Pun

For other uses, see Pun (disambiguation).

Plautus was famous for his puns and word games.[3][4]
The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word Punning has been credited as the fundamental concept
behind alphabets, writing, and even human civilisation.[3]

1 Typology
Puns can be classied in various ways:
The homophonic pun, a common type, uses word pairs
which sound alike (homophones) but are not synonymous.
Walter Redfern exemplied this type with his statement,
To pun is to treat homonyms as synonyms.[5] For example, in George Carlin's phrase Atheism is a non-prophet
institution, the word prophet is put in place of its homophone prot, altering the common phrase "non-prot
institution". Similarly, the joke Question: Why do we
still have troops in Germany? Answer: To keep the Russians in Czech" relies on the aural ambiguity of the homophones check and Czech. Often, puns are not strictly
homophonic, but play on words of similar, not identical,
sound as in the example from the Pinky and the Brain
cartoon lm series: I think so, Brain, but if we give peas
a chance, won't the lima beans feel left out?" which plays
with the similarbut not identicalsound of peas and
peace.[6]
A homographic pun exploits words which are spelled the
same (homographs) but possess dierent meanings and
sounds. Because of their nature, they rely on sight more
than hearing, contrary to homophonic puns. They are
also known as heteronymic puns. Examples in which the
punned words typically exist in two dierent parts of
speech often rely on unusual sentence construction, as in
the anecdote: When asked to explain his large number
of children, the pig answered simply: 'The wild oats of
my sow gave us many piglets.'" An example that combines homophonic and homographic punning is Douglas
Adams's line You can tune a guitar, but you can't tuna
sh. Unless of course, you play bass. The phrase uses
the homophonic qualities of tune a and tuna, as well as the
homographic pun on bass, in which ambiguity is reached
through the identical spellings of /bes/ (a string instrument), and /bs/ (a kind of sh).

KLEPTOROUMANIA
Punch cartoon of the Second Balkan War. King Carol I of Romania points his pistol at King Petar of Serbia and King Constantine
of Greece while he steals Southern Dobrudja from the disarmed
Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The title KLEPTOROUMANIA is
a pun on kleptomania, the mental disorder of impulsive stealing
for the sake of stealing.

play that suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding
words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical eect.[1][2]
These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of
homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or gurative language. A pun diers from a malapropism in that a
malapropism is an incorrect variation on a correct expression, while a pun involves expressions with multiple correct interpretations. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or Homonymic puns, another common type, arise from the
idiomatic constructions, as their usage and meaning are exploitation of words which are both homographs and
specic to a particular language and its culture.
homophones. The statement Being in politics is just
Puns have a long history in human writing. Sumerian like playing golf: you are trapped in one bad lie afcuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs were originally ter another puns on the two meanings of the word lie
based on punning systems, and the Roman playwright as a deliberate untruth and as the position in which
1

something rests. An adaptation of a joke repeated by

Isaac Asimov gives us Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen
door?" playing on strained as to give much eort and
to lter.[7] A homonymic pun may also be polysemic,
in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, a condition that is often subjective.
However, lexicographers dene polysemes as listed under
a single dictionary lemma (a unique numbered meaning)
while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata.
A compound pun is a statement that contains two or
more puns. For example, a complex statement by
Richard Whately includes four puns: Why can a man
never starve in the Great Desert? Because he can eat
the sand which is there. But what brought the sandwiches there? Why, Noah sent Ham, and his descendants mustered and bred.[8] This pun uses sand which is
there/sandwiches there, Ham/ham, mustered/mustard, and
bred/bread. Similarly, the phrase piano is not my forte
cleverly links two meanings of the words forte and piano,
one for the dynamic markings in music and the second
for the literal meaning of the sentence. Compound puns
may also combine two phrases that share a word. For example, Where do mathematicians go on weekends? To
a Mbius strip club!" puns on Mbius strip and strip club.
A recursive pun is one in which the second aspect of
a pun relies on the understanding of an element in the
rst. For example the statement " is only half a pie. (
radians is 180 degrees, or half a circle, and a pie is a complete circle). Another example is "Innity is not in nity,
which means innity is not in nite range. Another example is a Freudian slip is when you say one thing but
mean your mother.[9] Finally, we are given "Immanuel
doesn't pun, he Kant by Oscar Wilde.
Visual puns are used in many logos, emblems, insignia,
and other graphic symbols, in which one or more of
the pun aspects are replaced by a picture. In European
heraldry, this technique is called canting arms. Visual and
other puns and word games are also common in Dutch
gable stones as well as in some cartoons, such as Lost
Consonants and The Far Side. Another type of visual pun
exists in languages which use non-phonetic writing. For
example, in Chinese, a pun may be based on a similarity in shape of the written character, despite a complete
lack of phonetic similarity in the words punned upon.[10]
Mark Elvin describes how this peculiarly Chinese form
of visual punning involved comparing written characters
to objects.[11]

USE

2.1 Comedy and jokes

Puns are a common source of humour in jokes and
comedy shows. They are often used in the punch line
of a joke, where they typically give a humorous meaning to a rather perplexing story. These are also known as
feghoots. The following example comes from the movie
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World,
though the punchline stems from far older Vaudeville
roots.[13] The nal line puns on the stock phrase "the
lesser of two evils".
Captain Aubrey, played by Russell
Crowe: Do you see those two
weevils, Doctor?...Which would
you choose?"
Dr. Maturin: Neither. Theres
not a scrap of dierence between
them. They're the same species of
Curculio.
Captain Aubrey: If you had to
choose. If you were forced to make
a choice. If there were no other option.
Dr. Maturin: Well, then, if you're
going to push me. I would choose
the right-hand weevil. It has significant advantage in both length and
breadth.
Captain Aubrey: There, I have
you!...Do you not know that in the
Service, one must always choose
the lesser of two weevils?"
Puns often are used in the titles of comedic parodies. A
parody of a popular song, movie, etc., may be given a title
that hints at the title of the work being parodied, substituting some of the words with ones that sound or look
similar. For example, collegiate a cappella groups are
often named after musical puns to attract fans through
attempts at humor. Such a title can immediately communicate both that what follows is a parody and also which
work is about to be parodied, making any further setup
(introductory explanation) unnecessary.

2014 saw the inaugural UK Pun Championships, at the

Leicester Comedy Festival, hosted by Lee Nelson. The
winner was Darren Walsh. The competition included
the line My computers got a Miley Virus. Its stopped
Richard J. Alexander notes two additional forms which twerking.[14] Walsh went on to take part in the O. Henry
puns may take: graphological (sometimes called visual) Pun-O World Championships in Austin, Texas.[15] In
puns, such as concrete poetry; and morphological puns, 2015 the UK Pun Championship was Leo Kearse.[16]
such as portmanteaus.[12]

2.2 Literature

Use

Non-humorous puns were and are a standard poetic device in English literature. Puns and other forms of

3
word play have been used by many famous writers, such
as Alexander Pope, James Joyce, Vladimir Nabokov,
Robert Bloch, Lewis Carroll, John Donne, and William
Shakespeare, who is estimated to have used over 3,000
puns in his plays.

making it common in titles and the names of places,

characters, and organizations, and in advertising and
slogans.[21][22]

2.3

3 Paronomasia in the media

Many restaurant and shop names use puns: Cane

& Able mobility healthcare, Sam & Ellas Chicken
Here is an example from Shakespeare's Richard III:
Palace, Tiecoon tie shop, Planet of the Grapes wine
and spirits,[23] as do books, such as Pies and Prejudice,
comics (YU+ME: dream) and lms (Good Will Hunting).
Now is the winter of our disconThe
Japanese anime Speed Racer's original title, Mach
tent made glorious summer by this
GoGoGo!
refers to the English word itself, the Japanese
son of York (Son/sun)
word for ve (the Mach 5's car number), and the name of
the shows main character, Go Mifune. This is also an exShakespeare was also noted for his frequent play with less
ample of a multilingual pun, full understanding of which
serious puns, the quibbles of the sort that made Samuel
requires knowledge of more than language on the part of
Johnson complain, A quibble is to Shakespeare what luthe listener.
minous vapours are to the traveller! He follows it to all
adventures; it is sure to lead him out of his way, sure to en- Names of characters also often carry puns, such as Ash
gulf him in the mire. It has some malignant power over Ketchum and Goku (kakarot), the protagonists of the
his mind, and its fascinations are irresistible.[17] Else- anime series Pokmon and Dragonball, respectively, both
where, Johnson disparagingly referred to punning as the franchises which are known for including second meanings in the names of many of their characters. A recurlowest form of humour.
ring motif in the Austin Powers lms repeatedly puns on
In the poem A Hymn to God the Father, John Donne,
names which suggest male genitalia. In the science cmarried to Anne More, reportedly puns repeatedly:
tion television series Star Trek, "B-4" is used as the name
Son/sun in the second quoted line, and two compound
of one of four androids models constructed before the
puns on Donne/done and More/more. All three are
android Data, a main character.
homophonic, with the puns on more being both homographic and capitonymic. The ambiguities serve to in- The parallel sequel The Lion King 1 advertised with
the phrase You haven't seen the 1/2 of it!". Wyborowa
troduce several possible meanings into the verses.
Vodka employed the slogan Enjoyed for centuries
straight, while Northern Telecom used Technology the
When Thou hast done, Thou hast
world calls on.[21]
not done / For I have more.
that at my death Thy Son / Shall
On 1 June 2015 the BBC Radio 4 You and Yours included
shine as he shines now, and heretoa feature on Puntastic Shop Titles. Entries included
fore
a Chinese Takeaway in Ayr town centre called "Ayrs
Wok", a kebab shop in Ireland called "Abra Kebabra" and
And having done that, Thou hast
a tree-surgeon in Dudley called Special Branch. The
done; / I fear no more.
winning competition entry, selected by Lee Nelson, was
in Fulham and Chelsea called "Starchy and
Alfred Hitchcock stated Puns are the highest form of a dry cleaners
[24]
Starchy".
[18]
literature.

Rhetoric

Puns can function as a rhetorical device, where the pun

serves as a persuasive instrument for an author or speaker.
Although puns are often perceived as clich, if used responsibly a pun "can be an eective communication
tool in a variety of situations and forms.[19] A major difculty in using puns in this manner is that the meaning
of a pun can be interpreted very dierently according to
the audiences background and can signicantly subtract
from a message.[20]

Paronomasia, also known as the pun, has found a strong

foothold in the media. William Sare of the New York
Times suggests that the root of this pace-growing [use
of paranomasia] is often a headliner-writers need for
quick catchiness, and has resulted in a new tolerance for
a long-despised form of humor.[25] It can be argued that
paronomasia is common in the media, especially headlines, to draw the readers interest. The rhetoric is important because it connects people with the topic.

Paronomasia is prevalent orally as well. Salvatore Attardo believes that puns are verbal humor. He talks about
Pepicello and Weisbergs linguistic theory of humor and
Like other forms of wordplay, paronomasia is occasion- believes the only form of linguistic humor is limited to
ally used for its attention-getting or mnemonic qualities, puns.[26] This is because a pun is play on the word it-

2.4

Design

6 SEE ALSO

self. Attardo believes that only puns are able to maintain humor and this humor has signicance. It is able to
help soften a situation and make it less serious, it can help
make something more memorable, and using a pun can
make the speaker seem witty.
Paronomasia is strong in print media and oral conversation so it can be assumed that paronomasia is strong in
broadcast media as well. Examples of paranomasia in
media are sound bites. They could be memorable because
of the humor and rhetoric associated with paronomasia,
thus making the signicance of the sound bite stronger.

and understandable to experts only.

In computer science, the term type punning refers to a
programming technique that subverts or circumvents the
type system of a programming language, by allowing a
value of a certain type to be manipulated as a value of a
dierent type. For instance, a four-byte integer may be
'cast' as a oating point value; or an instance of class Dog
may be treated as a member of a superclass Animal by
'casting' the dog instance as a (more generic) animal.

5 History
4

Confusion and alternative uses

Puns were found in ancient Egypt, where they were heavily used in development of myths and interpretation of
There exist subtle dierences between paronomasia and dreams.[28]
other literary techniques, such as the double entendre.
In China, Shen Dao (ca. 300 BC) used shi, meaning
While puns are often simple wordplay for comedic or
power, and shi, meaning position to say that a king
rhetorical eect, a double entendre alludes to a second
has power because of his position as king.[29]
meaning which is not contained within the statement or
phrase itself, often one which purposefully disguises the In ancient Iraq, about 2500 BC, punning was used by
[30]
second meaning. As both exploit the use of intentional scribes to represent words in cuneiform.
double meanings, puns can sometimes be double enten- The Maya are known for having used puns in their hidres, and vice versa. Puns also bear similarities with eroglyphic writing, and for using them in their modern
paraprosdokian, syllepsis and eggcorns. In addition, ho- languages.[31]
mographic puns are sometimes compared to the stylistic
[32]
device antanaclasis, and homophonic puns to polyptoton. In Japan, graphomania was one type of pun.
Puns can be used as a type of mnemonic device to en- In Tamil, Sledai is the word used to mean pun in which a
hance comprehension in an educational setting. Used dis- word with two dierent meanings. This is also classied
creetly, puns can eectively reinforce content and aid in as a poetry style in ancient Tamil literature.
the retention of material.

4.1

Science and computing

Scientic puns rely on the contrast between precise technical and imprecise informal denitions of the same
word. In statistical contexts, for example, the word signicant is usually assumed to mean "statistically significant", which has a precisely dened technical meaning. Using signicant with the layperson meaning of
practical signicance in such contexts would qualify as
punning, such as the webcomic xkcd's pun statistically
signicant other".[27]
In formal linguistics, puns can often be found embedded within the etymological meaning or usage of words,
which in turn may be buried over time and unknown to
native speakers. Puns may also be found in syntax, where
morphological constructions have derived from what may
have originally been humorous word play, slang, or otherwise idiosyncratic word usage.
In computing, esoteric programming languages (EPLs)
are based in or contain what may be regarded as conceptual puns, as they typically misuse common programming
concepts in ways which are absurd, or functionally useless. Some EPL puns may be obvious, such as in the usage of text images, while other puns are highly conceptual

6 See also
Albur
Alliteration
Antanaclasis
Auto-antonym
Dajare
Double entendre
Eggcorn
Feghoot
Malapropism
Mondegreen
Paraprosdokian
Polyptoton
Satiric misspelling
Syllepsis

Notes

[22] http://leo.aichi-u.ac.jp/~{}goken/bulletin/pdfs/No16/
03AbassF.pdf

[1] Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. Retrieved 7

February 2009

[23] Collins, Michelle (2008-06-06). The 50 Best Pun

Stores. BestWeekEver.tv. Retrieved 2012-12-02.

[2] Dictionary.com. 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[24]

[3] John Pollack (14 April 2011). The Pun Also Rises. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-51386-6.

[25] Sare, W. On Language: A Barrel of Puns. New York

Times (1923-Current le): SM2. 1980.

[4] M. Fontaine, Funny Words in Plautine Comedy, Oxford,

2010.

[26] Attardo S. Puns, Relevance and Appreciation in Advertisements. Journal of Pragmatics 37.5 (2005): 707-21.

[5] Puns, Blackwell, London, 1984

[27] Boyfriend. xkcd. Retrieved 2010-05-07.

[6] See the citation on Wikiquote

[28] Magic in ancient Egypt by Geraldine Pinch University of

Texas Press, 1995, 191 pages page 68

[7] Asimov, Isaac. Isaac Asimovs Treasury of Humor, p.

175, 252. 1971. Houghton Miin. New York.

[29] Three ways of thought in ancient China by Arthur Waley

Stanford University Press, 1982 216 pages, page 81

[8] Tartakovsky, Joseph (March 28, 2009). Pun for the

Ages. The New York Times.

[30] Mathematics in ancient Iraq: a social history Eleanor Robson, Princeton University Press, 2008, 441 pages, page 31

[9] PUNS. Tnellen.com. Retrieved 2011-12-20.

[31] New theories on the ancient Maya Elin C. Danien, Robert

J. Sharer, University of Pennsylvania. University Museum
of Archaeology and Anthropology, UPenn Museum of
Archaeology, 1992 245 pages, page 99

[10] Attardo, Salvatore. Linguistic Theories of Humor, p.109.

Walter de Gruyter, 1994. Alleton, V. : L'criture chinoise.
Paris, 1970.
[11] Mark Elvin The Spectrum of Accessibility : Types of
Humor in The Destinies of the Flowers in the Mirror", p.
113. In :- Roger T. Ames (et al.) : Interpreting Culture
through Translation: a Festschrift for D. C. Lau. 1991.
pp. 101118.
[12] Alexander, Richard J. Aspects of Verbal Humour in English, pp.2141
[13] Levitt, Paul M. (2002). Vaudeville Humor: The Collected
Jokes, Routines, and Skits of Ed Lowry. Southern Illinois
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2720-1.
[14] Mercury, Leicester (14 February 2014). Comedy Festival Review: The UK Pun Championships at Just The
Tonic. Leicester Mercury. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
[15] Daves Leicester Comedy Festival.
Comedyfestival.co.uk. 9 January 2015. Retrieved 1 June
2015.
[16] Leo Kearse. Leo Kearse. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
[17] Samuel Johnson, Preface to Shakespeare.
[18] The Dick Cavett Show (Television production). United
States: American Broadcasting Company. Event occurs
at 8 June 1972.
[19] Junker, Dave (Feb 2013). In Defense of Puns: How to
Use them Eectively. Public Relations Tactics 20 (2): 18.
[20] Djafarova, Elmira (Jun 2008).
Why Do Advertisers Use Puns?
A Linguistic Perspective.
Journal of Advertising Research 48 (2): 267275.
doi:10.2501/s0021849908080306.
[21] The Art and Science of the Advertising Slogan. Adslogans.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-20.

[32] The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan Delmer

M. Brown, John Whitney Hall, Cambridge University
Press, 1993 650 pages page 463

8 References
Alexander, Richard J. (1997). Aspects of Verbal Humour in English. Narr, Tbingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. ISBN 978-3-823-34936-5.
Augarde, Tony (1984). The Oxford Guide to Word
Games. London: Oxford University Press.
Fontaine, Michael (2010). Funny Words in Plautine
Comedy. Oxford University Press.
Hempelmann, Christian F. (Sep 2004). Script opposition and logical mechanism in punning. Humor
- International Journal of Humor Research 17 (4):
381392. doi:10.1515/humr.2004.17.4.381. (access restricted)
Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Tartakovsky, Joseph (28 March 2009). Pun for the
Ages. The New York Times.

9 Further reading
Pollack, John (2011). The Pun Also Rises: How the
Humble Pun Revolutionized Language, Changed History, and Made Wordplay More Than Some Antics.
Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-51386-6.

10

10

External links

Theres a Sewer in the Sewer: a primer for heteronymphiles

EXTERNAL LINKS

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Pun Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pun?oldid=676319468 Contributors: The Epopt, Tarquin, Sjc, Eclecticology, Toby Bartels,
PierreAbbat, Ortolan88, David spector, Camembert, Montrealais, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Paul Barlow, Ixfd64, Ihcoyc, Mac, BevRowe,
Darkwind, Rossami, Lee M, Andrevan, RickK, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, DR J, Ldo, Calieber, Robbot, Pigsonthewing,
RemitMan, Altenmann, Psychonaut, Merovingian, Lord Bob, Vikreykja, Jooler, DocWatson42, Elf, Kenny sh, Subsolar, Anville, Jorge
Stol, Siroxo, SWAdair, Neilc, Richard K. Carson, Gadum, Mu, Manuel Anastcio, Andycjp, Ljhenshall, The Inedible Bulk, DragonySixtyseven, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Cynix, Publunch, ChrisCostello, Flyhighplato, Grunt, Thorwald, Mike Rosoft, Venu62, Sparky
the Seventh Chaos, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Wrp103, YUL89YYZ, Saintswithin, Kbh3rd, Jnestorius, Neko-chan,
MaxPower, El C, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Saturnight, Coolcaesar, Wareh, Pablo X, Rlaager, Army1987, Aetherfukz, Dannish, Sund,
Shenme, Blotwell, TheProject, Pearle, Benbread, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Rbeard, Lokicarbis, Rd232, Spudley, Ynhockey,
Mr.Tea, Swift, Mrestko, Malo, Stillnotelf, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, SidP, RJFJR, Zxcvbnm, Bsadowski1, Edwin s, Kazvorpal, Katealaurel,
OleMaster, The JPS, Woohookitty, MattGiuca, Duncan.france, Dozenist, Wikiklrsc, Zzyzx11, Kvetch, Orangetuesday, Pastel-ink, Ashmoo,
Graham87, Deltabeignet, TobyJ, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Hiberniantears, Bruce1ee, Vegaswikian, KyleT, FuriousFreddy, Dinosaurdarrell,
VKokielov, Margosbot~enwiki, Ticktockjabberwock, Nivix, Numa, SuperDude115, RexNL, Gurch, Quuxplusone, Bedford, Metropolitan90, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Tommylommykins, Ben Tibbetts, Phelanpt, RobotE, Jimp, Mahahahaneapneap, RussBot, BruceDLimber, Red Slash, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Tavilis, Jessesaurus, Astral, Aeusoes1, Spot87, WAS, Pstaight, RazorICE, Leontes,
Lockesdonkey, Elkman, Rhain, Wknight94, Pooryorick~enwiki, BobGreenwade, Nikkimaria, Orbis 3, Saudade7, Scoutersig, HereToHelp, ArielGold, Tom Du, ViperSnake151, Katieh5584, Benandorsqueaks, Rollerbaby84, Carlosguitar, SmackBot, Lavintzin, WooperJe, Christopherk, Shelog~enwiki, Kenif, Matin kun88, Korossyl, Brossow, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik,
Durova, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Emufarmers, Thumperward, Roscelese, Beerathon, Bazonka, J. Spencer, A. B., Egsan Bacon, Eliezg,
Eliyahu S, Sangajin, Talmage, GRuban, Xyzzyplugh, Radagast83, Khukri, MureninC, Savidan, EVula, Weregerbil, Ironfrost, TCHJ3K,
Acdx, Tesseran, Ceoil, Spiritia, ArglebargleIV, JzG, Hestemand, Kuru, John, JorisvS, RichMorin, Minglex, IronGargoyle, Jake-helliwell,
Rgrasell, Nobunaga24, Collect, A. Parrot, Mundsen, Remygreen, Rabbethan, Mark 6, Waggers, Wiki-mike, Eridani, Tombright, Nkife,
Darry2385, BranStark, Xinyu, Joseph Solis in Australia, Igoldste, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, T-W, Vitriden, JForget, Tobias087, ZICO, Scohoust, JohnCD, Photozone, Leujohn, Anil1956, Johnlogic, Reywas92, WillowW, Jennplaysbass, SyntaxError55, Gogo Dodo, Otto4711,
Tortillovsky, Epbr123, Anshuk, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Dtgriscom, NorwegianBlue, JustAGal, Kikihemp, Mule Man, Natalie Erin, Porqin,
AntiVandalBot, Martyn Smith, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, 11tas, Uvaphdman, Alphachimpbot, Vernetto, Res2216restar, JAnDbot, Deective, Nthep, Db099221, PhilKnight, Boleslaw, Tililin, WolfmanSF, Amaccormack, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Swpb, Sdod2,
Fabrictramp, Animum, User86654, Just James, JaGa, Jodi.a.schneider, Warchef, Starry maiden Gazer, Lkc159, MartinBot, Bissinger,
Tbone55, R'n'B, Ash, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Leon math, Svetovid, May0104, Gblandst, Nothingofwater, MrErku, Naniwako, Jon Ascton,
Trvsdrlng, AntiSpamBot, Budster650, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Jenglo, Mufka, Schwal, FOTEMEH, Bonadea, Melinoe~enwiki, SoCalSuperEagle, Gertrudethetramp, CardinalDan, TreasuryTag, Je G., Lexein, Philip Trueman, Martinevans123, Lhw1, Kostaki mou, Duuuude, Chris-marsh-usa, Technopat, Uagehry456, Goldfritter, Psykomakia, Matthewchj, Shawnjohn94, Eve Teschlemacher, Falcon8765,
Oldwes, Just Another Fat Guy, Rjakew, Jwhosken, D. Recorder, Yngvarr, Nargoth, Accounting4Taste, Hadjalexiou, Wiki.Private.User,
Paradoctor, Caltas, Keilana, Flyer22, Radon210, Nicksh, Oxymoron83, T24G, Iain99, StaticGull, Melcombe, Nn123645, Graminophile,
$look$likeanS, Martarius, Hamstergirl591, ClueBot, Fribbler, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ndenison, Dlabtot, Dontsh000t, FannyMay, Shawnallen, Joepnl, Ottava Rima, Zack wadghiri, Excirial, Gnome de plume, Bazem, MorrisRob, Arjayay, Bracton, 0XQ, TheRedPenOfDoom, GaryGray, Fitzburgh, Digimatt20, Methinx, IamNotU, Thingg, Sonqui, Lagredell, Versus22, SoxBot III, Lsoares, XLinkBot,
Spitre, Jed 20012, Burningview, Ayls, Alexius08, Catgirl, MrN9000, Kbdankbot, Klundarr, Addbot, Otterathome, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Fyrael, Miskaton, Nora nettlerash, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, Vishnava, Bush shep, Download, Tide rolls, Lightbot, DeadDeers, LuK3, Themfromspace, Greyrobe, AnomieBOT, Silvanx, Jim1138, Mintrick, Commander Shepard, Ambil, Ulric1313, Flewis,
Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Tintero, Citation bot, Neurolysis, Boxstaa, BTCK, Trontonic, SirJeerE, Miesianiacal, Shattered
Gnome, Asfarer, Nikil44, Bigpun44, FrescoBot, Altafqadir, Chrisgcat, Anaphysik, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Sehenly, Lotje, Anishmpathak, Zvn, Reaper Eternal, Suusion of Yellow, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Derpderp123123, Mccullochker, Apetersen78, Immunize, Gfoley4, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Jirka62, SSBDelphiki,
Jesuslol69, Danglc, Farseer-Lolotea, Josve05a, Punbelievable, EHPainter, Dragonic13, Demois, Ocaasi, Rcsprinter123, L Kensington,
Kranix, Donner60, Oaktownvinny, Petrb, Generalking, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Widr, Dragonic013, MerlIwBot, Soulstealer567, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nightenbelle, Blake Burba, WinTsmith, Frze, Throsenb, Zipzip50, Mark Arsten, Contributor5001, MrBill3, NotWith, NL Derek, Loriendrew, Mincraftlover, Justincheng12345-bot, ChrisGualtieri, &bahn, Johnnypoops123, FoCuSandLeArN, Bonthealbo, Adbagface, SteenthIWbot, Yashodhan Anand Ektare, Thescrollbar, Jwoodward48wiki, I am One of Many,
Melonkelon, Nonsenseferret, Shippy24, Kharkiv07, DigiTrey, Saxonswag, MistaFluy, Monkbot, AshRasberry, BethNaught, FepicAleBrewery, D.mathur1999, FourViolas, FoxyMoron87, Elenagilbert224, Nkkenbuer, Shadowlerone, Dr.Tetreault and Anonymous: 728

11.2

Images

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
File:Kariktura.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Kariktura.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:
Punch magazine, 6 August, 1913 Original artist: Unknown

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0