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ACTUATORS

Actuators
Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a
change in a physical parameter
The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)
An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of
physical quantity into some alternative form
An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so

an amplifier may be required to provide sufficient power to drive


the actuator

Actuators
Mechanism
Logical
Signal

Signal
Processing
&
Amplification

Electric

Hydraulic
Pneumatic

Actuator
Sensor

Final Actuation
Element

Control code

Mechanical
Command signal

Sensing signal

Microprocessor

Sensors

or
Microcontroller

Actuator

Actuation

Parameter, variables

Plant
(Robot, AGV, NCM, Consumer products, Conveyor systems, Assembly
system, Cranes, Defense equipments, Air craft engines, etc)

Figure 1) A simple sensor actuator connection

Classification of Actuators
1. Electro-mechanical
2. Fluid-power
3. Active material based

Electro-mechanical actuators:

Switches

Solenoid type

Relays, Diode, Transistors, Thyristor

Hydraulic & pneumatic valve

Drive systems

DC motor

AC motor

Stepper motor

Fluid power actuators:

Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Active material based actuators:

Piezoelectric

Magnetostrictive

Shape-memory alloys

Selection parameters
Hydraulic

DC motor

Pneumatic

Electrical
AC

Hydraulic

Stepper motor

Volume

a) Torque Vs Volume of actuators

Power

b) Weight Vs power of actuators

Electrical
Stepper motor

DC motor

Hydraulic

Power

c) Cost Vs power of actuators

Speed / pulse

d) Torque Vs speed of actuators

Solenoid Actuator
Solenoid is an electromagnetic device, that works by the
magnetization of a coil, which operates a soft iron core.
A solenoid consists of a coil and a movable iron core called
armature.

When the coil is energized with current, the core moves to


increase the flux linkage by closing the air gap between the cores.
The movable core is usually spring loaded to allow the core to
retract when the current is switched off.
The force generated is approximately proportional to the square of
the current and inversely proportional to the square of the width of
the air gap.

Movable
armature core

Coil

Spring

a) Plunger type

Stationary iron core

Movable
armature core

Spring

Coil

Stationary iron core

b) Non plunger type

Movable
armature core

Coil

Spring

Force available from a solenoid,

2 2

1N I
F=
2
2 x

A 0

N No. of turns on the coil


I Current through the coil

A C/s of air gap


0 permeability of air
X width / length of air gap

How it works (continued)


Example 1 Valve

A spring maintains the valve in its closed or


open position.
When a current is passed through the coils

around the core, it will produce a


magnetic force, that pushes the valve to
the Open or closed position.
When the current is stopped The force is
removed and The valve moves to its
original Position.

Major Specifications Selection Factors


Voltage
Duty cycle - Specifies the length of time the solenoid coil is to be
electrically energized and de-energized.
Current and Power
Temperature
Stroke Distance the plunger must travel

Force Push or pull energy the actuator must exert


Mounting and Environment Coil heat is bad for the Solenoid

Limitations

Temperature of device may increase very fast


Limited to current input possible
Limited to force of actuator
Large force = Lots of money
Must be mounted very firm
Must control with PWM or AC

Advantages

Very strong
Very fast
Very customizable to specifications
Several Manufacturers
Great for high power short bursts

Relay
An electromechanical relay is used to make or break mechanical
contact between electrical leads.

An electrical relay (also called as contactor) is an electrically


operated ON/OFF type of switching device, based on a control signal
input.
It consists of a magnetic coil, a moving armature and a set of
electrical contacts.
When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic is generated,
which in turn attracts the armature.
This causes the internal contacts to change position(open to closed,
or closed to open).

Electromechanical Relays: Whats Inside

This diagram shows the basic


parts of an electromechanical
relay: a spring, moveable
armature, electromagnet,
moveable contact, and
stationary contact. The
spring keeps the two contacts
separated until the
electromagnet is energized,
pulling the two contacts
together.

Moveable Contact
Moveable Armature

Stationary Contact
Spring

Electromagnet

Wiring Up an Electromechanical Relay

This diagram shows how to wire an


electromechanical relay. When the
control circuit turns the
electromagnet on, the moveable
armature is drawn towards the
electromagnet and connects the
moveable contact and the stationary
contact. This completes the circuit
and delivers power to the load.

Power Supply
Load
Moveable Armature

Moveable Contact

Stationary Contact
Spring

Electromagnet

To Control Circuit

Advantages of Relays

The complete electrical isolation improves safety by ensuring that high voltages

and

currents cannot appear where they should not be.

Come in all shapes and sizes for different applications and they have various
switch contact configurations.

Easy to tell when a relay is operating - you can hear a click as the relay switches on and
off and you can sometimes see the contacts moving.

Disadvantages of Relays
Their parts can wear out as the switch contacts become dirty - high voltages and currents

cause sparks between the contacts.

They cannot be switched on and off at high speeds because they have a slow response

and the switch contacts will rapidly wear out due to the sparking.

Their coils need a fairly high current to energise,

The back-emf created when the relay coil switches off can damage the components that

are driving the coil.

a-

A+

A-

b-

a+

B+

B-

C+

Relay contact 1

START / STOP

Relay contact 2
Relay 2

c+

b+

Relay 1

Figure 1) Relay controlled system

C-

DC motor
Converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy.
Conductor placed in a magnetic field, current is passed

Lorentz force acts on the conductor.


Flemings left hand rule for direction of the force
Conductor moves in the direction of force

DC Motors

DC Motor:

F
B

Flemings Left hand rule

DC motor basics

Field pole
Armature
Armature
conductors

DC motor

Permanent magnet DC motor:


Stator

Armature
S

Rotor

S
F

Figure 1) Permanent magnet


DC motor

Figure 2) Armature

Magnetic flux remains constant at all levels of the armature current


speed - torque characteristics is linear.

Torque speed characteristics of a DC motor


For an armature conductor of length L, carrying current i, placed
in a magnetic field of flux density B
Force (F) acting on the conductor is,

F B iL
For N such conductors,

F NB i L

For N such conductors,

F NB i L
Torque (T) about coil axis,

T K ( N B i L )b
K Proportionality constant

T Kt i
Kt Torque constant

(1)

Since an armature coil is rotating in a magnetic field,


Electromagnetic induction will occur, back emf is produced.
R

Vb

Figure 3) Equivalent circuit of dc motor

Vb K b
Kb Torque constant

T Kt i

(1)

Vb

Figure 3) Equivalent circuit of dc motor

Vb K b
Neglecting inductance of an armature coil, current through the resistor is,

V - Vb
i
R

V - K b

Sub. eqn.(2) in eqn.(1) we get,

(2)

Torque (T)

Kt
T
(V - K b )
R

Rotational speed ()
Figure 4) Torque speed characteristics of a dc motor

Servo principle :
DC servomotor
Va

Set speed

Vf

Tacho-generator

Figure: Closed loop dc motor Speed Measurement system

Na set speed
Va Reference signal
Vf Feedback signal
V Applied voltage

Servo principle :
Va

DC servomotor

Set speed

Vf

At time

Tacho-generator

t = 0,

At time

V Va

t = t 1,

V Va - Vf

When motor picks up speed (N2), (N2 > Na)

If Vf > Va

V is negative

[Motor reduces speed]

V is positive

[Motor increases speed]

(N2 < Na)


If Vf < Va

Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts

electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements.


The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step
increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the

proper sequence.
Step motors are different from all other types of electrical drives in

the sense that they operate on discrete control pulses received and

rotate in discrete steps.

AC and DC drives are analog in nature and rotate continuously

depending on magnitude and polarity of the control signal received.

The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the


direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to
the frequency of the input pulses and
The length of rotation is directly related to the number of
input pulses applied.
The discrete nature of operation of a step motor makes it suitable

for directly interfacing with a computer & direct computer control.


These motors are widely employed in industrial control, specifically
for CNC machines, where open loop control in discrete steps are
acceptable.

Specifications
Phase: Number of independent windings on the stator.
Step Angle: Angle through which the rotor rotates for one
switching change for the stator coils

Holding torque: Maximum torque that can be applied to a


powered motor without moving it from its rest position and
causing spindle rotation.

Pull in Torque: Maximum torque against which motor will start,


for a given pulse rate, and reach synchronism without losing a
step.

Pull-out Torque: Maximum torque that can be applied to a motor,


running at a given stepping rate, without losing synchronism
Pull-in Rate: Maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor

can start without losing a step.


Pull-out Rate: Switching rate at which loaded motor will remain in
synchronism as the switching rate is reduced

Slew Range: Range of switching rate between pull-in and pull-out


within which the motor runs in synchronism but cannot start up
or reverse

Step motors are normally of two types:


(a) permanent magnet and
(b) variable reluctance type.
Also there is Hybrid type stepper motor

In a step motor the excitation voltage to the coils is DC and the


number of phases indicates the number of windings.
In both the two cases the excitation windings are in the stator.

In a permanent magnet type step motor the rotor is a permanent


magnet with a number of poles.
In a variable reluctance type motor the rotor is a cylindrical
structure with a number of projected teeth.

Variable reluctance Stepper motor


S

Rotor is cylindrical with 4 poles


Poles on stator > rotor
N

Step angles 7.50/ 150

Current flows through opposite pair of windings


Magnetic field is produced
Magnetic lines of force move from stator to nearest poles on rotor
Position of minimum reluctance

Variable reluctance type step motors


Variable reluctance type step motors do not require
reversing of current through the coils, but at the same
time do not have any holding torque.
Step angle as low as 1.8o can be achieved with this type
of motors.
Rotor is a cylindrical soft iron core with projected teeth.
When a particular stator coil is excited, the rotor aligns
itself such that one pair of teeth is along the energised
stator coil, at the minimum reluctance path.

When phase-1 is energised,

the rotor will align itself as


shown in the figure.
In the next step, if phase-1 is
switched off and phase-2 is
switched on, the rotor will
Three-phase single-stack VR step
motor with twelve stator poles
(teeth) and eight rotor teeth.

rotate in CCW direction by


an angle of 15o.

Permanent magnet Stepper motor


Field pole
N

Rotor
(Permanent magnet)

Figure 1) Permanent magnet stepper motor

Permanent magnet Stepper motor

Rotor is a permanent magnet

Stator consists of coils


Step angles 1.80,7.50,150,300,340, 900

Different stator winding combinations are excited by current


Magnetic field is produced
causes rotor to move in different directions
Polarities of stator needs to be changed

Permanent Magnet Step Motor


Figure shows two-phase two-pole permanent magnet step
motor;

Winding A is split into two halves A1 and A2. They are excited by

constant d.c. voltage V and the direction of current through A1


and A2 can be set by switching of four switches Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4.

Similar is the case for the halves B1 and B2 where four


switches Q5-Q8 are used to control the direction of current

Let Winding A be energised and the induced


magnetic poles are as shown in Fig (we will
denote the switching condition as S1=1).
The other winding B is not energised. As a
result the moving permanent magnet will align
itself along the axis of the stator poles as
shown in Fig.

In the next step, both the windings A and B are


excited simultaneously, and the polarities of
the stator poles are as shown in Fig. 3(b). We
shall denote S2=1, for this switching
arrangement for winding B. The rotor magnet
will now rotate by an angle of 45o and align
itself with the resultant magnetic field
produced

In the next step, if we now make S1=0 (thereby


de-energising winding A), the rotor will rotate
further clockwise by 45o and align itself along
winding B, as shown in Fig.

In this way if we keep on changing the


switching sequence, the rotor will keep on
rotating by 45o in each step in the clockwise
direction.

A pair of switch (say Q7-Q8) remains closed during


consecutive 3 steps of rotation and there is an overlap at every
alternate step where both the two windings are energised. This
arrangement for controlling the step motor movement is known as
half stepping.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by changing the
order of the switching sequence.

More on Stepper Motors

Animation shows how coils are energized for full steps

The advantage of a permanent magnet step motor is that it has a


holding torque. This means that due to the presence of permanent
magnet the rotor will lock itself along the stator pole even when the
excitation coils are de-energised.
But the major disadvantage is that the direction of current for each
winding needs to be reversed. This requires more number of
transistor switches that may make the driving circuit unwieldy.
Another way of reducing the number of switches is to use unipolar
winding. In unipolar winding, there are two windings per pole, out of
which only one is excited at a time. The windings in a pole are
wound in opposite direction, thus either N-pole or S-pole,
depending on which one is excited.

More on Stepper Motors

Full step sequence showing


how binary numbers can
control the motor

Half step sequence


of binary control
numbers

Hybrid stepper motor


Teeth on end caps

Fig : Hybrid stepper rotor

Permanent magnet

Combines the features of both the variable reluctance & PM motors


Permanent magnet placed in iron end caps containing the teeth
Energising pair of stator coils rotates rotor to min. reluctance position
Step angles are 0.90 & 1.80

Computer hard discs

AC motor

Classification of a AC motor:
Single phase
1. Induction

Poly phase

2. Synchronous

Single induction motor


Stator

Rotor

Pole

Pole

End view of squirrel cage

Figure 1) Single phase induction motor

Three induction motor


Rotor

Stator

Figure 1) Three phase induction motor

Three Synchronous motor


Rotor

Stator
N

Figure 1) Three phase synchronous motor

Fluid Power Actuators

Fluid Power Actuators


Any actuator which actuates a system on receiving the input
power in the form of air, oil

Classification:

Pneumatic Actuators

Hydraulic Actuators

Power supply:

Accumulator

Motor
Pressure relief
valve

Control valve
P
A

Pump
E

Filter

Oil

Sump

Figure 1) Hydraulic power supply

Cylinder

Power supply:

Air receiver

Motor
Pressure relief
valve
Cooler

Control valve

Compressor

Filter &
Water trap

Filter

To atmosphere

Air inlet

Figure 1) Pneumatic power supply

Cylinder

Hydraulic & pneumatic systems


Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Pressurised liquid (oil)

Compressed air

Pressure (7 Mpa 21 Mpa)

Pressure (500 Kpa 1 Mpa)

Pump

Air compressor

Large loads / force

Less force

Heavy construction equipment,


large m/c

Open systems, process new air

Self lubricating

Cleaner than oil

Precise control at low speeds

Compressible

High pressure hazzards

Low operating pressure

Large infrastructure needed

Costs less

Selection criteria
1. Force

2. Speed
3. Size
4. Type of motion

5. Service life
6. Sensitivity
7. Safety & reliability
8. Controllability
9. Handling & storage
10.Energy costs

Signal flow
Actuating devices
Final control element

Processing elements

Input elements & signals

Energy supply source

System symbols

System symbols

Filter

Water separator

Lubricator

2(A)

1(P)

3(R)

Pressure regulator
Air service unit

System symbols

Air service unit

Simplified symbol

System symbols
Control Valves

1)

4)

2)

3)

5)
2(A)

1(P)

6)

7)

System symbols

P
4(A)

Pressure port

R , S Exhaust port

2(B)

A , B Outlet ports

1(P)
5(S)

3(R)

5/2 Normally closed valve


4(A)

2(B)

Pressure port

R , S Exhaust port
A , B Outlet ports

1(P)
5(S)

3(R)

5/3 Normally closed valve

Types of switch actuation for DCVs

Manual

Push button

Foot paddle
operated

Detent lever operated

Roller operated

Solenoid operated

Lever operated

Spring return

Double Solenoid
operated

Flow control valves


Non Return valves
Check valve
Flow

Spring loaded Check valve

Two way pressure valve (AND)

Shuttle valve (OR)

Flow control valves


Non Return valves
Two way pressure valve (AND)

Shuttle valve (OR)

Quick exhaust valve

Flow control valves


Adjustable

One way adjustable

Pressure control valves


Adjustable pressure regulating valve

Adjustable pressure regulating valve (Relieving type)

Sequence valve

Actuators
Single acting cylinder with spring return

2(A)

3(R)

1(P)

Double acting cylinder

4(A)

2(B)

2
1(P)

3(R)

Valves
Device for closing or opening the passage through a pipe in
order to stop, allow or control the flow of a fluid
Act as a control element to control flow of fluid in the chamber
of cylinder
Classified based on how they work
Normally closed & normally open valves
2-way, 3-way & 4-way valves

2 way Valves
2 ports
1 inlet & 1 outlet

3 way Valves
3 ports
1 inlet , 1 outlet & exhaust

4 way Valves
4 ports
1 inlet , 2 outlet & exhaust

5 way Valves
5 ports
1 inlet , 2 outlet & 2 exhaust

Valve operating conditions


1. Inlet open to the outlet with exhaust blocked
2. Inlet blocked with outlet connected to exhaust

2(A)

1
1(P)

3(R)

Direction Control Valves (DCVs)

Classification of Direction control valves


1. Spool type

2. Poppet valve

3. Directional valve / Check valve / Non return valve (NRV)

4. Pilot operated valve

Spool valve (solenoid operated)

Solenoid

Port 1
Port 3

Port 2

Air supply

Port 1

Solenoid

Port 3

(not energized)

Vent to atmosphere

Port 2

Figure 1) Working of a spool valve

Spool valve (solenoid operated)


Common type of a direction control valve
Spool moves horizontally with in the valve body to control the flow
Air supply is connected to port 1 , port 3 is closed
When spool moves to the left,
Air supply is cut off & port 2 is connected to port 3.
Port 3 opens to atmosphere
Pressurised air in the system goes out

Poppet valve
2(A)

1(P)

Figure 1) Poppet valve

Normally closed condition


No connection between port 1 & 2
Balls, discs or cones are used with valve seats to control the flow

Poppet valve

2(A)

1(P)

Figure 1) Poppet valve

When PB is depressed, ball will be pushed out of its seat


Port 1) connected to port 2), Flow occurs,
When button is released, no flow occurs

Directional valve (check valve)

Symbol

Figure 1) Poppet valve

No flow

Directional valve (check valve)


Free flow occurs in one direction through valves
Ball is pressed against the spring
Flow in other direction is blocked by spring forcing the ball
against the seat

Pilot operated valve (Impulse valve)


4(A)

1(P)

2(B)

3(R)

One valve is used to control another


valve

2(A)

Pilot valve is operated manually or by


solenoid
1(P)

3(R)

Double pilot valves are called


MEMORY VALVES (Bistable valve)

Figure 1) Pilot operated System

Pressure Control Valves (PCVs)

Classification of Pressure control valves


1. Pressure regulating valve

2. Pressure limiting / relief valve

3. Pressure sequence valve

Pressure regulating valve

A
Fig 2) Symbol
(Normally open)

Poppet valve
Diaphragm
Main spring

Body

Adjustable screw

Fig 1) Pressure regulator

Pressure regulating valve


To control the operating pressure in a circuit and maintain it
at a constant value
Function : To regulate the incoming pressure to the system

Air flows at a desired pressure in to the cylinder


2 openings, primary & secondary
Application:
- Pneumatic circuits

Pressure regulating valve


Working : Poppet valve opening = desired level (Adjustable screw)
Screw moves the diaphragm & air flows to outlet
2 openings, primary & secondary

Vent hole openings


Spring compression Pressure

Pressure limit valve/ Relief valve

System pressure (P)


Fig 2) Symbol
Ball

Spring
Adjustable support

Fig 1) Pressure relief valve

Pressure limiting valve


Safety devices
Limits the pressure below the safe value
Normally closed

Working:
- Inlet pressure > Spring pressure
- Built-in spring closes the valve

Pressure sequence valve


Cylinder 2

1 (P)

Fig 2) Symbol

Cylinder 1
1
A

P
T
B

Fig 1) Sequential system

2 (A)

Pressure sequence valve


To sense the pressure of an external line & give a signal
when it reaches some preset value

Working principle:
- Inlet pressure > Spring pressure
- Built-in spring closes the valve

Lift system

Pressure supply
UP

Vent

Vent
DOWN

Load

Cylinder Sequencing

Limit switches

a-

Cylinder A

4(A)

5(S)

Start

2(A)

1(P)

a+

b+

b-

Cylinder A

b+

4(A) 2(B)

3(R)
1(P)

b-

2(B)

Limit switches

3(R)
1(P)

5(S)

a+

a-

3(R)

Figure 1) Two-actuator sequential operation

THYRISTOR
or
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

THYRISTOR
A
P
N

J1
J2

P
VG

N
C

Fig 1 a) SCR

VD

GATE

J3
C
b) Symbol

THYRISTOR
SCR current
Forward conduction

Reverse
breakdown
voltage

Forward Breakdown

voltage

Gate
voltage

A
P
N

J1
J2

Figure 2) V-I characteristics of a SCR

P
VG

N
C

VD

J3

APPLICATION

THYRISTOR
V

Gate pulses

Average DC voltage

Figure 2) SCR firing

TRIAC

TRIAC
G2

T2

T2

T1

GATE
G1

Fig 1 a) Triac equivalent circuit

T1

b) Symbol

TRIAC

T2 (+ve)

VBR

VBR
V
h
T1 (+ve)

Figure 2) V-I characteristics of a Triac

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