Cognitivism theory of learning

Introduction
In the literatures on the development of education practices, teachers must
have high capability to cope with his or her student backgrounds before engaging
them into the teaching and learning processes (Harmer, 2007: 107-135). However,
teaching is not end since its goal does not meet to students learning purposes after
gaining more knowledge and skills. For this reason, Nunan (1988: 13) outlined a
typical warning to teachers that learners purposes will vary according to how
specific they are Given that teachers want to lead the students achieve their
goals in the education process, then, it is worthwhile for updating ones
comprehension on the theories of learning.
Next, Sugihartono, at al (2001: 4) contended that teacher and student are
two human beings in the education process. In this order, teachers are also
demanded to facilitate the teaching and learning instruction to be well- structured.
For this reason, the first theory that is relevant to the discussion in this essay laid
on cognitivism theory in the purpose of highlighting teachers mastery on students
as the subjects as well as the objects in their learning.
Orderly, this essay is addressed to become a highlight in the theorists
concepts from theory to practice. The object of the discussion will rest heavily on
the depth understanding on the history, definition, and principles of the
behaviorism learning theory. After that, there would be the next section which
supports the application of behaviorism theory into the English Language
Teaching. It is expected that the English language teachers have new paradigm in
viewing the cognitivism theory of learning as a glance before running the
educative mission. Thus, this might be preliminary knowledge towards students
backgrounds and characteristics where education processes serve to be changes.
History
In the history of learning theory development, cognitive has been
thought of as a key factor in human learning. This concept had recently been

challenged by the cognitivists whose studies demonstrating the way human

thinking influences their behaviors. Later, the study was born in a new discipline.
Reading in different resources on the history of cognitivism theory of
learning was begun in 1950s. The serious discussion was about its freedom from
behaviorism, which is, then, comprised in a number of disciplines. (Miller, 2003:
1). Starting from the year, much more information has become available. Those
who are interested in developing the theory put their ideas into reports.
A paper prepared by Smith (2001) provided a detail overview of the
history of cognitivism as a born theory of learning from the behaviorism. By the
World War II, Shannons (1948) proposed the Information Theory which meant
that cognition could be understood as a flow of information within the organism,
an idea that continues to dominate cognitive psychology.
Next, in 1958 Donald Broadbent presented a paper entitled Perception
and Communication. His work shows a model which explained that information
output from the perceptual system encountered a filter, which passed only
information to which people were attending.
The development of the theory moved to the present of Computer
Modeling Approach by Alan Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herb Simon (1957) which
contains these programs with detailed models of human problem solving.
Then, a large and growing body of literature had been investigated by
Noam Chomsky. He presented several studies investigating and succeed in
resulting an approach called The Generative Linguistics Approach. The studies
were carried out to introduce the modern cognitive psychology. The content of his
proposal was based on the idea that the transformational grammar would change
the intellectual landscape of linguistics, and usher in a new psycholinguistics.
In the other extent, Gestalt came with the Approach Intrinsic to
Psychology, another source of the modern cognitive psychology in field. It
focused on the higher mental processes. By 1960, it seemed to be clear to be the
birth of cognitive science and was an interdisciplinary. To highlight some terms,
the cognitive theory is put into account by any education institution. For example,
in Harvard it is the cognitive study. While, in Carnegie-Mellon they called it

information-processing psychology, and at La Jolla they called it cognitive

science.
In its advance, the cognitive theory benefited many areas of disciplinary.
One of which was the Cognitive Approach based on the pattern recognition,
Memory Models which comprised Short-Term memory (STM) and Long-Term
Memory (LTM) by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The next is New
Psycholinguistics, the new subfield of cognitive psychology that demanded
sophistication in modern linguistic theory (Miller, 1962). By 1970, a term in
which experts showed their efforts in exploring ideas on the cognitive theory to
lead to the Cognitive Science. Certainly, John Anderson and Gordon Bower were
two people whose work was definitely noted because they talked about the
Memory and Language.
The description might be an overview about the history of the
cognitivism theory of learning. It is expected that our understanding of the theory
become a base for future studies in education. Accordingly, it adds substantial
input to understand the cognitive study and its implication to ones learning
development.
Definition
Numerous studies have attempted to explain the cognitivism theory of learning
from their perspectives. Some references are contradictory from one to another,
while others have considered the relationship between evidences as empirical data
that supports their concepts. Ormrod (2008: 162-163) cited in Munoz outlined five
references as the assumption of Cognitive learning theory to Human Learning:

Some learning processes may be unique to human beings.

Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations

that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes.

People are actively involved in the learning process.

Knowledge is organized.

Objective, systematic observations of peoples behavior should be the

focus of scientific inquiry; however, inferences about unobservable mental

processes can often be drawn from behavior.
Here is the link in order to get more understanding on learning theories which also
include the cognitivism theory of learning and its coverage in the instructional
process (www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YOqgXjynd0)
In the light of viewing the advance of human learning, Brown (2001: 65) depicted
the categories of years due to Piaget concept that at the first 16 years where there
are cognitive developments. It is indicated that some cognitive changes are
critical, while others are more gradual and difficult to detect.
Furthermore, Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007: 284286) cited in Stevenson (2010) proposed that the cognitivism theory attempt to
explain what was occurring in the mind during learning, a subject virtually
ignored by the previous theories that focused on actions and behaviors of the
learner.
Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagne are two theorists who gave more thought in
discussing cognitivism. Bruner based his theory on three processes:
1. Acquisition of new information
2. Transformation, or the process of manipulating knowledge to make it fit
new tasks; and
3. Evaluation, or checking whether the way we have manipulated information
is adequate to the task
Next, Gagne and his colleagues Briggs, and Wagner (1992) theorized that there
are eight types of knowledge, including:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Signal Learning,
Stimulus-response,
Motor training,
Verbal association,
Discrimination learning,
Concept learning,
Rule learning,
Problem solving.

Now, we may get Piagets categorization of stages when observing childrens

intellectual development:

a. Sensorimotor stage
( birth to 2)
b. Preoperational stage
(ages 2 to 7)
c. Operational stage
(ages 7 to 16)
This stage is accumulated into next two stages:
Concrete operational stage
Formal operational stage

(ages 7 to 11)
(ages 11 to 16)

Ertmer & Newby, 1993: 62 as cited in Munoz (2011) categorized the cognitive
theory of learning into two branches, namely:
a. Constructivism
Knowledge is a function of how the individual creates meaning from his or
her own experiences.
Cognitive theories emphasizing the idea that individuals do not just
passively absorb information, but, rather, interact with information
constructing their own individual meanings from it to form
knowledge.
b. Contextual theories
Cognitive

theories

emphasize

on

the

context

(immediate

environment) in learning. Additionally, Contextual theories

suggest that learners often think and perform more intelligently
when they can draw on a variety of environmental support systems
that enable them to make sense of new situations and help them
tackle challenging tasks and problems (Ormrod, 2008, p. 165).
Examples include: situated learning, situated cognition, distributed
learning, and distributed intelligence (Ormrod, 2008).

Principles of Cognitivism theory of learning

Kristinsdttir (2001) has written the most complete synthesis to date of the
principles based on Piagets concepts on cognitivism. Four principles are
interpreted as follows:

1. Readiness.
The first principle was stressed on the assimilation. It is identified that
experience, educational must always be assimilated to the developing
cognitive structure. A learner who makes sense of an experience is said to
give a value of it.
2. The motivation for cognitive activity.
Creating activities that may challenge learners under the appropriate level
of educational content materials.
3. The awareness of what level the child: what it can be expected at that level
and what is not.
The third principle is emphasized on the importance of balancing learners
inquiry of the educational content for further development.
4. Functional
It has been suggested that by Piaget to find learners intelligence as an
action. This meant that learners education is dependent of their natural
curiosity and natural tendency to play in the real world. This also indicates
learners as individuals who construct their knowledge themselves in
viewing the world.
Application
Now, we may relate the cognitive to the application on child language
development. Before we match the theory to application, we may better have an
understanding on issues following child development primarily on second
language. Brown (2007:68) inferred that perhaps around the age of 14 or 15, the
prospect of learning second language becomes overwhelming, thus discouraging
the learner from proceeding a step at a time as a younger child would do.
To follow up the language teaching approaches, Murcia (2001: 7) introduced the
Cognitive Approach which is resulted as the reaction to behaviorism features of
the Audio-lingual Approach influenced by Chomsky. Here are the features of the
approach:
Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit
formation

 Instruction is often individualized, learners are responsible for their

own learning
Grammar must be taught but it can be taught deductively (rules
first, practice later) and / or inductively (rules can either be stated
after practice or left as implicit information for the learners to
process on their own.
Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic
an unattainable
Reading and writing are once again important, especially at
intermediate and advance levels
Errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the
learning process
The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the
target language as well as an ability to analyze the target language.
Furthermore, Suharno (2009: 15) attempted to recommend some strategies based
on the cognitivism theory of learning that can be applied for childrens language
development, namely: repetition, organizing new language, summarizing
meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorization. These
strategies are stressed to improve children language learning. Furthermore, the
strategies are classified into two:
1. Meta-cognitive strategies (organizing learning); and
2. Social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction)
These two strategies might lead the learners in their learning process
critically, i.e. thinking process, problem solving, and decision making. To put
it into another way, the learners have internal control as they have high
consciousness.
Conclusion
Cognitive theory results cognitive approach which is group into the innatist
model. This model has its focus on the role of mental or psycholinguistic
processes. The application of the cognitive approach is believed to improve the
learners intelligence. Besides, the type its activities can make the learners think

more critically towards certain topics. For this reason, the teaching or learning
process which is based on the cognitive approach may cover activities such as
problem solving, discovery learning, project-based learning, and so on

References
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York:
Pearson Education, Inc.
E. E. Smith. (2001). Cognitive Psychology: History. Elsevier Science Ltd.
Retrieved
October
18,
2012,
from
http://mechanism.ucsd.edu/teaching/w07/philpsych/smith.cogpsychhisto
ry.pdf.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language Teaching. Fourth edition.
England: Pearl Education Limited.
Jorda, M., & Campbell, S. (2010). Cognitivism and Constructivism. Retrieved
October
10,
2012,
from
http://www.coe.fau.edu/faculty/cafolla/courses/eme6051/Cognitivism.ht
m.
Kristinsdttir, B. S. (2001). Cognitivism. Retrieved October 30, 2012, from
http://mennta.hi.is/starfsfolk/solrunb/cognitiv.htm.
Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus Design. New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller, A. G. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. Retrieved
October
17,
2012,
from
http://www.utdallas.edu/~otoole/HCS6330_F09/01_miller.pdf.
Munoz, L. Cognitive Learning Theory. Retrieved October 15, 2012, from
http://lynnmunoz.me/learning-theories/cognitive-learning-theory/.
Murcia, C. M. (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Third
Edition. New Work: Thomson Learning, Inc.
Stevenson, C. (2010). Learning Theory: Cognitivism. Retrieved October 10, 2012,
from
http://onestoptrainer.blogspot.com/2010/01/learning-theorycognitivism.html.
Sugihartono, at al. (2007). Psikologi Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: UNY Press.
Suharno. (2009). Cognitivism and Its Implication in the Second Language
Learning.
Retrieved
October
10,
2012,
from
http://staff.undip.ac.id/sastra/suharno/2009/07/21/cognitivism-and-itsimplication-in-the-second-language-learning/.

Task on Cognitivism theory of learning

Name

: Yakob Metboki

NIM

: 2003512039

Rombel

:1