Chapter1

Introduction
1.1 Overview

Power transformers represent one of the largest portions of capital investment in

transmission and distribution substations. Distribution Transformer plays a crucial role in
the power distribution network. Along with other causes, the main cause of failure of
distribution transformers is prolonged overloading. Therefore knowing their condition is
essential to meet the goals of maximizing return on investment and lowering the total cost
associated with transformer operation. One of the most important parameters governing a
transformers life expectancy is the hot-spot temperature value. Modern utility operating
practices try to maximize the utilization of power transformers, which may increase the
occurrence of over-temperature conditions, and transformer aging. Over-temperature
conditions and accelerated aging are adverse system events that must be identified and
protected against.
Due to constantly increasing population and hence load demand, the number of
distribution transformers is now continuously increasing. In the event of failure of
distribution transformer, apart from the loss of capital to the utility, the consumer Suffers
due to inconvenience caused by the interruption of power supply. Power supply utility also
suffers due to loss of revenue for supply outage period. In India, the failure rate of
distribution transformers is very high, around 25% per annum compared to less than 2% in
many utilities in advanced countries. Statistical data indicates that over 25% failures of
distribution transformers are within the warranty period of three years only and this causes
an immense capital loss.

Every year distribution transformers worth nearly 200 crore rupees, fail in power
distribution companies in India. The average period before a new distribution transformer
comes back to repair shop is estimated to be a mere 3-4 years. Even a conservative estimate
puts the failure rate at over 20% compared to less than 2% in many utilities in advanced
countries. . It has become the practice to connect additional loads on the basis of maximum
demand recorded at some point of time without reference to seasonal variations and
assuming unrealistic diversity factors. Unauthorized loads result in unforeseen overloading

Due to constantly increasing population and hence load demand, the number of
distribution transformers is now continuously increasing. In the event of failure of
distribution transformer, apart from the loss of capital to the utility, the consumer Suffers
Page 1

due to inconvenience caused by the interruption of power supply. Power supply utility also
suffers due to loss of revenue for supply outage period.
The deregulation of wholesale electricity supply has lead to a number of
challenges for the electric utility industry and market participants. Some of the energy
companies are drowning in debt and todays capital spending on new and replacement
transformers is at its lowest level in decades. To make matters worse power consumption is
increasing at rate of about 2 percent per year and the load on each aging transformer
continues to grow. Increased equipment utilization, deferred capital expenditures and
reduced maintenance expenses are all part of modern utilitys strategies for T & D assets.
The transformer winding hot spot temperature is one of the most critical
parameters in determining the life of transformer insulation, since the highest ageing rate
occurs at the hottest point which experiences the maximum temperature. The hotspot
temperature depends on instantaneous load and ambient temperature, winding design and
also cooling model. The hot spot temperature is normally located at the top of the winding.
Although the number of distribution transformers is very large as compared to
power transformers but the fault diagnosis of distribution transformers has not been given
proper attention as they are not as expensive as power transformers. Due to their low cost,
distribution transformers are removed after failure and replaced with of distribution
transformer becomes essential.
We were therefore motivated to design a simple cost effective protective scheme for
transformer. Also as it was not possible to get a distribution transformer of such low rating,
therefore we designed and manufactured it ourselves with its testing and performance
evaluation

Growing energy and electricity demand

Aside from pure population growth, energy demand is also boosted by the rise of
developing economies: a one percent increase in gross domestic product (GDP) increases
energy demand, on average, by 0.6 percent. The overall costs of energy are around seven or
eight percent of global GDP and constitute, therefore, a substantial cost factor.
This makes it very important to have highly efficient energy production and
transportation processes. Further, when calculating energy costs, it is important to evaluate

Page 2

them over the total life cycle and include the costs of energy losses during the utilization
phase as well as the initial equipment costs.
Of total global energy consumption, only 15 percent is actually consumed as
electrical energy, though 38 percent of primary energy is used to create that portion. Since
electricity is a high-quality form of energy, it can be used for any kind of application.
Additionally, it does not leave any pollution or emissions at the place of use.
This ensures demand will continue to increase and that electricity will continue to take
an ever larger share of the market. Prominent examples are the replacement of oil or gas
central heating systems by electric heat pumps or the introduction of electric vehicles.

Growth of Installed Capacity in India

300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Installed Capacity In MW

100,000
50,000
0

YEAR

Fig 1.1 Growth of installed capacity in India

Page 3

The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1,200
GW of additional new power generation capacity before 2050. For supporting such huge
and smart power system we need smart and practical approaches because energy, as a main
driver of development.

1.2Outlineoftheproject
As far as project work is concerned following points are taken into account:
1. Design of Thermal overload protection.
2. Design of distribution transformer model.
3. Selection of various components.
4. Assembly of components.
5. Testing and performance evaluation of model
1.3 Organization of Report:
The report is organized in such a way to cover practical aspects & theoretical
background necessary for it. Organization of the report is divided into following chapters.
The introduction about the project is taken in chapter 1. It also gives outline of the project
and organization of report.
Literature survey is explained in chapter 2.This chapter gives various protection schemes for
transformers.
Chapter 3 explains the various principles of transformer, its design and various standards.
Chapter 4 explains the constructional aspects of Transformers. Chapter 5 includes designing
of transformer; further an example of which the transformer model is developed is
explained. The design of each circuit component is explained in the design example.
Based on design details, selection of materials, assembly of components for manufacturing
of transformer is included is in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 covers principle, construction and working of Thermal overload protection.
Chapter 8 includes the list of various test as per ISI are included
And performance of Transformer model with overload protection so developed is evaluated.
Chapter 9 includes estimation and costing of project.
Lastly future scope, advantages, and conclusion are included.
Appendix I Datasheet of Contactor
Appendix II Dimensions of Standard wire Gauge

Page 4

Chapter2
LiteratureSurvey
Presently, there are several methods for monitoring transformers to help protect against
thermal overload and failure.
Some commonly used devices are:
Oil and embedded temperature sensors (fiber optic)
Liquid (top oil) over-temperature detectors
Winding (hot spot replica) over-temperature detectors
Gas accumulation relays
Oil level relays
Fuse/Inverse-time over current relays
Dissolved gas analysis equipment.

Limitations:
1. Requirement of measurement devices like CT/ PT
2. Selection depends on type of transformer
3. Possibility of mal-operation due to vibrations, earthquakes and mechanical shocks.
4 Connections to both windings of transformer is required.

Chapter 3
Page 5

Operating Principle of Transformer and Standards

3.1 Working Principle of Transformer:
A Transformer works on principle of Electromagnetic Induction:

Fig 3.1 Transformation principle

When an Ac voltage is applied across the primary of transformer an alternating flux is

setup in the core, which links with core of primary and secondary winding and induces
voltages in them. When a load is connected across the secondary, an alternating current
starts flowing through the load.
In this way electric power is transformed from primary winding to secondary winding.
3.2 Principles of Transformer design:

Page 6

The magnetic flux in all electrical machines plays an important role in converting
or transferring the energy. In case of transformers primary wing supplies the power demand
of the secondary.
The basic design of an electrical machine involves the dimensioning of the magnetic
circuit, electrical circuit, insulation system etc., and is carried out by applying analytical
equations. A designer is generally confronted with a number of problems for which there
may not be one solution, but many solutions. A design should ensure that the products
perform in accordance with the requirements at higher efficiency, lower weight of material
for the desired output, lower temperature rise and lower cost. Also they are to be reliable and
durable.
A practical designer must effect the design so that the stock (standard frames, punching
etc.,) is adaptable to the requirements of the specification. The designer must also affect
some sort of compromise between the ideal design and a design which comply with
manufacturing conditions.
A electrical designer must be familiar with the,
a. National and international standards Indian Standard (IS), Bureau of Indian Standard
(BIS), India British Standard (BS), England International Electro technical Commission
(IEC) NEMA (The National Electrical Manufacturers Association).
b. Specifications (that deals with machine ratings, performance requirements etc., of the
consumer)
c. Cost of material and labour
d. Manufacturing constraints etc.
3.2.1 Factors for consideration in electrical machine design
The basic components of all electromagnetic apparatus are the field and armature
windings supported by dielectric or insulation, cooling system and mechanical parts.
Therefore, the factors for consideration in the design are
1. Magnetic circuit or the flux path: Should establish required amount of flux using
minimum mmf. The core losses should also be less.
2. Electric circuit or windings: Should ensure required emf is induced with no complexity
in winding arrangement. The copper losses should be less.
3. Insulation: Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts operating at different
potential and confine the current in the prescribed paths.
4. Cooling system or ventilation: Should ensure that the machine operates at the specified
temperature.
5. Machine parts: Should be robust. The art of successful design lies not only in resolving
the conflict for space between iron, copper, insulation and coolant but also in optimization
of cost of manufacturing, and operating and maintenance charges.
Page 7

The factors, apart from the above, that requires consideration are
a. Limitation in design (saturation, current density, insulation, temperature rise etc.,)
b. Customers needs
c. National and international standards
d. Convenience in production line and transportation
e. Maintenance and repairs
f. Environmental conditions etc
3.2.2 Limitations in design
The materials used for the machine and others such as cooling etc., imposes a limitation in
design. The limitations stem from saturation of iron, current density in conductors,
Temperature, insulation, mechanical properties, efficiency, power factor etc.
a. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of iron but drives the iron to operate
beyond knee of the magnetization curve or in the region of saturation. Saturation of iron
poses a limitation on account of increased core loss and excessive excitation required to
establish a desired value of flux. It also introduces harmonics.
b. Current density: Higher current density reduces the volume of copper but increases the
losses and temperature.
c. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible damage to insulation and other
materials.
d. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically weak): poses a limitation on
account of breakdown by excessive voltage gradient, mechanical forces or heat.
e. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation particularly in case of large and
high speed machines.
f. High efficiency and high power factor poses a limitation on account of higher capital cost.
g. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators leads to poor commutation. Apart
from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or standard specifications may pose a
limitation.
3.3 Materials for Electrical Machines
The main material characteristics of relevance to electrical machines are those associated
with conductors for electric circuit, the insulation system necessary to isolate the circuits,
and with the specialized steels and permanent magnets used for the magnetic circuit.
3.3.1Conducting materials
Commonly used conducting materials are copper and aluminum. Some of the desirable
Properties a good conductor should possess are listed below.
1. Low value of resistivity or high conductivity
2. Low value of temperature coefficient of resistance
3. High tensile strength
Page 8

4. High melting point

5. High resistance to corrosion
6. Allow brazing, soldering or welding so that the joints are reliable
7. Highly malleable and ductile
8. Durable and cheap by cost
Generally Copper and Aluminum are used for conducting materials. For the same
resistance and length, cross-sectional area of aluminum is 61% larger than that of the copper
conductor and almost 50% lighter than copper. Though the aluminum reduces the cost of
small capacity transformers, it increases the size and cost of large capacity transformers.
Aluminum is being much used now a days only because copper is expensive and not easily
available. Aluminum is almost 50% cheaper than Copper and not much superior to copper.

Table 3.3 comparison of copper and aluminum conductors

Sr No.

Particulars

Copper

Aluminum

1
2
3
4
5

0.0172 ohm/m/mm2
58.14 * 106 S/m
8933 kg/ m3
0.393 % per 0C
16.8 *10-6 per0C

0.0269 ohm/m/mm2
37.2* 106 S/m
2689.9 m3
0.4 % per 0C
23.5*10-6 per0C

6
7

Resistivity at 20 0 C
Conductivity at 20 0 C
Density at 20 0 C
Temperature Coefficient
Coefficient of Linear
Expansion
Tensile Strength
Mechanical Property

8
9
10

Melting Point
Thermal Conductivity
Jointing

25 to 40 kg/mm2
highly malleable and
ductile
1038 0C
599 W/m0C
Can be soldered
easily

10 to 18 kg/mm2
Not highly malleable
and ductile
660 0C
238 W/m0C
Cannot be soldered
easily

3.3.2 Magnetic materials

The magnetic properties of a magnetic material depend on the orientation of the
crystals of the material and decide the size of the machine or equipment for a given rating,
excitation required, efficiency of operation etc.
Page 9

The some of the properties that a good magnetic material should possess are listed below.
1. Low reluctance or should be highly permeable or should have a high value of relative
permeability r.
2. High saturation induction (to minimize weight and volume of iron parts).
3. High electrical resistivity so that the eddy emf and the hence eddy current loss is less.
4. Narrow hysteresis loop so that hysteresis loss is less and efficiency of operation is high.
5. A high curie point. (Above Curie point or temperature the material loses the magnetic
property or becomes paramagnetic, that is effectively non-magnetic)
6. Should have a high value of energy product (expressed in joules / m3).
Magnetic materials can broadly be classified as Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic,
Ferromagnetic, Antiferromagnetic and Ferrimagnetic materials. Only ferromagnetic
materials have properties that are well suitable for electrical machines. Ferromagnetic
properties are confined almost entirely to iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys. The only
exceptions are some alloys of manganese and some of the rare earth elements.
The relative permeability r of ferromagnetic material is far greater than 1.0. When
ferromagnetic materials are subjected to the magnetic field, the dipoles align themselves in
the direction of the applied field and get strongly magnetized.
Further the Ferromagnetic materials can be classified as Hard or Permanent Magnetic
materials and Soft Magnetic materials.
a) Hard or permanent magnetic materials have large size hysteresis loop (obviously
hysteresis loss is more) and gradually rising magnetization curve.
Ex: carbon steel, tungsten steal, cobalt steel, alnico, hard ferrite etc.
b) Soft magnetic materials have small size hysteresis loop and a steep magnetization
curve.
Ex: i) cast iron, cast steel, rolled steel, forged steel etc., (in the solid form). -Generally used
for yokes poles of dc machines, rotors of turbo alternator etc., where steady or dc flux is
involved.
ii) Silicon steel (Iron + 0.3 to 4.5% silicon) in the laminated form. Addition of silicon in
proper percentage eliminates ageing & reduces core loss. Low silicon content steel or
dynamo grade steel is used in rotating electrical machines and are operated at high flux
density. High content silicon steel (4 to 5% silicon) or transformer grade steel (or high
resistance steel) is used in transformers. Further sheet steel may be hot or cold rolled. Cold
rolled grain oriented steel (CRGOS) is costlier and superior to hot rolled. CRGO steel is
generally used in transformers.

c) Special purpose Alloys:

Page 10

Nickel iron alloys have high permeability and addition of molybdenum or chromium
leads to improved magnetic material. Nickel with iron in different proportion leads to
(i) High nickel permalloy (iron +molybdenum +copper or chromium), used in current
transformers, magnetic amplifiers etc.,
(ii) Low nickel Permalloy (iron +silicon +chromium or manganese), used in transformers,
induction coils, chokes etc.
(iii) Perminvor (iron +nickel +cobalt)
(iv) Pemendur (iron +cobalt +vanadium), used for microphones, oscilloscopes, etc.
(v) Mumetal (Copper + iron)
d) Amorphous alloys (often called metallic glasses):
Amorphous alloys are produced by rapid solidification of the alloy at cooling rates of
about a million degrees centigrade per second. The alloys solidify with a glass-like atomic
structure which is non-crystalline frozen liquid. The rapid cooling is achieved by causing the
molten alloy to flow through an orifice onto a rapidly rotating water cooled drum. This can
produce sheets as thin as 10m and a meter or more wide.
These alloys can be classified as iron rich based group and cobalt based group.
Table 3.4 Classification of Alloys
Material

3 % Si grain
Oriented
2.3 % Si
grain non
oriented
<0.5% Si
grain non
oriented
Low carbon
iron
78% Ni and
iron
50% Ni and
iron
Iron based
Amophous

Maximum
permeability
* 10-3
90

Saturation
magnetizati
on in tesla
2.0

Coercivity
A/m

Resistivity
ohm m *108

6-7

Curie
temperature
0
C
745

2.0

40

745

44

2.1

40

745

12

3-10

2.1

50-120

770

12

250-400

0.8

1.0

350

40

100

1.5-1.6

10

530

60

35-600

1.3-1.8

1.0-1.61

310-415

120-140

48

3.3.3 Insulating materials

To avoid any electrical activity between parts at different potentials, insulation is
used. An ideal insulating material should possess the following properties.
1) Should have high dielectric strength.
Page 11

2) Should with stand high temperature.

3) Should have good thermal conductivity
4) Should not undergo thermal oxidation
5) Should not deteriorate due to higher temperature and repeated heat cycle
6) Should have high value of resistivity
7) Should not consume any power or should have a low dielectric loss angle d
8) Should withstand stresses due to centrifugal forces ( as in rotating machines), electro
dynamic or mechanical forces ( as in transformers)
9) Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
10) Should not absorb moisture
11) Should be flexible and cheap
12) Liquid insulators should not evaporate or volatilize
Insulating materials can be classified as Solid, Liquid and Gas, and vacuum. The term
insulting material is sometimes used in a broader sense to designate also insulating liquids,
gas and vacuum.
Solid: Used with field, armature, and transformer windings etc. The examples are:
1) Fibrous or inorganic animal or plant origin, natural or synthetic paper, wood, card board,
cotton, jute, silk etc., rayon, nylon, terelane, asbestos, fiber glass etc.,
2) Plastic or resins. Natural resins-lac, amber, shellac etc., Synthetic resins-phenol
formaldehyde, melamine, polyesters, epoxy, silicon resins, bakelite, Teflon, PVC etc
3) Rubber: natural rubber, synthetic rubber-butadiene, silicone rubber, etc.,
4) Mineral: mica, marble, slate, talc chloride etc.,
5) Ceramic: porcelain, steatite, alumina etc.,
6) Glass: soda lime glass, silica glass, lead glass, borosilicate glass
7) Non-resinous: mineral waxes, asphalt, bitumen, chlorinated naphthalene, enamel etc.,
Liquid: Used in transformers, circuit breakers, reactors, rheostats, cables, capacitors etc., &
for impregnation. The examples are:
1) Mineral oil (petroleum by product)
2) Synthetic oil askarels, pyranols etc.,
3) Varnish, French polish, lacquer epoxy resin etc.,
Gaseous: The examples are:
1) Air used in switches, air condensers, transmission and distribution lines etc.,
2) Nitrogen use in capacitors, HV gas pressure cables etc.,
3) Hydrogen though not used as a dielectric, generally used as a coolant
4) Inert gases neon, argon, mercury and sodium vapors generally used for neon sign lamps.
5) Halogens like fluorine, used under high pressure in cables
No insulating material in practice satisfies all the desirable properties. Therefore a material
which satisfies most of the desirable properties must be selected.
Page 12

3.3.4 Classification of insulating materials based on thermal consideration

The insulation system (also called insulation class) for wires used in generators, motors
transformers and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes
according the temperature that they can safely withstand. As per Indian Standard ( Thermal
evaluation and classification of Electrical Insulation,IS.No.1271,1985,first revision) and
other international standard insulation is classified by letter grades A,E,B,F,H (previous
Y,A,E,B,F,H,C).
Table 3.5 Classification of insulation table
Insulation
Class

Y(Previous)

Maximum
operating
temperature in
0
C
90

105

120

130

155

180

>180

Typical Materials

Cotton, silk, paper, wood, cellulose,

fiber etc, without impregnation oil
immersed.
Class Y impregnated with natural
resins, cellulose, esters, insulating oils,
etc, and also laminated wood,
varnished paper etc.
Synthetic resin enamels of vinyl acetate
or nylon tapes, cotton and paper
laminates with formaldehyde bonding
etc.
Mica, glass fiber, asbestos etc with
suitable bonding substances, built up
mica, glass fiber and asbestos
laminates.
The material of Class B with more
thermal resistance bonding materials
Glass fiber and asbestos materials and
built up mica with appropriate silicone
resins
Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz and
asbestos with binders or resins of super
thermal stability

The maximum operating temperature is the temperature the insulation can reach during
operation and is the sum of standardized ambient temperature i.e. 40 degree centigrade,

Page 13

permissible temperature rise and allowance tolerance for hot spot in winding. For example,
the maximum temperature of class B insulation is (ambient temperature 40 + allowable
temperature rise 80 + hot spot tolerance 10) = 130oC. Insulation is the weakest element
against heat and is a critical factor in deciding the life of electrical equipment. The
maximum operating temperatures prescribed for different class of insulation are for a
healthy lifetime of 20,000 hours. The height temperature permitted for the machine parts is
usually about 2000C at the maximum. Exceeding the maximum operating temperature will
affect the life of the insulation. As a rule of thumb, the lifetime of the winding insulation
will be reduced by half for every 10 C rise in temperature. The present day trend is to
design the machine using class F insulation for class B temperature rise.
3.4 Transformer Losses
Even though transformers are very efficient devices, converting from 95-99% of their
input power, some of its energy is lost during the voltage transformation. The losses in a
power transformer can be classified as no-load losses and load losses.
3.4.1 No-Load Losses
With no load in the secondary windings, an energized transformer behaves as a
highly inductive element, similar to a shunt reactor. In order to keep this transformer
energized, the alternating excitation current is drawn from the system, producing an
alternating mutual flux in the primary winding. This mutual flux is taken by the core at a
rate that depends on the system frequency. The energy requirements for this cyclic
magnetization of the core results in two types of transformer losses: eddy and hysteresis
losses. Induced voltage in the laminations produced by the alternating flux results in
undesirable currents within the laminations. Such currents are called eddy currents, which
do not contribute to power output, and their energy is lost to heat. The alternating
magnetization of the core will cause the molecular composition of the iron core to align
itself with the changing field. The energy lost from successive reversal of magnetization in
the core is called hysteresis loss.
3.4.2 Load Losses.
The load losses in a power transformer are due to the electric resistance of windings
and stray losses. The resistive action of the winding conductor to the current flow will be
lost in the form of heat and will be dissipated in the surrounding area inside the transformer.
The magnitude of that loss increases by the square of the current. Stray losses occur due to
the leakage field of winding and due to high currents seen in internal structural parts such as
bus bars. Stray losses can affect the overall rating of the transformer because they can create
Page 14

hot spots when the current leads become excessive, affecting the overall life of the
transformer .
Heat Transfer Effects
A load serving transformer not only experiences an electrical process but also goes
through a thermal process that is driven by heat. The heat generated by the no-load and load
losses is the main source of temperature rise in the transformer. However, the losses of the
windings and stray losses seen from the structural parts are the main factors of heat
generation within the transformer. The thermal energy produced by the windings is
transferred to the winding insulation and consequently to the oil and transformer walls. This
process will continue until an equilibrium state is reached when the heat generated by the
windings equals the heat taken away by some form of coolant or cooling system. This heat
transfer mechanism must not allow the core, windings, or any structural parts to reach
critical temperatures that could possibly deteriorate the credibility of the winding insulation.
The dielectric insulating properties of the insulation can be weakened if temperatures above
the limiting values are permitted (10). As a result, the insulation ages more rapidly, reducing
its normal life. According to the IEEE C57.91-1995 guide, the life of the insulation is the
overall life of a transformer. Due to the temperature requirements of the insulation,
transformers utilize cooling systems to control the temperature rise.
Hot Spot Temperature Limits
The winding hot spot temperature, that is, the hottest spot in a winding, is considered
to be the most critical parameter in the determination of load ability. It determines the loss of
insulation life and indicates the potential risk of releasing gas bubbles for a severe overload
condition.
The hot spot is usually assumed to be near the top of the high or low voltage winding,
although there are arguments that it could be lower (say mid-winding) within the cooling
ducts, especially if the transformer oil is not directed-flow-pumped through the ducts.
The IEEE Guide [5] specifies the normal temperature rise of the hottest spot not to exceed
80 C over ambient temperature (ambient of 30 C). This 110 C limit is for continuous 24hour-per-day conditions. The Guide states that temperatures as high as 180 C are acceptable
provided that the corresponding time period during a given 24-hour period is sufficiently
short. For example, 124 C for 6 hours is acceptable because the loss-of-life over the whole
day will be normal, assuming very little loss-of-life during the remaining 18 hours. It may
be desirable to have an absolute limit to hot spot temperature, regardless of the shortness of
the time period, for reasons
Hot Spot
Temperature

Aging Acceleration
Factor
Page 15

110 0C
117 0C
124 0C
1310 C
139 0C
147 0C
156 0C
164 0C
173 0C
180 0C

1
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
425

3.5 Standards of transformer design

Some important Indian Standards related to Transformer are as follows:
Table No. 3.6 IS standards for Transformers
Sr. No
1

Specifications
Specifications for Power Transformers.

Standards
IS2026 ( Part I to IV )

Specifications for outdoor Three Phase

Distribution Transformer up to and Including 100
KVA,11 KV

IS 1180 Part ( I & II )

Specifications for dry type Transformer.

IS 11171

Specifications for Control Transformer

For switchgear and control gear for Voltages not
exceeding 1000 V A.C.

IS 12021

Specifications for Current Transformer.

IS 2705 ( Part I & II )

Specifications for Voltage Transformer.

IS 3156 ( Part I to IV)

Classification of Insulating materials

For Electrical machinery and apparatus In relation to
their thermal stability
In service.

IS 1271

Degree of protection provided by

Enclosures for low voltage switchgear
And control gear.

IS 2147

Specification for New Insulating Oil

IS 335

IEEE Standards and Temperatures

Page 16

In order to operate a power transformer, one must know its basic limitations. It is
clear that the temperature produced by the transformer losses can affect the life span of the
insulation. To ensure the longevity of the transformer, transformer manufactures must
guarantee that their designs are capable of operating within specified standards. The
operating limits are bounded by the ambient temperature, the average winding temperature,
and the maximum winding hottest-spot temperature.
According to the IEEE C57.12.00-2000 standard, power transformer are rated on a
maximum ambient temperature of 40 C, and the average ambient temperature shall not
exceed 30 C in a 24-hour period. This standard also states that an average winding rise of
65 C shall not be exceeded when the transformer is operated at its rated load (KVA),
voltage (V), and frequency (Hz). In other words, based on the ambient temperature criteria,
the average temperature of the winding cannot exceed 65 C above ambient, when operated
at rated conditions.
Maximum hottest-spot winding temperature cannot exceed a value of 80 C above
ambient. The IEEE C57.91-1995 states that under a continuous ambient temperature of 30
C, the maximum hottest-spot winding temperature should not exceed 110 C. If the
transformer is operated continuously at this temperature, the normal life expectancy of the
transformer is 20.55 years

3.6 Sound Levels

All Industries make Transformers are satisfactorily meeting the ANSI Standard C89.2 and
NEMA ST -20 sound levels and will not exceed as following table:
Table 3.7 Sound Levels as per NEMA
Sr. No

KVA

Max. Sound Levels

1
2
3
4
5

Up to 9 KVA
10 50 KVA
51 150 KVA
151 300 KVA
301 500 KVA

40 dB
45 dB
50 dB
55 dB
60 dB

Page 17

Chapter 4
Construction of Transformer

4.1 Classification of Transformers:

Based on Core construction: Core Type & Shell Type
Based on transformer Ratio: Step up & Step Down
Based on Service: Distribution Transformer & Power Transformer
4.2 Constructional aspects:
Transformers used in practice are of extremely large variety depending upon the end
use. In addition to the transformers used in power systems, in power transmission and
distribution, a large number of special transformers are in use in applications like electronic
Supplies furnaces, traction etc.
Transformers of smaller sizes could be air cooled while the larger ones
are oil cooled. These machines are highly material intensive equipments and are designed to
match the applications for best operating conditions. Hence they are `tailor made' to a job.
This brings in a very large variety in their constructional features. Here more common
constructional aspects alone are discussed. These can be broadly divided into
1. Core construction
2. Winding arrangements
3. Cooling aspects
4.2.1 Core construction
Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of highly permeable
material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low reluctance for the path of the
flux and the flux lines mostly confine themselves to the iron. Silicon steel in the form of
thin laminations is used for the core material. Over the years progressively better magnetic
properties are obtained by going in for Hot rolled non-oriented to Hot rolled grain oriented
steel.

Page 18

Later better laminations in the form of cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO), -High B
(HiB) grades became available. The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced
from over 0.5mm to the present 0.25mm per lamination.

Fig.4.1 Interleaving of Core Laminations

These laminations are coated with a thin layer of insulating varnish, oxide or
phosphate. The magnetic material is required to have a high permeability and a high
saturation flux density, a small area under the B-H loop-to permit high flux density of
operation with low magnetizing current and low hysteresis loss. The resistivity of the iron
sheet itself is required to be high to reduce the eddy current losses. The eddy current itself is
highly reduced by making the laminations very thin. If the lamination is made too thin then
the production cost of steel laminations increases. The steel should not have residual
mechanical stresses which reduce their magnetic properties and hence must be annealed
after cutting and stacking. In the case of very small transformers (from a few volt-amperes
to a few kilo volt- amperes) hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E & I, C & I
or O are used and the core cross section would be a square or a rectangle. The percentage of
silicon in the steel is about 3.5. Above this value the steel becomes very brittle and also very
hard to cut. The saturation flux density of the present day steel lamination is about 2 Tesla.
Broadly classifying, the core construction can be separated into core type and shell
type. In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core.. In a shell type on the other
hand the iron surrounds the winding.
In the case of very small transformers the conductors are very thin and round.
These can be easily wound on a former with rectangular or square cross section. Thus no
special care is needed for the construction of the core. The cross section of the core also
would be square or rectangular. As the rating of the transformer increases the conductor size
also increases. Flat conductors are preferred to round ones. To wind such conductor on a
rectangular former is not only difficult but introduces stresses in the conductor, at the bends.
Page 19

From the short circuit force with stand capability point of view also this is not desirable.
Also, for a given area enclosed the length of the conductor becomes more. Hence it results
in more load losses. In order to avoid all these problems the coils are made cylindrical and
are wound on formers on heavy duty lathes. Thus the core construction is required to be
such as to fill the circular space inside the coil with steel laminations. Stepped core
construction thus becomes mandatory for the core of large transformers. When the core size
increases it becomes extremely difficult to cool the same (Even though the core losses are
relatively very small). Cooling ducts have to be provided in the core. The steel laminations
are grain oriented exploiting the simple geometry of the transformer to reduce the excitation
losses. The iron losses in the lamination, when the flux is oriented in the direction of grain
orientation, are about 30% of that in the normal direction.
Another important aspect to be carefully checked and monitored is the air gaps in
series in the path of the main ux. As the reluctance of air path is about 1000 times more than
that of the steel, an air path of 1mm will require a mmf needed by a 1 meter path in iron.
Hence butt joints between laminations must be avoided. Lap joints are used to pro- vide
alternate paths for flux lines thus reducing the reluctance of the flux paths.. In some power
transformers the core is built up by threading a long strip of steel through the coil in the
form of a toroid. This construction is normally followed in instrument transformers to
reduce the magnetizing current and hence the errors.
Large cores made up of laminations must be rendered adequately stiff by the
provision of stiffening plates usually called as itch plates. Punched through holes and bolts
are progressively being avoided to reduce heating and melting of the through bolts. The
whole stack is wrapped up by strong epoxy tapes to give mechanical strength to the core
which can stand in upright position. Channels and angles are used for the frame and they
hold the bottom yoke rigidly.

Fig 4.2 Basic difference between core type and shell type transformer
Page 20

4.2.2 Windings
Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding transformer two windings would be present. The one which is connected to a voltage source and
creates the flux is called as a primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is
induced by induction is called a secondary. If the secondary voltage is less than that of the
primary the transformer is called a step down transformer else a step up transformer. A step
down transformer can be made a step up transformer by making the low voltage winding its
primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the windings as High Voltage (HV)
and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with more number of turns will be a HV
winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as V-I product is a constant and given as
the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding needs to be insulated more to withstand
the higher voltage across it. HV also needs more clearance to the core, yoke or the body.
These aspects influence the type of the winding used for the HV or LV windings.
Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and sandwiched
coils. The former are very common with core type transformers while the latter one are
common with shell type transformers. In concentric arrangement, in view of the lower
insulation and clearance requirements, the LV winding is placed close to the core which is at
ground potential. The HV winding is placed around the LV winding. Also taps are provided
on HV winding when voltage change is required. This is also facilitated by having the HV
winding as the outer winding.

Page 21

Fig. 4.3 Types of Transformer Windings

Three most common types of coils viz. helical cross over and disc coils Helical
Windings One very common cylindrical coil arrangement is the helical winding. This is
made up of large cross section rectangular conductor wound on its at side. The coil
progresses as a helix. This is commonly used for LV windings. The insulation requirement
also is not too high. Between layers no insulation (other than conductor insulation) is needed
as the voltage between layers is low. The complexity of this type of winding rapidly
increases as the current to be handled becomes more. The conductor cross section becomes
too large and difficult to handle. The eddy current losses in the conductor rapidly increase.
Hence two or more conductors have to be wound and connected in parallel. The parallel
circuits bring in problems of current sharing between the circuits. Transpositions of the
parallel paths have to be adopted to reduce unequal current distribution. The modern
practice is to use continuously transposed and bunched conductors.
The second popular winding type is the cross over coil. These are made of
circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross section. These are used for HV
windings of relatively small transformers. These turns are wound in several layers. The
length and thickness of each block is made in line with cooling requirements. A number of
such blocks can be connected in series, leaving cooling ducts in between the blocks, as
required by total voltage requirement. Disc coils Disc coils consist of at conductors wound
in a spiral form at the same place spiraling outwards. Alternate discs are made to spiral from
outside towards the center.

Page 22

Sectional discs or continuous discs may be used. These have excellent thermal
properties and the behavior of the winding is highly predictable. Winding of a continuous
disc winding needs specialized skills.
Sandwich coils Sandwich windings are more common with shell type core
construction. They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance of the transformer.
By bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic axis the leakage is reduced and
the mutual flux is increased. By increasing the number of sandwiched coils the reactance
can be substantially reduced.
4.2.3 Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a transformer is varnish or enamel
in dry type of transformers. In larger transformers to improve the heat transfer
characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper or cloth and the
whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil thus has dual role. It is an insulator and also a coolant. The porous insulation
around the conductor helps the oil to reach the conductor surface and extract the heat. The
conductor insulation may be called the minor insulation as the voltage required to be withstood is not high. The major insulation is between the windings. Annular bakelite cylinders
serve this purpose. Oil ducts are also used as part of insulation between windings. The oil
used in the transformer tank should be free from moisture or other contamination to be of
any use as an insulator.
4.2.4 Cooling of transformers
Scaling advantages make the design of larger and larger unit sizes of transformers
economically attractive. This can be explained as below. Consider a transformer of certain
rating designed with certain flux density and current density. If now the linear dimensions
are made larger by a factor of K keeping the current and flux densities the same the core and
conductor areas increase by a factor of K2. The losses in the machine, which are
proportional to the volume of the materials used, increase by a factor of K3.The rating of the
machine increases by a factor of K4.
The surface area however increases by a factor of K2 only. Thus the ratio of loss per
surface area goes on increasing by a factor of K. The substantial increase in the output is the
major attraction in going in for larger units. However cooling of the transformer becomes
more and more difficult. As the rating increases better cooling techniques are needed.
Simple air cooling of the transformers is adopted in dry type transformers. The limit for this
is reached by the time the rating is a few KVA. Hence air cooling is used in low voltage
machines. This method of cooling is termed as AN(Air Natural). Air Blast(AB) method
improves on the above by directing the blast of air at the core and windings. This permits
some improvement in the unit sizes.
Page 23

Substantial improvement is obtained when the transformer is immersed in an oil tank.

The oil reaches the conductor surface and extracts the heat and transports the same to the
surface of the tank by convection. This is termed as ON (Oil Natural) type of cooling. This
method permits the increase in the surface available for the cooling further by the use of
ducts, radiators etc. OB(Oil Blast) method is an improvement over the ON-type and it
directs a blast of air on the cooling surface. In the above two cases the flow of oil is by
natural convective forces. The rate of circulation of oil can be increased with the help of a
pump, with the cooling at the surface remaining natural cooling to air. This is termed as
OFN (Oil Forced Natural). If now a forced blast of air is also employed, the cooling method
become OFB( Oil Forced Blast). A forced circulation of oil through a radiator is done with a
blast of air over the radiator surface. Substantial amount of heat can be removed by
employing a water cooling. Here the hot oil going into the radiator is cooled by a water
circuit. Due to the high specific heat of water, heat can be evacuated effectively. Next in
hierarchy comes OFW which is similar to OFB except that instead of blast of air a forced
circulation of cool water in the radiator is used in this. In many large sized transformers the
cooling method is matched with the amount of heat that is required to be removed. As the
load on the transformer changes the heat generated within also changes. Suitable cooling
method can be pressed into service at that time. This gives rise to the concept of mixed
cooling technique. ON/OB Works as ON but with increased load additional air blast is
adopted. This gives the ratings to be in the ratio of 1:1.5 ON/OB/OFB Similarly gives the
ratings in the ratio of 1:1.5:2

Fig 4.4 Types of Transformer cooling

Page 24

Chapter 5
Design of three phase Distribution Transformer

5.1 Design Problem:

To Design a Three Phase Distribution type Core type step-down transformer to be
connected to 415 V, 50 HZ supply, to deliver 5A at 200 V

5.1.1 Design of Core:

Selection of K:
Type
Single phase shell type
Single phase core type
Three phase shell type
Three phase core type (distribution)
Three pase core type (Power)

Volt per turn Et = K

Flux in core

K
1.0 to 1.2
0.75 to 0.85
1.3
0.47
0.65 to 0.7

Q = 0.47 = 0.47 1 = 0.47 (K=0.47 from above table)

= Et / (4.44 * 50) = 2.016* 10^-3 wb

Net iron area Ai = 2.106*10^-3/1.0 = 2106 mm2

Using a square core: Ai = 0.71 d2
Therefore, d = 62.54 mm

Gross Core area Agi =Ai /0.9 = 2106 / 0.9 = 2340mm2

a= Agi

= 56 mm

5.1.2 Design of window

Window Space factor Kw = 8/(30 + KV)

=8/(30.415) = 0.263
output of Transformer Q= 3.33 f B k A A * 10^-3
m

1= 3.33 *50*1*0.263*2.3*10^6*2.106*10^-3
Aw = 4714 mm2
Taking ratio of height to width of window as 3.44
Hw * W w = 4714
or
3.44 Ww = 4714
Ww = 37 .01 mm
Page 25

Hw = 3.44 * 37.01
Hw= 105 mm

Area of Window = 37.01 * 105 = 3886.05mm2

=3.886 *10^-3 m2
Distance Between adjacent core centers D = W w+ d
= 37 .01 +62.54
D = 95.55 mm

5.1.3 Design of Yoke

Taking area of yoke as 1.2 times of limb

Therefore flux density in yoke = 1/1.2 = 0.0833 wb/m2
Net area of yoke = 1.2 * 2106 = 2.527 * 10 ^3 mm2
Gross area of Yoke = 2.527 * 10^3 / 0.9 = 2.807* 10^3 mm2
Taking the section of yoke as rectangular
Depth of Yoke Dy = a= 56 mm
Height of Yoke Hy = 2.807*10^3 / 56

Hy = 50mm

5.1.4 Design of Frame

1 Height of Frame H= Hw + 2Hy = 105+(2* 50)

= 205 mm
Width of Frame W= 2D + a = (2*95) + 56
=245 mm

5.1.5 Design of WINDINGS

Assuming efficiency to be 96%
1 Primary Winding

Primary winding current Ip = VA/ (0.96 * 415)

= 1000/ (0.96* 415) = 2.4100

Taking current density = 2.3 A/mm2

Area of Primary winding ap = 2.410 / 2.3 = 1.047mm2

Page 26

= 240 mm

Diameter of bare Conductor

d p=

d p=

4A

41.047

= 0.8327 mm

Therefore selecting from SWG table the corresponding value of conductor of 0.8065of
21SWG
Table
VA
200
250
300
400
500
750
1000

Turns per Volt

3.5
2.8
2.8
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.6

Turns per volt (Te) of 1000VA transformer is 1.6

Number of turns of Primary winding = Tp = Vp*Te

= 415*1.6
= 667 turns

2 Secondary Winding

Area of Secondary winding =Is / 2.3

= 5/2.3 = 2.1739 mm2
Diameter of bare conductor =
ds=

42.174

= 1.663

mm
From the table corresponding conductor is 1.588, therefore selecting 16 SWG

Number of Turns of secondary Ts= Vs*Te

= 200*1.6
Page 27

= 326 turns

Considering the available standard bobbins and size of conductors

For primary winding, there will be 4 layers of 169 turns

For secondary winding, there will be 3.2 layers of 102 layers
Actual Width of Window =
For each layer of insulation paper we require 1mm
=(bobbin inner width +(2) + ((d1 + 1)*4)+((d2 +1)*3.2)))*2
=(3 +2+((1.207 +1)*4)((1.588+1)*3.2)))*2
=22.01
Therefore for each window that is twice
= 22*2
=44mm +1mm (for cooling)
For operation Protection Circuit :
Taping on any one of the secondary winding phase is taken
=Rating of contactor * Te =110 *1.6 = 176 turn from last turns

5.3 Circuit diagram

Page 28

=45mm

Chapter 6
Manufacturing of Transformer
6.1 Materials used for different parts of transformer
After calculation to design transformer which is cost effective, durable, and as per standard
specification it is very challenging work for the best optimum design the material selection
plays the important role.
Following three basic materials required to design transformer

Magnetic Material(Core Material)

Electrical Material( Winding Material)

Dielectric Material(Insulation Material)

6.1.1 Core Material

Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Electrical Steel (CRGO) and Non Cold Rolled Non
Grain Oriented Electrical Steel CRNGO. Grain oriented Electrical Steel CRGO is
undoubtedly the most important soft magnetic material in use today. Whether in small
transformer, distribution transformer or in large transformer & generator, grain oriented
electrical steel CRGO is a must for the production of energy saving electrical machines.
Grain oriented Electrical Steels are iron-silicon alloys that provide low core loss and high
permeability needed for more efficient and economical electrical transformers. CRGO Grain
oriented grades of electrical steel are typically used for transformer cores and large
generators. Non-oriented Electrical steel CRNGO fully processed steels are iron-silicon
alloys with varying silicon contents and have similar magnetic properties in all directions in
plan of the sheet. Non-oriented Electrical steel are principally used for motors, generators,
alternators, ballasts, small Transformers and a variety of other electromagnetic applications.
The earliest soft magnetic material was iron, which contained many impurities. Researchers
found that the addition of silicon increased resistivity, decreased hysteresis loss, increased
permeability, and virtually eliminated aging. Substantial quantities of Grain Oriented
Electrical steel CRGO are used, mainly in power and distribution transformers. However, it
has not supplanted non-oriented Electrical steel, which is used extensively where a low-cost,
low-loss material is needed, particularly in rotating equipment. Mention should also be
made of the relay steels, used widely in relays, armatures, and solenoids. Relay steels
contain 1.25 to 2.5% Si, and are used in direct current applications because of better
permeability, lower coercive force, and freedom from aging Important physical properties of
Electrical steels (CRGO) include resistivity, saturation induction, magneto-crystalline
anisotropy, magneto striction, and Curie temperature. Resistivity, which is quite low in iron,
Page 29

increases markedly with the addition of silicon. Higher resistivity lessens the core loss by
reducing the eddy current component. Raising the silicon content will lower magneto
striction, but processing becomes more difficult. The high Curie temperature of iron will be
lowered by alloying elements, but the decrease is of little importance to the user of CRGO
Electrical steels. The magnetization process is influenced by impurities, grain orientation,
grain size, strain, strip thickness, and surface smoothness.
One of the most important ways to improve soft magnetic materials is to remove impurities,
which interfere with domain-wall movement; they are least harmful if present in solid
solution. Compared with other commercial steels, Electrical steel is exceptionally pure.
Because carbon, an interstitial impurity, can harm low induction permeability, it must be
removed before the steel is annealed to develop the final texture. The mechanism for the
growth of grains with cube-on-edge orientation during the final anneal is not completely
understood. The process involves secondary recrystallization, which, by definition, is
characterized by accelerated growth of one set of grains in an already recrystallized matrix.
For secondary recrystallization, normal grain growth must be inhibited in some manner. As
the temperature is raised, certain grains break loose from the inhibiting forces, and grow
extensively at the expense of their neighbors. Producers know that, on a practical basis,
appropriate cold rolling and recrystallization sequences must be carefully followed to obtain
the desired secondary recrystallization nuclei and the correct texture. Today`s Electrical
Steels use MnS as the grain growth inhibitor, but other compounds, such as carbides, oxides,
or nitrides, are also effective. CRGO Making and using Grain oriented Electrical steel
Grain Oriented Electrical Steel (CRGO) is more restricted.

Fig 6.1 CRNO Laminated core

A cold rolled non-oriented electrical steel sheet having a low iron loss is disclosed.
The steel sheet consists of not more than 0.02% of C, 0.1-3.5% of Si, not more than 1.0% of
Page 30

Al, 0.1-1.0% of Mn, 0.03-0.40% of Sn and the remainder being substantially Fe. A cold
rolled non-oriented electrical steel sheet having a low iron loss, which consists of not more
than 0.02% by weight of C, 0.1-3.5% by weight of Si, not more than 1.0% by weight of Al,
0.1-1.0% by weight of Mn, 0.03-0.40% by weight of Sn and the remainder being essentially
iron. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a non-oriented electrical steel
sheet, and more particularly relates to a cold rolled non-oriented electrical steel sheet having
a low iron loss.
Description of the Prior Art Non-oriented electrical steel sheets are graded by their
iron loss. For example, in the JIS, non-oriented electrical steel sheets having a thickness of
0.050 mm are graded as follows. In the S-30 grade steel sheet, W10/50 must be not higher
than 3.70 W/kg and W15/50 must be not higher than 8.00 W/kg; and in the S-10 grade steel
sheet, W10/50 must be not higher than 1.25 W/kg and W15/50 must be not higher than 3.10
W/kg.
The iron loss of non-oriented silicon steel sheets is occupied by the hysteresis loss
rather than by the eddy current loss contrary to the iron loss of oriented electrical steel
sheets, and the hysteresis loss occupies generally 60-80% of the total iron loss. The
hysteresis loss is in inverse proportion to the crystal grain size. It is an effective means to
promote the normal grain growth of recrystallized grains at the final annealing in order to
decrease the iron loss, and this means has hitherto been always used in order to lower the
iron loss.
The inventors have newly found out that the alloying of Sn to non-oriented silicon
steel sheet is effective for lowering the iron loss thereof, and have accomplished the present
invention. The feature of the present invention is the provision of a cold rolled non-oriented
electrical steel sheet having a low iron loss, which consists of not more than 0.02% by
weight of C, 0.0-3.5% by weight of Si, not more than 1.0% by weight of Al, 0.1-1.0% by
weight of Mn, 0.03-0.40% by weight of Sn and the remainder being substantially Fe.There
has hitherto been hardly known the influence of Sn upon the magnetic property of nonoriented electrical steel sheet. After various investigations, the inventors have found out that
Sn is remarkably effective for lowering the iron loss of non-oriented electrical steel sheet as
illustrated in the following data.
The results of measurement of iron losses of Epstein samples produced by subjecting
hot rolled sheets having different contents of each of Si and to a one-stage cold rolling to
prepare cold rolled sheets having a final gauge of 0.5 mm, and then subjecting the cold
rolled sheets to a continuous annealing under a dry hydrogen atmosphere kept at 950 C.

6.1.2.1 CRGO Laminations Grade M2, M3, M4, M5 & M6 are generally use in India
having Watt loss of 0.55 t0 1.01.
Page 31

Table 6.3 Typical Mechanical Properties and Laminations Factors for CRGO

Core loss
Thickness
mm
Grade
M-1

0.23

M-2

Assumed
Density
Kg/dm3

Resistivity
(x10-8)

7.65

50

M-3
0.27

M-4

7.65

48

o-m

Watts per kilogram

50 Hz
60 Hz
1.5T

1.7T

1.5T

1.7T

0.73

1.08

0.93

1.37

0.76

1.12

0.97

1.43

0.80

1.17

1.04

1.50

0.83

1.22

1.08

1.59

0.3

M-5

7.65

48

0.89

1.29

1.17

1.68

0.3

M-5

7.65

48

1.01

1.46

1.32

1.90

6.1.2.2 CRNO Laminations

Non-Oriented Electrical Steel Sheets CRNO (Cold Rolled Non-Oriented Steel)
Table 6.4 Typical Mechanical Properties for CRNO laminations

Grade

Thicknes
s mm

Assumed
Density
Kg/dm3

M-22
M-27
M-36
M-22
M-27
M-36
M-43
M-45
M-47A
M-36
M-46
M-45

0.35
0.35
0.35
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.65
0.65
0.65

7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.75
7.75
7.7
7.7
7.75

Maximum
Core

Minimum
Loss Magnetic
Watt/Kg density at
At 50 Hz & 1.5T
A/mT
2.93
1.6
3.13
1.6
3.31
1.6
3.22
1.6
3.21
1.6
3.57
1.6
4.01
1.61
5.31
1.62
6.98
1.64
4.18
1.6
4.7
1.61
6.27
1.63

6.1.2Winding

Page 32

flux
5000

Minimum
Lamination@
Factor %
95
95
95
96
96
96
96
96
96
96.5
96.5
96.5

Enamelled Copper Wire or Enamelled Aluminum Wire is used in the construction of

transformers, inductors, motors, headphones, loudspeakers ,and many more applications.
Enameled wire is covered with thin insulation. Enameled copper wire typically uses one to
three layers of polymer film insulation, to provide a tough, continuous insulating layer.
Table 6.5 Properties of Enameled Copper Wires

ENAMEL
BASE

THERMAL/INS
ULATION
CLASS
SPECIFICATIO
N OLD IS:
NEW IS:
IEC:

MODIFIE
D
POLYSTE
R PE(MOD
IFIED)
I55
F' CLASS

POLYSTERMID
E (P.I.E.)

POLYSTERMIDE
POLYAMIDEIMIDE (PEI+PAI)

POLYMID
E-IMIDE (
PAI)

180 H CLASS

200 DUAL COTED

220 C
CLASS

IS:4800-V2 IS:4800-9
IS: 13730 3 IS: 13730 -8
IEC 317 3 IEC 317 8

IS:4800-13
IS: 13730 -13
IEC 317 13

IS:4800-11
IS: 1373 -7
IEC 317 7

COLOUR
OF ENAMELE
D WIRES

DARK &
LIGHT
BROWN

DARK BROWN

MEDIUM DARK
BROWN

BROWN

GENERAL
APPLICATION
S

General
Purpose
Rotting &
Static
Electrical
Equipments,
F.H.P.

F.H.P. Motors
for hand tools
Hermatic
Applications,
Ignition Coils &
All Thermal Class
180 Equipments.

Hermatic
Applications
Special Purpose
Motors & All
Thermal Class 200
Equipments

Special
Motors
Hermatic
Motors

Page 33

SPECIAL
REMARKS

Motors,
Transformer
s, etc
Good
Thermal &
Die-Electric
Properties

Resistance against
Refrigerant
& Transformer
Oil, High Burnout
Resistance etc

Air Crack Resistance

against
refrigerants &
Chemicals very high
burnout resistance,
excellent Windablity
low co-efficient of
fraction High
slot filled factor &
improved obrasion
resistant.

Air Crack
Resistant
again
Refrigent &
Chemicals
very high
burnout
resistant,
excellent
Wind ability
low coefficient of
friction
High
slot fill
factor &
abrasion
resistance.
Excellent /
Excellent

ABRASION
RESISTANCE/
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

Fair / Good

Very Good / Good

Excellent / Excellent

RESISTANCE
TO
VARNISHES
AND SOLVENT

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Excellent

Good
Thermal &
Die-Electric
Properties

Resistance against
Refrigerant
& Transformer
Oil, High Burnout
Resistance etc.

Air Crack Resistance

against
refrigerants &
Chemicals very high
burnout resistance,
excellent Windablity
low co-efficient of
fraction High
slot filled factor &
improved obrasion

Air Crack
Resistant
again
Refrigent &
Chemicals
very high
burnout
resistant,
excellent
Wind ability

SPECIAL
REMARKS

Page 34

RESISTANCE
TO FREON-22
FELXIBILITY
AND
ADHERENCE
CUT
THROUH /
HEAT SHOCK

resistant.

low coefficient of
friction
High
slot fill
factor &
abrasion
resistance.

Very Good

Superb

Excellent

Good

Very Good

Superb

Excellent

240C / 200
C

300C / 200C

320C / 220C

400C / 240
C

6.1.3 Insulation Material

6.1.3.1 Insulation Paper
We are using excellent insulating materials like Nomex, press phan paper, craft
paper, Glass Film etc which are strong enough and better in dielectric strength, as a result
we can increase the maximum allowable temperature resulting the overload strength is
strong specially in case of Dry type Transformer.
We are maintaining the maximum temperature rise limited to the previous class of
insulation ,such as if we claim class of insulation H , temperature rise will be limited to
class of F ( usually we consider ambient temperature as 45 Deg.C. if not specified by the
client). As per IS and other International Standard
Table 6.6 Insulation temperature class and its maximum temperature

Sr. No
1
2
3
4

Tempt. Class
A
E
B
F

Max. Total Temperature Of Insulation

105 Centigrade
120 Centigrade
130 Centigrade
155 Centigrade
Page 35

5
6

H
C

180 Centigrade
180 Centigrade above

6.1.3.2 Bobbin
Winding is wound on Bobbin and these bobbin consist of Bakelite and fiber
material. When we Design a Transformer then we use Bakelite material because it can
withstand with high voltage and high heat.. It is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin,
formed from an elimination reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. It was developed by
Belgian-born chemist Leo Baekeland in New York in1907. Bakelite has a number of
important properties. It can be molded very quickly therefore identical units can be mass
produced.
Moldings are smooth, retain their shape and are resistant to heat, scratches, and
destructive solvents. It is also resistant to electricity, and prized for its low conductivity. It is
not flexible.Phenolic resin products may swell slightly under conditions of extreme
humidity or perpetual dampness. When rubbed or burnt, Bakelite has a distinctive, acrid,
sickly-sweet or fishy odor.

Fig 6.2 Bakelite bobbins

These characteristics made Bakelite particularly suitable as a molding compound, an

adhesive or binding agent, a varnish, and as a protective coating. This positioned it as
an extremely desirable material for the emerging electrical and automobile industries.
Bakelite was soon used for non-conducting parts of telephones, radios and other electrical
devices, such as bases and sockets for light bulbs and electron tubes, supports for any type
of electrical components, automobile distributor caps and other insulators.

Page 36

Phenolics are more rarely used in general consumer products today, due to the cost
and complexity of production and their brittle nature. Nevertheless they are still used in
some applications where their specific properties are required, such as small precisionshaped components, molded disc brake cylinders, saucepan handles, electrical plugs and
switches and parts for electrical irons.
4.2
4.
6.2 Selection of Components:
Table 6.2.1 Selection of Laminated plates of CRNO

H
(Length)

Width
(Assumed)

Stamping

Stamping

form side 1

form side 2

A :155

50

25

25

B :140

50

25

70

C :95

50

25

25

Page 37

Fig 6.2.1 CRNO Laminated plates

Fig 6.2.2 Main Dimensions of Transformer frame

6.2.2 Selection of Windings :

Double coated Windings as per calculations and comparing with Standard Wire Gauge
For Primary (H V)- 16 SWG
Secondary (L V )- 21 SWG

Fig 6.2.3 Standard wire Gauge

Page 38

Fig 6.2.4 Enameled Copper Windings

6.2.3 Selection of Bobbins :

(3 Nos )- Bakelite type (As per core Dimensions)

Page 39

6.2.4 Selection of Insulation paper:

Press Phan type

(5 mm)

(As per rating of Transformer)

6.2.5 Other components :

Nut- Bolts (6 No.s)
Wire for Terminals (13 No.s)
6.3 Assembly of Components:
1 Interleaving of core and placing of nut-bolts(at upto 5.6 Diameter)

1st position
(even no.)

2nd position
(odd no.)

2 Wrapping of Winding and insulation paper on bobbin

3 Soldering start and end points of each windings to other wires
4 Mounting of Bobbins with Windings on Core limbs

Fig 6.3 Internal structure of Transformer

5 Making Star-Delta Connections of winding

6 Fabricating of Transformer Case
7 Varnishing the core and windings
8 Mounting of Transformer in case and protection components on case
9 Making connections of components according to circuit Diagram
Page 40

Chapter 7
Thermal Overload Protection

Transformer oil or mineral oil is providing the two functions in transformer for
insulation and cooling purpose. Due to this it is important to maintain the good quality of
mineral oil. If the quality of the mineral oil is reduced then there is problem with insulation
of transformer and this creating problem in the transformer. The main cause in reduction of
transformer oil quality is temperature rise in the mineral oil. Transformer contains core and
winding these two are the main source of the temperature rise in the transformer. When the
load on the transformer is increase the current in the transformer winding also increases.
This increased current in the transformer winding creates the resistive loss in the
transformer winding. As current in the transformer winding increases losses will also
increases. Due to these losses there is generation of heat and the rate of the heat generation
in transformer is directly proportional to the current flowing through the transformer
winding. Therefore it is necessary to control the temperature of the mineral oil. At no load
condition there is no load losses i.e. eddy current losses which are present in the core of the
transformer. Due to this the temperature of the mineral oil is increase and the insulating
properties of the mineral oil decreases.
7.1 Working principle:
In thermal over load protection system if the temperature of the mineral oil is
increased beyond its limit the working of the transformer is stop. It is done by the insertion
of the control circuit in the secondary winding. This inserted circuit senses the temperature
of the mineral oil and according to the temperature of the oil it will work. This control
circuit again senses the temperature of the mineral oil and if these temperature is normal
then these circuit will start the operation of the transformer.
7.2 Construction of protection scheme
In thermal over load protection there are two main components bimetal switch and
contactor.
7.2.1 Bimetallic Strip:
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.
The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are
heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and brass. The strips are joined
together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions
force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below
its initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the
outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled.
Page 41

The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small lengthways expansion
in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a range of mechanical and electrical
devices. In some applications the bimetal strip is used in the flat form. In others, it is
wrapped into a coil for compactness. The greater length of the coiled version gives
improved sensitivity.
In these type of switch the bimetallic strip is which is used to convert a temperature change
into mechanical displacement .The strip consist of two strips of Different metals which
expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper , or in some cases steel
and brass. The stripes are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or
welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the
opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The sideways displacement of the
strip is much longer than the small lengthways expansion in either of the two metals. This
effect is used in switch by which according to the temperature the switch will open or close.
Temperature switches are generally used in industry for limiting temperature. They monitor
the temperature of machinery and equipment and, for example, switch off machinery if it
overheats or switch on a fan to cool the equipment. Temperature sensing is carried out by a
bimetal disc, which snaps over when the nominal switching temperature is reached. On
cooling back down to the reset switching temperature, the switch returns to its original state.
The reset switching temperature is typically below the switching temperature. According to
the temperature bimetal switch forms two types of contact, which are normally open and
normally close. In both cases, on cooling down below the reset switching temperature, the
contacts return to their original state, so that the monitored equipment can again work
normally.

Fig. 7.2.1 Bimetallic switch operation

7.2.2. Thermostats:
In the regulation of heating and cooling, thermostats that operate over a wide range
of temperatures are used. In these, one end of the bimetal strip is mechanically fixed and
attached to an electrical power source, while the other (moving) end carries an electrical
Page 42

contact. In adjustable thermostats another contact is positioned with a regulating knob or

lever. The position so set controls the regulated temperature, called the set point.
Some thermostats use a mercury switch connected to both electrical leads. The angle of the
entire mechanism is adjustable to control the set point of the thermostat.
Depending upon the application, a higher temperature may open a contact (as in a heater
control) or it may close a contact (as in a refrigerator or air conditioner).
The electrical contacts may control the power directly (as in a household iron) or
indirectly, switching electrical power through a relay or the supply of natural gas or fuel oil
through an electrically operated valve. In some natural gas heaters the power may be
provided with a thermocouple that is heated by a pilot light (a small, continuously burning,
and flame). In devices without pilot lights for ignition (as in most modern gas clothes dryers
and some natural gas heaters and decorative fireplaces) the power for the contacts is
provided by reduced household electrical power that operates a relay controlling an
electronic igniter, either a resistance heater or an electrically powered spark generating
device.
Stem Type Thermostats
Stem Type Thermostat is widely used in thermal sensing instruments. It is often referred to
as the heart of the product and is also known as Temperature controller.
Specification of Stem Type Thermostat
Table 7.2.2 Stem Type Thermostat specification
Parameter
Temperature Range
Differential Safety Cutout Temperature
Rating
Stem Length (L)
Stem Diameter
Weight
Dimension

Specification
300C To 750C
50C
16A/250V~A.C. Only 50 - 60 Hz
225mm / 275 mm
6mm / 8mm
115 gms. Appox.
(11") 275mm

Page 43

Fig 7.2.2 Stem Type Thermostat

7.2.3 CONTACTOR

Fig 7.3.3 Thee Pole Contactor

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit,

similar to a relay except with higher current ratings. A contactor is controlled by a circuit
which has a much lower power level than the switched circuit. Contactors range from those
having a breaking current of several amperes to thousands of amperes and 24 V DC to many
kilovolts. The physical size of the contactors ranges from a device small enough to pick up
with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter on a side. Contactors are used to
control electric motors, lighting, heating, capacitor banks, thermal evaporators, and other
electrical loads.
7.3 Operation of Protection circuit:
Bimetallic switch is connected to the contactor and these are connected to the
secondary of the transformer. As there is increasing in the temperature of the mineral oil the
bimetallic strip will bend and due to this the bimetallic switch give the signal to the
contactor and according to these signal the contactor break the contact of secondary of the
transformer.

Page 44

Fig 7.4.1 Operation under normal working condition

As shown in above figure the protection scheme is connected to the secondary of the
transformer. Secondary of the distribution transformer is usually star connected and the
neutral point is connected thorough the protection system. Transformer secondary is
connected to the three phase three pole contactor. As shown in figure.1 the neutral point of
the secondary is connected to the contactor and bimetallic switch is connected to the
contactor. The temperature of the transformer is sensed by the bimetallic thermostatic switch
and the output of the switch is connected to the connecter as shown in figure.1 As the
temperature of the transformer is increased the bimetallic switch change the state. According
to the state of the bimetallic switch the contactor is work i.e. contactor will make the contact
or open the contact and due to these the transformer will in working or out of the working.
When the temperature of the transformer is increased the bimetallic switch change its state
and the change in the state is output of the bimetallic switch is connected to the contactor.
Then this output is serving as input to the contactor and contactor will open the contacts.
Power required to the operation of the contactor is given through tapping provided on one of
secondary phase winding.
When the contactor opens the contacts the secondary of the transformer is open and the
transformer is out from the system. In this operation the transformer disconnects the load
when its temperature is increased above the safety limit is figure.2. When the transformer is
cooled down the temperature of the transformer will be within its safety limit. When the
temperature of the transformer is in safety limit the bimetallic switch change the state and
the contactor will connect the contact of secondary winding is shown in figure.1 then the
transformer is in working and in working till the temperature of the transformer is within
safety limit.

Page 45

Fig.7.4.2 Operation when transformer is overloaded

If again the temperature of the transformer is increased the bimetallic switch will
change the state and contactor will open the connection of the secondary of the transformer
and transformer will stop the working, this process is done according the temperature of the
transformer.

Chapter8
Testing & Performance Evaluation
8.1 General Requirements for Routine, Type and Special Tests
Transformers shall be subjected to tests as specified below:
Table 8.1 Tolerance limits for Tansformer According to ISI
Sr
No.
1

Item

Tolerance

a) Total losses
b)Component losses

a)Voltage ratio at no load on principal

tapping for a specified first pair of
windings

+10 % of the total losses

+ 15 % of each component loss, provided
that the tolerance for total losses is not
exceeded
The losses of following values :
a)+/- 0.5 % of declared ratio
b) +/- 1/10 of the actual % impedance on
principle tapping

b) Voltage ratio on other tapping, same

pair

To be agreed, but not lesser of the values

given in a) & b) above

c) Voltage ratio for further pairs

To be agreed, but not lesser of the values

given in a) & b) above

Page 46

Short circuit Impedance for,

a) separate winding transformer with
two windings or
b)a specified first pair of separate
windings
in a multi winding transformer
1)Principal Tapping

2) any other tapping of the pair

Short- Circuit impedance for:

a) an auto connected pair of winding or
b)a specified second pair of separate
winding in a multi winding transformer
1)Principal tapping
2)any other tapping of the pair
3) further pairs of windings

No Load current

When the impedance value is >/= 10%

+/- 75 % of the declared value
When the impedance value is </=10%
+/- 10 % of the declared value
When the impedance value is >/= 10%
+/- 10 % of the declared value
When the impedance value is </=10%
+/- 15 % of the declared value

+/- 10% of the declared value

+/- 15 % of the declared value
To be agreed but >= 15%
+/- 30 % of the declared value

Tests shall be made at any ambient temperature between 10 C and 50 C and with
cooling water (if required) at any temperature not exceeding 30 C.
Tests shall be made at the manufacturers works, unless otherwise agreed between the
manufacturer and the purchaser.
All measuring systems used for the tests shall have certified, traceable accuracy and be
subjected to periodic calibration, according to IS/ISO 9001. Where it is required that test
results are to be corrected to a reference temperature, this shall be:
a) for oil-immersed transformers: 75 C; and
b) for dry-type transformers: according to the general requirements for tests in IS 11171.
8.1.2 Routine Tests
a) Measurement of winding resistance
b) Measurement of voltage ratio and check of phase displacement
c) Measurement of short-circuit impedance and load loss
d) Measurement of no-load loss and current
Page 47

e) Dielectric routine tests IS 2026 and

f) Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate
8.1.3 Type Tests
a) Temperature-rise test
b) Dielectric type tests
8.1.4 Special Tests
a) Dielectric special tests
b) Determination of capacitances windings-to earth, and between windings;
c) Determination of transient voltage transfer characteristics;
d) Measurement of zero-sequence impedance(s) on three-phase transformers
e) Short-circuit withstand test
f) Determination of sound levels
g) Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current
h) Measurement of the power taken by the fan and oil pump motors;
j) Measurement of insulation resistance to earth of the windings, and/or measurement of
dissipation factor of the insulation system capacitances.
If test methods are not prescribed in this standard, or if tests other than those listed above are
specified in the contract, such test methods are subject to agreement.

8.3 Performance Evaluation

1) Voltage ratio test:
VL 1

V ph1

Vph2

VL2

416

416

198

342

2) Insulation Resistance test

3) Magnetic Balance test
4) Continuity Test
5) Overload Protection Test

Page 48

Thus the bimetallic strip disconnects the load from transformer at___ A and protects it
from overloading. Again when Load Current falls below ___ A it reconnects the load
automatically.

Chapter 9
ESTIMATION AND COSTING

A] For Transformer

Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Component

Quantity

Cost (Rs.)

Copper conductors
Core
Laminated
plates
Bobbins
Bakelite sheet
Nut bolts
Fabrication

7 kg(* 610)
1500

4270
2000

3
1
6
Total

500
150
200
650
7770/-

B] For Protection

Sr.
No.
1
2
3

Component

Quantity

Thermostat
1
Contactor
1
Other sundry items Page 49

Cost (Rs.)
150
700
200

Total

950

Chapter 10
Future Scope
Remote Control and monitoring can be made possible by employing counter and GSM
in the circuit.
When the overload occurs it will be disconnected and the counter will make account. If this
occurs frequently say 4-5 a day it means that the present transformer is no more suitable for
supplying the present load. The load can be can then reduced or supplied from other source.
Otherwise the present transformer can be applied to other low load and be replaced by a new
transformer of larger rating.
Thus increasing reliability and continuity of supply

Page 50

11
Conclusion
In this way we have achieved the goal of providing a simplified Thermal overload
protection to the transformer. There is therefore a cost saving in overload protection of transformer
with more reliability and continuity of supply to the load. We have also studied briefly the design
and assembly of three phase core type distribution transformer including material selection, testing
and its performance evaluation.

Page 51

12
References
[1] A.K.Shawney Electrical machines Design, Tata Machgraw Hill Publications.
[2] Indian Standard, POWER TRANSFORMERS- PART 1 GENERAL ( Second Revision )
[3]www.google.com

Page 52