.
.
Stuff deleted
.
RouterA#
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Version 1.1
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Convergence - Update / Invalid / Holddown / Flush; defined
Update- This is the time between between routing updates sent by a router.
Invalid - This is both a term used to describe a particular state that a route may be in and a timer that is used
to monitor the status of a route. The term invalid is used to refer to routes that have not been heard from for the
period of time that the invalid timer is set for. EG: If the invalid timer is 60 seconds and an advertisement for a
route from the router it is learned from has not been received for 61 seconds the invalid timer will expire and
the route will be considered invalid.
Holddown - This is both a term used to describe a particular state that a route may be in and a timer that is
used to monitor the status of a route. The term holddown is used to refer to routes that have been marked as
invalid (expired) but are not yet capable of being replaced with a new route of a higer metric. The holddown
timer determines how long a route will remain in holddown. (Unless the flush timer fires before the holddown
timer finishes running.)
Flush - This is both a timer and a term that describes removing a route from the routing table. The flush timer
restarts everytime an update is received for a route from the router that it is learned from. It is important to note
that the flush timer and the invalid timer both restart at the same time and run concurrently. When the flush
timer has expired for a route the route is removed from the routing table. For RIP the flush timer expires before
the holddown timer so holddown never runs for its complete cycle.
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7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
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Convergence: With parallel paths

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.7.0
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
If a router had two or more equal cost paths to a network it may use them concurrently. If it loses one or more
of them the router will continue to use the paths that are still available. Router A above has two equal cost
paths to 168.71.7.0. If it loses the route via serial 0 it will continue to use the route via serial 1.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
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Convergence: View multiple paths in a routing table

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.7.0
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the two routes to 168.71.7.0 in Router As routing table
RouterA# show ip route

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
Gateway of last resort is 171.68.207.129 to network 0.0.0.0
168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 is subnetted, 5 subnets
C
168.71.9.0 is directly connected, Serial1
R
168.71.8.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:15, Serial1
R
168.71.7.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:00, Serial0
[120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:15, Serial1
C
C
168.71.5.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
171.68.0.0 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
171.68.207.128 255.255.255.128 is directly connected, Ethernet0
S
171.68.0.0 255.255.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 19
Convergence: View invalid timer in routing table

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
In this example the timer invalid timer for 168.71.9.0 restarts everytime
168.71.8.0 is advertised by 168.71.9.2 (RouterC)

U - per-user static route
168.71.0.0/16
168.71.9.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.7.0
is subnetted, 5 subnets
C
is directly connected, Serial1
R
[120/1] via 168.71.9.2,
00:00:39, Serial1
R
[120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:11, Serial0
[120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:39, Serial1
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
RouterA#
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Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 20
Convergence: Invalid timer expired
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
In this example the invalid timer for 168.71.8.0 has fired.

Here you can that Router As invalid timer has expired for 168.71.8.0 and the route is marked possibly down

168.71.0.0/16 is subnetted, 5 subnets
C
R
168.71.8.0/24 is possibly down,
routing via 168.71.9.2, Serial1
R
168.71.7.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:24, Serial0
C
C
S*
RouterA#
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Version 1.1
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Convergence: Invalid timer expired but the route is still used

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
Pings
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
Here you can that Router A is still using the route via serial 1
RoutwrA# deb ip packet

RouterA# ping 168.71.8.1
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 168.71.8.1, timeout is 2 seconds:
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 20/23/24 ms
RouterA#
IP: s=168.71.9.1 (local), d=168.71.8.1
(Serial1), len 100, sending
IP: s=168.71.8.1 (Serial1), d=168.71.9.1 (Serial1), len 104, rcvd 3
IP: s=168.71.9.1 (local), d=168.71.8.1
IP: s=168.71.9.1 (local), d=168.71.8.1
IP: s=168.71.9.1 (local), d=168.71.8.1
IP: s=168.71.9.1 (local), d=168.71.8.1
RouterA
168.71.8.1
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Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 22
Convergence: Invalid and holddown in action

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This example shows what Router A will do when the invalid timer for 168.71.8.0 has fired.
The flushed route message below is referring to
the process of advertising the routes as
unreachable to other routers so that they remove
the route.
(1)
Router A advertises the route with a metric 16

(unreachable).
(2)
(3)
Router A puts the route into holddown
Here is the debug showing RouterA putting 168.71.8.0 into holddown and advertising it as unreachable
RouterA# debug ip routing

RouterA# deb ip rip
Aug 23 22:20:05: RT: flushed route to 168.71.8.0 via 168.71.9.2 (Serial1)
Aug 23 22:20:05: RT: no routes to 168.71.8.0, entering holddown
Aug 23 22:20:33: RIP: sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)
Aug 23 22:20:33:
subnet 168.71.8.0, metric 16
RouterA#
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7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 23
Convergence: Holddown
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
A router will put a route into holddown when one of the following happens:
The router that was advertising the route stops advertising it for a period of time. This period of time is usually
referred to as the invalid period.
The router that is advertising the route send a new advertisement for the route with a metric that is greater
than the stored metric. This usually indicates a routing loop. This causes the route to be deleted immediately
and put into holddown immediately instead of waiting for the invalid timer to fire.
The following slides show what happens when a router stops advertising a network over one of two possible
paths. In this case Router C will stop advertising 168.71.8.0 and 168.71.7.0 over its serial 1 interface.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 24
Convergence: converged state

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This is Router As routing table in a converged state prior to Router C ceasing to advertise routes over serial 1

168.71.0.0/16
168.71.9.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.7.0
is subnetted, 5 subnets
C
R
[120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:39, Serial1
R
[120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:11, Serial0
[120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:39, Serial1
C
C
S*
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 25
Convergence: Invalid, Holddown & Flush

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router C is no longer sending updates over its serial 1. However the phsical link is still active.
Unfortunately the debug messages below are misleading. The next slide shows what is really happening.
Here you can see the debug from Router A as it loses the old route via serial 1
RouterA# sh clock
20:33:30.246 UTC Fri Aug 2 1996
Aug 2 20:37:41: RT: garbage collecting entry for 168.71.8.0
Aug 2 20:37:50: RT: add 168.71.8.0/24 via 168.71.6.2, rip metric [120/2]
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 26
Convergence: Debug messages and reality
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
What the debug says
RouterA# sh clock
20:33:30.246 UTC Fri Aug 2 1996
Aug 2 20:37:41: RT: garbage collecting entry for 168.71.8.0
RouterA#
What is really happening
RouterA# sh clock
20:33:30.246 UTC Fri Aug 2 1996
Aug 2 20:36:45: RT: invalid timer expired no routes to 168.71.8.0, entering holddown
Aug 2 20:36:45: RT: advertising 168.71.8.0 via 168.71.9.2 (Serial1) as unreachable
Aug 2 20:37:41: RT: flush timer expired terminating holddown for 168.71.8.0
Aug 2 20:37:50: RT: add route 168.71.8.0/24 via 168.71.6.2, rip metric [120/2]
RouterA#
Question: Why doesnt Router A add a new route for 168.71.7.0?
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 27
Convergence: Invalid, holddown & flush

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This is Router As routing table after it converged

168.71.0.0/16 is subnetted, 5 subnets
C
R
168.71.8.0 [120/2] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:05, Serial0
R
168.71.7.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:06, Serial0
C
C
S*
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 28

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router A was initially ignoring Router Bs updates for 168.71.8.0 because the metric was greater than the
metric from Router C.
Eventually Router A realised that Router C was no longer advertising 168.71.8.0. At this point Router A marked
the route invalid and went into holddown for other potential routes to 168.71.8.0
When the flush timer fired at 240 seconds 168.71.8.0 came out of holddown and Router A accepted the very
next update from Router B and installed Router Bs route to 168.71.8.0 in its table.
Notice the different metrics in the route. When the route changed from Router C to Router B the metric went
from 1 to 2.
RouterA# show ip route 168.71.8.0 (edited)
R
168.71.8.0 [120/ 1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:39,
Serial1
Old route is lost, Router A shows the new route:

RouterA# show ip route 168.71.8.0 (edited)
R
168.71.8.0 [120/ 2] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:05,
Serial0
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 29

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
168.71.5.1
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
168.71.8.1
Router C
Router A
stops receiving
updates for 168.71.8.0
from Router C
Router A
marks route invalid
and enters
holddown
Start invalid timer

Start flush timer
Router A
fires flush timer,
exits holddown
and accepts new
route
Invalid timer expires

Start holddown timer
4 minutes
Flush timer expires

Terminate holddown
Router B advertises 168.71.8.0 every 30 seconds

a - Router C stops advertising 168.71.8.0 at 0 seconds.
b - Router A marks 168.71.8.0 as invalid and puts it into holddown at 180 seconds.
c - Router A exits holddown when flush timer expires and accepts new route via Router B at 240 seconds.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 30
Convergence: Split horizon

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The role of Split Horizon is to prevent a router from advertising routes in its routing table that are known via a
particular interface back out that same interface.
The known via rule applies to connected routes as well. A connected route is a route that the router has a
direct physical attachment to. In the example above Router A has a connected route to 168.71.6.0 via interface
serial 0. In otherwords as far as Router A is concerned 168.71.6.0 is known via serial 0. Router A will not
advertise 168.71.6.0 out serial 0 if split horizon is enabled.
In this example Router As preferred route (the route it has stored) to network 168.71.8.0 is out Serial 1. When
Router A is due to send an update to Router C Router A will build an update that contains all of the routes in its
routing table except for the routes that are known via Serial 1. In this case it will not contain 168.71.8.0 or
168.71.7.0.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 31
Convergence: Split horizon
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router A will not advertise a route to 168.71.8.0 out serial 1 to Router C because that is the path the route is
know via.
Router A will not advertise 168.71.7.0 out either serial0 or serial 1 because it has equal cost paths out both
interfaces to 168.71.7.0. In this case 168.71.7.0 is known via serial 0 and serial 1.
Router A will not advertise 168.71.6.0 out serial 0 and 168.71.9.0 out serial 1 because these are connected
routes as far as these interfaces are concerned.
Router A will both receive and advertise a route for 168.71.8.0 over serial 0. It will receive Router Bs route to
168.71.8.0 that Router B received from Router C and it will advertise its own route for 168.71.8.0 that it has
stored as originating over serial 1 from Router C.
RouterA# show ip route (edited
C
168.71.9.0 is directly
R
168.71.8.0 [120/1] via
R
168.71.7.0 [120/1] via
[120/1] via
C
C
for clarity)
connected, Serial1
168.71.9.2, 00:00:24, Serial1
168.71.9.2, 00:00:24, Serial1
168.71.6.2, 00:00:19, Serial0
connected, Serial0
connected, Ethernet0
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 32
Convergence: Routing advertisements with split horizon enabled

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Router A both receiving and advertising 168.71.8.0 out serial 0.
You can also see that Router A does not advertise 168.71.8.0 out serial 1 to Router C.
RouterA# debug ip rip

Aug 2 23:02:03: RIP: received v1 update from 168.71.9.2 on Serial1
Aug 2 23:02:03:
168.71.8.0 in 1 hops
Aug 2 23:02:03:
168.71.7.0 in 1 hops
Aug 2 23:02:05:
168.71.8.0 in 2 hops
Aug 2 23:02:05:
168.71.7.0 in 1 hops
Aug 2 23:02:16:
Aug 2 23:02:16:
Aug 2 23:02:16:
Aug 2 23:02:16:
default, metric 1
Aug 2 23:02:16:
Aug 2 23:02:16:
Aug 2 23:02:16:
default, metric 1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 33
Convergence : Disable split horizon

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
RouterA
!
interface ethernet0
ip address 168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
no ip split-horizon
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
no ip split-horizon
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 34
Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Router A advertising all of its routes out both serial interfaces
because split horizon has been disabled.

Aug 2 23:54:47: RIP:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47: RIP:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
RouterA#
sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)

default, metric 1
sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial1 (168.71.9.1)
default, metric 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 35

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
On the previous slide you saw that Router A advertised every route that it knew about including routes that it is
directly connected to back out the connected interface.
To illustrate this point the debug below shows Router A sending a route for 168.71.6.0 out serial 0.
Here you can see Router A sending a route for 168.71.6.0 out serial 0.

Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
Aug 2 23:54:47:
default, metric 1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 36
Convergence: Routing advertisements with split horizon enabled

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
In this example split horizon is enabled. Notice that Router A does not advertise the connected route
168.71.6.0 out of serial 0.
Here you can see that Router A is not sending a route for 168.71.6.0 out serial 0.

Aug 2 23:02:16: RIP: sending v1 update
Aug 2 23:02:16:
subnet 168.71.9.0,
Aug 2 23:02:16:
subnet 168.71.8.0,
Aug 2 23:02:16:
subnet 168.71.5.0,
Aug 2 23:02:16:
default, metric 1
RouterA#
Question: How do you enable split horizon?
to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)

metric 1
metric 2
metric 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 37

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
In this section the the ip address is removed from ethernet 0 on Router A. This has the effect of making Router
A think it has lost its route to 168.71.5.0.
Router A initially accepts Router Cs advertisement for 168.71.5.0 even though Router Cs stored route to
168.71.5.0 actually points to Router A. Advertised routes do not contain the router of origin. This makes it
impossible for Router A to know that the advertisement it is receiveing from Router C is actually for a route that
Router A itself originated.
The following slides show the process from the intial loss of the connected route to the poisoning of the route
and its placement into holddown.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 38

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Notice the progression as 168.71.5.0 is advertised back and forth between the routers.
Here you can see what happens when the address is removed from Router A

Aug 3 01:14:01: RT: del 168.71.5.0/24 via 0.0.0.0, connected metric [0/0]
Aug 3 01:14:01: RT: delete subnet route to 168.71.5.0/24
Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 2 hops
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 16 hops (inaccessible)
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02: RT: delete route to 168.71.5.0 via 168.71.9.2, rip metric [120/2]
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 39

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router A receives an update for 168.71.5.0 with a metric of 2 from Router C and installs it

Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 2 hops
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 40

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router A increases the metric to 3 and advertises the route back to Routers B and C

Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 2 hops
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 41
Convergence : Split horizon disabled and poison reverse

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This is an example of poison reverse in action. Poison reverse is explained later in this presentation.
Here you can see that Routers B & C respond to Router As increased metric by poisoning the routes

Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 2 hops
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 42
Convergence : Split horizon disabled and poison reverse

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Route A reacting to the poison reverse by deleting the route to 168.71.5.0 and entering holddown

Aug 3 01:14:02:
168.71.5.0 in 2 hops
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
Aug 3 01:14:02:
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 43
Convergence : Split horizon enabled and multi-point interfaces

Router B
Router A
Protocol
Connected
Connected
IGRP
IGRP
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.7.0
168.71.8.0
Interface
Ethernet0
Serial0
Serial0
Serial0
Protocol
IGRP
Connected
Connected
Next Hop
168.71.6.2
168.71.6.3
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.7.0
Interface
Next Hop
Seial0
168.71.6.1
Serial0
TokenRing0
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.5.1
168.71.7.0
168.71.8.0
Frame Relay
Router B
168.71.7.1
Router C
168.71.8.1
168.71.6.3 S0
Router C
In this example Router A has installed routes to

subnets 168.71.7.0 and 168.71.8.0 that are known via
serial 0. Due to split horizon Router A will not advertise
either of these subnets back out serial 0. This prevents
Router B from learning about 168.71.8.0. It also
prevents Router C from learning about 168.71.7.0.
Router A is the only router with a complete routing
table. This is why Cisco defaults to disabling split
horizon on frame-relay interfaces. A more effective
solution is to use sub interfaces as shown on the next
slide.
Protocol
IGRP
Connected
Connected
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.8.0
Interface
Next Hop
Seial0
168.71.6.1
Serial0
TokenRing0
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 44
Convergence : Split horizon enabled and sub-interfaces

Router B
Router A
Protocol
Connected
Connected
IGRP
IGRP
Connected
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.7.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.9.0
Interface
Ethernet0
Serial0.1
Serial0.1
Serial0.2
Serial0.2
168.71.7.0
168.71.6.2
168.71.9.2
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.7.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.9.0
Interface
Seial0
Serial0
TokenRing0
Serial0
Serial0
Next Hop
168.71.6.1
168.71.6.1
168.71.6.1
168.71.6.2 S0
X
S0.1 168.71.6.1
168.71.5.1
Protocol
IGRP
Connected
Connected
IGRP
IGRP
Next Hop
Frame Relay
Router B
168.71.7.1
Router C
168.71.8.1
S0.2 168.71.9.1
168.71.8.0
168.71.9.2 S0
Router C
In this example Routers B & C have full connectivity

even though Router A is running split-horizon on serial
0.1 and serial 0.2.
Protocol
IGRP
IGRP
IGRP
Connected
Connected
Network
168.71.5.0
168.71.6.0
168.71.7.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.9.0
Interface
Seial0
Serial0
Serial0
TokenRing0
Serial0
Next Hop
168.71.9.1
168.71.9.1
168.71.9.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 45
Convergence : Loss of a connected route vs. a dynamic route

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Routers may react to losing a connected route differently than when they lose a dynamic route.
Here you can see Route A immediately accepting the new route
RouterA#debug ip
Aug 5 23:11:04:
Aug 5 23:11:04:
Aug 5 23:11:15:
RouterA#
routing
RT: del 168.71.5.0/24 via 0.0.0.0, connected metric [0/0]
RT: delete subnet route to 168.71.5.0/24
RT: add 168.71.5.0/24 via 168.71.9.2, rip metric [120/2]
Here you can see Route C going into holddown and waiting another 58 seconds before adding the new route
RouterC# debug ip routing
Aug 5 23:48:38: RT: add 168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0 via 168.71.7.2, rip metric [120/2]
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 46
Convergence : Poison reverse in action
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router As serial 1 interface is shut down. Router A can no longer reach 168.71.9.0 and 168.71.8.0 out of
serial 1. By poisoning the Routes out serial 0 Router A is informing any other routers downstream of serial 0
that it can no longer reach the two subnets. Upon receiving these poison advertisements routers that were
using this path will delete their references to the two subnets and put them into holddown. This saves the
downstream routers from having to wait until their invalid timers fired for these subnets prior to going into
holddown
Here you can see the output of debug ip rip from Router A when serial 0 is shutdown
RouterA#debug ip rip
RouterA#config term
RouterA-config#interface serial 1
RouterA#-config-if#
Oct 3 17:02:25: RIP: sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)
Oct 3 17:02:25:
Oct 3 17:02:25:
Oct 3 17:02:25:
default, metric 1
RouterA-config-if#shutdown
Oct 3 17:02:33: RIP: sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)
Oct 3 17:02:33:
Oct 3 17:02:33:
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 47

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the output of debug ip rip from Router Bs point of view
RouterB#debug ip
Oct 3 17:31:05:
Oct 3 17:31:05:
Oct 3 17:31:05:
Oct 3 17:31:05:
Oct 3 17:31:05:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
Oct 3 17:31:11:
rip
RIP: received update from 168.71.6.1 on Serial0
168.71.9.0 in 1 hops
168.71.8.0 in 2 hops
168.71.5.0 in 1 hops
0.0.0.0 in 1 hops
168.71.5.0 in 1 hops
0.0.0.0 in 1 hops
RIP: received request from 168.71.6.1 on Serial0
RIP: sending update to 168.71.6.1 via Serial0 (168.71.6.2)
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 48

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the output of debug ip routing from Router As point of view when Serial 1 is shut down
RouterA#deb ip routing
RouterA#conf t
RouterA(config)#int s 1
RouterA(config-if)#shut
RouterA(config-if)#
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: interface Serial1 removed from routing table
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: del 168.71.9.0/24 via 0.0.0.0, connected metric [0/0]
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: delete subnet route to 168.71.9.0/24
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: delete route to 168.71.8.0 via 168.71.9.2, Serial1
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: no routes to 168.71.8.0, flushing
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: delete route to 168.71.7.0 via 168.71.9.2, Serial1
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: add 168.71.9.0/24 via 168.71.6.2, rip metric [120/2]
Oct 3 17:41:22: RT: add 168.71.8.0/24 via 168.71.6.2, rip metric [120/2]
Oct 3 17:41:24: RT: delete route to 168.71.9.0 via 168.71.6.2, rip metric [120/2]
Oct 3 17:41:24: RT: no routes to 168.71.9.0, entering holddown
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 49

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is the debug ip routing output from Router Bs point of view

RouterB#debug ip
Oct 14 23:38:34:
Oct 14 23:38:36:
Oct 14 23:38:36:
routing
RT: delete route to 168.71.9.0 via 168.71.6.1, rip metric [120/1]
RT: delete route to 168.71.9.0 via 168.71.7.1, rip metric [120/1]
RT: no routes to 168.71.9.0, entering holddown
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 50
Convergence Summary: Invalid

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Invalid - This is one of the timers that is used by dynamic routing protocols. It is used to keep track of the last
time an update was received for a route in the routing table from the router the route is known via. In the
previous examples this timer has been set to 180 seconds. If a new advertisement is not received within the
period this timer is set for the route is considered to be suspect and should not be advertised to other routers
as reachable. The router will continue to use this route for packets it receives as if it was still viable until the
flush timer fires.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 51
Convergence Summary: Holddown

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Holddown - This is one of the timers that is used by dynamic routing protocols. It is used to help prevent
routing loops. It does this by watching for increasing metrics for a route from the router that a network is known
via. It also watches for networks that have ceased to be advertised by the router they are known via. When
one of the two previously mentioned events takes plase this timer fires. It will run its full course unless it is
terminated by another timer known as the flush timer. Whether holddown is exited by having run its course or
by having been terminated by the flush timer the router will then accept a new route for the network in
question.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 52
Convergence Summary: Flush

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Flush - This is one of the timers that is used by dynamic routing protocols. It is used to determine when a route
should be removed entirely from the routing tables. It typically works in conjunction with holddown although it
could be configured to a slightly different time. When this timer fires the route or network in question is
removed in its entireity from the routing tables. Although it is appropriate to have the flush timer terminate the
holddown timer it is not appropriate for the holddown timer to expire prior to the flush timer. This would result in
accepting a new route while the old, expired route is still in the routing table.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 53
Convergence Summary: Split-Horizon
168.71.8.0
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.0
Split-horizon - This is the function of not advertising routes out over the interface that the router is using to
access the route. In the example above Router As route to 168.71.8.0 is out serial 1 via 168.71.9.2. Router A
will not advertise this route back to Router C. However Router A will advertise 168.71.8.0 out serial 0 even
though Router B advertised 168.71.8.0 to Router A.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 54
Convergence Summary: Poison Reverse

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Poison Reverse - This is the function of a router informing other routers that routes it was once capable of
reaching via a particular interface are no longer reachable because the interface has gone down. In this
example Router A is using serial 1 to reach the connected network of 168.71.9.0 and the remote network of
168.71.8.0. When serial 1 is shutdown Router A tells the other routers it is connected to (Router B in this case)
that the routes that it used to be able to reach via serial 1 are no longer reachable. Router B reacts to the
poison reverse message and puts only the poisoned routes it was using Router A to reach into holddown
immediately instead of waiting for them to time out.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 55
Parallel Paths: Load balancing & switching paths [fast-switching]

Router B
171.68.207.164 secondary
168.71.5.1
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
Pings
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
171.68.207.222
Router C
168.71.8.1
The end system is sending pings to 168.71.7.1 and 168.71.7.2. Router A is load sharing them on a destination
by destination basis.
Notice that only one packet to each destination shows up in the debug. This is because debugging only shows
the packets getting process switched. The later pings in sequence were fast switched and therefore invisible to
the debugging process.
Here you can see the IP cache getting populated when the packets are forwarded
RouterA#deb ip packet
RouterA#deb ip cache
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0), d=168.71.7.1 (Serial0), g=168.71.6.2, len 74, forward
IP: created cache entry for 168.71.7.1/32
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0), d=168.71.7.2 (Serial1), g=168.71.9.2, len 74, forward
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 56

Router B
171.68.207.164 secondary
168.71.5.1
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
Pings
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
171.68.207.222
Here you can see Router As IP cache

RouterA#sh ip cache
IP routing cache 3 entries, 444 bytes
Minimum invalidation interval 2 seconds, maximum interval 5 seconds,
quiet interval 3 seconds, threshold 0 requests
Invalidation rate 0 in last second, 0 in last 3 seconds
Last full cache invalidation occurred 0:00:25 ago
Prefix/Length
168.71.7.1/32
168.71.7.2/32
171.68.207.222/32
RouterA#
Age
0:00:08
0:00:03
0:00:09
Interface
Serial1
Serial1
Ethernet0
Next Hop
168.71.9.2
168.71.9.2
171.68.207.222
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 57

Router B
171.68.207.164 secondary
168.71.5.1
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
Pings
Fast Switching
Process Switching
171.68.207.222
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
Router C
168.71.8.1
IP cache entries are created as they packets leave the router, not as they enter. So it is possible to fast switch
ping packets from the end station to 168.71.7.2 and process switch the responses.
This example show what this looks like. The fist ping from the end system is process switched out serial 0. The
response is process switched out ethernet 0.
The following pings from the end system to 168.71.7.2 are fast switched out serial 0 and therefore hidden from
the debug. However the following four responses are process switched and show in the debug.
Here you can see the debug from Router A as the pings from the end system are switched
RouterA#debug ip packet
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0), d=168.71.7.2 (Serial0),
IP: s=168.71.7.2 (Serial0), d=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0), d=168.71.7.2 (Serial1),
RouterA#
g=168.71.6.2, len
g=171.68.207.222,
g=168.71.9.2, len
g=171.68.207.222,
g=171.68.207.222,
g=171.68.207.222,
g=171.68.207.222,
74,
len
74,
len
len
len
len
forward
64, forward
forward
64, forward
64, forward
64, forward
64, forward
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 58

168.71.5.1
Router C
Router A
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
168.71.8.1
Pings
It is possible to prove that IP cache entries are created as packets are switched out of an interface by pinging
an address that does not exist. In the example Router C will attempt to ping 1.1.1.1. Router C will send these
pings to Router A because Router A is advertising a Gateway Of Last Resort. Router A will forward the pings
out its ethernet 0 because that is where Router As Gateway Of Last Resort exists. Router A will create a cache
entry for the prefix even though no system with 1.1.1.1 exists.
Here you can see Router C sending the pings to 1.1.1.1
RouterC#ping 1.1.1.1
.....
Success rate is 0 percent (0/5)
RouterC#
Here you can see Router A forwarding the ping and creating the cache entry
RouterA#debug ip cache
IP: s=168.71.9.2 (Serial1), d=1.1.1.1 (Ethernet0), g=171.68.207.129, len 104, forward
IP: ager ran for 0ms, 1 entries, 1 examined, 0 aged, 0 reaped
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 59
Parallel Paths: Load balancing & switching paths [process-switching]

Router B
171.68.207.164 secondary
168.71.5.1
168.71.6.2 S0
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
Pings
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
171.68.207.222
168.71.8.1
In this example all four pings from the end system to each destination show up in the debug. This is because
they are all being process switched.
Here you can see the packets going out serial 0 and serial 1 because there are two equal cost routes to 168.71.7.0
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Ethernet0),
d=168.71.7.2
d=168.71.7.2
d=168.71.7.2
d=168.71.7.2
(Serial1),
(Serial0),
(Serial1),
(Serial0),
g=168.71.9.2,
g=168.71.6.2,
g=168.71.9.2,
g=168.71.6.2,
len
len
len
len
74,
74,
74,
74,
forward
forward
forward
forward
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
d=168.71.7.1
d=168.71.7.1
d=168.71.7.1
d=168.71.7.1
(Serial1),
(Serial0),
(Serial1),
(Serial0),
g=168.71.9.2,
g=168.71.6.2,
g=168.71.9.2,
g=168.71.6.2,
len
len
len
len
74,
74,
74,
74,
forward
forward
forward
forward
s=171.68.207.222
s=171.68.207.222
s=171.68.207.222
s=171.68.207.222
(Ethernet0),
(Ethernet0),
(Ethernet0),
(Ethernet0),
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1

Router#-config#interface serial 1
Router#-config-if#ip route-cache
Router#-config-if#^Z
RouterA#sh ip int s 1
Serial1 is up, line protocol is up
Internet address is 168.71.9.1/24
Broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
Address determined by non-volatile memory
MTU is 1500 bytes
Helper address is not set
Directed broadcast forwarding is enabled
Multicast reserved groups joined: 224.0.0.9
Outgoing access list is not set
Inbound access list is not set
Proxy ARP is enabled
Security level is default
Split horizon is enabled
ICMP redirects are always sent
ICMP unreachables are always sent
ICMP mask replies are never sent
IP fast switching is enabled
IP fast switching on the same interface is enabled
IP multicast fast switching is enabled
Router Discovery is disabled
IP output packet accounting is disabled
IP access violation accounting is disabled
TCP/IP header compression is disabled
Probe proxy name replies are disabled
Gateway Discovery is disabled
Policy routing is disabled
RouterA#
Chapter 1 Page 60
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 61
Parallel Paths: Load balancing & switching paths [process-switching]

Router#-config#interface serial 0
Router#-config-if#no ip route-cache
Router#-config-if#^Z
RouterA#sh ip int s 0
Internet address is 168.71.6.1/24
Broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
Address determined by non-volatile memory
MTU is 1500 bytes
Helper address is not set
Directed broadcast forwarding is enabled
Multicast reserved groups joined: 224.0.0.9
Outgoing access list is not set
Inbound access list is not set
Proxy ARP is enabled
Security level is default
Split horizon is enabled
ICMP redirects are always sent
ICMP unreachables are always sent
ICMP mask replies are never sent
IP fast switching is disabled
IP fast switching on the same interface is disabled
IP multicast fast switching is enabled
Router Discovery is disabled
IP output packet accounting is disabled
IP access violation accounting is disabled
TCP/IP header compression is disabled
Probe proxy name replies are disabled
Gateway Discovery is disabled
Policy routing is disabled
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 1 Page 62
Parallel Paths summary : Load balancing & switching paths

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Load Balancing & Switching Paths - Routers will load balance IP packets on a per destination basis when
fast switching and on a packet by packet basis when process switching. IP cache entries are created as
packets are forwarded out the outward bound interface.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Table of contents: Chapter two
Metric vs. distance:

Terms defined.
RIP vs IGRP
Summary:
RIP vs. IGRP.
Metrics:
IGRP - Bandwidth vs. delay
Summary:
IGRP - bandwidth vs. delay
Chapter 2 Page 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 2
Metric vs. distance: Terms defined

Router B
IGRP
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
IGRP
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
RIP
Router C
168.71.8.1
Metric - This term is used to describe the overall desirability of a route to a remote (not locally attached)
network. Metrics can be as simple as measuring the number of hops in a path. Or they can be as complex as
IGRP which may use bandwidth, delay, reliability, load and interface mtu depending on how it is configured. By
default IGRP uses only bandwidth and delay.
Distance - This term is used to describe the overall believability of a route. Each type of routing protocol that
Cisco routers support has a distance value associated with it. Connected routes and static routes also have a
believability factor associated with a distance value. A router may need to decide between using a static route
or a dynamic route to the same network. Static routes are usually more believable based on the assumption
that someone went to some degree of effort to configure it therefore it has a higher probability of being
accurate. RIP has a distance of 120. IGRP has a distance of 100. Connected routes are the most believable
and cannot be overruled by a static or dynamic route.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 3
Metrics vs. distance: RIP & IGRP

Router B
IGRP
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
IGRP
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
RIP
Router C
168.71.8.1
The configs have been changed so that Router A & Router C are using RIP on the 168.71.5.0 subnet .
Router A, Router B and Router C are running IGRP on the 168.71.6.0 and 168.71.7.0 subnets.
Here you can see the debug messages from both routing protocols as the arrive at router C. The next
slide shows the routing table from Router C.
RouterC#debug ip rip
Oct 7 22:33:10: RIP: received update from 168.71.9.1 on Serial1
Oct 7 22:33:10:
168.71.6.0 in 1 hops
Oct 7 22:33:10:
168.71.5.0 in 1 hops
RouterC#deb ip igrp transactions
Oct 7 22:35:59: IGRP: received update from 168.71.7.2 on Serial0
Oct 7 22:35:59:
subnet 168.71.6.0, metric 82125 (neighbor 80125)
Oct 7 22:35:59:
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 4
Metrics vs. distance: RIP & IGRP

Router B
IGRP
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
IGRP
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
RIP
Router C
168.71.8.1
This is the routing table from router C. Notice that the route to 168.71.5.0 is via serial 0 even though the
connection via serial 1 is only one hop. IGRP has a distance of 100 while RIP has a distance of 120. The
distance value is more important than the metric value within a routers routing table.
RouterC#show ip route
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/180250] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:47, Serial0
C
C
168.71.8.0 is directly connected, TokenRing0
C
I
168.71.6.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:47, Serial0
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10004001] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:47, Serial0
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:18, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 5
Metrics vs. distance summary: RIP & IGRP

Router B
IGRP
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
IGRP
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
RIP
Router C
168.71.8.1
Metric vs. Distance - Some routing protocols are considered to be more believable than others. Cisco routers
believe that IGRP is more trustworthy that RIP. Hence the higher distance assigned to RIP routes. This will
lead to a longer path via an IGRP derived route overriding a shorter RIP derived route.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 6
Metrics: IGRP - bandwidth vs. delay

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
In this routing table Router C shows only one route to 168.71.5.0. Changing the delay on serial 1 on Router C
to equal the combined delay of the 168.71.7.0 link and the 168.71.6.0 link will cause Router C to believe that
the two links are equal cost. The next slides explain this further.
Gateway of last resort is not set
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/180250] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:42, Serial0
C
C
C
I
168.71.6.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:21, Serial1
[100/82125] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:42, Serial0
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:21, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 7
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
By manipulating the interface delay on serial 1 in Router C it is possible to make Router C believe that the
paths via serial 1 and serial 0 to 168.71.5.0 are equal cost. This is because delay is cumulative in a path.
Bandwidth on the other hand just determines the minimum bandwidth in any path.
RouterC#show interface serial 1

Hardware is HD64570
Internet address is 168.71.9.2 255.255.255.0
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 128 Kbit, DLY 40000 usec, rely 255/255, load 1/255
hostname RouterC
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.2 255.0.0.0
bandwidth 128
delay 4000
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 8
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
Router C now has two routes to 168.71.5.0. Via serial 0 and serial 1.
RouterC#show ip route 168.71.5.0
Routing entry for 168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
Known via "igrp 109", distance 100, metric 10004001
Redistributing via igrp 109
Advertised by igrp 109 (self originated)
Last update from 168.71.7.2 on Serial0, 00:00:54 ago
Routing Descriptor Blocks:
* 168.71.9.1, from 168.71.9.1, 00:01:01 ago, via Serial1
Route metric is 10004001, traffic share count is 1
Total delay is 40010 microseconds, minimum bandwidth is 128 Kbit
Reliability 255/255, minimum MTU 1500 bytes
Loading 1/255, Hops 0
168.71.7.2, from 168.71.7.2, 00:00:54 ago, via Serial0
RouterC#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 9
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
Notice the delay and bandwidth information below.

RouterC#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 10
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
It is not possible to have both Routers B and C load share their traffic across the links connected to Router A.
This is because increasing the delay on serial 0 in Router B to get Router B to load share over serial 0 and
serial 1 affects the metric that Router C receives for 168.71.5.0 from Router B. This prevents Router B and
Router C from load sharing.
RouterB#show interface serial 0
Hardware is HD64570
hostname RouterB
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.2 255.0.0.0
bandwidth 128
delay 4000
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 11
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
This is Router Cs entry for 168.71.5.0 now that Router B has had the delay on serial 0 increased to 4000
usecs. Note that the metric for this route is the same as before for serial 1; 10004001. The other route via
serial 0 is not installed because the metric has increased from Router B. The next slides illustrate this.
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 12
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
This example shows the delay in the path when Router C is load sharing across serial 0 and serial 1. Router C
to Router A via the direct connection has a delay of 40,000 usecs. Router C to Router A via Router C has a
cumulative delay of 40,000 usecs. The equal delay results in load sharing. For reference the bandwidth is the
same on all links.
This is the debug output from Router C before the delay is changed on serial 0 in Router B.
RouterC#debug ip igrp transactions
Oct 8 16:57:59:
Oct 8 16:57:59:
Oct 8 16:58:24:
Oct 8 16:58:24:
Oct 8 16:58:24:
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 13
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
This shows that changing the delay on Router B to 40,000 usecs results in both Router B and Router C having
a cumulative delay of 60,000 usecs over the two hop links compared to the 40,000 usec delay on the single
hop links. Neither router would load share in this configuration.
This is the debug output from Router C after the delay is changed on Router B.
RouterC#debug ip igrp transactions
Oct 8 16:55:09:
Oct 8 16:55:09:
Oct 8 16:55:29:
Oct 8 16:55:29:
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 14
Delay 60,000 usecs
Router B
Delay 20,000 usecs
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
In order to get Router B to load share traffic to 168.71.5.0 via serial 0 and serial 1 the delay on Router Bs
serial 0 would have to be 60,000 usecs. Then router B would have two paths with a delay of 60,000 usecs.
However this would cause Router C to stop load sharing because Router Cs paths to 168.71.5.0 would have
different delays; 40,000 usecs and 80,000 usecs.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 15
Delay 20,000 usecs

Bandwidth 1544
Delay 20,000 usecs

Bandwidth 1544
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows that changing the bandwidth on Router Bs serial 0 and Router As serial 0 has no effect on
the advertised metric that Router C receives from Router B.
RouterB#show interface serial0
Hardware is HD64570
RouterC#deb ip igrp transactions
Oct 8 17:10:37:
Oct 8 17:10:37:
Oct 8 17:10:37:
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 16
Delay 60,000 usecs
Router B
Delay 20,000 usecs
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Delay 20,000 usecs
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Delay 40,000 usecs
Router C
168.71.8.1
Understanding the effect of playing with the delay and bandwidth parameters in this simple network is fairly
trivial.
Understanding the effect of playing with these parameters in a 1,000 router network is non-trivial.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 2 Page 17
Metrics summary: IGRP - bandwidth vs. delay

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Bandwidth vs. Delay - This has been a brief introduction to the concept of IGRP metrics. IGRP is capable of
using five metrics; bandwidth, delay, load, reliability and mtu. Normally only bandwidth and delay are
considered. The overall IGRP metric for any path between a router and a remote network will be based on the
minimum bandwidth of any link in the path and the sum of all delay in the path. These are the numbers that are
applied to the IGRP route metric algorithm to determine the final metric. External IGRP metrics and other types
of routing metrics such as OSPF type I and II external routes are beyond the scope of this course.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 1
Table of contents: Chapter 3
Introduction:
Section 1:
Discontinuous networks using RIP & IGRP:
Some terms defined.
Why only RIP & IGRP?
Mask ambiguity.
Many possible masks.
Which bits to mask?
Deriving major net mask.
Relevant RFCs.
Summarization:
What is summarization?:
Using summarization as a tool.
Summarization in action.
Subnet 0:
What is Subnet 0?
Summarization and Subnet 0:
May cause lost routes
RIP cant reach subnet 0.
IGRP behaves differently.
IGRP works sometimes.
And IGRP breaks other times.
Summary:
Summarization & Subnet 0:
Using RIP or IGRP
Section 2:
IP Unnumbered:
What is IP Unnumbered?
What is a host route?
Can cause host routes and lost
connectivity.
Configuring on serial interfaces. :
RIP:
Displaying the routes.
Sending routing updates.
Pinging the interfaces
Incorrect subnet mask problem:
Updates.
Host routes.
Lost routes.
Using different major networks.
IGRP:
Configuration is the same as with
RIP.
Incorrect subnet mask problem:
Lost routes.
Using different major networks.
Summary:
IP Unnumbered.
Using RIP or IGRP.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Section 2:
.VLSM using RIP & IGRP:
What is VLSM?
What is mask ambiguity?
Mask ambiguity creates problems.
Causes lost routes
Summary
VLSM using RIP & IGRP
Chapter 3 Page 2
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 3
Chapter 3: Introduction
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
This chapter groups together several concepts that directly affect network connectivity by altering the content of
routing information shared between routers. These affects may be useful or detrimental depending on how they
are applied. This is a very long chapter because these concepts are usually considered together in order to
provide a more thorough foundation for understanding how they interact with each other.
Section 1 - Covers Discontinuous Networks, Summarization and Subnet 0.
Section 2 - Covers IP Unnumbered and VLSM.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 4
Discontinuous networks using RIP & IGRP: Some terms defined

168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
Discontinuous Networks - This term is used when the same major network is connected by links that are part
of a different major network. In this example the link between Router A and Router B has been configured with
a different major network. The subnets 168.71.5.0 and 168.71.8.0 are discontinuous because the network that
connects the two routers is a using a different major net.
Major Net(work) - This is the term used to refer to the network only portion of an internet address. In the
example above the major net of subnet 168.71.5.0 would be 168.71.0.0.
Major Net Boundary - This is the term used when a router is connected to two or more different major nets. In
the example above Router A is connected to two major nets; 168.71.0.0 and 168.72.0.0. The routing update for
168.71.5.0 that would be advertised over serial 0 to Router B is encountering a major net boundary; 168.71.5.0
>> 168.72.6.0. Router A will summarize the 168.71.5.0 route to the major net of 168.71.0.0. There is no way
around this.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 5
Discontinuous networks using RIP & IGRP: Why only RIP & IGRP?
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.0.0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0
Why Only Mention RIP V1 And IGRP? - RIP version 1 and IGRP do not include the masks associated with the
routes that they advertise. This means that a router that receives a RIP V1 or IGRP routing advertisement must
derive the correct mask for the advertised routes from the interface that the routing advertisements are received
over. If the interface that the routes are received over is not in the same address space as the advertised routes
the receiving router will not be able to derive the correct masks. However a mask can be assumed for an
advertisement containing only a major network. In the case of Router A advertising 168.71.0.0 to Router B,
Router B assumes that the route should be masked with the typical Class B mask of 255.255.0.0.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 6
Discontinuous networks using RIP & IGRP: Mask ambiguity
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.5.0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
168.71.5.0 255.255.???.???
Mask Ambiguity - If Router A in the example above ignored the fact that its serial 0 interface is in a different
major network than 168.71.0.0 and advertised 168.71.5.0 out serial 0 Router B would compare the route to its
ip address on serial 0 and realize that the major networks are different. Router B would not understand what
mask should be applied to 168.71.5.0. There are ((26 )+1)=65 possible ways to mask subnet 168.71.5.0. This is
assuming that the mask on the fourth octet is 0 and that the mask might not be configured left to right using
contiguous bits.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 7
Discontinuous networks using RIP & IGRP: Many possible masks

Mask must have at least these bits set
Network address 168.71.5.0

Possible masks 255.255.???.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000101.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.11111010.00000000
Mask may have any combination of the other six bits set

Possible masks 255.255.???.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000101.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Mask may have all six bits set
Many Possible masks - The possible masks may have any combination of the remaining 6 bits set as well as
having all 8 bits set. So there are 6 bits that may be set resulting in 26 (64) different patterns plus the pattern of
having all 8 bits set. (64+1)=65
This slide shows the ambiguity that arises when routing protocols do not include the masks for the routes that
they advertise. Masks do not have to be created working left to right and they do not have to utilize contiguous
bits. However creating masks that are not based on the model of working left to right using contiguous bits is
highly discouraged.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 8
Discontinuous Networks using RIP & IGRP: Which bits to mask?
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
Mask must have at least these bits set

Possible mask
255.255.5.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000101.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.00000101.00000000
This mask has only the bits necessary to have this be a valid route
Which Bits To Mask? - This is an example of a mask that uses non-contiguous bits and does not work left to
right. This is a valid mask as far as IP addressing is concerned. However as of 9.1 Cisco only supports
contiguous masks working left to right.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 9
Discontinuous Networks using RIP & IGRP: Deriving major net mask
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.0.0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0
No bits set in host (subnet) portion of the address

Mask
255.255.0.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000000.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Deriving A Major Net Mask - There is very little ambiguity in interpreting an advertised route when only the
major network bits are used. In this example there are only two choices; 168.71.0.0 is either a major network
advertisement or an advertisement of subnet zero. Subnet zero is explained in a later section. This is why RIP
& IGRP summarize subnets at major network boundaries. Summarization is covered later in this section.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 10
Discontinuous Networks using RIP & IGRP: Relevant RFCs
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
S0
168.71.8.0
168.72.6.2
Relevant RFCs - RFCs 950 and 1219 are good references on subnet allocation. RFC1219 specially states
While RFC950 allows the ones in the subnet mask to be non-contiguous, RFC950 recommends that 1) they be
contiguous and 2) that they occupy the most significant bits of the host portion of the internet address.
RFC1219 also states that RFC950 did not specify whether different subnets of the same network may have
different mask. This ambiguity was unfortunate, as it resulted in the development of routing protocols that do not
support different masks specifically RIP V1 and IGRP..
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 11
Summarization: What is summarization?
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.8.0
S0
168.72.6.2
Summarization - This is the process of reducing the content of routing advertisements by eliminating routes
that contain more information than is required to prevent ambiguous routes in a routing table. This can be done
at a major network boundary or in the case of Classless Interdomain Routing* (CIDR) at a bit boundary.
For example; a router that has knowledge of subnets 168.71.5.0 and 168.71.6.0 and decides to only advertise
168.71.0.0 would be summarizing the subnets to the major network. RIP and IGRP will automatically
summarize subnet routes at major net boundaries
*CIDR is beyond the scope of this course.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 12
Summarization: Using summarization as a tool

171.68.1.16 171.68.1.32
Router A
Major Network 171.68.0.0 Mask 255.255.255.240

(Serial link addresses omitted for clarity)
Router B
171.68.2.16 171.68.2.32
Router F
Router G
171.68.2.0
171.68.2.48
171.68.1.0
171.68.1.0
171.68.1.48
Data Center
Router H
Router C
FDDI
171.68.0.0
Router D
171.68.0.0
171.68.0.0
Router E
171.68.2.0
This slide shows how careful use of subnetting at distribution and remote sites can greatly reduce the amount of
routing information necessary to maintain full connectivity throughout a network. OSPF would be a good choice
for a routing protocol in this example.
Notice that the Data Center FDDI ring is using Subnet 0 (no host bits set within the masked portion of the
address). This is an appropriate use of Subnet 0 as there is no ambiguity as to its location in the network. The
section on Subnet 0 will explain some of the pitfalls of using Subnet 0 in a more complex network.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 13
Summarization: Summarization in action
168.71.5.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.8.0
S0
168.72.6.2
The link between Router A and Router B is now a subnet of a different major network. Both routers have their
IGRP configuration modified for the additional major network.
RouterA#show interface serial 0
Hardware is HD64570
Hardware is HD64570
!
router igrp 109
network 168.71.0.0
network 168.72.0.0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 14

Different major net = summarize
168.71.0.0
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.8.0
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Review - Routers running RIP or IGRP examine the network number and mask associated with an interface
before advertising routes from the routing table over it. If a subnet route in the table is part of the same network
address space (major net) and has the same mask it will be advertised over the interface. If the route is part
of a different address space the interface mask is ignored and the major network portion of the route is
advertised. If the route is part of the same network address space but has a different mask it will not be
advertised at all.
In this example Router A will summarize 168.71.5.0 down to 168.71.0.0 and advertise it to Router B.
In this example Router B will summarize 168.71.8.0 down to 168.71.0.0 and advertise it to Router A.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 15

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.8.0
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Router A believes that 168.71.0.0 is variably subnetted because of the local connection and the IGRP derived route
RouterA#show ip route
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
C
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/80188] via 168.72.6.2, 00:00:05, Serial0
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 16

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.8.0
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Router B believes that 168.71.0.0 is variably subnetted because of the local connection and the IGRP derived route
RouterB#show ip route
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:10, Serial0

C
C
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0 is directly connected, TokenRing0
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:10, Serial0
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 17
168.71.0.0
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.8.0
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see that Router A summarizes the 168.71.5.0 subnet to 168.71.0.0 in the update to Router B
RouterA#deb ip igrp transactions
Oct 30 00:51:49: IGRP: sending update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.72.6.1)
Oct 30 00:51:49:
network 168.71.0.0, metric=10000001
Here you can see that Router B summarizes the 168.71.8.0 subnet to 168.71.0.0 in the update to Router A
RouterB#deb ip igrp transactions
Oct 30 01:03:03:
network 168.71.0.0, metric=80125
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 18
Subnet 0: What is subnet 0?

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Subnet zero - This is the first subnet for any subnet mask. It is the subnet that does not have a bit turned on in
the subnet masked portion of the address. In the example below 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 is subnet zero
because not of the bits in the third octet are turned on.
The subnet mask covers all bits in the third octet. For subnet zero none of these bits are turned on.

Possible mask
255.255.255.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000000.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 19
Subnet 0: What is subnet 0?
168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Subnet zero - This is a more complicated example of subnet zero in that bits within the first three octets are
used as part of the Class C internet address. Subnet zero in this case is using the lowest value bits (low order)
in the fourth octet. None of the bits within the mask are turned on.
The subnet mask covers all bits in the third octet and six of the fourth octet.
Network address 220.220.220.2 = 11011100.11011100.11011100.00000010

Possible mask
255.255.255.252= 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 20
Summarization and subnet 0: May cause lost routes

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Using subnet zero can cause problems when summarization is occurring. In this example Router B has subnet
zero of major net 168.71.0.0 configured. Router B will advertise 168.71.0.0 as the summarized route (not the
subnet zero route) to Router A. Router A will advertise the summarized route for 168.71.5.0 to Router B. This
may cause Router A to be unable to reach 168.71.0.1.
From a routing perspective there is no difference between subnet zero and the summarized route for 168.71.0.0.

Possible mask
255.255.255.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000000.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Possible mask
255.255.0.0
= 10101000.01000111.00000000.00000000
= 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 21
Summarization and subnet 0: RIP cant reach subnet 0

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Routers running RIP ignore summarized routes for networks that they have connections to.
Here you can see that Router A does not have a route installed to 168.71.0.0 even though Router B is advertising it
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 22

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Routers running RIP ignore summarized routes for networks that they have connections to.
Here you can see that Router B does not have a route installed to 168.71.0.0 even though Router A is advertising it
C
C
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:25, Serial0
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 23
168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see Router A sending and receiving advertisements for 168.71.0.0 with a metric of 1
RouterA#deb ip rip
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
network 168.71.0.0, metric 1
Here you can see Router B sending and receiving advertisements for 168.71.0.0 with a metric of 1
RouterB#deb ip rip
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 24

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71..0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see that Router B has 168.71.0.1 255.255.0.0 (subnet 0) configured on token ring 0
RouterB#show interface tokenring 0
TokenRing0 is up, line protocol is up
Hardware is TMS380, address is 0000.3062.676d (bia 0000.3062.676d)
Here you can see that Router A cannot ping 168.71.0.1 even though Router B is advertising 168.71.0.0
RouterA#ping 168.71.0.1
.....
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 25
Summarization and subnet 0: IGRP behaves differently
168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
The routers are now running IGRP. IGRP behaves slightly differently than RIP when using subnet zero and
summarized routes.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 26
Summarization and subnet 0: IGRP works sometimes.

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see Router A sending and receiving advertisements for 168.71.0.0 with a metric of 688
RouterA#debug ip igrp transactions
Nov 1 21:57:40: IGRP: received update from 168.72.6.2 on Serial0
Nov 1 21:57:40:
network 168.71.0.0, metric 80188 (neighbor 688)
Nov 1 21:57:40: IGRP: sending update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.72.6.1)
Nov 1 21:57:40:
network 168.71.0.0, metric=10000001
Nov 1 21:57:40:
exterior 10.0.0.0, metric=158250
Here you can see Router B sending and receiving advertisements for 168.71.0.0 with a metric of 10000001
RouterB#debug ip igrp transactions
Nov 1 21:59:28: IGRP: received update from 168.72.6.1 on Serial0
Nov 1 21:59:28:
network 168.71.0.0, metric 10002001 (neighbor 10000001)
Nov 1 21:59:28:
exterior network 10.0.0.0, metric 160250 (neighbor 158250)
Nov 1 21:59:29: IGRP: sending update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.72.6.2)
Nov 1 21:59:29:
network 168.71.0.0, metric=688
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 27

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see that Router B has 168.71.0.1 255.255.0.0 (subnet 0) configured on token ring 0
RouterB#show interface tokenring 0
Hardware is TMS380, address is 0000.3062.676d (bia 0000.3062.676d)
Here you can see that Router A can ping 168.71.0.1

!!!!!
RouterA#
168.71.0.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 28

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see that Router A has a summary route installed to 168.71.0.0
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
C
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/80188] via 168.72.6.2, 00:00:19, Serial0
RouterA#
168.71.0.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 29

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0
Here you can see that Router B has a summary route installed to 168.71.0.0
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:31, Serial0

C
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:31, Serial0
C
RouterB#
168.71.0.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 30

168.71.0.0
168.71.5.1
168.71.0.0
Router A
Router B
168.72.6.2
S0
168.72.6.1
S0
168.71.5.0
168.71.0.0

!!!!!
RouterA#
Here you can see that Router B can ping 168.71.5.1

RouterB#ping 168.71.5.0
!!!!!
RouterB#
168.71.0.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 31
168.71.0.1
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 32

Router B
168.7.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
168.71.0.0
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router A has two summarized routes to 168.71.0.0
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
C
C
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/80188] via 168.72.6.2, 00:00:02, Serial0
[100/80188] via 168.73.9.2, 00:00:10, Serial1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 33

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
168.71.0.0
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router A will use the two summarized routes for 168.71.0.0 to reach 168.71.0.1
RouterA#show ip route 168.71.0.1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 34

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The concept of using the summarized route of a major net as a default for unknown subnets of the major net as
shown in the previous slide is explained in the section on local and non local domain default routes. For this
section it is sufficient to understand that the router will use a summarized route as a longest match when
forwarding packets.
Here you can see that Router A can ping 168.71.0.1 100% successfully
!!!!!
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 35
This slide shows that the first ping (1) is sent out serial 0 to Router B and a response is received
immediately. Pings (2), (3), (4) & (5) take the other available path to 168.71.0.0 via serial 1 to Router C.
Router C receives the pings destined for 168.71.0.1 and does a longest match lookup in the routing
table. Router C determines that the route to 168.71.0.0 that Router A is advertising is the only match.
Router C forwards pings (2), (3), (4) & (5) back to Router A. Router A forwards them on to Router C.
Router C responds to the pings. This is exactly what should happen based on Router A load sharing
packets to 168.71.0.1 between serial 0 and serial 1.
Here is the debug from Router A as it sends pings 1- 5 to 168.71.0.1
(1) IP: s=168.72.6.1 (local), d=168.71.0.1 (Serial0), len 100, sending
(1) IP: s=168.71.0.1 (Serial0), d=168.72.6.1 (Serial0), len 104, rcvd 3
(2) IP: s=168.72.6.1 (Serial1), d=168.71.0.1 (Serial0), g=168.72.6.2, len
RouterA#
The next slide shows the path that pings 2 and 3 take through the network.
104, forward
104, forward
104, forward
104, forward
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 36

Ping 3
Ping 2
Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
Router C
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Ping 2 out serial 1 to 168.71.0.1
Ping 2
Ping 2 in serial 1 out serial 0 to 168.71.0.1
Ping 2
Ping 3 out serial 1 to 168.71.0.1
Ping 3
Ping 3 in serial 1 out serial 0 to 168.71.0.1
Ping 3
168.71.8.1
Router A is load balancing between the two paths but it is not easy to see - Ping 2 goes out serial 0 to
Router C. Router C does a longest match lookup and sees that 168.71.0.1 matches 168.71.0.0 that is known
out serial 1 via Router A. Router C forwards Ping 2 back to Router A. The is the second packet that Router A
has seen for the destination 168.71.0.1 (the first was when it sent Ping 2 in the first place) so Router A sends
Ping 2 out the next available path - serial 0 to Router B.
Here you can see Router A load balancing between the two paths for pings 2 & 3
2)
2)
2)
3)
3)
3)
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.71.0.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.71.0.1
(local), d=168.71.0.1 (Serial1), len 100, sending

(Serial1), d=168.71.0.1 (Serial0), g=168.72.6.2, len 104, forward
(Serial0), d=168.72.6.1 (Serial0), len 104, rcvd 3
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 37

This slide is another way of viewing the path taken by pings 2 & 3 on the previous slide.
Router B
S0
Router A
168.71.5.1
Hop 3
Ping 2
S0
168.71.0.1
Hop 2
Ping 2
Ping 2
S1 Hop 1
S1
Router C
Router B
168.71.8.1
S0
Router A
168.71.5.1
Hop 3
Ping 3
S0
S1
Ping 3
Hop 1
168.71.0.1
Hop 2
Ping 3
S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Router A load balancing between the two paths for pings 2 & 3
2)
2)
2)
3)
3)
3)
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
IP:
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.71.0.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.72.6.1
s=168.71.0.1

Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 38

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router Bs routing table shows the summarized route to 168.71.0.0 that Router A is advertising
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:49, Serial0

C
I
168.73.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:49, Serial0
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:49, Serial0
C
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 39

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The concept of using the summarized route of a major net as a default for unknown subnets of the major net is
explained in the section on local and non local domain default routes. For this section it is sufficient to
understand that the router will use a summarized route as a longest match when forwarding packets.
This shows that Router B will match 168.71.0.1 to 168.71.0.0
RouterB#show ip route 168.71.0.1
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 40

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router Cs routing table shows the summarized route to 168.71.0.0 that Router A is advertising
I*
I
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:55, Serial1

168.72.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:55, Serial1
C
C
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:56, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 41

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The concept of using the summarized route of a major net as a default for unknown subnets of the major net is
explained in the section on local and non local domain default routes. For this section it is sufficient to
understand that the router will use a summarized route as a longest match when forwarding packets.
This shows that Router C will match 168.71.0.1 to 168.71.0.0.
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 42
Summarization and subnet 0: And IGRP breaks other times...
Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
New major network
Router C
168.71.8.1
In the previous section Router A was able to ping 168.71.0.1 100% successfully because it was advertising the
summarized route of 168.71.0.0 for its connection to 168.71.5.0 to Routers B & C. Routers C was able to use
this summarized route to forward packets destined for 168.71.0.1 received from Router A back to Router A so
that Router A could forward them over the next available path to Router B.
In this example Router A no longer has a connection to a subnet of the 168.71.0.0 network so it does not
advertise it the summarized route. Router A still has two summarized routes to 168.71.0.0 via routers B & C.
Routers B & C are summarizing their local subnets of 168.71.0.0 because of the different major network applied
to their serial interfaces. However Router A will not forward these entries to routers B and C due to Split
Horizon.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 43

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router As new routing table shows the summarized routes to 168.71.0.0 and no local connection to 168.71.0.0
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
C
C
I
168.71.0.0 [100/80188] via 168.72.6.2, 00:00:42, Serial0
[100/80188] via 168.73.9.2, 00:00:04, Serial1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 44
Router B
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router Bs new routing table shows the local connection to 168.71.0.0 and no summarized routes to 168.71.0.0.
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:56, Serial0

C
I
168.73.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:56, Serial0
I
168.74.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.72.6.1, 00:00:56, Serial0
C
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 45

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Router Bs connected route to 168.71.0.0. There is no summarized route to 168.71.0.0
Routing entry for 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0, 1 known subnets
Attached (1 connections)
Advertised by igrp 109
C
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 46

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router Cs new routing table shows the local connection to 168.71.8.0 and no summarized routes to 168.71.0.0
I*
I
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:35, Serial1

168.72.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:35, Serial1
C
I
168.74.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.73.9.1, 00:00:35, Serial1
C
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 47

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see Router Cs connected route to 168.71.8.0. There is no summarized route to 168.71.0.0
Redistributing via rip, igrp 109
Advertised by igrp 109
C
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 48

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
Here you can see that Router A is only 60% successful pinging 168.71.0.1
!U!.!
RouterA#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 49

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is the debug from Router A while pinging 168.71.0.1. Pings (1), (3) & (5) are successful
RouterA#debug ip ICMP
(1) ICMP: echo reply rcvd, src 168.71.0.1, dst 168.72.6.1
(2) IP: s=168.73.9.2 (Serial1), d=168.72.6.1, len 60, rcvd 4
(2) ICMP: dst (168.72.6.1) host unreachable rcv from 168.73.9.2
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 50

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows Router C responding to the pings from Router A. Both debug ip packet and debug ip ICMP are
turned on so that you can see Router C sending an ICMP Host Unreachable message to Router A. This is in
response to ping (2). Router C does not send a IP ICMP Unreachable for ping (4) because routers protect
themselves from having to respond to to many unroutable packets by ignoring some of them.
Here is the debug from Router C while Router A is pinging 168.71.0.1

RouterC#debug ip packet
RouterC#debug ip ICMP
(2) IP: s=168.72.6.1 (Serial1), d=168.71.0.1, len 104, unroutable
(2) ICMP: dst (168.71.0.1) host unreachable sent to 168.72.6.1
(4) IP: s=168.72.6.1 (Serial1), d=168.71.0.1, len 104, unroutable
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 51

Ping 5
Ping 3
Ping 1
Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
Router C
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
168.71.8.1
Ping 1 out serial 0 to 168.71.0.1 / ICMP Echo Reply received

Ping 2 out serial 1 to 168.71.0.1 / ICMP Host Unreachable received
Ping 2

Ping 4 out serial 1 to 168.71.0.1 / Nothing received
Ping 4
Router A is load balancing between the two paths but it is not easy to see - Pings (1), (3) & (5) are
successful. Pings (2) & (4) are not because Router C does not have the summarized route to 168.71.0.0
anymore. Router B sends ICMP Echo Replies to Router A. Router C classifies ping (2) as unroutable and sends
an ICMP Host Unreachable to Router A in response to ping (2). Router C Router C classifies ping (4) as
unroutable but does not send an ICMP Host Unreachable for it.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 52

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Router A alternates between sending the first ping out serial 0 and serial 1. This is normal load balancing. Not
all failed pings receive ICMP Host Unreachables.
Here you can see that Router A will alternate which interface it uses first so the failures will vary from time to time
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to
!U!.!
Success rate is 60 percent (3/5),
U!.!U
!U!.!
RouterA#
168.71.0.1, timeout is 2 seconds:

round-trip min/avg/max = 4/4/4 ms


Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 53
Summarization and subnet 0 summary: Using RIP &IGRP

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.74.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
168.71.0.1
S1 168.73.9.1
168.73.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Summarization & Subnet 0 using RIP and IGRP - This section has covered the problems that can occur
when using subnet zero and summarized routes with RIP and IGRP. Discontinuous networks were used to
cause summarization. In these examples RIP did not work at all while IGRP worked in some scenarios. EIGRP,
OSPF and RIP VII were not covered as they have built in methods for coping with these issues. However even
EIGRP, OSPF and RIP VII will fail when using subnet 0 and summarization if configured incorrectly. The
information provided in this section should aid in trouble shooting problems due to improper use of
summarization and subnet zero.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 54
IP Unnumbered: What is IP unnumbered?

Router A
168.71.5.1
Router C
S1
IP Unnumbered ethernet 0
S1
168.71.8.1
IP Unnumbered tokenring 0
IP Unnumbered - This term is used to refer to the concept of using the network or subnet address of a local
LAN interface as the routers ip address for a serial link.
There are a few rules that apply to using IP Unnumbered

The serial interface must be a point-to-point link.
You must either use the same major network with the same mask on both sides.
or
You must use different major nets with no subnetting.
!
hostname RouterA
!
interface serial1
ip unnumbered Ethernet0
!
!
hostname RouterC
!
interface serial1
ip unnumbered TokenRing0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 55
IP Unnumbered: What is a host route?

Router B
171.68.67.240
171.68.48.2
A
Async1
PSTN
B
171.68.48.3
Router A
Modem
E0
Modem
Async2
Modem
Modem
E1
171.68.67.241
E0
171.68.48.0
If Router B lacks the more specific host
routes it assumes that 171.68.48.2 &
171.68.48.3 are attached to this network
Host Route - This term is used to refer a network advertisement that has bits set in the range that the receiving
router interprets as outside of the subnet mask or a routing update that is explicitly advertised with a mask of
255.255.255.255 by a routing protocol that includes the mask in its routing updates.
Dialup users may require host routes to ensure they have full connectivity to the network. Although dialup
networking is beyond the scope of this course this slide and the next slide will attempt to clarify when host
routes can be useful.
In the example above Router A is using IP unnumbered ethernet 0 on its Async interfaces. This results in
multiple Async interfaces sharing the same subnet as a local ethernet. Without host routes being advertised for
end systems A & B Router B would assume that an IP packet to 171.68.48.2 or 171.68.48.3 would be for an
end system on the ethernet network connecting Routers A & B. Router B would ARP for 171.68.48.2 or
171.68.48.3 directly instead of forwarding the packet to Router A in order to reach end system A.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 56
IP Unnumbered: What is a host route?

Router B
171.68.67.240
171.68.48.2
A
Async1
PSTN
B
171.68.48.3
Router A
Modem
E0
Modem
Async2
Modem
Modem
E1
171.68.67.241
E0
171.68.48.0
If Router B has the host routes in its routing
table it will realize that IP packets to these
destinations must be forwarded to Router A
In this slide it is assumed that Router A is now advertising the host routes for end systems A & B. Router B will
do a longest match lookup for packets to either 171.68.48.2 or 171.68.48.3 and discover that the connected
route to 171.68.48.0 is not the longest match. Router B will determine that these routes are reachable via its
ethernet 0 using Router A as the next hop.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 57
IP Unnumbered: Can cause host routes and lost connectivity
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.1
In the example below the routing update from Router C has a bit (16) set in the fourth octet. Router A will
compare this update with the mask of the ip address and mask that is used by the unnumbered ethernet0
command. Router A will discover that there is a bit set outside the range of the mask. This must be interpreted
as a host route. See the section on Mask Ambiguity for more information on this issue.
The update has a bit set in the fourth octet that is masked with 0.
Advertised subnet 168.71.8.16 = 10101000.01000111.00001000.00010000

Routers mask
255.255.255.0= 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 58
IP Unnumbered: Configuring on serial interfaces

Router A
168.71.5.1
Router C
S1
S1
Here you can see that Router A is using the IP address of ethernet 0 for serial 1
Hardware is HD64570
Interface is unnumbered. Using address of Ethernet0 (168.71.5.1)
Here you can see that Router C is using the IP address of tokenring 0 for serial 1
Hardware is HD64570
Interface is unnumbered. Using address of TokenRing0 (168.71.8.1)
!
hostname RouterA
!
interface serial1
ip unnumbered Ethernet0
!
!
hostname RouterC
!
interface serial1
ip unnumbered TokenRing0
!
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 59
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Displaying the routes

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
Here you can see that Router A has explicit knowledge of the 168.71.8.0 subnet
Known via "rip", distance 120, metric 1
Redistributing via rip
RouterA#
Here you can see that Router C has explicit knowledge of the 168.71.5.0 subnet
Advertised by rip (self originated)
RouterC#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 60
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Sending routing updates

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.1
Although both routers are advertising the summarized major net of 168.71.0.0 to each other neither router will
install the route while using RIP as they have local connections to the 168.71.0.0 major net. This is explained in
the section on Subnet 0 and Summarization.
Here you can see Router As debug output as it sends RIP updates to Router C
default 0.0.0.0, metric 1
168.71.8.0 in 1 hops
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
Here you can see Router Cs debug output as it sends RIP updates to Router A
RouterC#deb ip rip
168.71.5.0 in 1 hops
0.0.0.0 in 1 hops
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 61
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Pinging the interfaces
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1

!!!!!
RouterA#
Here you can see that Router C can ping 168.71.5.1

!!!!!
RouterC#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 62
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / updates

New subnet & mask
168.71.8.17 255.255.255.240
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
The token ring interface on Router C has been configured with a new address and subnet mask as shown
below. This will cause routers A and C to lose all connectivity.
Here you can see that the token ring interface has a new IP address and mask
RouterC#show interface tokenring 0
Hardware is TMS380, address is 0000.30c8.ab75 (bia 0000.30c8.ab75)
Here you can see that serial 1 is using the new address / Note that there is no reference to the mask in use
Hardware is HD64570
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 63
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / updates

Compare advertisement with mask on E0
Advertise the subnet of Tokenring 0
168.71.8.16
168.71.8.16
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.17 255.255.255.240
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
The debug below shows what happens when Router A adds the subnet route to 168.71.8.16. Note the
statement that network 168.71.0.0 is now variably masked. This is in response to Router A comparing the
routing update to its ip address and mask on ethernet 0. Note also that Router A believes that the next hop
address is 168.71.8.17.
Here you can the debug output from Router A after clearing the route to 168.71.8.16 and receiving it again
RouterA#debug ip routing
RouterA# clear ip route 168.71.8.16
RT: del 168.71.8.16 255.255.255.255 via 168.71.8.17, rip metric [120/1]
RT: delete subnet route to 168.71.8.16 255.255.255.255
168.71.8.16 in 1 hops
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
RT: network 168.71.0.0 is now variably masked
RT: add 168.71.8.16 255.255.255.255 via 168.71.8.17, rip metric [120/1]
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 64
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / host routes

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.17
Router A has installed a host route to 168.71.8.16 in its routing table. This is because the advertisement that
was received from Router C had bits set in what Router A believes is the host portion of the address. Router As
mask for the 168.71.0.0 network is 255.255.255.0. The advertisement was for 168.71.8.16. The 16 in the fourth
octet should not be there for a routing advertisement of a subnet with a 255.255.255.0 mask. Routers use the
mask of the interface that received the update to determine the appropriate mask to apply.
Here you can see the route to 168.71.8.16

S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
C
R
168.71.8.16 255.255.255.255 [120/1] via 168.71.8.17, 00:00:13, Serial1
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 65
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / host routes

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.17
This slide shows that Router A does not have a route that it can use for a packet to 168.71.8.17. It also shows
that Router A does not have a summarized route to 168.71.0.0 even though Router C is advertising it.
Here you can see that Router A cannot route a packet to 168.71.8.17
% Subnet not in table
RouterA#
Here you can see that Router A does not have a summarized route to 168.71.0.0
Variably subnetted with 2 masks
Advertised by rip
C
R
168.71.8.16 255.255.255.255 [120/1] via 168.71.8.17, 00:00:01, Serial1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 66
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / lost routes
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.17
Router C has a route to 168.71.5.0. It will use this to route packets destined for 168.71.5.1. The next slide
shows that Router C sends its ping out serial 1 but they are never replied to.
Here you can see that Router C has a route to 168.71.5.0
R
10.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:14, Serial1
R
168.71.5.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:15, Serial1
C
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:15, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 67
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.17
Router C has a route to 168.71.5.0 and sends the pings out serial 1. Note that the source address of the pings
is 168.71.8.17. This is the host address that Router A cannot reach because the route that it should use to the
subnet of 168.71.8.16 has the wrong mask.
Here you can see Router Cs debug output as it sends its pings to Router A
RouterC#deb ip packet
IP: s=168.71.8.17
IP: s=168.71.8.17
IP: s=168.71.8.17
IP: s=168.71.8.17
IP: s=168.71.8.17
Success rate is 0
RouterC#
(local), d=168.71.5.1
(local), d=168.71.5.1
(local), d=168.71.5.1
(local), d=168.71.5.1
(local), d=168.71.5.1
percent (0/5)
(Serial1),
(Serial1),
(Serial1),
(Serial1),
(Serial1),
len
len
len
len
len
100,
100,
100,
100,
100,
sending.
sending.
sending.
sending
sending.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 68
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.17
This slide shows that Router A receives the pings from Router C but cannot route the responses.
Configuring a different mask on Router Cs token ring interface has made connectivity between the two routers
impossible.
Here you can see Router Cs debug output as it sends its pings to Router A
IP: s=168.71.8.17 (Serial1), d=168.71.5.1, len 104, rcvd 4
IP: s=168.71.5.1 (local), d=168.71.8.17, len 104, unroutable
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 69
IP Unnumbered and RIP: Using different major networks

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
In this section Router C has been configured with a different major network.
Here you can see Router Cs token ring 0 has been configured with 168.72.8.1
RouterC#show interface tokenring 0
Hardware is TMS380, address is 0000.30c8.ab75 (bia 0000.30c8.ab75)
Here you can see Router Cs serial 0 using the new IP address of token ring 0
Hardware is HD64570
168.72.8.1
New major network
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 70
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
Here you can see Router A sending and receiving routing updates
168.72.8.0 in 1 hops
168.72.0.0 in 1 hops
Here you can see Router C sending and receiving routing updates
RouterC#debug ip rip
168.71.5.0 in 1 hops
0.0.0.0 in 1 hops
168.71.0.0 in 1 hops
168.72.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 71

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.72.8.1
Note the mask on the subnet route to 168.72.8.0. Connectivity is still possible because Router A has installed a
summarized route to 168.72.0.0. Router A does this because it does not have a local connection to 168.72.0.0.
The concept of using a summarized major route for connectivity to unknown subnets is explained in the section
on local domain and non local default routes.
Here is Router As routing table
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

R
168.72.0.0 255.255.0.0 [120/1] via 168.72.8.1, 00:00:20, Serial1
R
168.72.8.0 255.255.255.255 [120/1] via 168.72.8.1, 00:00:21, Serial1
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 72

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.72.8.1
Note the mask on the subnet route to 168.72.5.0. Connectivity is still possible because Router C has installed a
summarized route to 168.71.0.0. Router C does this because it does not have a local connection to 168.71.0.0.
The concept of using a summarized major route for connectivity to unknown subnets is explained in the section
on local domain and non local default routes.
Here is Router Cs routing table
R
10.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:02, Serial1

C
R
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.255 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:02, Serial1
R
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:02, Serial1
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:02, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 73
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
Here you can see Router A can ping 168.72.8.1

!!!!!
RouterA#
Here you can see Router C can ping 168.71.5.1

!!!!!
RouterC#
168.72.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 74

168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
Here you can see Router A can will use 168.72.0.0 to route packets to 168.72.8.1
RouterA#
Here you can see Router C will use 168.71.0.0 to route packets to 168.71.5.1
RouterC#
168.72.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 75
IP Unnumbered and IGRP: Configuration is the same as with RIP

WORKS!
Router A
S1
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
Router C
S1
168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
Configuring a router running IGRP to use IP Unnumbered is done in exactly the same manner as a router
running RIP.
Routers running IGRP that are properly configured with the same major net and the same mask on the
interfaces will behave in exactly the same way as routers running RIP.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 76
IP Unnumbered and IGRP: Incorrect subnet mask problem / lost routes
FAILS!
Router A
S1
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
Router C
S1
168.71.8.17 255.255.255.240
Routers running IGRP will fail in exactly the same manner as routers running RIP when configured with an
incorrect mask on one of the interfaces.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 77
IP Unnumbered and IGRP: Using different major networks

Works!
Router A
S1
Router C
S1
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.72.8.1 255.255.255.0
Routers running IGRP that are configured with different major nets will work in the exactly the same way as
routers running RIP. The routers will install a summarized route to the major net and use it to provide
connectivity.
Here you can see Router As routing table containing the host route and the summarized route
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

I
168.72.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/80188] via 168.72.8.1, 00:00:45, Serial1
I
168.72.8.0 255.255.255.255
[100/80188] via 168.72.8.1, 00:00:45, Serial1
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 78
IP Unnumbered and IGRP: Using different major networks

Works!
Router A
S1
Router C
S1
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.72.8.1 255.255.255.0
Routers running IGRP that are configured with different major nets will work in the exactly the same way as
routers running RIP. The routers will install a summarized route to the major net and use it to provide
connectivity.
Here you can see Router Cs routing table containing the host route and the summarized route
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:27, Serial1

C
I
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.255 [100/10002001] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:28, Serial1
I
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.5.1, 00:00:28, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 79
IP Unnumbered summary: Using RIP or IGRP
168.71.5.1
Router A
Router C
S1
S1
168.71.8.1
IP Unnumbered Works Always - It will always work with RIP or IGRP when properly configured using the
same major networks and the same mask on both ends of the links or two different major networks at both ends
of the links.
IP Unnumbered Fails - It will always fail with RIP or IGRP when improperly configured using the same major
networks and different subnets / masks on both ends of the links.
IP Unnumbered Fails But Can Be Fixed - The most effective way to work around the issues with IP
Unnumbered is to use static routes. It may be necessary to redistribute the static routes into dynamic protocols
to provide full network connectivity. See the section on static routes for more details on using static routes.
IP Unnumbered and Frame Relay - IP Unnumbered will work on Frame Relay links for Point-To-Point
subinterfaces. It will not work on Multi-Point interfaces over Frame Relay.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 80
VLSM using RIP & IGRP: What is VLSM?

168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
What Is VLSM? - This is the term used to refer to using different masks on the same major net. In the example
above the major net of 168.71.0.0 has two different masks; 255.255.255.0 and 255.255.255.252. VLSM means
that two or more different subnet masks are applied to the same major net in a network.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 81
VLSM using RIP & IGRP: What is mask ambiguity?

168.71.5.0
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.252
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
Mask Ambiguity - In order to clarify the role that the mask on an interface plays when a router is deriving the
masks for routing advertisements it receives Router B has been mistakenly configured with the wrong mask on
its serial 0 interface. Router B will apply this mask to the routing advertisement for subnet 168.71.5.0 received
from Router A. 255.255.255.252 is not an illegal mask for 168.71.5.0. In this case routing may still work and the
problem may go unnoticed. However in a more complicated network this situation will cause a problem.
Here you can see that serial 0 on Router A has a mask of 255.255.255.0.
Hardware is HD64570
Here you can see that serial 0 on Router B has a mask of 255.255.255.252
Hardware is HD64570
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 82

168.71.5.0
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.252
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
Here you can see that Router A believes that 168.71.5.0 has a mask of 255.255.255.0.
Known via "connected", distance 0, metric 0 (connected)
Here you can see that Router B believes that 168.71.5.0 has a mask of 255.255.255.252.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 83

168.71.5.0
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.252
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
Here you can see that Router B can ping 168.71.5.1.

!!!!!
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 84
VLSM using RIP & IGRP: Mask ambiguity creates problems

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Mask Ambiguity - Here we have returned to the three router example. The mask on serial 0 in Router B has
been mistakenly configured with a mask of 255.255.255.252. All other masks are 255.255.255.0. The next slide
shows the catastrophic effect this has on the routing table for Router B. This problem exists because Router B
is receiving advertisements from Routers A and C. The advertisements from Router A are being masked with
255.255.255.252 while the advertisements from Router C are being masked with 255.255.255.0.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 85

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router Bs routing table is completely corrupted by having the two masks configured.
R
168.71.9.0 255.255.255.252 [120/1] via 168.71.6.1, 00:00:00, Serial0
R
168.71.9.0 255.255.255.0 [120/1] via 168.71.7.1, 00:00:26, Serial1
R
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.252 [120/2] via 168.71.6.1, 00:00:00, Serial0
R
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0 [120/1] via 168.71.7.1, 00:00:26, Serial1
R
168.71.7.0 255.255.255.252 [120/2] via 168.71.6.1, 00:00:00, Serial0
C
168.71.7.0 255.255.255.0 is directly connected, Serial1
R
168.71.6.0 255.255.255.0 [120/2] via 168.71.7.1, 00:00:26, Serial1
C
R
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0 [120/2] via 168.71.7.1, 00:00:26, Serial1
R
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.252 [120/1] via 168.71.6.1, 00:00:00, Serial0
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.1, 00:00:00, Serial0
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 86

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router As routing table is not corrupted.
S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
R
168.71.8.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:03, Serial1
R
168.71.7.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:03, Serial1
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 87

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router Cs routing table is not corrupted.
R
10.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:06, Serial1
C
C
C
R
168.71.6.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:07, Serial1
R
168.71.5.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:07, Serial1
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:07, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 88
VLSM using RIP & IGRP: Causes lost routes

Different mask = block route
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
The previous example explained the role that the mask on an interface plays on interpreting the masks for
incoming routing updates and the problems that can result by using this method.
In this example the masks and addresses on Router As serial 0 has been changed. The new mask is
255.255.255.252. Both routers now have the same mask on this link.
Hardware is HD64570
Hardware is HD64570
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 89

168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
In this example 255.255.255.252 and 255.255.255.0 are both legitimate masks for 168.71.5.0, 168.71.8.0 and
168.71.6.0. However Router B will still not advertise 168.71.6.0 out token ring 0. It is not sufficient that a mask
on an outward bound interface be legitimate for a particular route, it must be an exact match for the mask that
the router has stored in its table.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 90

168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
Review - Routers running RIP or IGRP examine the network number and mask associated with an interface
before advertising routes from the routing table over it. If a subnet route in the table is part of the same network
address space (major net) and has the same mask it will be advertised over the interface. If the route is part of
a different address space the interface mask is ignored and the major network portion of the route is advertised.
If the route is part of the same network address space but has a different mask it will not be advertised
at all.
In this example Router A will block 168.71.5.0 entirely. It will not summarize it and advertise the summarized
route.
Router B will block 168.71.7.0 and 168.71.8.0 entirely. It will not summarize it and advertise the summarized
route.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 91

168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
This is Router As routing table. There are no routes to 168.71.8.0 or 168.71.0.0.

S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 171.68.207.129

C
C
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 92

168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
This is Router Bs routing table. There are no routes to 168.71.5.0 or 168.71.0.0.

I*
10.0.0.0 [100/160250] via 168.71.6.1, 00:01:11, Serial0
C
C
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 93

168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
168.71.8.0
Router A
Router B
168.71.6.2 255.255.255.252
168.71.6.1 255.255.255.252
168.71.5.0
168.71.8.0 255.255.255.0
Here you can see that Router A only advertises the exterior default route to 10.0.0.0 to Router B.
Oct 30 23:21:44:
exterior 10.0.0.0, metric=158250
Here you can see that Router B suppresses the update to Router A as there is nothing to advertise.
RouterB# debug ip igrp transactions
Oct 30 23:21:46: IGRP: sending update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.2) suppressing null update
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 3 Page 94
VLSM using RIP & IGRP summary: VLSM using RIP & IGRP
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
VLSM using RIP & IGRP - RIP Version 1 and IGRP do not support using VLSM due to their inability to carry
mask information in routing updates. However it is possible to use VLSM with RIP or IGRP by using static
routes and creative address allocation.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Default routing:
Terms explained.
Gateway of last resort:
Works for non-local domain.
Default route for local domain subnets:
Example of the problem.
The solution.
Local domain default route:
How to make it work.
Points to gateway of last resort.
It works!
Still works when links fail.
Default routing:
IP classless.
Default routing and static routing:
Non local and local domains.
Broken static route.
Broken static route fixed.
Static routes & dynamic routes.
Using static routes and null0.
Default Routes:
Gateway of last resort broken.
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route:
Using RIP.
Danger when using RIP.
Using IGRP.
Summary:
Using RIP.
Summary:
Using IGRP.
End systems with multiple local routers:
Load balancing.
IRDP RFC1256.
RIP.
Summary:
Default Routing
Static routes:
Floating static routes.
Summary.
Chapter 4 Page 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 2
Default routing: Terms explained
Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
There is a great deal of confusion between the terms; gateway of last resort, default-network and defaultgateway as well as local domain. The next few slides will clarify this situation.
Gateway of last resort - This is the term that is applied to a routing entry in the Cisco routing table that the
router will use to forward packets to when it lacks a more specific route. This can be learned from a route
provided by another router that is tagged as a default by the advertising router. The ip default-network
command is one way of having a router tag a route as a gateway of last resort.
IP Default-Network xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx - This is the command that will cause a router to treat xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx as
a gateway of last resort. A router can have multiple ip default-networks entered.
IP Default-Gateway - This command is used in routers that have IP routing disabled give them an address to
forward packets that are not in their address space to. 2500s in boot mode are a good example of this situation.
The boot code doesnt understand the default-network command.
Local Domain - This is a term that is used to refer to networks that a router has local knowledge (context) of by
having a direct connection to them. In this case Router A has local knowledge for 168.71.0.0 because it has a
physical connection to subnets of the 168.71.0.0 major network.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 3
Gateway of last resort: Works for non-local domain

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The major network on the link between Router A and Router B has been changed to 168.72.0.0
This slide shows that Router C can ping 168.72.61 even though it does not have an explicit route to 168.72.6.0
or to 168.72.0.0.
% Network not in table
RouterC#
% Network not in table
RouterC#
!!!!!
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 4
Gateway of last resort: Works for non-local domain

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows that Router C has a gateway of last resort to 10.0.0.0 with a
next hop of 168.71.9.1 in its routing table.
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:01:06, Serial1
C
C
C
I
168.71.6.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:01:07, Serial1
[100/82125] via 168.71.7.2, 00:01:15, Serial0
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:01:07, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 5
Default route for local domain subnets: Example of the problem

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The mask on the 168.71.6.0 network has changed to 255.255.255.252

This slide shows that Router C has no knowledge of 168.71.6.0. Neither Router A nor Router B advertise
168.71.6.0 to Router A because the mask for 168.71.6.0 is different than mask on the links from Router C to
routers A & B. This is the VLSM problem shown earlier.
C
168.71.9.0
C
168.71.8.0
C
168.71.7.0
I
168.71.5.0
RouterC#

is directly connected, TokenRing0
[100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:36, Serial1

RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 6

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router C cannot find a route to use for 168.71.6.0
RouterC#debug ip packet 103
IP packet debugging is on for access list 103
Oct 8 21:30:32: IP: s=168.71.7.1
Oct 8 21:30:34: IP: s=168.71.7.1
Oct 8 21:30:36: IP: s=168.71.7.1
Oct 8 21:30:38: IP: s=168.71.7.1
Oct 8 21:30:40: IP: s=168.71.7.1
RouterC#
(local),
(local),
(local),
(local),
(local),
d=168.71.6.1,
d=168.71.6.1,
d=168.71.6.1,
d=168.71.6.1,
d=168.71.6.1,
RouterC#show access-lists 103

Extended IP access list 103
permit ip any 168.71.6.0 0.0.0.255 (5 matches)
RouterC#
len
len
len
len
len
100,
100,
100,
100,
100,
unroutable.
unroutable.
unroutable.
unroutable.
unroutable.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 7

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows the routing table for Router C. Note that there is a gateway of last resort in the table. It is
ignored because it has no effect on routes that are in what is considered to be a local domain.
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:29, Serial1
C
C
C
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:29, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 8
Default route for local domain subnets: The solution

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows the routing table for Router C after a static route is added for the 168.71.0.0 major net. In this
case it is pointed at the 10.0.0.0 network. The 10.0.0.0 is a ficticous network address space that is propagated
throughout the example network.
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:05, Serial1
C
C
C
I
168.71.5.0 255.255.255.0
[100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:05, Serial1
S
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [1/0] via 10.0.0.0
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 9
Local domain default route: How to make it work
In Router A a default metric is configured as well as redistribute static. Then the static route to 10.0.0.0 pointing
to a router in the secondary address space of ethernet 0 is configured. Finally the default network is configured.
Router C already knows how to get to 10.0.0.0 because Router A is advertising it. Router C points the major
network route for 168.71.0.0 to 10.0.0.0. This creates a default for all subnets of 168.71.0.0 that Router C
doesnt have explicit knowledge of. Each router will need this static route because it will not get advertised by a
router with the redistribute static command configured because the mask for 168.71.0.0 is different than the
subnets.
RouterA
!
interface ethernet0
ip address 168.71.5.1 255.255.255.0
ip address 171.68.207.164 255.255.128 secondary
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
!
router igrp 109
redistribute static
network 168.71.0.0
default-metric 128 2000 255 1 1500
!
ip default-network 10.0.0.0
ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 171.68.207.129
!
RouterC
!
ip address 168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.7.1 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 64
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.2 255.0.0.0
bandwidth 128
!
router igrp 109
network 168.71.0.0
!
ip route 168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 10.0.0.0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 10
Local domain default route: Points to gateway of last resort

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows that Router C now has a route that it can use to the subnet of 168.71.6.0. When queried about
its knowledge of a route it does a longest match lookup in its routing table. In this case the longest match is to
the major net itself. Router C assumes that the address 168.71.6.0 is a host address with a mask of
255.255.0.0. Note that the output for 168.71.6.0 and 168.71.6.1 is the same.
Known via "static", distance 1, metric 0
* 10.0.0.0
RouterC#
Known via "static", distance 1, metric 0
* 10.0.0.0
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 11
Local domain default route: It works!
Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
Here you ca see that Router C can now ping 168.71.6.1.
!!!!!
RouterC#
168.71.8.1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 12
Local domain default route: Still works when links fail

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
This slide shows the routing table for Router C after the link to Router A has gone down. Note that the gateway
of last resort is now pointing to 168.71.7.2, not 168.71.9.1. Note as well that the static route for 168.71.0.0 to
10.0.0.0 continues to be viable because it follows the dynamically advertised route to 10.0.0.0.
I*
I
10.0.0.0 [100/84125] via 168.71.7.2, 00:01:07, Serial0

171.68.0.0 [100/10004001] via 168.71.7.2, 00:01:07, Serial0
C
C
S
168.71.0.0 255.255.0.0 [1/0] via 10.0.0.0
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 13
Default routing: IP Classless

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
An easier solution to the local vs.. non-local domain issue for the gateway of last resort is to configure ip
classless. This is a global command that causes the router to ignore all class structures created by network
mask and subnet masks.
!
ip classless
!
RouterC#
!!!!!
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 14
Default routing and static routing: Non local and local domains
168.71.8.0
Router C
Router B
.2
168.71.9.0
S0
Router A
.3
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
S0
S0
168.72.5.0
168.72.5.1
.1
168.72.5.1
168.72.5.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.1
168.72.5.2
Metrics are not shown as they are not relevant to this section
168.71.8.1
Router B
168.71.8.2
Method
Network
Interface
Next Hop
Gateway of last resort 10.0.0.0 via 168.71.6.1
Connected 168.71.6.0 Serial0
Connected 168.71.8.0 Token0
IGRP
168.71.9.0 Serial0
168.71.6.2
Static
10.0.0.0
Serial0
168.71.6.1
Non Local Domain - In this example Router B does not have an explicit route to 168.72.5.0. However Router
B does have a gateway of last resort of 10.0.0.0 that is created with a static route to 10.0.0.0 pointing at
168.71.6.1 and configuring the ip default-network 10.0.0.0 command. This is sufficient for Router B to forward
packets to 167.72.5.0 because Router B has no local context for 168.72.0.0 (it is not a local domain).
Local Domain - Router A must have either an explicit route back to 168.71.8.0 or a static route pointing to
168.71.8.0 with a next hop of 168.71.6.3. A gateway of last resort will not work for Router A to reach 168.71.8.0
because Router A is connected to the major net 168.71.0.0 which makes 168.71.8.0 part of Router As local
domain. Routers expect to have explicit routes for all subnets in their local domains. It is possible to get around
this by installing a static route to only the major network. However this can lead to problems when configured
improperly.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 15
Default routing and static routing: Broken static route

168.71.8.0
Router C
Router B
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
168.72.5.0
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
.1
S0
S1
.1
Router D
179.12.9..0
S1
.2
168.72.5.2
S0
Router A
Method
Network
Interface
Next Hop
Connected 168.72.5.0 Ethernet0
Static
168.71.0.0 Serial0
168.71.6.3
IGRP
10.0.0.0
Serial1
179.12.9.2
179.12.8.0
168.71.8.2
S0
S0
.1
.2
The rest of
the world
In this example Router As routing table has been edited to show the problem when an improper static route is
added to a router. Router A has a static route to the major network of 168.71.0.0 via 168.71.6.3. Although this
will enable Router A to forward packets to 168.71.8.0 Router A cannot reach 168.71.9.0. In fact if Router A
received a packet for 168.71.9.1 on its ethernet interface it would forward it to Router B. The proper way of
doing this is shown on the next slide.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 16
Default routing and static routing: Broken static route fixed

168.71.8.0
Router C
Router B
.2
168.71.9.0
S0
Router A
168.72.5.0
.3
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
S0
.1
S0
S1
.1
Router D
179.12.9..0
S1
.2
168.72.5.2
Router A
Method
Network
Interface
Next Hop
Static
168.71.8.0 Serial0
168.71.6.3
Static
168.71.9.0 Serial0
168.71.6.2
Static
168.71.0.0 Serial1
179.12.9.2
IGRP
10.0.0.0
Serial1
179.12.9.2
179.12.8.0
168.71.8.2
S0
S0
.1
.2
The rest of
the world
In this example the routing table has been fixed to allow full connectivity to the subnets shown. Router A now
has access to all local subnets of 168.71.0.0 as well as a gateway of last resort and a pointer to other unknown
subnets of 168.71.0.0 that are somewhere in the rest of the world.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 17
Default routing and static routing: Static routes & dynamic routes
168.71.8.0
Router C
Router B
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
.1
168.72.5.0
S0
S1
.1
179.12.8.0
168.71.8.2
Router D
179.12.9..0
S1
.2
168.72.5.2
S0
Router A
Method
Network
Interface
Next Hop
IGRP
168.71.8.0 Serial0
168.71.6.3
IGRP
168.71.9.0 Serial0
168.71.6.2
Static
168.71.0.0 Serial1
179.12.9.2
IGRP
10.0.0.0
Serial1
179.12.9.2
S0
S0
.1
.2
The rest of
the world
In this example the routing table has been changed to show what would happen if IGRP is used in the local
domain to allow full connectivity to the subnets shown and static routes to all other subnets of 168.71.0.0 as
well as other non local domains. Router A now has access to all known subnets of 168.71.0.0 as well as a
gateway of last resort learned via IGRP from Router D and a pointer to other unknown subnets of 168.71.0.0
that are somewhere in the rest of the world.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 18
Default routing and static routing: Using static routes and null0
168.71.8.0
Router C
Router B
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
Frame Relay
168.71.6.0
.1
168.72.5.0
S0
S1
.1
Router D
179.12.9..0
S1
.2
168.72.5.2
S0
179.12.8.0
168.71.8.2
S0
S0
.1
.2
Router D
Method
Network
Interface
Next Hop
IGRP
168.72.5.0 Serial1
179.12.9.1
IGRP
168.71.6.0 Serial1
179.12.9.1
IGRP
168.71.8.0 Serial1
179.12.9.1
IGRP
168.71.9.0 Serial1
179.12.9.1
Static
168.71.29.0 Serial0
179.12.8.2
Static
168.71.0.0 Null0
Connected
Static
10.0.0.0
Serial0
179.12.8.2
Null0
The rest of
the world
In this example Router D has a static route to 168.71.29.0. The other routers use their static route to 168.71.0.0
to get packets destined for 168.71.29.0 to Router D. All packets arriving at Router D for subnets of 168.71.0.0
that Router D doesnt know about get sent to null0.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 19
Default Routes: Gateway of last resort broken

Router A configures a
gateway of last resort pointing
to Router B
10.0.0.0
Router A
168.71.5.0
Router B
.2
.1
The rest of
the world
168.71.6.0
10.0.0.0
168.71.8.0
Router A advertises the route

to Router B by mistake and
Router B accepts it
This section of slides show how a miss configured gateway of last resort can cause packet loops.
The user places the static route for the gateway of last resort in Router A instead of Router B where it belongs.
Router A has redistribute static configured and a default metric. This causes Router A to advertise the route to
10.0.0.0 to Router B. This is not a violation of split horizon because Router A did not actually learn about
10.0.0.0 from Router B. Having a static route pointing to another router and having a router learned from
another router are not the same thing.
Because Router B doesnt have the static route to 10.0.0.0 as it should it installs the dynamic route learned
from Router A with the next hop of 168.71.6.1 and tags it as the gateway of last resort.
Packets to unknown destinations that should go to the rest of the world now bounce between the two routers.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 20

Router A configures a
gateway of last resort pointing
to Router B
10.0.0.0
Router A
168.71.5.0
Router B
.2
.1
The rest of
the world
168.71.6.0
10.0.0.0
168.71.8.0
Router A advertises the route

to Router B by mistake
This shows Router As gateway of last resort statically configured to 168.71.6.2

S*
10.0.0.0 [1/0] via 168.71.6.2

C
C
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 21
Router A
168.71.5.0
Router B
.2
.1
The rest of
the world
168.71.6.0
10.0.0.0
Router B now has a gateway of
last resort pointing to Router A
168.71.8.0
This shows Router Bs gateway of last resort dynamically configured to 168.71.6.1

I*
10.0.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.6.1, 00:01:21, Serial0
C
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.6.1, 00:01:09, Serial0
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 22

Router A
168.71.5.0
Router B
.2
.1
The rest of
the world
168.71.6.0
Packet arrives on ethernet

from another router
Packet bounces between Router A

and Router B until its TTL* expires
168.71.8.0
Here you can see the debug from Router B as the packet that arrived on Router As ethernet gets forwarded to Router Bs serial 0
and Router B sends it right back to Router A out serial 0.
RouterB#debug ip packet
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
IP: s=171.68.207.222 (Serial0),
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
d=168.72.1.1
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
(Serial0),
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
g=168.71.6.1,
len
len
len
len
len
len
len
len
len
len
len
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
64,
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
forward
* TTL = Time To Live. This is a field in every IP packet that records the time a packet has existed. It can be
decremented based on each hop it has taken as well as how long it was queued in a router while being
forwarded from one interface to another.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 23
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route: Using RIP

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The 0.0.0.0 route has special meaning. For RIP it is automatically installed as the local gateway of last resort.
No ip default-network 0.0.0.0 is required. RIP automatically advertises the route to 0.0.0.0 even if redistribute
static and a default metric are not configured.
C
C
C
R
168.71.6.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:10, Serial1
[120/1] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:04, Serial0
R
168.71.5.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:10, Serial1
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:10, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 24
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route : Using RIP

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is the partial configuration from Router A. Router A installed the route to 0.0.0.0 as the gateway of last
resort without requiring the ip default-network command.
hostname RouterA
!
router igrp rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
The next slide shows Router A sending routing updates that contain the route to 0.0.0.0 even though
redistribute static and a default metric have not been configured!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 25
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route: Using RIP

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the output of debug ip rip from Router A / It shows that Router A is advertising the default
route to 0.0.0.0 / Redistribute static and a default metric are not required and are not configured
RouterA#
Using the 0.0.0.0 route with RIP is dangerous. It is advertised even though the redistribute static and default
metric commands are not configured. It can result in incorrect gateways of last resort getting installed and
cause connectivity to be lost.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 26
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route: Danger when using RIP

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
168.72.5.0
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
S0
The rest of
the world
Assume that corporate policy dictates that users connected to Router B only have access to the corporate
network. One way of preventing them from accessing the rest of the world would be for Router B to install a
gateway of last resort to 0.0.0.0 pointed to null0. Every packet that Router B receives for networks and sub
networks that it has no explicit knowledge of will be routed to null0.
However Router B will now advertise that it has a route to the preferred RIP gateway of last resort.
hostname RouterB
!
router igrp rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 27

168.71.8.0
Router C
168.71.9.0
Router A
168.72.5.0
.2
.3
S0
S0
0.0.0.0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
In this example Router D has the real connectivity to the rest of the world and should be the only router
advertising the route to 0.0.0.0. However we now have a problem as both routers D and B are telling Routers A
and C that they have valid routes to all unknown networks.
hostname RouterD
!
router igrp rip
network 168.71.0.0
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 28

168.71.8.0
Router C
168.71.9.0
Router A
.2
.3
S0
S0
0.0.0.0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Here you can see that Router A has two routes to 0.0.0.0
Routing entry for 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0, supernet
Known via "rip", distance 120, metric 1, candidate default path
179.12.9.2, from 179.12.9.2 , 00:00:01 ago, via Serial1
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 29

168.71.8.0
Router C
168.71.9.0
Router A
.2
.3
S0
S0
0.0.0.0
Pings
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Pings
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
Router D
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
This slide shows that Router A is attempting to use both default paths to the external network 132.10.0.0 and
is getting a 60% failure rate. This is a classic case of a miss configured default route. You can prove this by
configuring a static route to 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 via one path and testing it then doing the same with the other path.
The static route will override the dynamic route to 0.0.0.0. The one that works 100% is the correct path and the
one that fails 100% is the broken path.
!.!.!
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 30

168.71.8.0
Router C
168.71.9.0
Router A
.2
.3
S0
S0
0.0.0.0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Here you can see that Router C has one incorrect route to 0.0.0.0
Routing entry for 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0, supernet
Known via "rip", distance 120, metric 1, candidate default path
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 31

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
Pings
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
This slide shows that Router C is attempting to use the incorrect route to the gateway of last resort via Router B
because it has a lower metric that the path advertised from Router D via Router A. This results in a 100%
failure rate.
..
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Having discovered that in this case it is Router B causing the problem the fix is to stop Router B from
advertising the route to 0.0.0.0 to any other routers.
hostname RouterD
!
router igrp rip
network 168.71.0.0
distribute-list 1 out
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
access-list 1 deny 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0
access-list 1 permit 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
!
Chapter 4 Page 32
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 33

168.71.8.0
168.71.8.0
Router C
168.71.9.0
Router A
.2
.3
S0
S0
0.0.0.0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Here you can see Router B advertising the route to 0.0.0.0 before the distribute list 1 command is entered.
RouterB#debug ip rip
Oct 15 17:50:39: RIP:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39: RIP:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
RouterB#
sending update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)

Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Here you can see Router B suppressing the route 0.0.0.0 after the distribute list 1 command is entered
RouterB#debug ip rip
Oct 15 17:51:07: RIP:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:51:07: RIP:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
Oct 15 17:50:39:
RouterB

Chapter 4 Page 34
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 35

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
S0
Router A
.1
.3
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Pings
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Here you can see Router A succeeding 100% when pinging 132.10.10.1
!!!!!
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 36

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
Pings
S0
Router A
Pings
.1
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Pings
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Here you can see Router C succeeding 100% when pinging 132.10.10.1
!!!!!
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 37
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route: Using IGRP

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
The 0.0.0.0 route has special meaning. For IGRP it is automatically installed as the local gateway of last resort.
No ip default-network 0.0.0.0 is required. However IGRP will not advertise it to other routers even if redistribute
static and a default metric are configured.
C
I
168.71.8.0 [100/80188] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:30, Serial1
I
168.71.7.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:31, Serial1
[100/82125] via 168.71.6.2, 00:01:23, Serial0
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 is directly connected, Null0
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 38

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is a partial configuration from Router A while running IGRP. Router A will install the route to 0.0.0.0 as the
gateway of last resort automatically without requiring the ip default-network 0.0.0.0 command but will not
advertise it to any other router.
hostname RouterA
!
router igrp 109
network 168.71.0.0
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 39

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the output of debug ip igrp transactions from Router A /
Note that the route to 0.0.0.0 is not included.
Oct 15 00:42:43:
subnet 168.71.9.0, metric=80125
Oct 15 00:42:43:
subnet 168.71.8.0, metric=80188
Oct 15 00:42:43:
subnet 168.71.5.0, metric=10000001
Oct 15 00:42:43:
subnet 168.71.6.0, metric=80125
Oct 15 00:42:43:
subnet 168.71.5.0, metric=10000001
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 40

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is a partial configuration from Router A while running IGRP after the default metric and redistribute static
commands are entered.
hostname RouterA
!
router igrp 109
redistribute static
network 168.71.0.0
default-metric 128 2000 255 1 1500
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 41

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see the output of debug ip igrp transactions from Router A /
Note that the route to 0.0.0.0 is still not included.
Oct 15 00:44:20:
subnet 168.71.9.0, metric=80125
Oct 15 00:44:20:
subnet 168.71.8.0, metric=80188
Oct 15 00:44:20:
subnet 168.71.5.0, metric=10000001
Oct 15 00:44:20:
subnet 168.71.6.0, metric=80125
Oct 15 00:44:20:
subnet 168.71.5.0, metric=10000001
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 42

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here is the config for getting Router A to use 0.0.0.0 as the local default route and advertising a different route
as the default to other routers. A router can have multiple default-networks configured however 0.0.0.0 is the
preferred route when it is in the routers routing table. As IGRP will not advertise 0.0.0.0 it is necessary to have
the router that provides the connectivity to rest of the world advertise a different default network to the other
routers that will forward it traffic. In this case the fictitious network 10.0.0.0 is used.
hostname RouterA
!
router igrp 109
redistribute static
network 168.71.0.0
default-metric 128 2000 255 1 1500
!
ip default-network 10.0.0.0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 null0
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 43

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that Router A has two candidate default routes denoted by the * /
0.0.0.0 is installed as the gateway of last resort.
S*
10.0.0.0 is directly connected, Null0

C
I
168.71.8.0 [100/80188] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:49, Serial1
I
168.71.7.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.6.2, 00:01:11, Serial0
[100/82125] via 168.71.9.2, 00:00:49, Serial1
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 is directly connected, Null0
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 44

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Here you can see that router C has learned the route to 10.0.0.0 from Router A
and has installed it as the gateway of last resort.
I*
10.0.0.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:31, Serial1
C
C
C
I
168.71.6.0 [100/82125] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:32, Serial1
[100/82125] via 168.71.7.2, 00:00:27, Serial0
I
168.71.5.0 [100/10002001] via 168.71.9.1, 00:00:32, Serial1
RouterC#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 45
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route summary: Using RIP

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Using the 0.0.0.0 network (route) with RIP - This network is very useful and very dangerous when running
RIP. It is useful because it requires no effort to propagate it to other routers. It is dangerous because it requires
no effort to get it propagated to other routers.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 46
The 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 default route summary: Using IGRP

168.71.8.0
Router C
.2
168.71.9.0
.3
S0
Router A
0.0.0.0
S0
Router B
.1
171.68.97.0
168.72.5.0
S1
Router D
179.12.9.1 S0
179.12.9.2 S1
0.0.0.0
S0
The rest of
the world
Using the 0.0.0.0 network (route) with IGRP - This network is not as useful for IGRP as it is for RIP because
IGRP will not advertise it. The easiest way to have a router running IGRP propagate a gateway of last resort
(default network) to other routers is to configure and redistribute a static route to either an existing external
network in the rest of the world or a fictitious network and mark it as a candidate default with the ip defaultnetwork command. Care should be exercised when using the redistribute static command when a router has a
default network configured locally pointing to a static route as it will be advertised to other routers that may use
it as a preferred, parallel or alternate gateway of last resort. It is possible to prevent a router from advertising a
route as a candidate default by using the no default-information out command under the router igrp statement.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 47
End systems with multiple local routers: Load balancing
Router B
168.71.8.2
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.8.3
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
168.71.5.2
Most end systems are not intelligent enough to load balance between multiple local default gateways. In this
example the best use of bandwidth would be for end system 168.71.8.3 to load share its packets to 168.71.5.2
between Routers B and C on a packet by packet basis. Unfortunately this is usually not possible. However the
traffic from end system 168.71.5.2 to end system 168.71.8.3 will be load shared between the two available
paths if fast switching is disabled.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 48
End systems with multiple local routers: IRDP RFC1256

Router B
168.71.8.2
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.8.3
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
IRDP RFC1256 - The ICMP Router Discovery Protocol runs on routers and end systems so that routers can
advertise themselves to end stations and end stations can listen to the advertisements. By listening to these
advertisements end stations can dynamically select a gateway for reaching non local networks. RFC1256
allows for one router to be preferred over another as well as offering other options for controlling the behavior of
systems running IRDP.
Without IRDP if the PC is using 168.71.8.1 as its gateway and Router Cs token ring interface failed the PC
would have to be manually reconfigured to use 168.71.8.2.
With IRDP if the PC is using 168.71.8.1 as its gateway and Router Cs token ring interface failed the PC would
eventually discover it and start using 168.71.8.2 instead.
!
ip address 168.71.8.1 255.255.255.0
ip irdp
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 49
End systems with multiple local routers: RIP

Router B
168.71.8.2
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
168.71.8.3
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Running RIP on the end station is another option for allowing end systems to keep track of available gateways
to access non local networks. There are two primary ways of using RIP is this fashion.
The first is to advertise all known routes to the end stations and allow them to determine the best route to any
network. This is the easiest method as it requires little or no action on behalf of the network administrator.
The second is to filter the routing tables so that the end systems receive only advertisements for the 0.0.0.0
network to use for non local networks and a major network advertisement for the local domain network(s). The
second method is preferred because it minimizes the amount of updates that are sent on the LAN.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 50

Router B
168.71.8.2
168.71.5.1
9.6K
Router A
168.71.8.3
T1
T1
Router D
Router C
168.71.8.1
By advertising all routes to the end system it can make intelligent decisions on the best local router to use to
access a remote network. In the example above the end system would know that Router B has a better route to
168.71.5.0 than Router C.
This is assuming that all WAN links are the same speed because RIP is a distance vector (hop based) routing
protocol. If the link between Router B and Router A is running at 9.6K and the links from Router A to Router D
to Router C are all T1s then the two hop path is actually a better choice.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 51

0.0.0.0 metric 1
168.71.0.0 metric 1
Router B
168.71.8.2
168.71.5.1
Router A
168.71.8.3
Router D
Router C
168.71.8.1
0.0.0.0 metric 2
168.71.0.0 metric 2
By only advertising the minimum set of default routes; 0.0.0.0 and the major net local domain default the
amount of traffic on the local network is reduced. As the end system can no longer make intelligent routing
decisions based on having knowledge of the entire network the default metric configured on Router C in this
example needs to be greater than the default metric on Router B so that Router Bs advertisements will be
preferred over Router Cs. If both Router B and Router C were allowed to advertise the routes to 0.0.0.0 and
168.71.0.0.0 with the same metric the end system may lock onto the path via Router C as the preferred path
when it should in fact use the path via Router B as the preferred path.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 52
Here are the configuration changes necessary for Router B to make this work.
!
hostname RouterB
!
ip subnet-zero
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.2 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial1
shutdown
!
ip address 168.71.8.2 255.255.255.0
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
redistribute static
default-metric 1
distribute-list 1 out tokenring0
distribute-list 2 out serial0
!
ip route 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 null0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
access-list 2 deny 168.71.0.0 0.0.0.0
!
For RIP V1 and IGRP the static route to

168.71.0.0 must have the same mask as
the token ring interface for it to be
advertised over the token ring. See the
VLSM section for more details.
This requires configuring ip subnet-zero
when using RIP V1 and IGRP as the
static route 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 is
pointing at subnet zero of the 168.71.0.0
major net.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 53
!
hostname RouterB
!
ip subnet-zero
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.2 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial1
shutdown
!
ip address 168.71.8.2 255.255.255.0
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
redistribute static
default-metric 1
!
ip route 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 null0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
access-list 2 deny 168.71.0.0 0.0.0.0
!
The distribute lists are to ensure that only

the 0.0.0.0 and 168.71.0.0 routes are
advertised out the token ring as well as
ensuring that these two routes are not
advertised out the serial interfaces.
The access lists are used by the
distribute lists.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 54
!
hostname RouterB
!
ip subnet-zero
!
interface serial0
ip address 168.71.6.2 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial1
shutdown
!
ip address 168.71.8.2 255.255.255.0
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
redistribute static
default-metric 1
!
ip route 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 null0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
access-list 2 deny 168.71.0.0 0.0.0.0
!
The default metric command is used to

ensure that the static routes to 0.0.0.0
and 168.71.0.0 advertised by Router B
are preferred over the same routes
advertised by Router C.
Router C uses a default metric of 2.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Here are the configuration changes necessary for Router C to make this work.
!
hostname RouterC
!
ip subnet-zero
!
interface serial0
shutdown
!
interface serial1
ip address 168.71.9.2 255.255.255.0
!
ip address 168.71.8.2 255.255.255.0
!
router rip
network 168.71.0.0
redistribute static
default-metric 2
!
ip route 168.71.0.0 255.255.255.0 null0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 null0
!
access-list 2 deny 168.71.0.0 0.0.0.0
!
Chapter 4 Page 55
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 56
Default routing summary:

Router B
168.72.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.72.6.1
S1
168.71.7.2
S0
168.71.7.1
S1 168.71.9.1
168.71.9.2 S1
Router C
168.71.8.1
Default Routing - There are several methods for creating a default route in a router to use in the absence of
more explicit routing information. A default gateway works when IP routing is disabled. A default network works
with IP routing enabled. Default networks can be used in conjunction with dynamic routing protocols or as the
only means to provide non local routing information. Care should be used when propagating default routing
information. It can cause routing loops, suboptimal paths or broken paths.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 57
Static routes: Floating static routes

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Floating Static Routes - This term refers to static routes that are always in the configuration of a router but
only get installed in a routing table when a dynamic route to the same network is lost. The dynamic route
overrides the static route because the static route is configured with a greater distance.
In this example Router A has installed dynamic RIP routes for networks 10.0.0.0 and 0.0.0.0 via Router B.
Router A also has floating static routes to 10.0.0.0 & 0.0.0.0 pointing to Router C with a distance of 130. The
default distance for RIP is 120. The link between Routers A & C is an ISDN circuit for backup only. The DDR
aspects of Router As configuration are not shown because DDR is beyond the scope of this course. The syntax
for the floating static route is shown below.
RouterA#
!
ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 168.71.9.2 130
ip route 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 168.71.9.2 130
!
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 58

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Here you can see that Router A has installed a RIP route to networks 10.0.0.0 & 0.0.0.0 with a distance of 120 via Router B.
R
10.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:00, Serial0

C
168.71.9.0 is directly connected, BRI01
C
C
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:00:01, Serial0
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 59

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Here you can see that Router A has not received an update for networks 10.0.0.0 & 0.0.0.0 for almost two minutes
R
10.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:01:58, Serial0

C
168.71.9.0 is directly connected, BRI0
C
C
R*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [120/1] via 168.71.6.2, 00:01:59, Serial0
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 60

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Here you can see that Router A eventually deleting the old routes and installing the floating static route
RouterA#debug ip routing
*Feb 1 03:53:51: RT: flushed route to 0.0.0.0 via 168.71.6.2 (Serial0)
*Feb 1 03:53:51: RT: no routes to 0.0.0.0, entering holddown
*Feb 1 03:53:51: RT: no routes to 10.0.0.0, entering holddown
RouterA#
*Feb 1 03:54:45: RT: garbage collecting entry for 0.0.0.0
*Feb 1 03:54:45: RT: garbage collecting entry for 10.0.0.0
*Feb 1 03:55:13: RT: add 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 via 168.71.9.2, static metric [130/0]
*Feb 1 03:55:13: RT: add 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 via 168.71.9.2, static metric [130/0]
*Feb 1 03:55:13: RT: default path is now 0.0.0.0 via 168.71.9.2
*Feb 1 03:55:13: RT: new default network 0.0.0.0
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 61

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Here you can see that Router A has installed a RIP route to network 10.0.0.0 with a distance of 120 via Router B.
S
10.0.0.0 [130/0] via 168.71.9.2

C
C
C
S*
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [130/0] via 168.71.9.2
RouterA#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 4 Page 62
Floating static routes summary:

Router B
168.71.6.2 S0
168.71.5.1
Router A
S0 168.71.6.1
BRI0
168.71.9.1
10.1.0.9
512K
128K
ISDN
168.71.9.2
BRI0
10.1.0.10
Router C
Floating Static Routes - Can be used when exchanging dynamic routing information is not appropriate. They
are not inserted into the routing tables until all matching dynamic routes with lower distances are lost.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Case studies & questions:

RIP & IGRP problem on FDDI backbone.
Parallel paths and load balancing failure.
Very ugly fast convergence of IGRP.
Redundancy kills.
Redistribution issues.
Chapter 5 Page 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 5 Page 2
Case Studies & questions: RIP and IGRP problem on FDDI backbone
Switch A
IGRP
RIP
0.0.0.0
Router A
Switch B
Frame Relay
Router B
FDDI
Switch C
Questions:
Router C
0.0.0.0
Router D
1. The traffic between Switch A and

Switch D is not using the FDDI
backbone. Why?
2. When either Router B or Router D
fails will the 0.0.0.0 default network
provide connectivity to remote
networks for the remaining switches
and routers? Why or why not?
Switch D
The switches only understand RIP. The original design called for Switches A & D to use the FDDI backbone as their primary link
and the ethernet connection between Routers B & D as their fall back path.
To prevent having to do mutual redistribution all routers are running RIP as well as IGRP for all of their connected networks with
the exception of Routers A & C. Routers A & C are not running IGRP on the FDDI backbone as it was felt to be unnecessary.
Routers B & D have static routes to 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 pointing at Null0. Routers B & D are only advertising the 0.0.0.0 default
network in their RIP updates. Switches A & D and Routers A & C hear this route directly from Routers B & D. Routers A & C
advertise their route to Switches B & C.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 5 Page 3
Case studies & questions: Parallel paths and load balancing failure
Router A
Router B
B
A
T0
171.68.134.2
Router A
!
ip address 171.68.134.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial0
ip address 171.68.135.1 255.255.255.0
no ip route-cache
bandwidth 56
!
interface serial1
ip address 220.220.220.1 255.255.255.0
no ip route-cache
bandwidth 56
!
router igrp 109
network 171.68.0.0
network 220.220.220.0
!
S0
S0
S1
S1
T0
171.69.135.2
Router B
!
ip address 171.69.135.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial0
ip address 171.68.135.2 255.255.255.0
no ip route-cache
bandwidth 56
!
interface serial1
ip address 220.220.220.2 255.255.255.0
no ip route-cache
bandwidth 56
!
router igrp 109
network 171.68.0.0
network 171.69.0.0
network 220.220.220.0
!
Question: IP traffic from end system A to end system B is load shared across both serial links. IP traffic from end system B to end
system A always goes over the serial0 to serial0 link. Why? How can this be fixed?
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 5 Page 4
Case studies & questions: Very ugly fast convergence of IGRP

Case B41450
Router A
Router B
Router C
SDLC
FEP
3174
ASYNC
The customer wanted fast convergence for an RSRB/SDLLC over IP backup DDR connection between Routers A & C. The RSRB
peers are configured between Router As token ring IP address and an ethernet attached to Router C. The customer was not in a
position to reconfigure the timers in the 100+ routers in their network to make this work. What would you do to resolve this? Note
that this picture only shows a subset of the network.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 5 Page 5
Case studies & questions: Redundancy kills

Site A
Router A
Site B
Router B
Router E
Router F
Distribution Site A
Distribution Site B
Router G
Router C
Router D
Data Center
Site C
FDDI
Router H
Given the redundancy in this design it is unlikely that the designer intended for traffic from Site C to Site B to use the path shown.
Therefore there is no reason for either Router A or Router B to advertise any other network than their common ethernet. This holds
true for every other remote site as well. If there are 1000+ routes in this network then each distribution site receives at a minimum
2000+ unwanted route advertisements from each remote site. These unwanted advertisements waste a lot of bandwidth. If the
network is using OSPF and experiences problems with its serial lines the routers will suffer from CPU overload as well.
Questions: (Given that there are 1000 routes in this network)

1. If there are 25 routes advertised in a 1500 byte IGRP packet how many bits are sent each time Router A sends an update to
Router C?
2. If the delay across the link from Router A to Router C is 20000 usecs how long is this link saturated when Router A sends an
update to Router C?
3. Why would the combination of serial link problems and using OSPF cause CPU problems?
3. What would you do to resolve the problems this design creates?
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 5 Page 6
Case studies & questions: Redistribution issues

A
RIP
IGRP
RIP
The routers are running RIP on the local LANs and IGRP on the serial links connecting the LANs. The major network is
171.68.0.0. The mask on all interfaces is 255.255.255.0. The goal is to have Routers 1 & 2 both be able to reach subnets A & B by
using RIP. Therefore Routers 3, 4, 5 & 6 will be redistributing RIP into IGRP and IGRP into RIP.
Questions:
1. Do Routers 1 & 2 have RIP routes to subnets A & B?
2. Are Routers 1 & 2 able to reach subnets A & B?
3. If they are not able to reach subnets A & B why not?
4. If they are not able to reach subnets A & B how would
you fix this?
Questions:
5. If Routers 1 & 2 are able to reach subnets A & B what
would you have to change in this network to cause this to
fail?
6. If you had to make a change to cause this to fail why
does it fail in your new configuration?
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Introduction
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region:
Focus on a single path.
ARP:
Show arp
Debug arp
Clear arp.
Wrong cable.
How to prove it to customer?
End systems:
Windows 95, Windows NT.
SUNOS, Solaris.
Default gateway / routing failure:
Checking default gateway configuration on end systems:
SUNOS, Solaris.
Adding a temporary default route or gateway.
SUNOS, Solaris.
Deleting a routing table entry:
SUNOS, Solaris
Chapter 6 Page 1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 2
Introduction
This section covers aspects of trouble shooting IP connectivity problems that were not included in the other
chapters of this presentation.
The trouble shooting methodology presented is very structured. It uses the process of elimination to isolate the
failure to the root symptom. Like many network failures the root cause of this failure may never be known.
This section is not intended to be an in depth analysis of IP network trouble shooting. However it does present
some of the fundamental skills that everybody supporting an IP network should know.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 3
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Focus on a single path

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Customer says that end systems cannot ping each other. (Assume that the frame relay network is fully functional.)
Methodology:
In this example the first path to investigate would be between end system C and end system B. In theory this may prove whether
or not end system B has a valid default gateway because end systems B & C are on different subnets.
In this case assume our test was successful. End system B and end system C can ping each other and we must look further for
the source of the problem.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 4

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Methodology:
Having validated that end systems B & C can ping each other we need to consider a different path. We will try the path between
the local router ports to the end systems next.
Lets assume that our test was successful. End system A and end system B can ping their respective local router ports.
Note that the customer has shut down end system Cs ethernet port on the router to simplify troubleshooting.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 5

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Methodology:
We have validated that End system A and end system B can ping their respective local router ports. We will now try an extended
ping from Router A sourcing it off of Router As serial port and targeting end system A. We will repeat the test with Router B and
end system B.
Lets assume that our test was successful. The next slide shows the test from Router Bs point of view.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 6

168.71.8.2
B
168.71.6.0
.3
S0
Here you can see end system As IP and MAC addresses in Router As ARP table
RouterB#ping
Protocol [ip]:
Target IP address: 168.71.8.2
Repeat count [5]:
Datagram size [100]:
Timeout in seconds [2]:
Extended commands [n]: y
Source address: 168.71.6.3
Type of service [0]:
Set DF bit in IP header? [no]:
Validate reply data? [no]:
Data pattern [0xABCD]:
Loose, Strict, Record, Timestamp, Verbose[none]:
Sweep range of sizes [n]:
!!!!!
RouterB#
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 7

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Methodology:
Having validated that the local environments appear to be working properly we need to dig a little deeper into this problem.
We now know that the fault still lies somewhere between end system A and end system B. The next part of the path to validate is
the frame relay link between Routers A & B.
Lets assume that this link is working correctly and the two routers can ping each others serial ports.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 8

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Methodology:
Having validated that the frame relay appears to be working correctly we need to consider a broader routing problem..
We will now try an extended ping from Router A sourcing it off of Router As ethernet port and targeting Router Bs ethernet port.
We will repeat the test with Router B targeting Router As ethernet port. This validates that both routers have access to each
others local ethernet subnets.
Lets assume that this path is working correctly and the two routers can ping each others ethernet subnets.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 9

168.71.8.2
Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
A
.3
E1
S1
S0
.1
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Methodology:
Here we go back to the original problem to make sure that it still exists..
Assume that this test still fails.
Lets recap what we know: a) End system B can reach some subnets off of its local subnet. b) End system A can reach some
subnets of of its local subnet. c) Routers A & B can ping each others serial ports and each others ethernet subnets. End
systems A & B still cannot ping each other.
This is beginning to look like a corner case configuration issue at the end system level.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 10
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / show arp

Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
.3
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
E1
S1
S0
.1
168.71.8.2
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
168.72.5.2
S0
The rest of
the world
We now know that the problem lies somewhere in the areas noted by the brackets. We start by looking at the ARP tables.
Here you can see end system As IP and MAC addresses in Router As ARP table
RouterA#show arp
Protocol Address
Internet 168.72.5.1
Internet 168.72.5.2
Age (min)
4
Hardware Addr Type

0000.0c0a.50bd ARPA
0060.9733.e953 ARPA
Interface
Ethernet0
Ethernet0
Here you can see end system Bs IP and MAC addresses in Router Bs ARP table
RouterB#show arp
Protocol Address
Internet 168.71.8.1
Internet 168.72.8.2
Age (min)
1
Hardware Addr Type

0000.0c0a.50ca ARPA
0060.9733.e9f5 ARPA
Interface
Ethernet0
Ethernet0
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 11
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / behavior

Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
.3
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
E1
S1
S0
.1
168.71.8.2
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
It appears that the problem is not in the ARP tables. However before continuing on with this trouble shooting scenario a few
slides will be presented on ARP behavior.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / debug arp
ARP failures due to bugs are fairly rare. Here is some debug output that shows how ARP should behave.
Here you can see Router B ARPing successfully for end system B.
RouterB#debug arp
IP ARP: creating incomplete entry for IP address: 168.71.8.2
IP ARP: sent req src 168.71.8.1 0000.0c0a.50ca,
dst 168.71.8.2 0000.0000.0000 Ethernet0
IP ARP: rcvd rep src 168.71.8.2 0060.9733.e9f5, dst 168.71.8.1 Ethernet0
RouterB#
Here you can see Router B failing to receive an ARP response for 168.71.8.25.
RouterB#debug arp
IP ARP: creating incomplete entry for IP address: 168.71.8.25
dst 168.71.8.25 0000.0000.0000 Ethernet0.
IP ARP throttled out the ARP Request for 168.71.8.25.
dst 168.71.8.25 0000.0000.0000 Ethernet0.
[edited for clarity]
RouterB#
Chapter 6 Page 12
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 13
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / clear arp
When the ARP table is cleared the router assumes that the original MAC address to IP address relationships are still valid.
Therefore the router ARPs for unicast MAC addresses instead of broadcasting at the MAC level. This creates less overhead on
the end systems by not forcing them to listen to unnecessary broadcasts at the MAC layer. Notice however that the router does
send five replies to itself by unicasting at the IP layer and broadcasting at the MAC layer.
Here you can see Router Bs output from debug arp after the clear arp command is entered
RouterB#debug arp
RouterB#clear arp
dst 168.71.8.1 0000.0c0a.50ca Ethernet0
dst 168.71.8.2 0060.9733.e9f5 Ethernet0
IP ARP: sent rep src 168.71.8.1 0000.0c0a.50ca,
dst 168.71.8.1 ffff.ffff.ffff Ethernet0
IP ARP: sent rep src 168.71.8.1 0000.0c09.9fea,
IP ARP: sent rep src 168.71.8.1 0000.0c09.9fea,
IP ARP: rcvd rep src 168.71.8.2 0060.9733.e9f5, dst 168.71.8.1 Ethernet0
IP ARP: creating entry for IP address: 168.71.8.2, hw: 0060.9733.e9f5
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 14
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / wrong cable

1.0.0.2
E0
2.0.0.2
3.0.0.2
4.0.0.2
5.0.0.2
1.0.0.1
E1
E2
E3
E4
In this example the user has cabled the end system to the wrong subnet on the hub. Normally it would be a simple operation to
have the user move the cable to the correct subnet on the hub. However the user may not believe that this is the problem and
you have to convince him.
Unfortunately the debug does not indicate which port heard the ARP that is being reported.
Here you can see the output of debug arp from a router that believes another device is cabled to the wrong segment
RouterB#debug arp
IP ARP req filtered
IP ARP req filtered
IP ARP req filtered
IP ARP req filtered
IP ARP req filtered
src
src
src
src
src
1.0.0.1
1.0.0.1
1.0.0.1
1.0.0.1
1.0.0.1
0000.0c0a.50bd,
0000.0c0a.50bd,
0000.0c0a.50bd,
0000.0c0a.50bd,
0000.0c0a.50bd,
dst
dst
dst
dst
dst
1.0.0.2
1.0.0.2
1.0.0.2
1.0.0.2
1.0.0.2
0000.0000.0000
0000.0000.0000
0000.0000.0000
0000.0000.0000
0000.0000.0000
wrong
wrong
wrong
wrong
wrong
cable
cable
cable
cable
cable
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 15
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Arp / wrong cable
1.0.0.2 10.0.0.2 - secondary

E0
2.0.0.2
D
3.0.0.2
4.0.0.2
10.0.0.1
5.0.0.2
E1
E2
E3
E4
One simple way on convincing the user is to have him configure a new ip subnet on the end system that is guaranteed not to be
in use elsewhere in the network.
You can then apply another host address from the same subnet on as a secondary address each router port in sequence and
attempt to ping the end system.
In this case we started on E0. E0 was not the correct port so we remove the secondary address and proceed down through the
ports
When we get to E3 the ping will be successful. You can now tell the user what port he is really cabled to.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 16
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: ARP / end systems

Router C
D
B
.2
E0
168.71.6.0
S0
Router A
168.71.9.2
168.72.5.2
.3
E0
S0
C
Router B
.1
E0
E1
S1
S0
.1
168.71.8.2
171.68.97.2
Router D
179.12.9.0
S1
.2
S0
The rest of
the world
Now we will continue on with the trouble shooting scenario from where we left off.
Methodology:
We know that the problem is not with the ARP tables in the routers. However it could be in the ARP tables of the end systems.
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 17
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: ARP / end systems
Methodology:
By displaying the ARP table on end systems A & B we see that they appear correct. We will have to examine the routing tables
next and hope we find a problem there.
This is how you display the ARP table on Win95 or NT using a DOS window
C:\WINDOWS>arp -a
Interface: 168.71.8.2
Internet Address Physical Address
168.71.8.2
00-60-97-33-e9-f5
168.71.8.1
00-00-0c-0a-50-ca
C:\WINDOWS>
Type
dynamic
dynamic
This is how you display the ARP table on Solaris or SUNOS (SUNOS output looks different but gives the same information)
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright> arp -a
Net to Media Table
Device
IP Address
Mask
------ ---------------------------------le0
168.72.5.1
255.255.255.255
le0
168.72.5.2
255.255.255.255
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright>
Flags
----SP
Phys Addr
--------------00:00:0c:32:93:95
00:80:5f:78:79:71
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 18
Isolate fault domain to narrowest region: Default gateway / routing failure

Methodology:
By displaying the routing table on end system B we find the problem. The default route of 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 is pointing to the wrong
gateway -168.71.8.10. The routes to 168.71.0.0 and 171.68.97.0 explain whay end system B had connectivity to some subnets
and not others.
This is how you display the routing table on Win95 or NT using a DOS window
C:\WINDOWS>netstat -rn
Route Table
Active Routes:
Network Address
0.0.0.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.8.2
168.71.0.0
168.71.255.255
171.68.97.0
127.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
Netmask
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.255.0
255.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
Gateway Address
168.71.8.10
168.71.8.1
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.1
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
Active Connections
Proto
Local Address
C:\WINDOWS>
Foreign Address
State
Interface
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
Metric
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 19

Methodology:
It is possible to temporarily fix this problem without having to reboot the end system by flushing the old gateway route and adding
a new one. The permanent solution is to change the TCP/IP default gateway parameter on the end system. The other two routes
shown in bold in the table may have been picked up by listening to RIP routes or added by hand. It is useful to note that even
with routing disabled WIN95 and NT will listen for RIP routes.
This is how you flush existing gateways and add a new gateway dynamically in Win95 or NT using a DOS window
C:\WINDOWS>route -f add 0.0.0.0 mask 0.0.0.0 168.71.8.1

Here you can see that end system B now has the correct route to the default network
Route Table
Active Routes:
Network Address
0.0.0.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.8.2
168.71.0.0
168.71.255.255
171.68.97.0
127.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
[Edited for clarity]
C:\WINDOWS>
Netmask
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.255.0
255.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
Gateway Address
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.1
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.1
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
Interface
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
Metric
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 20
Methodology:
It is possible to temporarily remove a route in WIN95 or NT by using the method shown below. However this will not be a
permanent change. You need to figure out what caused this route to be inserted.
This is how you flush existing routes dynamically in Win95 or NT using a DOS window
C:\WINDOWS>route delete 171.68.97.0 mask 255.255.255.0 168.71.8.1

Here you can see that end system B no longer has the subnet route to 171.68.97.0
Route Table
Active Routes:
Network Address
0.0.0.0
168.71.8.0
168.71.8.2
168.71.0.0
168.71.255.255
127.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
[Edited for clarity]
C:\WINDOWS>
Netmask
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.255
255.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
Gateway Address
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.1
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.1
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
Interface
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
168.71.8.2
127.0.0.1
168.71.8.2
Metric
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Robert Wright
7-Mar-97
Version 1.1
Chapter 6 Page 21
Methodology:
It is possible to temporarily add or remove a route to Solaris or SUNOS using the method shown below. However it will not be
permanent. The sysadmin will need to make changes to the boot files to make the changes permanent.
Note that you can use 0.0.0.0 or the word default interchangeably.
This is how you add a default route to Solaris
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright# route add default 168.71.5.1 1

add net default: gateway 168.71.5.1
Here you can see that end system A has a correct default route
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright# netstat -rn

Routing Table:
Destination
Gateway
Flags Ref
Use
Interface
-------------------- -------------------- ----- ----- ------ --------127.0.0.1
127.0.0.1
UH
0
80 lo0
224.0.0.0
168.71.5.2
U
3
0 le0
default
168.71.5.1
UG
0
3622
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright#
This is how you delete a route to Solaris / In this case it is the default route that was just added above
heart-of-gold:/home/rwright# route delete 0.0.0.0 168.71.5.1

delete net 0.0.0.0: gateway 168.71.5.1

IP Routing - Fundamentals

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IP Routing - Fundamentals

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Robert Wright

Table of contents: Chapter One

Table of contents: Chapter One

Topology and router configurations

Topology and router configurations

Topology and router configurations

Topology and router configurations

What does a router do?

Routers forward IP packets towards their destination networks on a hop-by-hop basis.

How does a router know what to do?

Forwarding: How are forwarding decisions made?

Forwarding: How are forwarding decisions made for multipoint interfaces?

Forwarding: How Does An End System Send Packets To Other Subnets?

Convergence: What is convergence?

Convergence: Primary activities involved

RouterA# show ip protocol

Convergence - Update / Invalid / Holddown / Flush; defined

Convergence: With parallel paths

Convergence: View multiple paths in a routing table

RouterA# show ip route

Convergence: View invalid timer in routing table

RouterA# show ip route

Convergence: Invalid timer expired

In this example the invalid timer for 168.71.8.0 has fired.

RouterA# show ip route

Convergence: Invalid timer expired but the route is still used

RoutwrA# deb ip packet

Convergence: Invalid and holddown in action

Router A advertises the route with a metric 16

Router A puts the route into holddown

RouterA# debug ip routing

Convergence: converged state

RouterA# show ip route

Convergence: Invalid, Holddown & Flush

Convergence: Debug messages and reality

What the debug says

Convergence: Invalid, holddown & flush

This is Router As routing table after it converged

RouterA# show ip route

Convergence: Invalid, holddown & flush

Old route is lost, Router A shows the new route:

Convergence: Invalid, holddown & flush

Start invalid timer

Invalid timer expires

Flush timer expires

Router B advertises 168.71.8.0 every 30 seconds

Convergence: Split horizon

Convergence: Split horizon

Convergence: Routing advertisements with split horizon enabled

RouterA# debug ip rip

Convergence : Disable split horizon

Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled

RouterA# debug ip rip

sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)

Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled

RouterA# debug ip rip

Convergence: Routing advertisements with split horizon enabled

RouterA# debug ip rip

Question: How do you enable split horizon?

to 255.255.255.255 via Serial0 (168.71.6.1)

Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled

Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled

RouterA# debug ip rip

Convergence : Routing advertisements with split horizon disabled