Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
RDULESCU
GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY
LECTURE NOTES
2002
FOREWORD
The presented lecture notes are addressed to the students of the Faculty of Mineral
Resources and Environment, to those who attend a form of undergraduate or postgraduate
specialization, to all those who in their design or execution activity find themselves in
situations that require the help of topographic methods and instruments in order to solve
the technical problems related with implementing an investment.
This course represents the general part of TOPOGRAPHY, the direct side by
which planimetric and leveling terrain surfaces are measured in order to be represented
on topographic plans.
Based on an experience of more than 20 years, I have elaborated this work
starting from what I have learnt in the Faculty of Geodesy from Bucharest, from the
prominent specialty teachers: the regretted N. Cristescu, M. Sebastian-Taub, M. Neamtu,
E. Ulea, from my lifetime mentor Mr. Prof. Dr. Eng. Vasile Ursea, then passing to the
collaboration within the specialty department in the Polytechnic Institute from ClujNapoca (during the years 1980-1985) together with the colleagues Ms. Viorica Balan and
Mr. Gheorghe Bendea, and then continuing within the institution where I am working in
the present.
Being addressed also to those that chose a form pf specialization with reduced
frequency (Distance Learning or Without Frequency) I have tried to give this work a
didactical, explicit character, each relation being deduced starting from solutions in which
the interrelation of the processed elements is presented.
The Author
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD....................................................................................................................II
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................III
CHAPTER I.......................................................................................................................1
1.1. TOPOGRAPHY THE SCIENCE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS.......1
1.1.a. THE ACTIVITY SPHERE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS..................1
1.1.b. THE OBJECT AND THE TOPOGRAPHIC APPLICATIONS IN
CONSTRUCTIONS AND MINING.............................................................................3
1.2. THE PRINCIPLES OF THE TECHNICAL SCIENCE IN TOPOGRAPHY..........6
1.3. LENGTH AND SURFACE MEASURING UNITS.................................................9
1.3.1. LENGTH-MEASURING UNITS........................................................................9
1.3.2. SURFACE-MEASURING UNITS.....................................................................11
CHAPTER II THE SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF EARTH, PROJECTIONS,
REPRESENTATIONS.....................................................................................................17
2.1. THE GENERAL SHAPE OF THE EARTH...........................................................17
2.2. THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH..................................................................18
2.3. CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS. OVERVIEW. CLASSIFICATIONS...........19
2.4. CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS GENERAL PRINCIPLES........................21
2.5. PROJECTION SYSTEMS USED ALONG TIME IN OUR COUNTRY..............23
CHAPTER III TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN......................26
3.1. TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE, DETAILS, GEOMETRIZING THE TERRAIN,
CHARACTERISTIC POINTS......................................................................................26
PROJECTIONS, MAPS, PLANS...............................................................................27
TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN...................................................29
PLANIMETRIC AND LEVELING TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS, INTRODUCTORY
ELEMENTS...............................................................................................................36
CHAPTER IV ERROR ANALYSIS IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS.....38
4.1. MEASUREMENT CLASSIFICATION.................................................................38
4.2. NOTIONS CONCERNING ERRORS...................................................................40
4.3. PRESENTING MEASUREMENT RESULTS.......................................................43
CHAPTER V TOPOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS....................................................45
5.1. STUDYING THEODOLITES................................................................................45
MAIN AXES AND PARTS OF A THEODOLITE.......................................................48
THE COMPONENTS OF A THEODOLITE.............................................................50
USING THE THEODOLITE.....................................................................................56
VERIFYING AND RECTIFYING THEODOLITES...................................................60
MEASURING ANGLES WITH THE THEODOLITE................................................63
INSTRUMENTS FOR DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES........................66
OPERATIONS ON THE DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES....................67
III
CHAPTER I
1.1. TOPOGRAPHY THE SCIENCE OF TERRESTRIAL
MEASUREMENTS
1.1.a. THE ACTIVITY SPHERE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS
The assembly of sciences that contribute to the measurement and representation
of terrestrial surfaces establishes the science of terrestrial measurements. There can be
distinguished three main goals of this science, from the following perspectives:
-
TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS
GEODETIC
ASTRONOMY
GEODETIC
GRAVIMETRY
GEODEOSY
CARTOGRAPHY
TOPOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
REMOTE SENSING
COSMICAL
MATHEMATICS
AERIAL
ELIPSOID
DRAFTING
TERRESTRIAL
CARRYING OUT
PLAN
REPRODUCING
PLAN
PROBLEM
TRIANGULATION
HEIGHT
PROBLEM
PLAN
PROBLEM
HEIGHT
PROBLEM
PLANIMETRY
LEVELLING
PRECISION
TRAVERSING
DESIGN
EXECUTION
MONITORING
GEODETIC
LEVELLING
GEOMETRY
OF INFERIOR ORDER
TEHNICAL-ECONOMICAL STUDIES
TRILATERATION
OF SUPERIOR ORDER
ENGINEERING
METHODS
INSTRUMENTS
TRIGONOMETRY
TRAVERSING
LEVELLING
TRAVERSE
PLANIMETRIC
TRAVERSE
LEVELLING
PLANIMETRIC
SURVEY
SURVEY
PHOTOINTERPRETATION
GENERAL
EDITING
MAP
PRACTICAL
on
the
solved
problem,
there
exist
two
components
of
TOPOGRAPHY:
GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY, which comprises:
-
The study of general methods and instruments, used for different works;
Ensuring
maps,
plans, profiles,
bearing
points, measurements
and
computations (that belong to the direct problem) for the design of different
investments;
-
Office and field works for applying the engineering projects and monitoring
the time behavior of the terrains and constructions (the inverse problem of
topography).
Surveys aiming the spatial position of constructions and mining works, and
their support with respect to the ore deposit;
As the process of exploitation of the ore deposit is carried on, the pressures in the
mining works and the influence of the spaces exploited underground upon the main
mining works and upon the surface are determined based on topographic measurements.
MATHEMATICS
PHYSICS
GEODESY
ERROR THEORY
TOPOGRAPHY
IT
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
GEOGRAPHY
CHEMISTRY
CONSTRUCTIONS
MINING
LAND RECLAMATION
LAND REGISTER
SYLVICULTURE
GEOLOGY
GEOGRAPHY
GEOPHYSICS
GEOMORPHOLOGY
HYDROGRAPHY
OCEANOGRAPHY
SYSTEMATIZATION
URBANISM
SEISMOLOGY
VOLCANOLOGY
POLLUTION ANALYSIS
NAVAL AND AIR
NAVIGATION
ARCHAEOLOGY
DEFENSE
SPORTS ATHLETICS
GEOLOGY
whereas in the second case, one or more dimensional measures are applied in the field, in
order to obtain a new topographic point.
GENERAL
ENGINEERING
TOPOGRAPHY
Schema
l0
A
B
S
-
DA
I
A
SC
II
A
I
B
II
B
Known Unknown
elements
elements
Compu
tations Measur
Measur
es
P oints
es
Schema
P oints
Distances
DA
=n A
0 1
DB l l
B
=n0- 1
B
DA l l
l0
A
A
D=
---------D BD B
---2
DB
B C
I= IB - IA
C C
II= IIB - IIA D
A
B
CB CI +CII
=
-------
--2
CIA
B S
CIIA
DA
CIA
CIIA
VI
II
i VI
B VII
ZA
A ZA
B
ZB
a
A
ZA
Horizont al
comparison
plan
b
B
ZA
LevelB Z
surface B
I = g - I
100 V
II= II- g
VI 300
+II
=
---------2
VI
VII
i
B i
Heights
ZA = a ZA
B- b
b ZB=ZA -ZA ZB
B
A
C
A
ZA
VI
VII
bB
ZA
VI = g -
100
V= - g
300
B-Z
A
=Z
= aZA
B
bB
ZB
CIB = IA-
C
II
C B = IIA-
C
ZB ZA
a
b
l1= D - n0
.l
CIB
CIIB
Vertical angles
n
D = ------ 0
l
l1
Horizontal angles
CA
Compu
tations
DA
DBB
n
l0 lA0 l0 B
l1
n0
l
xl
1
TRACING
Traced Measured
Traced
Known Unknown
elements elements
Measured
elements
MEASUREMENT
= 0.7112 m;
1 sajau
= 2.134 m = 7 feet;
1 veceta
1 Austrian mile
= 7595.94 m;
1 Hungarian mile
= 8353.60 m;
1 English mile
= 1609.33 m;
1 marine mile
= 1852.20 m = 10 cabeltown;
1 geographic mile
= 7420.44 m;
1 yard
1 inch (tol)
= 0.0254 m;
1 foot (picior)
= 0.3040 m = 12 inches.
10
1 stj = 3.59565055 m;
1 m = 0.27803643 stj;
1 stj = 3.8671212 m;
1 m = 0.2585902 stj;
1 stj = 4.9729000 m;
1 m = 0.2010899 stj.
11
T = (0.030 + 0.002L) m
(1)
T = (0.004L + l/7500) m
(2)
T = 0.003L m
(3)
(2) and (3) are increased with 35% for = 5g 10g (slope angle);
(2) and (3) are increased with 70% for = 10g 15g;
(2) and (3) are increased with 100% for > 15g.
2. Measuring horizontal angles with the theodolite
T = ec2 = 1.41 ec
(4)
(5)
(6)
T = 0.1 mm;
Leveling of order II
T = 0.2 mm;
T = 0.5 mm;
Leveling of order IV
T = 1 mm;
Leveling of order V
T = 2 mm;
12
(7)
5. Planimetric traverse
a. Measuring sides TL = 0.003L (see 1 b, c);
b. Closing discrepancy on orientations
T = pn;
(8)
(9)
(10)
T = 0.5 mmLkm;
T = 5 mmLkm;
T = 10 mmLkm;
T = 20 mmLkm;
T = 30 mmLkm;
(11)
Where Lkm represents the total length of the traverse, expressed in km.
7. The leveling of surfaces, profiles
Determining the height of a point
T = 0.5 mm;
(12)
(13)
FU = 20cc;
(14)
FU = 15;
9. Tracing simple topographic elements in the field
-
(15)
(16)
c.
(17)
d.
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
b. Foundations
-
(22)
Dimensional deviations:
14
(23)
T = 0.5 cm;
-
(24)
Verticals:
T = 0.2 cm / m height
(25)
d. Stakes
-
(26)
(27)
Verticality:
TV = 1/1000 H;
(28)
(29)
(30)
g. Floors
-
Horizontality:
T0 = 1 cm;
(31)
(32)
Plan winding:
TF = 0.5 1 cm;
(33)
15
(34)
Remark: All the presented values have a guiding character. Depending on the
importance of the work, the tolerances can have narrower or larger values in comparison
to those presented.
The Anglo-Saxon system of measuring units
Table Appendix 1 a
Unit
1 inch
1 foot
1 yard
1 fathom
1 terrestrial mile
1 nautical mile
Unit
1 square inch
1 square foot
1 square yard
1 acre
1 square mile
-
Length-measuring units
Submultiples
12 inches
3 foot
2 yards
1760 yards
Surface-measuring units
Submultiples
144 square inch
9 square foot
4840 square yards
640 acres
-
m equivalent
0.0254
0.3048
0.9144
1.8288
1609.34
1852.20
m equivalent
6.4516 cm
9.2903 dm
0.8361 m
4046.8400 m
2.5899 km
-
Length-measuring units
Surface-measuring units
Unit
m equivalent
Unit
m equivalent
1 stnjen ardelenesc
1 stnjen ptrat ardelenesc
1.89648384
3.5966508
(Transylvanian fathom)
(Transylvanian square fathom)
1 stnjen moldovenesc
1 stnjen ptrat moldovenesc
2.2300
4.9729000
(Moldavian fathom)
(Moldavian square fathom)
1 stnjen muntenesc
1 stnjen ptrat muntenesc
1.9665
3.8671222
(Wallachian fathom)
(Wallachian square fathom)
1 palm
1 prjin pogoneasc
moldoveneasc
0.28
208.8240
(yoke pole)
(Moldavian palm)
1 deget moldovenesc
1 prjin flceasc
0.03
179.0240
(Moldavian inch)
1 linie moldoveneasc
1 pogon
0.003
5012.000
(Moldavian line)
(yoke)
16
1 palm munteneasc
(Wallachian palm)
1 dejet muntenesc
(Wallachian inch)
1 linie munteneasc
(Wallachian line)
1 falc
0.25
1 jugr cadastral
(cadastral yoke)
0.02
14,320.000
5,754.6412
0.002
NV
Ellipsoid
Geoid
Topographic
surface
17
The terrestrial surface being curved, the main difficulties come exactly from
passing from the real image, on a curved surface, to the scaled down image, on a plan
surface. In the study and representation of terrestrial surfaces we can distinguish:
Half axis
Author
BESSEL
CLERKE
HELMERT
HAYFORD
KRAKOVSKI
Year
1841
1880
1906
1909
1940
Big a
Small b
6,377,397
6,378,249
6,378,200
6,378,388
6,378,245
6,356,079
6,356,515
6,356,818
6,356,912
6,356,863
18
Flatness
a-b
= -----a
1 : 299.2
1 : 293.5
1 : 298
1 : 297
1 : 298.3
PN
ZERO MERIDIA
N
EQUATOR CIRCLE
PS
19
real size, or the representation of all of them. One of the classifications of the
cartographic systems is the following:
CONRRESPONDIN
G
Surfaces are kept
similar
EQUIVALENT
Surfaces are kept
undistorted
EQUIDISTANT
Surfaces are kept
undistorted
ARBITRARY
Everything appears
distorted
CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
Table 2
Azimuthal
The
projection
is
performed
on a plan
Conical
Cylindrical
Pseudoconical
Pseudocylindrical
Polyconical
Circular
Perspective Polar
Orthographic
D=
Oblique
Exterior
RD
Equatorial Stereographic
D=R
Interior DR
Central D =
R
NonPolar
perspective Oblique
Equatorial
Polar
Oblique
Equatorial
D: the distance from the center of the
sphere to the viewed point
U
U
UM
M (U,V)
V
VM
f1
M (U,V)
UM
f2
V
VM
20
Y M
X M
Y
PN
PS
Pi
a: azimuth
z: zenithal distance
M: the image of M on Q (projection plan)
a, q: polar coordinates in the plan the projection of Cartesian coordinates
21
x = q cos a
y = q sin a
q = f(z)
DISTORTIONS
R1 (on the vertical) = 1/R dq / dz
R2 (on the almucantar) = 1/R q / sin z
p (on the areolar) = qdq / R2 sin z dz
Orthographic
Stereographic
Central
Figure 8
Pseudoconical
Secant The projection is perf ormed:
Conical
Tangent
Polyconical
The projection is perf ormed: on
two or more cones
Cylindrical
Figure 9
P
P
E
E
PS
PS
Transversal (polar)
Normal (equatorial)
E
PS
Oblique
Figure 10
Pseudocylindrical equivalent
(the meridians are ellipses, and the
parallels are lines)
Cylindrical corresponding:
navigation
Cylindrical equidistant: are
recommended only for regions
close to the equator
Figure 1122
P PN
P E
Polar
EP PN
Equatorial
Oblique
Figure 7
Table 2
Projection
name
CASSINI
BONE
LAMBERTCHOLESKY
Projection type
Reference
ellipsoid
Central
Origin Radius of
projection
axial
the null
point
meridian distortion
circle
KRASOVSKI 18761893
250
-
CONVENTIONAL
CYLINDRICAL
EQUIVALENT
CLARKE
CONICAL
CORRESPONDING
CONICAL
Tangent
CORRESPONDING BESSEL
plan
PERSPECTIVE
Budapest AZIMUTHAL
Year of
adoption
1895
19141918
1933
23
230
4627.83
+ 20 dif.
Properties
232.78
Keeps the
angles under
certain
limitations
Keeps the
angles and
shapes
resemblances
= 51g = 28g21c38cc
STEREOGRAPHIC
Tangent
plan
Tg.Mures
Secant
plan
Brasov
HAYFORD
GAUSS.
KRGER
TRANSVERSAL
CYLINDRICAL
KRASOV
1951
=210:270
STEREO 70
SECANT
PLAN
CORRESPONDING KRASOV
PERSPECTIVE
AZIMUTHAL
1970
= 51g
= 25g
The axial
meridian is
represented
without
distortions
Keeps the
angles and
shapes
resemblances
C: central point;
P
Y
Rs
l = 2R0tg/2
P
P (XP ,YP)
0
/2
= l/R0
l = 2R0tg l /2R0
YP
Rs
0
XP
XP = lsin
Stereo representation on
the tangent plan
YP = lcos
Figure 12
The plan image of the circle that passes through the pole of the projection and
the fundamental point is a straight line and it is adopted as 0z axis, and 0x
0y;
24
The coordinate axes have been translated with 500km towards S-V by
convention, in order to make these coordinates positive;
Secant plan
Around 232
Brasov
l
ls
R = 6379 km
km
lt
lt
NORTH Y
Cavnic
Null distortion
circle
ls
lt
l
Cluj
R = 232
km
C
WEST - X 500 km
Brasov
500 km
EAST X
Bucharest
SOUTH - Y
0
Figure 13
25
26
If the distance between the characteristic points is large (> 50 m), then
intermediary points are chosen on the contour of the detail, which will be called
THICKENING POINTS.
V1
1
2
3
DETAIL
12
13
11
a)
1
6
5
3
12
11
3
11
2
1
b)
12
Alba river
13
c)
5
14
15
16
d)
a)
b)
c)
d)
7
8
The surfaces measured in topography are small, so that the terrestrial curvature
can be ignored, and the projection of the measured points is performed directly on a
horizontal projection plan. The operation carried on through verticals is called
TOPOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
A
B
The surface
of the Earth
Geodetic
projection
D
C
Ellipsoid
A
D
C
Horizontal
projection
plan
Scaling down
Cartographic
projection
A
D
B
C
Topographic map
Figure 3.2. The topographic map. The geodetic projection
The obtained image, scaled down and topographically processed, represents the
TOPOGRAPHIC PLAN.
The points M, N, P, R represent measured points, that is characteristic points and
points of the control network in the measurement.
28
Topographic projection
P
N
Scaling down
Horizontal
projection
plan
P
R
M
R
N
P
Topographic plan
LINEAR: the horizontal distance Diy, slanted distances Lij, absolute heights
Zi, Zy, relative heights altitude differences Ziy (the last two are vertical
distances);
29
ZAB
sinAB = --------- AB
L
AB
AB alignment
co AB = -------C
D
(
( B)
LACVC )
B
s
--- AB
V
B
V
V
AC
AB
L
VAB
LAB
ZAB
VAB
ZAB
( A)
tgAB = ------- AC
AB
--- AB DAC AC
DAB H
AB
D
DAB
C0
B0
A
ZB
A
ZA
LAB =D2AB +Z2AB
Reference surface for heights
ZB = A +ZAB
Z
Figure 4. Linear and angular topographic elements of the terrain
alignment
A, C, respectively.
the point A
ORIENTATIONS, COORDINATES
DIRECTIONS, HORIZONTAL ANGLE, VERTICAL ANGLE
B
0g
0g
C
VAB
B
AB
A
g
100g
200
200g
Figure 5. Directions, horizontal angle
30
In the horizontal plan, using a graduated circle (the horizontal circle of the
theodolite), placed in its center it coincides with the topographic point A, the axes that
unite the stationed point A with the aimed points B are called ORIENTED
DIRECTIONS. Taking into account the sense of the graduations of the circle, it will
result that the horizontal angle will be:
= direction C direction B.
In vertical plan, using a graduated circle (the vertical circle of the theodolite)
placed in the point A, the axis that unites the point A with the point B is called
SLANTED DIRECTION and it expresses the value of the ZENITHAL ANGLE VAB. It
can be seen that the activity (vertical) angle AB will be:
AB = 100 g VAB.
In fact, because the device cannot be placed at the level of the stationed
benchmark, the axis AB, and AC, respectively, will be translated with a height
corresponding to the height i of the device with which the point A was stationed.
COORDINATES AXES, ORIENTATIONS
A rectangular systems X0Y is used in topography for repeating the measured
points on the topographic plan, which is chosen such that the 0X axis to be parallel to the
NORTH direction.
In this system, the measured points will be characterized by the values (Xi, Yi)
called ABSOLUTE COORDINATES, in this case, for A: (XA, YA), and for B: (XB, YB).
There also can be identified: (XAB, YAB) called RELATIVE COORDINATES,
noticing that: XAB = XB XA, YAB = YB YA and that DAB = X2AB + Y2AB.
ORIENTING A DIRECTION represents the angle measured in right-handed
direction, from the NORTH direction towards that direction.
For each point from the terrain there can be defined three NORTH directions:
Ng = the direction towards the GEOGRAPHIC NORTH;
Nm = the direction towards the MAGNETIC NORTH;
N = the TOPOGRAPHIC NORTH, the direction that is parallel to the 0X axis.
31
N
AB
Ng
Nm
gAB
D AB
nAB
A
0
Y
Figure 8. Orientations
AB
B
E
AC
AE
A
C
D
AD
Y
Figure 9. The orientation of directions in the four quadrants
32
--
II;
--
III;
--
IV.
The angles defined in the circle are codified with the Greek letter (THETA),
having the end points of that direction as indexes example: AB.
90
II
ctg
I
IV
18
0
cos
III
X
0g
N
sin
cos
Y
0
30
0
IV
cosAB
tg AB
sin AB
AB
cos
III
II
ctgAB
Y
10 g
0
20 g
0
Figure 11. The topographic circle
33
X
X
AB
XAB
XA
YAB
YA
YB
CASE II:
A, B: some points in the terrain (benchmarks, characteristic points)
(XA, YA), (XB, YB): known elements; (DAB, AB): required elements.
Computations:
2
D AB X 2AB sYAB
tg AB
YAB
X AB
34
THE
CORRESPONDANCE
OF
THE
FUNCTIONS
IN
THE
FOUR
QUADRANTS
Trigonometric
functions
sin iy
cos iy
tg iy
ctg iy
Orientation
Quadrant I
1 = 1
Quadrant II
2 = 2 100g
Quadrant III
3 = 3-200g
Quadrant IV
4 = 4-300g
+ sin 1
+ cos 1
+ tg 1
+ ctg 1
+ cos 2
- sin 2
- ctg 2
- tg 2
- sin 3
- cos 3
+ tg 3
+ ctg 3
- cos 4
+ sin 4
- ctg 4
- tg 4
Xij Yij
ij
Quadrant I
Quadrant II
Quadrant III
Quadrant IV
+
+
+
+
-
Orientation
ij
Quadrant I
Computation
Example figure
relation
(9)
iy arctg
Quadrant II
Quadrant III
Quadrant IV
AB
Yiy
X iy
iy 100 g arctg
iy 200 g arctg
iy 200 g arctg
Yiy
AC
sX iy
Yiy
AE
X iy
Yiy
AD
sX iy
The tables complement the knowledge needed for solving the two problems,
regardless of the quadrant in which is the orientation iy. The handbook of tutorials and
problems gives different computation examples, numerically extending the solution of the
two cases discussed earlier.
It should be noticed that from the three tables it results the analysis of the four
previous figures.
PLANIMETRIC AND LEVELING TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS,
INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS
35
The elements needed for computing the heights of all characteristic points situated
within an area can be measured with respect to a benchmark of known height found in
that area, solving in this way, from the main point of view, the problem of leveling survey
of the area that was operated within.
37
38
M 1 M 2 ... M n [M ]
n
n
M0
p1 M 1 p 2 M 2 ... p m M m [p M]
p1 p 2 ... p m
[ p]
(4.1)
(4.2)
The more precise the used instruments are, and the more experienced the
operators are, operating in known environmental conditions favorable to the
measurements, the better the results shall be;
The greater the number of measurements for a given variable, the closer the
most likely value M (or M0) shall be to the real value;
39
Human causes (lack of experience, the limit of sense especially the visualoptical one, tired operator), which determine PERSONAL ERRORS;
measurements),
which
determine
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS.
The difference between some two values M k, and Mp from among the series of
individual measurements executed upon the same variable, is called DISCREPANCY ():
Mk Ml
(4.3)
(4.4)
40
(4.5)
Are controllable;
Must
be
removed
from
measurements
(improving
the
measuring
The probability of producing positive and negative errors being the same, the
sum of these errors will be close to zero for the case of a large number of
measurements;
The relation:
eti = eui n
(4.6)
41
(4.7)
(4.8)
p v = 0
(4.9)
(4.10) and
p v2 = minim
(4.11)
v2
-----n-1
(4.12)
p v2
--------n-1
(4.13 )
(4.14)
(4.15)
for the evaluation of some values of the maximal (limit) error and of the
discrepancy max, respectively.
THE MEAN SQUARE ERROR OF THE MEAN will be:
Eq
eM = --------
(4.16)
42
n
in the case of direct measurements with the same precision, and
Eq0
eM0 = ------- p
(4.17)
This kind of error indicates the closeness degree of the means M and M 0,
respectively, to the real value X that they are replacing.
Analyzing the relation (4.17) it can be seen that eM will be smaller if:
(4.18)
measurements,
and if the mean square errors will be denoted with mi, the mean error of the
function f can be computed in the following way:
f
f
f
m2f = m21 ---- + m22 ----- + .. + m2n ------ (4.19)
x1
x2
xn
Therefore, it can be said that: THE SQUARED ERROR OF A FUNCTION f IS
EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE PRODUCTS BETWEEN THE MEAN SQUARE
ERRORS AND THE SQUARED PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF THE FUNCTION.
(4.20)
43
where: P is the mean value (M, M0) of the measurement series, after removing the
systematic errors;
a is one of the mean or limit errors (eq, eM, etc.).
In the case when the precision of measurements depends on the measured variable
(e.g.: measuring distances), the errors can be expressed as RELATIVE ERRORS (er), for
example:
eM
er = -------M
Conclusion: ERROR THEORY solves two basic problems in topographic
measurements:
1. It allows removing rough errors (mistakes).
2. It determines the precision of measurements.
The analysis of errors also allows the organization of topographic measurements
(methods, instruments, measuring circumstances, number of measurements), as correctly
and economically as possible.
It should be notices that: ERROR THEORY refers only to
1. Proper errors;
2. Random errors, ONLY AFTER THE MEASUREMENTS HAVE BEEN
CORRECTED OF ALL SYSTEMATIC ERRORS.
44
45
point A
The vertical
AB
Cv
A 0
B 0
C
AC
C 0
Horizontal
plan
Mathematical
point (Xi, Yi)
Cv
Topographic benchmark
B
A
A
46
iii) Depending on the precision assured for measuring angles, the theodolites can
be classified as:
-
47
NN: the directrix of the level air bubble, tangent axis to the horizontal setting
device of the apparatus.
R2
N
R1
V
Figure 3. Main axes
Alidade circle, which supports the superstructure of the theodolite and carries
the reading indexes for the horizontal circle;
The superstructure of the theodolite is the part that has as basis the alidade, being
supported by it: the vertical circle and the telescope.
The infrastructure of the theodolite is the part that connects the superstructure to
the trivet plate, consisting of the horizontal circle and the base.
PARTS THAT ENSURE THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE DEVICE
PARTS
THAT
ENSURE
THE
HORIZONTAL
SETTING
OF
THE
THEODOLITE:
-
The level air bubble, the spherical level, the foot screws (three) of the base
(Remark: bubble similar word level).
Screw for locking the movement around the VV axis, screw for locking the
movement around the 00 axis, screw for locking the movement around the VV
axis of the horizontal circle (locking the recording movement), device for the
refined movement around the VV axis, device for the refined movement
around the HH axis, device for introducing horizontal angular values, device
that fastens the apparatus to the base.
49
Device for approximate aiming, screw for clarifying the image of the reticular
plate.
OTHER PARTS:
-
The microscope for reading the values of the horizontal and vertical angles,
optical plumb-bob wire = device for optical centering of the device.
Is an optical device used for clearly and magnifyingly aiming point (signals);
Has internal focusing (image clarification) the reticule is fixed, and the
image is moving in the plan;
Consists of two coaxial tubes: the lens tube and the ocular tube;
The lens of the telescope has the purpose to form the image of the aimed
object, reduced, real, reversed (if there isnt another auxiliary system that
turns the image upright again), located between the ocular and the center of
the ocular lens;
The ocular of the telescope has the purpose to magnify the image of the lens;
The reticule of the telescope consists of a glass plate on which lines are very
finely engraved (1), being called vertical and horizontal cross-hairs, (double
on one side) and stadimetric wires, symmetrically placed with respect to the
previous ones (figure 4).
Magnifying power, which represents the number that shows how many times
the image of an object seen through the telescope is larger than the image seen
with the eye; the value is labeled with M and is given by the ratio between the
focal distance of the lens and of the ocular; practical values of M: 15X60X;
The aiming field of the telescope represent the conical space bounded by the
generator that passes through the center of the entrance pupil and the interior
border of the bed of the reticular plate; values between 11.5; it is conversely
proportional to its size, the high precision theodolites have large M and a
small aiming field.
The smallest gradation can be: 1g, (1/2)g, (1/4)g, (1/5)g, (1/10)g.
The theodolite can be used in two positions, diametrically opposite on the bearing
circle, thus for a measured angle resulting two sensitively equal values:
IA = C IC - C IB
IIA = C IIC - C IIB
IA + IIA
The most likely value will be: A = --------------, only if IA IIA;
2
Using this method, most of the equipment errors are removed.
The horizontal circle must satisfy the following conditions:
-
The alidade circle must be horizontal and concentric with the graduated circle.
51
10
0
20
0
CC
I A
CB
bearing
circle
i2
alidade
i1
0
30
0
a) Position I
10
0
20
0
i2
CB
IIA
i1
CC
0
30
0
b) Position II
Figure 5. The horizontal circle and the alidade
52
V
B
30
0
0
Z
INDEX
BEARER
20
0
A
Cv
VI
I
10
0
a) Position I
V
V
10
0
0
Z
20
0
Cv
VII
0
30
0
a) Position II
The reading index J is on the support distaff of the assembly vertical circle
telescope;
We will obtain the two vertical zenithal angles VI, VII in the two positions of
the telescope, satisfying the condition:
VI + VII 400g
P II = 7c (because there are seven intervals on the vernier until a gradation from
the vernier coincides with one on the bearing circle.
Vernier on
the alidade
P II
10
261
PI
C
262
Bearing
circle
V
93
347
92
Hz
Figure 8. The microscope with lines
55
346
Exact reading:
Approximate reading:
80cc
V = 96g87c80
Similarly, on the horizontal circle Hz = 28g03c60cc
97
28
96
10
10
27
Hz
96
87c
80cc
60cc
0
03c
28
56
1) It should be placed very stably in the field (the shoes of the trivet should
be thrust all the way into the ground, without forcing);
2) The plate of the trivet should be horizontal;
3) The height of the trivet should allow the operator to perform
measurements in a comfortable manner;
4) The center of the trivet, determined by the center of the plate, should be
above the station point (the point A in this case), on its vertical (VA, VA),
which can be verified and accomplished using a plumb-bob wire attached
to the trivet;
5) The theodolite should be stably placed on the plate of the trivet, in a
central position;
6) The main axis of the theodolite should be in vertical position and should
coincide with the vertical of the station point (VV VA VA);
automatically, HH will be placed in a horizontal position, as well as the
horizontal circle and the alidade.
Theodolite
Plate
Plumbbob wire
Trivet
VA
A
VA
57
Figure 10. Theodolite in the station
Both the correctness of the measurements and their precision depend first of all on
the INTEGRAL satisfaction of the above-mentioned conditions.
The order of the operations in the field, in order to satisfy these conditions, will
be:
-
Open out the legs of the trivet, raise it up (according to condition 3);
Bring the trivet above the station point, attach the plumb-bob wire and satisfy
simultaneously the conditions 1, 2, and 4;
Horizontally set the theodolite using the level air bubble (approximately);
Successively, horizontally set using the level air bubble center using the
plumb-bob wire, until condition 6 is completely satisfied;
The definitive horizontal setting is performed on normal directions (we can guide
ourselves by the axes of the foot screws), watching that the bubble of the level to remain
in central position, in each position rotated around the vertical axis VV of the device.
PERFORMING MEASUREMENTS
From a station performed using the theodolite, aim towards at least other two
points (e.g. B and 1, but could also be 2, 3, etc.).
1
B
A
3
58station panel
Figure 11. The
From among these points, one point is currently another topographic benchmark
(e.g. B), and the other points will become bearing points or are characteristic points of the
details from the area.
Collecting the characteristics of any of these points is similar, therefore we shall
present the steps for measuring the first point (B). These are:
-
Fix the device in position I (the vertical circle is on the left of the telescope);
Approximately aim the signal from the point (B), lock the movements
previously unlocked;
Using the refined movement screws, bring the aiming center in coincidence
with the mathematical point of the aimed signal;
Collect the angular values and other data (rod readings, etc.);
Unlock the device and rotate in right-handed direction towards the second
measured point, which appears first (in this case, point 1);
The measurements can be repeated in position II (the vertical circle is on the right
of the telescope), the rotation sense of the device will be in left-handed direction.
Usually, for both positions of the telescope, the measurements begin and end on
the first aimed point the known one (B in this case).
During measurements, the following conclusion should be taken into account,
since it derives from the description of the functioning principles of the device: the less
the theodolite is moved or touched, the more precise the collected values will be. For
that:
-
59
Attention: collecting data should be performed only from very clear images, both
of the aimed signal and of the readings from the microscope.
ONLY VERIFIED DEVICES WILL BE USED!
VERIFYING AND RECTIFYING THEODOLITES
Using devices determines their derangement in time, introducing inadmissible
(ROUGH) errors in performing measurements.
This is why, before usage, they will be verified and rectified PERIODICALLY (36 month).
The construction conditions of the theodolite are:
-
The coincidence of the centers of the alidades with the centers of the
graduated circles;
If rotating the device around the VV axis, the bubble of the level does not
remain in central position, then it means that VV is not normal to the
horizontal circle.
Install the theodolite in the station and aim a remote point P in position I, read
the horizontal value PHZ1;
Aim the same point P in position II, reading the horizontal value P HZ2. If PHZ2
= PHZ2 + 200g then there id no collimation error.
It can be seen that the vertical cross-hair has moved from the boundary of the
aimed point P with a distance equal to the collimation error;
Bring the cross-hair to coincide with the point P, using the horizontal adjusting
screws of the reticule;
Averaging the values obtained in the two positions of the telescope, the
collimation error is eliminated.
Aim a point R locates as high as possible on a vertical wall (figure 12), in the
position I of the telescope, project R in RI by plunging the telescope around
61
the HH axis, similarly in the position II is obtained RII. If RII RI then the
error exists.
RI
RII
VV
62
B
A
A
CB
CB
B
I
0 ZB
0
CIC CII CCIC I
II
A
C
C CC C
ZIIB
Horizontal plan A
CIB, ZIB, CIC, ZIC readings on the horizontal and vertical circle, telescope in
position I for point B and C, respectively;
63
ZA B
h
A B
ZAB
D AB
If s i then the angle obtained through measurement will be exactly the declivity
angle of the terrain B. If s i (the case when the aim situated at height i is covered by an
64
obstacle) then the vertical angle that results from the measurement will be different than
the declivity angle of the terrain B. Its computation will imply knowing the horizontal
distance between the station point (A) and the aimed point (B): D AB. In this case the
computation of the angle B is possible:
-
i + h = ZAB + s
h = DAB tgAB
ZAB = DAB tgB
Position I
B
2
A
3
Figure 17. The horizon tour
Choose the farthest point as first aim (in the case when the first point is not a
topographic benchmark with which the station point forms the support basis);
Aim the first point in the position I of the telescope and moving in righthanded direction aim the other points (e.g. figure 17), the last aim being the
starting point. The readings for the aimed points are obtained: HZ IB, VIB, HZI1,
VI1, HZI2, VI2, , HZIB, VIB, where, as it can be seen, for the first point initial
values are obtained, denoted with and final values denoted with _ (measured
in right-handed direction);
It should be mentioned that VIB and VIIB could be neglected, since they have no
relevance in data processing.
Processing measurement data can be performed using a table.
INSTRUMENTS FOR DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
Depending on the measuring precision, the instruments can be:
-
Very precise used for measuring geodetic bases: invar wire and the
necessary accessories.
66
The TAPES with divisions from dm to dm, marked by a hole ( 1 mm) in the
axis, at half meter a metallic plate is marked, and the meter and the ends (0 and 50 m) are
marked by metallic plates with stamped values.
-
The ends are equipped with a ring into which the tensioner is introduced
during the measurement;
Are calibrated at + 20C and a tension force of 15 daN (in these circumstances
the tape has nominal length);
Two tensioners;
A thermometer;
Section 0.1 0.3 mm x 8-15 mm, lengths 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 m;
67
l1
1
l0
2
A
l0
B
L AB
Then: Ck = lk - l0
The correction for the entire measured length (we agreed to call it LAB) will be:
C
LAB
LAB
k = Ck ------l0
68
LAB
LAB
T = CT -------l0
69
C0
B
L AB
D AB
ZAB
DAB
L12
2
3
L M1
N
23
DM1
L 3N
D12
D23
D3M
D MN
M
N
Figure 21. Measuring distances on the variable declivity alignment
-
70
N
= DiJ
M
71
microwaves, respectively, from the emitting station (located at one end of the measured
panel) to a reflector (located at the other end), and then back to the reception station
(which is the same as the emitting station).
D=vt
Where v = the propagation speed of waves the speed of light;
t = the forth and back time.
Practically, modern devices used so far directly display the measured distance.
GEOMETRIC LEVELING DEVICES
THE MEASURING STAFF (STADIA ROD)
The measuring staff is a divisional bar placed vertically in the points in which the
altitude difference is determined. The height of the aiming axis of the level telescope is
measured on the measuring staff with respect to the point signaled by the measuring staff.
THE CENTRIMETRIC MEASURING STAFF:
-
Are graduated every cm, from 0.000 m (this end being placed on the signaled
point) to 2.000 m (or 3.000 m or 3.000 m) at the superior end.
2026 + 1905
In this case: 1965 = ----------------- - 0.5
2
Hence the readings are correct.
J
19
79
78
These are measuring staffs equipped with an invar strip and vertical setting
devices spherical levels, graduated, on the invar strip, every half-centimeter; the
accurate reading is performed by centering a division of the measuring staff between the
two convergent cross-hairs (left or/and right) from the reticular plate.
Thus, the reading in the case presented in figure 23 will consist in the rod reading
C = 784.5 and the reading on the drum (e.g. 612), total:
C = 784.5 + 0.612 = 785.112 cm = 7851.12 mm.
LEVELING DEVICES WITH TELESCOPE
The main condition these devices must satisfy during measurements is that the
aiming axis (0) should be perfectly horizontal.
CV
R1
74
accessories of the telescope and, in the case of nonflexible devices, device for refined
horizontal setting).
Depending on the method used for ensuring the basic condition (0 should be
perfectly horizontal in the moment of aiming a measuring staff) the devices can be of two
types:
-
2)
(VsVs || VV) the axis of the spherical level should be parallel to the VV
rotation axis.
Rectifying this condition: after satisfying condition 1, horizontally set the device
using the air-bubble level, and if the gas bubble of the spherical level is not centered in
the benchmark circle, correct the position of the bubble using the three adjusting screws
of the spherical level, until the condition is satisfied (setting horizontally the air-bubble
level, the spherical level will be horizontally set, too).
3)
The level wire from the reticular plate is not horizontal when the device is
horizontally set.
Aim some point (B) (with the horizontally set device) at the boundary of the
visual field. If by moving the telescope of the device through the refined movement
75
around the VV axis, the point does not stay on the horizontal cross-hair, then ensure the
satisfaction of the condition using the adjusting screws of the reticule.
The vertical plan that contains NN || to the vertical plan that contains 0.
4)
ESTABLISHING THE EXISTENCE OF THE ERROR: place the device with one
of the foot screws towards an aimed point (at 20-50 m), horizontally set the device, read
the value M1 at the central hair, shift the device using the left-axis foot screw, rotate the
right-axis foot screw until M1 is read again. If the gas bubble of the air-bubble level stays
coincident, then the error is null, otherwise, by operating the adjusting screws of the level
the condition will be satisfied.
(0 || NN) Not satisfying this condition produces the declivity error of the
5)
For the first station, the declivity angle of the telescope (given by the error 0
|| NN) is , constant, produces a reading error x1, equal on the two measuring
staffs situated at equal distances from the device.
ZAB = a1 b1 = (a1 + x1) (b1 + x1) = a1 b1
1.5-3m
x1
a1
x2
b1
a1
ZAB
S1
x2
b2
b1
a2
a2
S2
B
ZAB
A
a) Middle geometric leveling
For the second station, the device is placed near one of the points:
ZAB = a2 b2 = a2 + x2 b2 = (a2 b2) + x
77
lens
F
H
CV
DAB
ocular
V
DAB
B
Figure 27. Tachymetry with ve rtical measuring staff and horizontal aim
If:
But:
DAB
H
------ = -------f
78
MR
S
H
2
M
H H
2
LAB
Aiming axis
MF
LAB
A
ZA
B D ZAB
DAB
Zero level
Figure 28. Tachymetry with vertical measuring staff and slanted aim
It results that:
LAB = KH
But from SSM:
H
2
cos= -----H
2
=>
H = H cos
LAB = KH cos
But
ZB
In conclusion:
DAB = KH cos2
The method allows the computation of the altitude difference (ZAB), too, noticing
that:
i + h = ZAB + M
i: the height of the device in the station;
h: the smaller leg of the right-angled triangle with hypotenuse LAB;
M: the reading at the level wire (central)
ZAB = h + (i M)
But
h = LAB sin
h = KH cos
80
of the telescope, overlapped on the rod image. In the plan of the image the following
curves appear, forming the diagram:
Fs
Cd
-10
-10
Ch
Ch
Cd
-20
Lh
C0
Ch
C0
L0 =1.400m
Two short stadia hairs with constant Kd = 200 appear in the upper part of the
image, being used for measuring slanted distances (Fs). If the readings on the DAHLTA
020 measuring staff (figure 30) are ld for horizontal distances and lh for altitude
differences:
DiJ = Kd ld
ZiJ = Kh lh
It can be seen that in order to apply the method correctly, the basic curve will
overlap the zero mark of the measuring staff, situated at 1.400 m from the basis of the
measuring staff.
Computing the height of a point (figure 31) results from the following
equivalence:
81
L0 =1.400
h
1
i
i
ZA1
ZA
Z1
82
T acheometer
L A1
LA1
V
A
Figure 32. The principle of re fraction tachyme try
The prism P situated in the plan of the image will split the aimed rod image into
image 1 (of point M), free image, and image 2 (of point M), imagine deviated.
The deviation angle is constant, determining the proportionality between LA1
and H (the rod reading).
LA1 = LA1 + c
where c is the constant of the device;
LA1 = H ctg
But ctg = 100 and c = 0 due to the construction of the device, and of the
measuring staff, respectively:
LA1 = LA1 + c = LA1 = H ctg = 100 H
83
T
RD
RDP
RO
0
P PC
M0
Figure 34. Optical coincidence micrometer
The tacheometer is equipped with an optical micrometer, which consists of a
graduated drum (T) and a rhombic prism (PC) fixed in front of the upper half of the lens
(figure 34). It can be rotated around a vertical axis, with the use of the drum (T),
obtaining:
R0: the direct radius;
RD: the radius deviated by the prism PC by operating the drum T;
RDP: the radius moved with the use of the prism PC by operating the drum T.
The image of the reading microscope for such devices contains the tangent of the
declivity angle of the telescope under the image read on the vertical circle.
84
We also present the images of the REDTA measuring staff, the visual field of the
REDTA device during measurements and of the graduated drum, in order to explain the
method used for measuring distances and altitude differences.
B0=2.000 m
1
6
3
0
X
2.090
9
6
rod image
2
X
vernier image
Reading 3 divisions x
20cm = 0.600 m
10
drum reading
0.065 m
85
Install the device in the station, center and horizontally set it, read the height i;
Install the measuring staff in the aimed point, centering it at the height i of the
tacheometer in the station, brought to horizontal with the spherical level from
the support and normal to the direction between the two points (station point
and aimed point);
Aim approximately the measuring staff (as in the case of aiming signals with
the THEO 020 CZJena theodolite), clarify the image, aim exactly operating
the refined movement screws;
Operate the drum of the device, until a gradation from the vernier (the third
one, in this case) coincides with a gradation from the measuring staff.
Horizontal angle, zenithal angle and the tangent of the declivity angle of the
telescope from the reading microscope of the device;
Find the vernier reading (a division = 20 cm) which coincide with a gradation
on the measuring staff (the third one on the vernier);
i
L A1
L A1
DA1
86
ZA1
In this case:
LA1 = the rod reading H +
the vernier reading +
the drum reading.
ZA1
tg = --------LA1
ZA1 = LA1 tg
where tg is read in the visual field of the microscope of the device.
OPTICAL TELEMETERS
These are the only devices that can be used for the optical measurement of
distances between the station and an aimed point, without requiring beaconing the aimed
point with a measuring staff. The most used devices have an enclosed variable base, the
aiming being performed by splitting the image of the aimed point (half of the image is
right, half is deviated under a constant angle ). This angle is called parallactic angle ().
P1
Deviated image
Right image
LAB
P2
From figure 37 it can be seen that if the right image of the point is obtained
through a prism P1, and the deviated image through a (mobile) prism P2, moving this
prism along the external base of the device, the coincidence of the two half images can be
reached. The base is graduated in such a way that reading the distance can be done
directly on it, through a reading microscope assembled on the prism P2.
It can be seen that: LAB = b ctg.
But
88
2
B b
b
2
DAB
The angle is obtained from the difference of the directions AN and AM, and
the basis is built equally distant from the central point B left right.
B
A
P b
DBC
A
DAP
N
DAB
DPB
a)
Figure 40. The parallactic method
b)
a) with measuring staff in the middle b) with helping bar
89
It is obvious that the construction precision of the base b can be very large (up to
2mm / 10 m of base), which can lead to a parallactic distance measuring precision of
20mm / 100 m, comparable to that of direct distance measuring.
In order to facilitate the application of the method, a special measuring staff was
built (similar to the REDTA measuring staff, but not graduated), with base b = 2.000 m.
In this case, for an angle measuring error e = 2cc, it corresponds a distance
measuring error eD = 15 mm / 100 m.
There are mentioned extensions of the method for bigger distances between the
ends of the measured panel or other causes that limit the method (figure 40) (e.g. the lack
of visibility on the left of the point B case b).
TRIGONOMETRIC METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES
DCB
DAB
DAC
B
C
A
Figure 41. The trigonometric method for
measuring distances
The trigonometric method is an extension of the previous method, having the
advantage that the aimed point does not have to be accessible (figure 41).
In this case, an auxiliary base DAC is built, designating the point C (required to be
the mobile station with the theodolite). The horizontal angles A, B are measured
90
(ideally B, too, case in which the angles from ABC can be compensated), resulting the
sinus theorem:
DAB
DAC
DCB
----------- = ----------- = ----------sinC
sinB
sinA
From where
sinC
DAB = DAC ---------sinB
(Z),
towards
NADIR
(N)
or
in
both
directions.
91
They
have
ZB
ZA
XA
L AB
AB
XB
D AB
0
YA
YAB
A0
YB
B0
Horizontal projection
plan
XAB
Figure 1. The absolute (Xi, Yi, Zi) and relative ( Xiy, Yiy, Ziy )
position in space of topographic points
For the entire package of obtained data to have a common denominator, all
topographic measurements are performed in a chosen coordinate system:
X0Y for plan coordinates, Z0: an origin for measuring heights, for Romania, since
1970, the zero height of the level of the Black Sea.
92
0 is chosen in such a way that all coordinates Xi and Yi, to be positive, on the
entire marked territory.
Z
B
L AB
A
ZAB
X
XB
XAB
XA
Z0
YA
B0
ABB
DAB
YAB
0
b)
A0
ZB
a)
AB
D AB
DAB
ZA
YB
Y
c)
AC
Assuming that the coordinates of the point A are known in this system: (XA, YA,
ZA), the orientation AC towards another point C, where A and C are bearing points in the
chosen coordinate system, that is, points materialized in the field, and that the slanted
distance LAB towards the surveyed point B and the angle B formed by the direction
between the benchmark A and the point C with known direction are measured, the
position in space of the point results studying figure 2:
-
(1)
(figure 2.b)
YB = YA + YAB
ZB = ZA + ZAB
(figure 2.a)
(figure 2.b)
(figure 2.a)
93
The basic elements in topographic surveys were presented in chapter III: the
topographic elements of the terrain, details, characteristic points, coordinates and
orientations.
The methods used for planimetric survey will be detailed in the sequel.
Remark: in this chapter there will be discussed only the study of the planimetric
position of the measured points, without details concerning their height.
The shape and size of the surveyed surface, and its relief;
The covering degree of the surface with natural and artificial details;
The
planimetric
representation
of
surveyed
surface
is
UNITARY,
94
The basic condition: cover the entire national territory with known points
through the created triangles;
95
Figure 3. Geodetic triangulation
chains
In each intersection of chains, the azimuth of the measured geodetic basis and
the measured geographic coordinates of one of the ends of the basis are
measured astronomically;
The intermediary areas of the triangle chains are covered with triangles with
sides of 20-60 km, too, the entire created network representing the
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION NETWORK OF ORDER I;
Step by step, the triangles are thickened (triangle inside triangle) through
points of order:
-
96
MAIN
TRAVERSES,
based
upon
TRIANGULATION
or
SECONDARY
TRAVERSES,
based
on
TRIANGULATION
or
V
7
6
4
IV
5
IV
III
IV
14
Albacriver
13
12
Main traverse
11
IV
21
Secondary traverse
22
1
2
3
V
Figure 5. Planimetric
traverses
97
The SURVEYED AREA is small (S < 100 km) and the connection to the
national geodetic system is not justifiable.
Arbitrary coordinates (X1, Y1) are assigned for point 1, such that the entire
area to have bearing and characteristic points with positive coordinates in the
chosen system (figure 6).
X(N)
3
N
12
2
D 34
4
4
X1
Y1
98
All the angles from the formed triangles are measured, correcting the
measurement errors (the sum of the angles in each triangle should be 200g);
Compute all the orientations of the other sides, starting from 12 (e.g. 14 =
12 + 1), using compensated angles (i, i);
Compute the other sides of the triangle (D12, D14, etc.) using the sinus
theorem;
For example:
DX12 = D12 cos 12
(2)
(3)
Y2 = Y1 + y12
Beginning with this known polygon, the LOCAL PLANIMETRIC NETWORK
IS BUILT through:
1) LOCAL TRIANGULATION NETWORKS (figure 7) are obtained at 23
km;
2) INTERSECTIONS
3) TRAVERSES
Chain of polygons
Chain of triangles
99Chain of quadrilaterals
Wood stakes (hardwood: beech, oak), 30-50 cm length, 3-5 cm square section,
with a nail hammered at the superior end, in axis, marking the mathematical
point (whose coordinates are computed), the inferior end is sharpened.
In both cases, the stakes will be beaten in the ground all the way, such that 2-5 cm
will remain at the surface. Attention: the stakes must be fixed vertically in the ground.
PERMANENTLY (MARKING THE POINTS): - marking with a longer usage
period of the point;
100
Engrave a metallic peg in the axis, with a hemispheric end, similar to the one
presented previously;
30
30-60
20-30
2
1
10
20
20 - 30 cm
Figure 8. Marking the points
Thus, after digging the marking ditch, the signal from the underground 1
(underground mark) is placed at the bottom, then a signaling layer (ground bricks) 2, then
101
the ditch is filled up with the soil resulted from the digging, framing the concrete
boundary mark 4, by marking from the exterior.
Remark: For the signal from the surface to be on the same vertical with the
underground mark, an external marking is performed (figure 9), by intersecting the axes
13 and 24, obtaining the position of the mathematical point P (the axis of the boundary
mark, for which the vertical VV with the plane coordinates Xp and Yp, are defined).
1 -2m
4
Figure 9. Marking the
mathematical point
SIGNALING POINTS
It is the operation by which aiming points from the station point is allowed,
signaling the vertical VV of the measured topographic point or characteristic point.
Signaling can be:
-
102
Centric: the axis of the signal coincides with the vertical axis of the signaled
geodetic (topographic) point (figure 10 c, d).
signal
l
pillar
H
H
platform
VS
platform mount
d) pillar signal
Figure 10.
Another element that has to be measured is the height of the signal (H) with
respect to the height of the signaled mathematical point in the field.
In the case of the pillar signal, used in populated centers, the beacons are placed
on the terraces (roofs) of buildings, on concrete pillars, which allow both stationing with
the theodolite (after the signal was removed) and aiming the point by a signal. Therefore,
it is a centric signal.
Also, unstationable points can be used as signals, which will be used only as
direction points: the peaks of the church spires, lightning rods on industrial buildings.
103
Nr.8
Botiz
street
Nr.6
9.43
Nr.4
4.75
b1
8.21
16.25
Nr.3
Nr.5
Alba Iulia
street
Nr.2
Figure 11. The marking file of a
topographic point
104
BA
N
C
N
AB
AP
BP
1
A
P
3
3
B
105
YAB
tgAB = --------------XAB
(4)
BA = AB + 200g
(5)
AP = AB + 1
(figure 12)
(6)
BP = BA - 2
(figure 12)
(7)
YAP
YP - YA
tgAP = --------------- = ------------XAP
XP - XA
(8)
YBP
YP - YB
tgBP = --------------- = ------------XBP
XP XB
(9)
(-)
(10)
tgAP - tgBP
YP = YA + (XP XA) tgAP or
YP = YB + (XP XA) tgBP
This first alternative, resulting from the combination A and B, can be verified by
the values obtained from the combinations B and C, and C and A.
If the values are close (within the margins), then the most likely value of the
coordinates of the new point will be the arithmetic mean of the values obtained from the
three combinations (separately for XP and YP, respectively).
It should be noticed that this method allows for a first adjustment of the measured
values since the sum of the angles measured in the points A, B, and C must be equal to
106
200g. The difference (within acceptable margins) will be equally corrected on the six
angles, satisfying the previous condition.
RESECTION (INDIRECT INTERSECTION, POTHNOT PROBLEM, MAP
PROBLEM)
In this case, stationing in the new point P, aim three known points M, N, and R.
Measure the angles formed in P by the directions towards the three known points (,,)
(figure 13).
X
N
M
P N
P M
R
PR
0
N
Y
Write the analytic equations of the three right lines PM, PN, PR:
(YM YP) = (XM XP) tgPM
(YN YP) = (XN XP) tgPN
(YR YP) = (XR XP) tgRN
Choosing PM as unknown it can be seen that
PN = PM - ( + )
and replacing it in the group of previous equations, we obtain:
107
(11)
tg PM - tg
3. YP = YR + (XP XR) ----------------------1+ tgPM tg
subtracting the equations 2 and 3 from equation 1, we obtain:
tg PM - tg( + )
1) 2) = (YM + (XM XP) tgPM = YN + (XP XN) ------------------------ (12)
1+ tgPM tg( + )
tg PM - tg
1) 3) = (YM + (XM XP) tgPM = YR + (XP XR) -------------------1+ tgPM tg
We proceed, trying to eliminate XP:
tg PM - tg( + )
XPtgPM - XMtgPM + YM YN XP ---------------------------- +
1+ tgPM tg( + )
108
tg PM - tg( + )
+ XN ---------------------------- = XPtgPM - XMtgPM + YM - YR XMtgPM
tg PM - tg
tg PM - tg
- XR ----------------------- + --------------------- = 0
1+ tgPM tg
(13)
1+ tgPM tg
tg PM - tg( + )
tg PM - tg( + )
+ XN----------------------------
(14)
1+ tgPM tg( + )
tg PM - tg
XPtg PM - -------------------- = YR YM + XMtgPM +
1+ tgPM tg
tg PM - tg
+ XR ----------------------1+ tgPM tg
tg PM - tg( + )
XPtg PM - --------------------------
YN YM + XMtgPM + XN ---------------------------1+ tgPM tg( + )
1+ tgPM tg( + )
--------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------tg PM - tg
tg PM - tg
XPtg PM - --------------------
1+ tgPM tg
X - tg( + )
YN YM + XMX+ XN --------------------
1+ X( + )
1+ X tg( + )
----------------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------- (15)
109
X - tg
X - ---------------
X - tg
YR YM + XMX + XR ---------------
1+ X tg
1+ X tg
X + X tg ( + ) X + tg ( + )
------------------------------------------1 + X tg ( + )
---------------------------------------------- =
X + X tg + X tg
---------------------------1 + X tg
YN XYN tg ( + ) - YM - XYMtg ( + ) + XXM + XXMtg ( + ) + XXN - XNtg ( + )
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 + X tg ( + )
= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (16)
YR - XYR tg - YM -XYMtg + XXM + XXMtg + XXR - XRtg
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 + X tg
X tg ( + ) + tg ( + )
--------------------------------- =
X tg + tg
YN - XYN tg ( + ) - YM - XYMtg ( + ) + XXM + XXMtg ( + ) + XXN - XNtg ( + )
(17)
COMBINED INTERSECTION
Combining the previous methods, we obtain another method, in which the
precision of coordinates computation can be improved, because there exists the
possibility to adjust the measured angles (figure 14).
Therefore, the following three conditions must be satisfied:
110
(18)
(1 + 2 + 3) = 400g
(19)
1 + 2 + 1= 200g
2 + 3 + 2 = 200g
(20)
1 + 3 + 3 = 200g
Only after the measured angular values have been adjusted such that the
previously mentioned conditions to be satisfied, we can proceed to computations.
B
2
1
2
P 2
1 3
3
Y
Figure 14. Combined intersection
The
computation
of
coordinates
id
performed
through
DIRECT
INTERSECTION.
The purpose if to thicken the control networks (triangulations, polygonations,
intersections), in order to have the necessary number of known points in the field, on
which the planimetric survey of the area to be based on.
111
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAVERSES
A. TWO ENDS TRAVERSES, which can be:
1. With two ends and two orientations;
2. With two ends and one starting orientation;
3. With two ends and one ending orientation;
4. With two ends and no known orientation.
B. ONE END TRAVERSES, which can be:
5. With one end and one starting orientation;
6. In closed circuit.
1)
2
D
DA1 1 12
A
D A1
1
6)
2
A
7)
2
4)
1 D
12
2
5)
3)
1
D 2C
2)
1
1
A
Node
E
F
112
The alignments of traverses should be near the details that will be surveyed
and should cover the entire area;
There should be visibility between the neighboring points of the traverse, and
from them towards the details;
The length of traverse sides should be within the interval 50-200 m, with an
optimum at 100-150 m, and a total length that should not exceed 3000m;
The traverse sides should be close in length, and the traverse should be as
linear as possible;
FIELD OPERATIONS
DESIGNATING TRAVERSE POINTS
MAIN TRAVERSES the ends of the main traverses will be included in the
control network, and therefore, will be designated by concrete boundary marks (on the
ground, under ground), and the signaling will be performed with a butterfly beacon.
SECONDARY TRAVERSES designating will be performed with wood or
metallic stakes (temporary designating), and the signaling will be performed with pegs.
MEASURING TRAVERSE SIDES
It can be performed directly with the steel tape or electronically.
Directly, there is measured the tilted distance L iJ, which will be reduced at the
horizon with the relation:
DiJ = LiJ cos i
Each side will be measured back and forth, the difference between the value LiJ
obtained measuring forth (from the point i towards the point J) and the value L iJ obtained
measuring back (from J towards i) must be less than the margin Ti:
Ti = 0.003L
(22)
113
If this condition is satisfied, the most likely value of the length of the measured
side will be the arithmetic mean of the two values:
LiJ = LiJ + LJi
(23)
LiJ will be corrected based on the principle of applying corrections for direct
measuring of distances.
MEASURING ANGLES FORMED BY THE TRAVERSE SIDES
DECLIVITY ANGLES
-
V
J
Ji
iJ
i
Figure 16. Declivity angle
The two means obtained forth iJ and back Ji must be close in value, within the
margin 1c.
HORIZONTAL ANGLES
-
All the horizontal anglesi are measured on the same side of the traverse, condition
that is satisfied if each angle is measured from the back side, in right handed direction,
J
towards the front side (figure 17).
h
J
114
Figure 17.
Practically, both in the case of declivity angles and in the case of horizontal ones,
the specifications from the chapter Measuring angles with the theodolite the case of
one angle will be respected.
COMPUTATIONAL OPERATIONS
1. TRAVERSE SUPPORTED IN BOTH ENDS
Known elements:
A, B, C, and D topographic benchmarks of given coordinates:
(XA, YA); (XB, YB); (XC, YC); (XD, YD);
1, 2, new topographic benchmarks.
Unknown elements:
(X1, Y1); (X2, Y2);
Remark: only two new points were chosen, to prevent the useless increase of
performed computations; in the case when the traverse has more than two new points, the
computations are the same, adding the computational elements corresponding to the other
points:
12
CD
2C
1
B
A1
1
D A1
1A
D12
C
D
2C
2
21
BA
115
C2
Measured elements:
-
COMPUTATIONS
-
(24)
i + I
The average horizontal angle i = -------------2
In order to simplify the notations, these values will be denoted with (LiJ, iJ, i).
116
XAB
XB - XA
(25)
YCD
YD - YC
tg CD = ---------- = ------------ final support orientation;
XCD
XD - XC
(26)
Remark: Parsing the traverse in the mentioned direction, the orientation towards
the front side will results as sum of the orientation towards the back side and the
horizontal angle between the two sides; if by summing 400g is exceeded, than this should
be subtracted from the sum.
1A = A1 + 200g
(27)
Remark: the inverse orientation Ji will results as sum of the direct orientation
iJ and 200g; the same specification for exceeding 400g in the sum. With these
specifications:
12 = 1A + 1 400 g
21 = 12 + 200 g
2C = 21 + 2 400 g
(28)
C2 = 2C + 200 g
cCD = C2 + C 400 g
cCD is the value of the ending orientation obtained from the calculus.
c) COMPUTING ERRORS, CORRECTIONS
p: reading precision of the theodolite;
n: number of stations.
c1) ERROR OF CLOSING DISCREPANCY ON THE ORIENTATION
e = cCD - CD
117
Remark: the errors are differences between the erroneous value (affected by
errors) and the correct value (initially given).
c2) TOTAL CORRECTION ON THE ORIENTATION
C = - e
Remark: logical C + e = 0
c3) UNITARY CORRECTION ON THE ORIENTATION
C
Cu = ------
(30)
n
n: the number of measured horizontal angles, the number of stations.
Remark: the weight factor is the same, because the same device was used, in the
same circumstances, with the same methods (number of measurements), with the same
computational methods for determining the final values of the measured elements, and
the operations were performed by the same devices.
d) COMPENSATING ORIENTATIONS
A1 = A1 + 1 x Cu
12 = 12 + 2 x Cu
2C = 2C + 3 x Cu
CD = cCD + 4 x Cu = CD
(COMPULSORY VERIFICATION)
N
YiJ
XJ
iJ
XiJ
iJ
Xi
Yi
118
YJ
It is known that:
XiJ = DiJ cosiJ
(31)
eX = XiJ - XAC
A
C
eY = YiJ - YAC
A
C
Where XiJ = XA1 + X12 + X2C
A
C
Where YiJ = YA1 + Y12 + Y2C
A
119
XAC = XC XA
YAC = YC YA
Remark: The measuring margins should be respected.
(32)
iJ
C
T = 0.003 iJ + ------------
(33)
500
the closing tolerance on coordinates, where
A
(34)
(35)
iJ
(36)
CAY
CuAY = ------------C
iJ
A
120
(37)
XiJ = XAC
A
C
YiJ = YAC
A
(38)
121
Z12 = D12tg12
(39)
Z2C = D2Ctg2C
-
eZ = ZiJ - ZAC
(40)
(41)
Unitary correction:
CZ
CuZ = -----------
(42)
YiJ
A
Z2 = Z1 + Z12
-
Verification:
ZCC = Z2 + Z2C = ZC, where ZC is the height of the point C, from the initial
data.
2. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS AND ONE STARTING
ORIENTATION
122
The same field and computational steps are parsed, until point c of the previous
case, because we have no ending orientation.
Therefore, steps c, d are not parsed.
Having the coarse values of the orientations, we move to the computation of step
e and we parse the same computational steps until the end, including the one for the
heights Zi.
3. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS AND ONE ENDING
ORIENTATION
This case is treated as the previous one, computing the coarse orientations from C
towards A: C2 = CD - C, 21 = 2C - 2, 11 = 12 - 1.
4. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS, WITH NO KNOWN
ORIENTATIONS (MINING TRAVERSE)
23
2
A
12
2
D 12
21
D23
C3
C
3C
D 3C
3
3
32
1A
123
We assume that:
P11 = 100g00c00cc
XPA = 1000.000 m
(44)
YPA = 1000.000 m
This allows us to compute:
Preliminary coordinates:
XPA1 = DA1 cos PA1
YPA1 = DA1 sin PA1
XP12 = D12 cos P12
YP12 = D12 sin P12
XP23 = D23 cos P23
YP23 = D23 sin P23
XP3C = D3C cos P3C
YP3C = D3C sin P3C
The orientation between the assumed bearing points will result from:
YPAC
YPC - YPA
tgPAC = ------------ = ------------- XPAC
XPC - XPA
The orientation between the bearing points, from the initial data, will be:
YAC
YC - YA
tgAC = ------------ = -------------XAC
XC - XA
(45)
(46)
(47)
will be the rotation angle of the entire system arbitrarily chosen, therefore the correct
orientations will be:
A1 = PA1 +
12 = P12 +
23 = P23 +
3C = P3C +
-
From this step, assuming that the orientations computed before are the
compensated (correct) ones, the same steps will be parsed, beginning with
step e, as in the first presented case, including for heights (if it is the case).
125
Initially, prepare a schema containing the details measured in the station see
figure 21.
12
10
13
3-12
8
Control network
D
12
22
11
19
21
20
15
14
Detail
Characteristic point
Measurement
direction
16
18
17
Figure 21. Survey of details
METHOD USED: the method of radiation, hence a method with polar coordinates
(12, D3.12) of the position of the characteristic point, with respect to a support base (e.g.
the position of the characteristic point 12 with respect to the support base 32).
Parsing the steps of details survey in the field will respect the following
specifications:
-
The number of points measured from one station should be less than 100;
The first and last aim will be towards the bearing point (e.g. from station 3
towards point 2);
126
The slanted direction LiJ (or, directly, the horizontal distance DiJ).
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
Z12 = Z3 + Z3.12
COMPILING THE PLANIMETRY
It represents the operations by which the bearing points and characteristic points
measured in the surveyed area are repeated on a sheet of paper (tracing paper).
The order of the operations for compiling the plan is the following:
-
The layout of the paper sheet for representing the plan is chosen based on the
shape and size of the measured area and on the repeating scale;
The exterior frame (representing the final contour of the plan) is traced at 1-2
cm from the edge of the paper sheet;
There are traced the border of the plan and the index containing: drafting date,
implied factors (institutions, persons, the beneficiary of the work), repeating
scale, specifications concerning the measured area (locality, county);
The graticule of the plan is traced (every 5 cm, or every 10 cm), in the
coordinate system in which the work was performed (X0Y);
Repeat through Cartesian coordinates the points of the control network and
other points for which these coordinates were computed;
127
(53)
The details are contoured, uniting the characteristic points with each other,
according to the terrain schema;
The plan is finished: inscriptions, names of natural and artificial details; the
writing is done on the west-east direction, eventually along the drawn details
(for natural details);
The operations mentioned before refer to the manual compilation of the plan, but
nowadays most field operations are performed with the complete topographic station,
data processing is performed automatically, based on some specialized programs, the
compilation of the plan is performed with the computer, with the use of horizontal or
vertical plotters.
128
129
A
A level surface
ZA
ZB
(1)
130
B level
surface
AB
Apparent level
A level
surface
P0
R
R
AB
Fi g ure 2 . The influence of the Earth curvatur e and of atmos pheri c refracti on
(2)
R2 + 2 RC1 + C21 = R2 + D2
(3)
D2
From where: C1 = ----------2R + C1
(4)
(5)
2R
131
R 6379 km (for Romania), hence for D = 1 km, the correction can exceed 70
mm.
Because of atmospheric refraction, the aim from A towards B experiences a
deviation, going on the AP trajectory, a second correction C2 will result, with opposite
sign in comparison with the first one:
D2
C2 = ----- K
(6)
2R
K is the atmospheric refraction coefficient, K 0.13 (for Romania)
D2
C = C1 C2 = ----- (1 - K)
(7)
2R
C is always positive, and for D = 1 km it can exceed 60 mm.
Hence, the corrected value of the altitude difference will be:
ZAB = ZAB + C
(8)
LEVELING TYPES
We have seen that the element measured in leveling is the altitude difference
Ziy, the height being a computational element (Zy = Zi + Ziy).
The altitude differences can be determined by means of many methods, but in
practice the following ones are used:
-
Horizontal plan
b
B
Z AB
Z AB= a - b
Figure 3. Geometric leveling
ZAB = LABsin AB
ZAB = DABtg AB
B
L AB
Z AB
AB
DAB
LEVELING NETWORKS
As in the case of planimetry, a leveling control network is built on national level,
representing the base of all leveling surveys in the territory.
133
ORDER I:
-
ORDER II:
-
ORDER III:
-
Remark: for the first three leveling orders, for computing heights we should take
into account the lack of parallelism of level surfaces (figure 5).
B level surface
B
II A level surface
ZBA
ZAB
A level surface
134
The level surfaces are not parallel because the distance between two level
surfaces is maximal at the equator and minimal at the poles;
The leveling for orders II and III is compulsorily executed on back and forth
routes.
To be placed in stable areas (building wall, stable ground safe of land slides,
settlings, vibrations);
Benchmarks placed in the nodes of buildings (for which the settling process
has stopped practically, buildings older than 10 years), metallic, with
circular or hemispheric head, the upper part having specified height;
135
GEOMETRIC LEVELING
It creates a reference horizontal surface during measurements, generated by
moving the TOPOGRAPHIC LEVEL around the vertical axis.
The altitude difference between the two points is computed with respect to the
distances from the measured points to this surface.
SPAN
Backward
measuring
staff
Forward
measuring
staff
B
ZAB
Si
Zi
A
ZB
NMN
Figure 6. Middle geometric leveling
136
Upper hair
1786
18
1725
Level hair
Lower hair
17
1664
J
S+J
Verification M = -----2
S
A
B
Mediatrix of
distance AB
(9)
137
ZAB = a b
(10)
ZB = ZA + ZAB
Or,
Zi = ZA + a
(11)
ZB = Zi - b
The second computational method is preferred in the case when the heights of
many points are computed from a station (leveling radiation). It should be noticed that
using middle geometric leveling eliminates the errors determined by the inclination from
the horizontal of the aim towards the two points (given by the device, incorrect horizontal
setting of rigid devices, atmospheric refractions), therefore the use of this method is
recommended whenever it is possible.
= span
Shortened
span
Long span
b
i
Zi
S A
ZA
ZAB
ZB
a)
Zi
ZA
ZAB
ZB
b)
Figure 9. End geometric leveling, above or near the point of known height
When middle geometric leveling cannot be applied, there can be applied this
method, which presents the following disadvantages:
-
138
The errors of the inclination of the aiming axis are not eliminated, and they
affect the results of measurements.
The computations are similar to those presented at middle leveling, for the case
a), replacing a by i in the calculus.
A
S1
A
2
S2
S1
S4
2
1
10
S2
NODE
5
S3
8
A
11
2
3
S1
S4
S1
S1
1
S2
S3
2
3
NODE
P
The aiming radius should not get closer than 0.5 m to the surface of the
ground;
The devices used should be verified and rectified and should have the
magnifying power of the telescope at least 20X;
139
Designating the points should be stable, solid, not variable as position in time;
The route of the traverse should not include abrupt slopes (which require short
spans);
The measuring staffs should be vertical (with the plumb-bob wire or spherical
level of the equipment);
Repeated stations will be performed (at least two for each level), in order to
have a verification of measurements and to improve the measuring precision.
Isolated traverses;
Traverses with one horizon (only one station for each level);
Traverses with two horizons (in each station, after measurement, the station is
refreshed the device is recoded and the measurements are repeated).
140
D1
D4
D3
D5
S4
S3
S5
S1
b1
a1
ZA1
A
ZA
D1 = DS1A + DS1B
A
S1
b2
a2
b3
Z12
N.M.N.
a3
Z34
Z23 3
Z2
S2
Z3
S4
S3
Z4B
B
2
Z1
b5
b4 a5
a4
Z4
S5
ZB
B
141
It is required that the values on the measuring staff at stadia hairs to be read, in
order to compute the distance stations aimed points, needed to establish the weight
element in correction distribution. Thus, if the readings in station S1 will be:
-
Toward A: SA1, a1, JA1 (SA1 the reading at the upper hair, a1 the reading at the
level wire, JA1 the reading at the lower hair);
SA1 + JA1
For verifying the median reading a1 = ------------------- 12 mm;
2
(12)
Similarly:
DS11 = KH1 = K (S11 J11)
(13)
(14)
e2 = ZiJ - ZAB
A
B
(15)
ZAB = ZB - ZA
(16)
142
(17)
D i
A
B
Where Di = D1 + + D5
(18)
VERIFICATION: ZB = Z4 + Z4B = ZB
(initially given)
(19)
e2 T2
(20)
Where T2 = e2 D km
(21)
143
ekm is the error per km given by the instructions for the performed measurement
class.
It is performed in the same way, with the specification that if the ending point
coincides with the starting point, at point b) of computation:
A
e2 = iJ
(22)
Since AA = 0
LEVELING RADIATION
144
Based on the principle of middle geometric leveling, from a leveling station Si,
determined the heights of characteristic points from within the area of the station, with
respect to the known heights ZA of a leveling benchmark.
b1
b3
b2
1
A
ZA
b4
Z1
Z2
Z3
Zi
4
Z4
N.M.N.
1
2
3
4
(23)
1 = i b1
If the topographic level that is used has a horizontal circle, then the measurement
can be completed with planimetric details concerning the measured points: readings at the
stadia hairs in order to determine the horizontal distances device-aimed point, and at the
horizontal circle in order to determine the directions station-aimed point.
Remark: in this last case, the utility of measuring distance and angles is not
stressed out, unless the station and the point of known height have known plan
145
coordinates or if the point of known height has known plan coordinates and we are
stationing in it (the case of the complete topographic station).
It is applied in less rough terrains, with declivities < 5%, visibility from the
gravity center of the terrain over the entire surface, surveyed surface of order
of some hectares (at most 4);
The sides of the squares will have the order of 5-25 m (5, 10, 20 m optimally);
Choosing the way to divide the surface into squares, the size of the square
side, the number of squares on an axis and on the perpendicular axis is
performed depending on: the precision required for knowing the relief of the
area, the scale of the plan, the degree of roughness of the terrain;
Build a basis AB along one side of the area, which will be pegged out at
equal distances, obtaining the points 1, 2;
Trace the point C, pegging out the AC axis with the points 3, 7, 11;
146
From B, trace the point D, pegging out the points 6, 10, 14;
From 15, aiming 1, peg out the interior points 12, 8, 4, 1, etc.
A
B
3
6
8
10
Y
Y
Studied
area
S1
S1
11
14
12
13
15
18
16
17
Pegging out is done with wood stakes, on which, the number of the point can be
written on the upper part.
-
Stationing in the gravity center of the measured area, aim, starting from the
benchmark of known height, which can be found in that area (or close by), in
147
horizon tour, (or scanning the horizontal surface), all the corners pegged with
squares;
-
For verification and for avoiding any confusion, I recommend to perform all
the three readings on the measuring staff (up, level wire, down) and to station
in the close vicinity of a square corner (e.g. 8 or 9);
Computing the heights of the square corners will be performed similarly to those
from leveling survey:
-
(24)
(25)
Obstacles from the area (vegetation, buildings) impede the aims towards
certain points;
There are too many squares visionable from one station (at most 40) which
means more than 80 points aimed from one station, then there can be used
other methods for the leveling survey of square corners:
-
The computation of heights in the case of traverses is done similarly as in the case
of leveling of surfaces through large squares.
148
Tracing alignments and pegging out square corners can be done as in the previous
case, but it is recommended to use a theodolite-tacheometer for tracing directions, which
can be used also for tracing directions (a precision of 0.1 0.2 m/100 m is enough).
RN17
6 S1
7 S2
11 S16
Y
16 S15
Y
8S3
12
Y
17
Y
S94
10
13
S14
5
15
Y
S19
6
20
25
30
18
Y
21 S14
22
23
Y
S24
9
Y
26 S13
Y
27S12
Y
S11
28
Y
S29
10
149
E.g. the traverse 6.7.8.9.10, with previously computed end points 6, 10 and new
points 7, 8, 9, etc.
The surface can be parsed through independent traverses, too, including some of
the square corners through various routes. The heights of the other corners can be
computed by leveling radiation.
For example, if, from station S9, the points 20 and 25 were included by leveling
traverse, and their heights were computed using this method, then the heights of the
points measured from S9, not included in the traverse (in this case 18 and 24), can be
computed through leveling radiation, taking into consideration the known height Z20.
Zip = Zp Zi
(26)
If Zip > 0 in the area of that point, we shall have an EMBANKMENT volume
(filling up codified with E in the schema).
If Zip < 0, then there will be a CUTTING volume (digging codified with C).
Z1
Z1p
11
12
13
17
18
21
22
10
14
16
23
15
19
20
24
25
GENERAL TOTAL
TOTAL
Embankment
Cutting
Difference
151
The case presented in figure 16a is an integral cutting, because in all the four
corners of the square Zip > 0. In this case, the embankment volume (E) will be computed
in the following way:
Sp = l
(27)
(28)
E1276 = Z1276 Sp
(29)
ZP
Z1P
Z 2P
6
Z6P
SP
Z 7P
14
Z 8P
SP
Z14P
13
8
ZP
14
Z13P
9
22
Z9P
17
SRP
SDP
ZP
22
13
17
22 d
18
N
23
18
17
23
M d
Z17P
17
Z22P
22
The value will be written in the E box from the center of the square. (The C box
will remain empty, because we have no digging volume in the area).
The case presented in figure 16b is an integral cutting, because Zip < 0 in all the
four corners. After computing Sp and the mean value ZiJkl, the volume C will result in a
similar manner, the value obtained being written in this case in the C box, and the R box
remaining empty this time.
The case presented in figure 16c, and 16d is more complex, because the natural
surface is situated at heights partially greater, partially lower than the designed height Zp.
In this case, there should be found the position of the boundary line MN, which separates
the E volume and the C volume by an axis of height Zp.
From figure 16d it results:
d + d = l
(30)
Z22P
d
-------- = -----Z17P
d
152
equation with two unknowns d, d, and dIII, dIV, respectively, for the axis 23.18.
After determining the two distances, we shall compute:
(d + dIII)l
S P = -------------2
C
(31)
(d + dIV)l
S P = -------------2
E
(32)
Z17P + 0 + 0 + Z18P
Z17MN18 = ------------------------------4
(33)
because ZM = ZN = ZP
The values C and E will similarly result from the relations:
C = SCP Z22MN23;
(34)
E = SRP Z17MN18;
And will be written into the corresponding boxes for the studied square
17.18.23.22.
After completing all the E/C boxes, then we can centralize the data, summing up
on the vertical and then on the horizontal, in the end obtaining the total volume of
embankment and cutting and the difference between them.
It is recommended that:
-
153
RN1
S1
11
1
PT1
1
11
11
113
4
11 S2
Y
2
12
14
13
15
RN3
PX
PL
16
B
RN 2
Materialize the support benchmarks for leveling RNi in the field, which will
connect to the state geodetic network for leveling.
154
Peg out the characteristic points: declivity changes, route changes, thickening
points (if the distances between the first two categories exceed 50 m);
Designating pegs will be performed with two stakes (one designating the peg,
the other the control peg, having written the number of the peg within the
route).
It can be seen that the central point of the transversal profiles will be compulsorily
included in the longitudinal profile (if this is one of the pegs).
Having these data, we can begin drafting the longitudinal profile and the
transversal profiles. (See chapter 8: PLANS AND MAPS).
Remark: this topic is largely discussed in the chapter TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS
FOR DESIGNING TRAFFIC ROUTES in our work ENGINEERING TOPOGRAPHY.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Consists in determining the altitude difference between two points, based on the
horizontal (or slanted) distance, measured or known (e.g. from coordinates), between the
two points and the declivity angle of the terrain (alignment) or the closing angle of the
theodolitic telescope.
155
In the first case (figure 18), the signal from point 1 (Z 1 the required absolute
height) will be aimed at the height of the instrument in point A (ZA the known height):
-
In this case, the declivity angle of the telescope L will be equal to the
declivity angle of the terrain , and the hypotenuse distance (h) of the formed
triangle (aiming axis, DA1, h), will be equal to Z A1,
h = LA1 sin L = LA1 sin
(35)
(36)
Z1 = ZA + ZA1
(37)
In the case when we cannot aim at the height of the instrument (i) or in the case of
trigonometric leveling on large distances (case in which [D AB = XAB + YAB]), the
signal from B is aimed at a measured height s.
DA1
i
i
L A1
ZA1
Z1
ZA
N.M.N.
(38)
ZAB = h + (i s)
(39)
h = DAB tg L
(40)
ZAB = DAB tg L + (i s)
156
ZB = ZA + ZAB
(41)
(42)
ZAB
L
LAB
A
ZA
ZB
N.M.N.
Figure 19. Trigonometric leveling with aim at some height
In the case when the declivity of the terrain is negative ( < 0) and the inclination
of the telescope is negative (L < 0) (figure 20):
ZAB + i = h + s
(43)
ZAB = h + (s i)
(44)
h = DAB tgL
(45)
(46)
(47)
In the case when D > 500 m, there appears the influence of the Earth globosity
and atmospheric refraction error, which will be corrected with the value:
157
D
C = (1 - K) -------2R
(48)
ZAB
AB
ZAB
ZA
ZB
N.M.N.
s3
1A
sC
s2
i1
sA
A
Z12
ZM
ZA
D12
D23
B
A
D A1
D 1A
A iA
A1
D21
21
i1
D3C
D
2
D12
1A
ZC
Z3
Z2
N.M.N.
DA1
Z1
Z3C
Z23
2
i2
23
D23
D 3232
D3C
3
DC3
3C
i3
C
C3
C
iC
In each station J with aims towards the points i (backward) and k (forward),
measure the following elements:
iJ: the height of the instrument in the station;
Di, sk: the aiming height of range poles (benchmarks, reflectors) from the points
i and k;
DJi, DJk: the horizontal distances (electronically or LJi, LJk directly);
Ji, Jk: the declivity angles of the telescope of the device towards the two points;
J: the horizontal angle formed by the directions Ji and Jk.
159
Remark: in the case of complete topographic stations, after horizontal setting and
centering of the device in station J, introduce iJ, si, sk, the names of points i, J, k, all other
data being automatically collected after aiming the two points.
Data processing:
1. PROCESSING MEASURED DATA
a) HORIZONTAL DISTANCES:
DiJ + DJi
DJi = -----------(50)
2
b) HORIZONTAL ANGLES: the average of the two positions (position I,
position II);
c) VERTICAL ANGLES: by computation (the average of the two positions),
the vertical angle (declivity angle of the telescope) will be used for
computing the altitude difference Z Ji, and Z Jk, respectively.
Thus: ZJi = DJi tgJi + (iJ - si)
(51)
(52)
(53)
160
1
B
DA1
A1
11
2
3
4
5
10 A
9
7
6
The reading on the vertical circle (for computing the declivity angle of the
telescope);
The reading on the horizontal circle (for computing the horizontal angle 1);
Polar coordinates (1, DA1) for repeating the point on the plan, Z1;
161
And/or Cartesian coordinates (X1, Y1) and Z1, for automatic repeating.
TACHEOMETRIC LEVELING
Before complete topographic stations were developed, tacheometric survey of
details performed simultaneously for planimetry and leveling was done through its
methods: diagram tachymetry and stadimetric tachymetry with vertical measuring staff,
the most frequent procedure applied for measuring terrestrial surfaces in order to compile
a topographic map or plan.
Mainly, besides the way to obtain the primary elements: horizontal distances and
altitude differences (discussed in detail in the chapter concerning tacheometers as
topographic instruments), this method represents, in fact, a radiation supported on one
base (side or traverse, e.g. AB or AC), measuring the characteristic points from the area
in non-compensated horizon tour.
-
With the use of the graphical scale, actual (field) values of some distances
presented in the plan can be determined or distances can be repeated on the
plan scale, on the MAP/plan;
The method consists in comparing a distance obtained with the distance gauge
on the map/plan to the graphical scale, placing one of its ends on one of the
gradations of the base, and the other end on the talon, the distance resulting as
the number of the two graphically determined values (figure 1/chapter VIII).
(54)
e = graphical error.
162
Basic topographic plans (1:2000; 1:5000; 1:10,000), which are plans drafted
on the entire territory of the country, in one cartographic projection system;
TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Details representation, in the case of topographic plans, is performed by
geometrizing (replacing with characteristic points), repeating on a horizontal projection
plan and scaling down. The image obtained will be similar with that of the represented
detail.
In the case of topographic maps, their content of natural and artificial details is
graphically expressed by symbols.
Symbols should be illustrative (that is, to suggest the nature of the presented
element), easy to draw, explicit.
163
Contour symbols, used for representing the contour of the represented detail,
without other details concerning the position or size of details from within the
represented contour (e.g. forests, orchards, waters, etc.);
Scale symbols, which indicate exactly the position on the map of a detail, in
its axis, without specifying the contour or any information concerning the
content of the detail (e.g. communes, towns, churches, etc.);
LEVELING SYMBOLS
Are used to represent the relief on the map or plan (in general, contours, nuances,
shades used to suggest the relief, also specifying details concerning them: heights, the
shape in plan and space).
REPRESENTING RELIEF
The main method for representing the relief, a simple, explicit, suggestive
method, is the method of CONTOURS.
The contour represents the intersection of the terrain with a horizontal section
plan, practically the curve that unites all the points having the same height in the field.
In order to homogenously and coherently represent the relief, the contours are
equidistant, that is, between the horizontal section plans there is an equal distance E,
called the EQUIDISTANCE (of the contour).
The equidistance is equal to an integer multiple of meters: 1, 2, 5, 10, 10, 50, etc.
Choosing the size of E depends on the nature of the terrain (the roughness degree)
and on the plan scale (e.g. mountainous terrain, scale 1:25,000, E = 2 m, plain E = 5 or 10
m).
The equidistance E, scale down on the plan scale is:
164
e=En
(55)
Peg out the characteristic points: declivity changes, route changes, thickening
points (if the distances between the first two categories exceed 50 m);
Designating pegs will be performed with two stakes (one designating the peg,
the other the control peg, having written the number of the peg within the
route).
It can be seen that the central point of the transversal profiles will be compulsorily
included in the longitudinal profile (if this is one of the pegs).
165
Having these data, we can begin drafting the longitudinal profile and the
transversal profiles. (See chapter 8: PLANS AND MAPS).
Remark: this topic is largely discussed in the chapter TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS
FOR DESIGNING TRAFFIC ROUTES in our work ENGINEERING TOPOGRAPHY.
(1)
166
Sc. 1:10,000
100
100
200
700
D = 900 + 65 = 965 m
talon
base
Figure 1. Simple graphical scale
The method consists in comparing a distance obtained with the distance gauge
on the map/plan to the graphical scale, placing one of its ends on one of the
gradations of the base, and the other end on the talon, the distance resulting as
the number of the two graphically determined values (figure 1).
talon
base
Sc. 1:1000
20
10
20
40
60
80
D = 80 + 15.40 = 95.40 m
167
(2)
e = graphical error.
The graphical precision of the map/plan will be expressed:
Ps = e n 103
n = the scale denominator of the map/plan;
Ps allows choosing the plan scale depending on the size and shape of the details
that will be represented.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS AND PLANS
The scale on which topographic plans are drafted varies within the interval 1:100
1:10,000, therefore the plans can be:
-
Basic topographic plans (1:2000; 1:5000; 1:10,000), which are plans drafted
on the entire territory of the country, in one cartographic projection system;
168
TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Details representation, in the case of topographic plans, is performed by
geometrizing (replacing with characteristic points), repeating on a horizontal projection
plan and scaling down. The image obtained will be similar with that of the represented
detail.
In the case of topographic maps, their content of natural and artificial details is
graphically expressed by symbols.
Symbols should be illustrative (that is, to suggest the nature of the presented
element), easy to draw, explicit.
For PLANYMETRY, the symbols are:
-
Contour symbols, used for representing the contour of the represented detail,
without other details concerning the position or size of details from within the
represented contour (e.g. forests, orchards, waters, etc.);
Scale symbols, which indicate exactly the position on the map of a detail, in
its axis, without specifying the contour or any information concerning the
content of the detail (e.g. communes, towns, churches, etc.);
LEVELING SYMBOLS
Are used to represent the relief on the map or plan (in general, contours, nuances,
shades used to suggest the relief, also specifying details concerning them: heights, the
shape in plan and space).
REPRESENTING RELIEF
The main method for representing the relief, a simple, explicit, suggestive
method, is the method of CONTOURS.
169
The contour represents the intersection of the terrain with a horizontal section
plan, practically the curve that unites all the points having the same height in the field.
220
215
210
205
200
E
E
E
E
E
200
(3)
170
V peak
side
leg
160
180
leg
Bergstrich
slope index
side
ridge line
200
220
V
320
a. Peak mamelon
edge
bottom
F
V1
wall
F
235
240
d.Hollow
V2
+24
230 V1
220
210
200
V2
e. Saddle
origin
hillock
side
draught
200
180
pit
thalweg
-32
171
f. Valley
160
140
A (A ,A)
A
60= 1
dA
d0
45
00
45 25
A
60 = 1
d0
dA
0 = 450000;
In this case:
0 = 242500.
Interpolating, we can determine the geographic coordinates of any point on the
map. Hence, for A:
A = 450000 + 1 + A, where
dA
= -------- 60, and A = 242500 + 1 + A, respectively, where
d0
dA
= -------- 60
d0
(4)
4800
Y
x = 4600
X
dYA
dY0
9400
dXA
y = 9200
4700
9300
X0
dX0
Y0
Sc .1:n
Figure 6. Determining the Cartesian
coordinates of a point on the map/plan
173
XA = XM + X
YA = YM + Y
dxA
X = -------- X0
dx0
(5)
dyA
Y = --------- Y0
dy0
(6)
D
Ky = ------dy0
(7)
(8)
and D is the theoretical distance that should be between the lines of the graticule.
In this case:
dxA
X = Kx ------- X0
dx0
(9)
dyA
Y = Ky ------- Y0
dy0
(10)
(11)
YMA = YA - YM
174
YMA
dyA = ----------;
n
N
B
D AB
4600
AB
XAB
dYA
A
YMA
aXA XMA
6400
YAB
6300
M
6200
4500
Sc.1:2000
175
DAB = dAB n
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
Based on the details from the terrain, for example orienting the map with the
use of the represented detail (e.g. railway) along the detail from the terrain;
With the use of the compass, orienting the 0X direction on the map/plan on
the direction of the magnetic north indicated by the compass index.
176
GEOMETRIC METHODS
N
N
2
1
A c
B
B
C
C
4
5
Figure 9. Dividing up a surface into geometric shapes
177
These methods are used in the case when the surface can be divided up into
known geometric shapes (see figure 9), usually triangles, and we apply the known
relations for each area:
S = p(p-a)(p-b)(p-c)
(16)
a+b+c
where p = -------------, the semi-perimeter of the triangle,
2
a, b, and c are the sides of the triangle, or
BI
S = -------2
(17)
X1
Xi
1
Xi + 1
Xi - 1
i+1
i-1
X3
3
Y2-Y1
Y1
Y2
Y3
Yi - 1 Yi
b
Yi + 1
The relation will be proven on the surface of a triangle and then it will be
generalized. It can be seen that:
S123 = Sy112y2 + Sy223y3 Sy113y3
(18)
(19)
which, for a given number n of apexes of closed polygon, whose area is computed,
becomes:
n
S = 1/2 Xi (yi+1 yi -1)
1
(20)
or its equivalent:
3
S123 = 1/2 Yi (xi-1 xi +1)
1
(21)
The contour of the polygon will be parsed in right-handed direction, starting from
one arbitrarily chosen apex, denoted with i.
Similar relations can be obtained using determinants, knowing that:
x1
y1
179
2 S123 =
x2
y2
x3
y3
GRAPHICAL METHODS
If we known sides/angles of the geometric shapes that compose the surface whose
area has to be computed, then there exists the possibility to graphically measure these
values and then to apply geometric or trigonometric relations.
The graphical methods that use parallels or squares are fast, the precision being in
strong correlation with the distances between the parallels/sides of the squares.
S1
S2
l1 l2
=square
ln
a
a
np
a
S
(22)
Li = li n
It can be seen that:
L1 A
S1 = ---------2
(L1 + L2) A
S2 = --------------------
(23)
180
2
Ln A
Sn = ------------2
n
n
From where: S = Si = A Li
1
1
(24)
(25)
(26)
A=an
Thus, the total area will be: S = N Sv
(27)
(28)
And when the pole of the planimeter is in the interior of the surface (figure 13b),
the surface is obtained by the relation:
S = (C n) Ks
(29)
181
Where: Ks: the constant of the polar planimeter, which is determined in the
following way:
-
Fix the pole P in working position, fix the graver M of the planimeter to a
known radius of the bar and planimeter many times the circle with that radius.
The constant will be:
R2
Ks = ----------(C2-C1)
(30)
S
P
P
0
M
(31)
182
C: is the constant of the planimeter, that is, the surface of the base circle,
depending on the length of the arms;
n = C2-C1
THE PRECISION OF THE METHOD
Ks 0.02 S (cm)
The tolerance admitted between two planimetry determinations of the same
surface S.
LEVELING PROBLEMS
DETERMINING THE HEIGHT OF A POINT on a map/plan with contours.
Draw the line with the greatest slope, through the point (figure 14) towards the
contours neighbor to the point and measure , d.
210
N
210
200
P
E
Z
x
200
M
d
M
D
D
(32)
d n
183
Or
(33)
(34)
(35)
where ZiJ = ZJ = - Zi
(36)
DiJ = diJ n
U
20
0
DUV
21 22
0 0
ZUV
23
0
24
0
25
0
ZU
DUV
ZV
1000ZiJ
p% = 1000 tg = -------------DiJ
184
x
410
185
(39)
100 E
d0 = ----------p0% n
d0
d0
d0
B
220
d0
d0
d0
210
d0
A
Figure 17. Tracing a line with constant declivity
d0: the distance between two neighbor contours, such that the declivity of the line
that unites the two contours, of length d0, to be the required declivity p0%.
The tracing is performed with a compass with the span of the arms equal to d0,
from A to B.
186
For the distance 1:m, usually m = n, where 1:n is the map/plan scale;
TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE AB
DISTANCE SCALE 1:m
B
226
220
8
7
6
5
HEIGHT SCALE
1:c
225
224
223
222
221
224
220
4
3
Scale 1:n
18,30
12,20
219
220
Declivities
187
109.60
221
97.40
222
224
224
223
222
49.40
54.50
68.80
Cumulated
distances (m)
10,60
45.30
12,40
39.10
31.70
Point
number
Partial
distances (m)
23.00
1 2
221
218
220
223
219
12.40