1.

INTRODUCTION

By the term frequency response, we mean the steady-state

response of a system to a sinusoidal input. In frequency-response
methods, we vary the frequency of the input signal over a certain
range and study the resulting response. In this and the next
chapter we present frequency-response approaches
to the
analysis and design of control systems. The information we get
from such analysis is different from what we get from root-locus
analysis. In fact, the frequency response and root- locus
approaches complement each other. One advantage of
the
frequency-response approach is that we can use the data
obtained from measurements on the physical system without
deriving its mathematical model. In many practical designs of
control systems both approaches are employed. Control engineers
must be familiar with both.
Frequency-response methods were developed in 1930s and
1940s
by Nyquist, Bode, Nichols, and many others.
The
frequency-response methods are most powerful in conventional
control theory. They are also indispensable to robust control
theory.
The Nyquist stability criterion enables us to investigate both
the absolute and relative stabilities of linear closed-loop systems
from a knowledge of
their open-loop frequency- response
characteristics. An advantage of the frequency-response
approach is that frequency-response tests are, in general,
sirnple and can be made accurately by use of readily available
sinusoidal
signal
generators
and
precise
measurement
equipment. Often the transfer functions of complicated
components can be determined experimentally by frequencyresponse tests. In addition, the frequency-response approach has
the advantages that a system may be designed so that the
effects of undesirable noise are negligible and that such analysis
and design can be extended to certain nonlinear control systems.

Although the frequency response of

a control system
presents a qualitative picture of the transient response, the
correlation between frequency and transient responses is indirect,
except for the case of second-order systems. In designing a
closed-loop
system,
we
adjust
the
frequency-response
characteristic of the open-loop transfer function by using several
design criteria in order to obtain acceptable transient-response
characteristics for the system.
Presenting
Frequency-Response Characteristics
in
Graphical Forms. The sinusoidal transfer function, a complex
function of the frequency w, is characterized by its magnitude
and phase angle, with frequency as the parameter. There are
three commonly used representations of
sinusoidal transfer
functions:
1. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot
2. Nyquist plot or polar plot
3. Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)

BODE DIAGRAMS
Bode Diagrams or Logarithmic Plots.
A Bode diagram
consists of two graphs: One is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of
the phase angle; both are plotted against the frequency on a
logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude
of G(jw) is 20 logl~(jw)
where the base of the logarithm is 10. The unit used in this
representation of
the magnitude is the decibel, usually
abbreviated dB. In the logarithmic representation, the curves are
drawn on semilog paper, using the log scale for frequency and the
linear stale for either magnitude (but in decibels) or phase angle

(in degrees). (The frequency range of interest determines the

number of logarithmic cycles required on the abscissa.)
The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that
multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition.
Furthermore, a simple method for sketching an approximate logmagnitude curve is available.
It is based on asymptotic
approximations.
Such approximation by straight-line asymptotes is sufficient
if
only rough information on the frequency-response
characteristics is needed. Should the exact curve be desired,
corrections can be made easily to these basic asymptotic plots.
Expanding the low-frequency range by use of a logarithmic scale
for the frequency is highly advantageous since characteristics at
low frequencies are most important in practical systems.
Although it is not possible to plot the curves right down
to zero frequency because of the logarithmic frequency (log0 =
-m), this does not create a serious problem. Note that the
experimental determination of a transfer function can be made
simple if frequency-response data are presented in the form of
a Bode diagram.
Basic Factors of G( jco)H(jco). As stated earlier, the main
advantage in using the logarithmic plot is the relative ease of
plotting frequency-response curves. The basic factors that very
frequently occur in an arbitrary transfer function G(jw)H(jw) are
1. Gain K
2. Integral and derivative factors (j~)~'
3. First-order factors (1 + jw~)"
4. Quadratic factors [I + 2[(jw/w,) + (jw/~,)~]"
Once we become familiar with the logarithmic plots of
these basic factors, it is possible to utilize them in constructing a

composite logarithmic plot for any general form of G(jw)H(jw) by

sketching the curves for each factor and adding individual
curves graphically, because adding the logarithms of the gains
corresponds to multiplying them together.
The Gain K. A number greater than unity has a positive value in
decibels, while a number smaller than unity has a negative
value.The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a
horizontal straight line at the magnitude of 20 logK decibels.The
phase angle of the gain K is zero. The effect of varying the gain
K in the transfer function is that it raises or lowers the logmagnitude curve of the transfer function by the corresponding
constant amount, but it has no effect on the phase curve.
A number-decibel conversion line is given in Figure 8-4. The
decibel value of any number can be obtained from this line. As a
number increases by a factor of 10, the corresponding decibel
value increases by a factor of 20. This may be seen from the
following:
Note that, when expressed in decibels, the reciprocal of a
number differs from its value only in sign; that is, for the number
K,
1
20 log K = -20 log K

Integral and Derivative Factors (j~)~'.

The logarithmic
magnitude of l/jw in decibels is The phase angle of l/jw is
constant and equal to -90".
In Bode diagrams, frequency ratios are expressed in terms of
octaves or decades. An octave is a frequency band from w1 to
2w1, where w1 is any frequency value. A decade is a frequency

band from w, to low,, where again w, is any frequency. (On the

logarithmic scale of semilog paper, any given frequency ratio can
be represented by the same horizontal distance. For example,
the horizontal distance from w = 1 to w = 10 is equal to that
from w = 3 to w = 30.)
If the log magnitude -20 log w dB is plotted against w on a
logarithmic scale, it is a straight line.To draw this straight line,
we need to locate one point (0 dB, w = 1) on it. Since (-20 log
low) dB = (-20 log w - 20) dB the slope of the line is -20
dB/decade (or -6 dB/octave).
Similarly, the log magnitude of jw in decibels is 20 log 1 jol =
20 log w Db
The phase angle of jw is constant and equal to 90.The logmagnitude curve is a straight line with a slope of 20 dB/decade.
Figures 8-5(a) and (b) show frequency-response curves for l/jw
and jw, respectively. We can clearly see that the differences in
the frequency responses of the factors l/jw and jo lie in the signs
of the slopes of the log- magnitude curves and in the signs of
the phase angles. Both log magnitudes become equal to 0 dB at
w = 1.
If the transfer function contains the factor (lljw)" or (jw)",
the log magnitude becomes, respectively,
20 log -l (jb1.I =
-n X 20 log 1 jwl = -20n log w dB
20 log 1 (jw)"l = n X 20 log 1 jwl = 20n log w dB
The slopes of the log-magnitude curves for the factors
(l/jw)" and (jw)" are thus -20n dB/decade and 20n dB/decade,
respectively. The phase angle of (lljw)" is equal to -90" X n over
the entire frequency range, while that of (jw)" is equal to 90' X

n over the entire frequency range. The magnitude curves will

pass through the point
(0 dB, w = 1).

First-Order Factors (1 + juT)". The log magnitude of the

first-order factor
1/(1 + joT) is
1
2010gil + jwTl
= -20 log v'ixw dB

For low frequencies, such that w < 1/T, the log magnitude may
be approximated by
Thus, the log-magnitude curve at low frequencies is the constant
0-dB line. For high frequencies, such that w B 1 /T,
-20 log vm = -20 log wT dB
This is an approximate expression for the high-frequency
range. At w = 1/T, the log magnitude equals 0 dB; at w = 10/T,
the log magnitude is -20 dB. Thus, the value of -20 log wT dB
decreases by 20 dB for every decade of o. For w S 1/T, the logmagnitude curve is thus a straight line with a slope of -20
dB/decade (or -6 dB/octave).
Our analysis shows that the logarithmic representation of
the frequency-response curve of the factor 1/(1 + jwT) can be
approximated by two straight-line asymptotes, one a straight line
at 0 dB for the frequency range 0 < o < 1/T and the other a
straight line with slope -20 dBIdecade (or -6 dB/octave) for the
frequency range 1/T < w < co.

The exact log-magnitude curve, the asymptotes, and the

exact phase-angle curve are shown in Figure .

The frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called

the corner frequency or break frequency. For the factor 1/(1 +
jwT), the frequency w = 1/T is the corner frequency since at w =
1/T the two asymptotes have the same value. (The low-frequency
asymptotic expression at w = 1/T is 20 log 1 dB = 0 dB, and
the high-frequency asymptotic expression at w = 1/T is also 20
log 1 dB = 0 dB.) The corner frequency divides the frequencyresponse curve into two regions: a curve for the low-frequency
region and a curve for the high-frequency region. The corner
frequency is very important in sketching logarithmic frequencyresponse curves.
The exact phase angle 6 of the factor 1/(1 -k jwT) is

4 = -tan-' wT
At zero frequency, the phase angle is 0". At the corner frequency,
the phase angle is
T
4 = -tan-' - = -tan-' 1 = -45"
T
At infinity, the phase angle becomes -90". Since the phase
angle is given by an inverse- tangent function, the phase angle
is skew symmetric about the inflection point at
6 = -45".

Quadratic Factors [l + 25(jw/w,) + (j~lw,)~]~'. Control

systems often possess quadratic factors of the form If J > 1,
this quadratic factor can be expressed as a product of two firstorder factors with real poles. If 0 < J < 1, this quadratic factor
is the product of two complex- conjugate factors. Asymptotic
approximations to the frequency-response curves are not
accurate for a factor with low values of 6. This is because the
magnitude and phase of the quadratic factor depend on both the
corner frequency and the damping ratio 6.
The asymptotic frequency-response curve may be obtained as
follows: Since for low frequencies such that w < w,,, the log
magnitude becomes
-20 log1 = 0dB
The low-frequency asymptote is thus a horizontal line at 0 dB.
For high frequencies such
that w 9 w,, the log magnitude becomes
w2 w

-20 log - = -40 log - dB

0: w n
The equation for the high-frequency asymptote is a straight
line having the slop(
-40 dB/decade since

Fig. Log-magnitude curves, together with the asymptotes,

and phase-angle curves of the quadratic transfer function.
phase-angle curves for the quadratic factor given by Equation (87) with several values
of J. If corrections are desired in the asymptotic curves, the
necessary amounts of correction at a sufficient number of
obtained from Figure 8-9.

frequency points may be

The phase angle of the quadratic factor [l f 2J(jw/w,) + (j~/o,)~]l is

4 = = -tan-' (8-8)
The phase angle is a function of both o and J. At w = 0, the
phase angle equals 0". At the corner frequency o = w,, the phase
angle is -90" regardless of J, since
At o = m, the phase angle becomes -180". The phase-angle
curve is skew symmetric about the inflection point-the point
where 4 = -90.There are no simple ways to sketch such phase
curves. We need to refer to the phase-angle curves shown in
Figure 8-9.
The frequency-response curves for the factor can be obtained by
merely reversing the sign of the log magnitude and that of the
phase angle of the factor
To obtain the frequency-response curves of a given quadratic
transfer function, we must first determine the value of the corner
frequency w, and that of the damping ratio 5.
Then, by using the family of curves given in Figure 8-9,
frequency-response curves
can be plotted.

the

The Resonant Frequency w, and the Resonant Peak Value Mr. The
magnitude of

POLAR PLOTS
The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jw) is a plot of
the magnitude of G(jw) versus the phase angle of G(jw) on polar
coordinates as w is varied from zero to infinity.Thus, the polar
plot is the locus of vectors l~(jw)I /G(jw) as w is varied from
zero to infinity. Note that in polar plots a positive (negative)
phase angle is measured counter- clockwise (clockwise) from the
positive real axis.The polar plot is often called the Nyquist plot.An
example of such a plot is shown in Figure 8-26. Each point on the
polar plot of G(jw) represents the terminal point of a vector at a
particular value of w. In the polar plot, it is important to show
the frequency graduation of the locus. The projections of G(jw)
on the real and imaginary axes are its real and imaginary
components.

An advantage in using a polar plot is that it depicts the frequencyresponse characteristics of a system over the entire frequency
range in a single plot. One disadvantage is that the plot does not
clearly indicate the contributions of each individual factor of the
open-loop transfer function.

Integral and Derivative Factors (j~)~'. The polar plot of

G(jo) = l/jw is the negative imaginary axis since The polar plot of
G(jw) = jw is the positive imaginary axis.
First-Order Factors (1 + juT)". For the sinusoidal transfer
function the values of G(jw) at w = 0 and w = 1/T are,
respectively,
G(j0) = 1 IO" and G
If w approaches infinity, the magnitude of G(jw) approaches zero
and the phase angle approaches -90". The polar plot of this
transfer function is a semicircle as the frequency w is varied
from zero to infinity, as shown in Figure 8-27(a). The center is
located at 0.5 on the real axis, and the radius is equal to 0.5.
To prove that the polar plot of the first-order factor G(jw) = 1/(1 +
jwT) is a semicircle, define

G(jw) = X + jY

where
X =
I
= real part of Gfjw)
1 + w2T2
-wT
Y = = imaginary part of G(jw)
1 + w2T2
Then we obtain

Quadratic Factors [I + 2<(jco/con) + (j~/co,)~]'~. The

low- and high-frequency portions of the polar plot of the
following sinusoidal transfer function

are given, respectively, by limG(jw) = 1/0" and lim G(jw) = 0/180"

w+O w+m
The polar plot of this sinusoidal transfer function starts at 1 /0"
and ends at 0/-180" as w increases from zero to infinity. Thus,
the high-frequency portion of G(jw) is tangent to the negative
real axis.

General Shapes of Polar Plots. The polar plots of a transfer

function of the form where n > m or the degree of the
denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator,
will have the following general shapes:
1. For A = 0 or type 0 systems: The starting point of the polar
plot (which corresponds to w = 0) is finite and is on the positive
real axis. The tangent to the polar plot at w = 0 is perpendicular
to the real axis. The terminal point, which corresponds to w = co,
is at the origin, and the curve is tangent to one of the axes.
2. For A = 1 or type 1 systems: the jw term in the denominator
contributes -90" to the total phase angle of G(jw) for 0 % w 5
co.At w = 0, the magnitude of G(jw) is infinity, and the phase
angle becomes -90". At low frequencies, the polar plot is

asymptotic to a line parallel to the negative imaginary axis. At w

= co, the magnitude becomes zero, and the curve converges to
the origin and is tangent to one of the axes.
3. For A = 2 or type 2 systems: The (jw)' term in the
denominator contributes -180" to the total phase angle of G(jw)
for 0 5 w 5 co. At w = 0, the magnitude of G(jw) is infinity, and
the phase angle is equal to -180'. At low frequencies, the polar
plot is asymptotic to a line parallel to the negative real axis. At w
= oo, the magnitude becomes zero, and the curve is tangent to
one of the axes.
The general shapes of the low-frequency portions of the polar
plots of type 0, type

Polar Plots of Simple Transfer Functions

LOG-MAGNITUDE-VERSUS-PHASE PLOTS
Another approach to graphically portraying the frequencyresponse characteristics is to use the log-magnitude-versusphase plot, which is a plot of the logarithmic magnitude in
decibels versus the phase angle or phase margin for a frequency
range of interest. [The phase margin is the difference between
the actual phase angle r$ and -180"; that is, 4 - (-180") = 180"
+ 4.1 The curve is graduated in terms of the frequency w. Such
log-magnitude-versus-phase plots are commonly called Nichols
plots.
In the Bode diagram, the frequency-response characteristics of
G(jw) are shown on semilog paper by two separate curves, the
log-magnitude curve and the phase-angle curve, while in the logmagnitude-versus-phase plot, the two curves in the Bode diagram
are combined into one. In the manual approach the logmagnitude-versus-phase plot can easily be constructed by
reading values of the log magnitude and phase angle from the
Bode diagram. Notice that in the log-magnitude-versus-phase
plot a change in the gain constant of G(jw) merely shifts the
curve up (for increasing gain) or down (for decreasing gain), but
the shape of the curve remains the same.
Advantages of the log-magnitude-versus-phase plot are that the
relative stability of the closed-loop system can be determined
quickly and that compensation can be worked out easily.
The log-magnitude-versus-phase plot for the sinusoidal transfer
function G(jw) and that for l/G(jw) are skew symmetrical about
the origin since

Log-Magnitude-versus-Phase Plots of Simple Transfer Functions

REFERENCES