Development of Predictive Models

for Cement-Stabilized Soils

Rakshya Shrestha and Dr Abir Al-Tabbaa
Email: rs544@cam.ac.uk

Geotechnical and Environmental Research Group

University of Cambridge

Overview
Deep Soil Mixing
Factors affecting Strength and Strength Variability
Data collation and Database Development
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
ANN modelling Results and Discussion
Summary

Deep Soil Mixing(DSM)

Soil, Binder and mechanical mixing

tools.
Wide range of soils; sand, silt, clay,
organic soils and peat.
Wide range of conventional and

novel binders; Cement, Lime, Slag,

Fly Ash.
Different construction strategies in

different parts of the world.

Increased strength, Decreased

compressibility and permeability.

Large number of variables in wide

range and complex interaction.

(Courtesy of Eco Foundation, CDM,
Association, LCM and Porbaha et al.)

Factors affecting Strength

SN Influencing factors

Details

1.

Soil

Soil type, Grain size distribution, Soil water

content, Atterberg limits, Organic matter content

2.

Binder

Binder dosage, Binder chemical composition

3.

Mixing Conditions

Water: binder ratio, Mixing tool type, Mixing time,

Mixing speed

4.

Curing Conditions

Curing time, Curing temperature, Curing stress

5.

Sampling and testing Sample shape, Sample size, Testing methods,

Conditions
Strain rate
(Source:Terashi,1997)

Variation of the Strength (UCS)

Effect of Soil Type

Effect of Binder Type

4500
Silt and Clay

4000

Sand
Gravel

3500

28-day UCS(KPa)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
200

250

300

350

400

Cement Dosage(kg/m3)

450

(Taki andYang,1991)

500

550

(Ahnberg et al,2006)

Data Collation
DSM projects world-wide.
Haneda Airport Expansion Project, Japan
apan
EuroSoilStab Project, Sweden
Land Transport Authority Projects,

Singapore
SMiRT Project, UK
Construction of DSM database
Projects

Variables
Soil

Sand Silt Clay

Binder

Organic
Initial water Clay
Soil

Organic
matter

Mixing

Curing

Binder
dosage water:binder Time

Temp RH

Testing

Stress

UCS(Mpa FStrain E(Mpa)

Kitazume, 2007
Jegandan, 2010

8
9

8
9

9
9

8
8

9
9

9
9

8
8

8 9 8
9 9 9

9
9

9
9

9
9

8
8

8
8

8
8

9
9

9
9

9
9

Kawasaki et al., 1981

Osman, 2007

8
8

8
8

9
9

8
8

9
9

9
9

9
8

9 8
9 8

8
8

9
9

9
9

9
9

8
8

8
8

8
8

9
9

8
9

8
9

Chin, 2006
Xiao, 2009
Kamruzzaman, 2002

8
8
8

8
8
8

9
9
9

8
8
8

9
9
9

8
9
9

8
8
8

9 8
9 8
9 8

8
8
8

8
9
9

8
9
9

9
9
9

8
8
8

8
8
8

9
9
9

9
9
9

9
9
9

9
9
9

Ahnberg, 2006
EuroSoilStab,2000
Hernandez-Martinez,
2006

8
8

8
8

9
8

9
9

9
9

9
9

9
9

9 9 9
9 9 9

9
9

9
9

9
9

8
8

8
8

8
8

9
9

9
8

9
8

9 9 9

Database Analysis

200

Plasticity Index (PI)

150
CH

100

CL
50

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Liquid Limit
Med stiff ka olin cla y
Tokyo 3
Chiba - 2
Fukuoka -1
Mie-2
Otta wa cla y
Lofta bro cla y
Osa ka -2
Soft ma rine cla y
Speswhite ka olin cla y
Aria ke cla y
50 LL line

Inorganic clays

Cla y 1
Ka na ga wa 1
Aichi-1
Fukuoka -2
Upper ma rine cla y
Hongkong cla y
Tokyo-1
Akita -1
Silty cla y
Bla ck cotton cla y
Soft Ba ngkok cla y

Organic clays

Cla y 2
Osa ka 1
Aichi-2
Aomori-1
Rotocla y ka olin
Helsinki cla y
Tokyo-4
Iba ra gi-1
Home Rule Ka olin cla y
Brown ea rth cla y
Kupio Finnish cla y

Peat

Tokyo 2
Chiba 1
Hiroshima -1
Mie-1
Na nticoke cla y
Linkoping cla y
Ka na ga wa- 2
Iba ra gi-2
EPK Ka olin cla y
Red Ea rth cla y
A-line

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

Hidden units are flexible non-linear functions e.g. hyperbolic tangent.
Weights and Biases determined through iterative training process.
Multiple non-linear regression analysis.
Minimization of an error function using Bayesian approach.
The problem of over-fitting is monitored by using a test set.

Clay water content

Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
PI
LI

Sand content

UCS

Silt Content

Output layer

Clay Content
Organic content
Cement content
Water/cement
Curing time

Input layer

Hidden layer

Optimum fit, Optimal error

Poor fit, large error

2
2
0
0

10
x

15

20

0
0

10
x

15

Over fit, Small error

Error

2
0
0

10
x

15

20

Complexity of the model

20

Sample DataSet
References

Clay
Given clay name Clay type water LL

PL

Organic
PI LI Sand Silt Clay matter Cement w/c Age UCS

Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Aichi-1
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Clayey silt
99.3 83.4
Kawasaki et al., 1981 Aichi-1
Ariake clay
Silty clay
106 120
Ariake clay
Silty clay
130 120
Ariake clay
Silty clay
106 120
Ariake clay
Silty clay
130 120
Ariake
clay
Silty clay
130 120
Variable
Statistics
Ariake clay
Silty clay
160 120
Ariake
clay variableSilty clay
106
Miura et al., 2001
Input
Min120
Black
cotton
claycontent
Silty (%)
clay
145.5
Clay
water
38.0 97
Black
cottonLimit
clay (%)
Silty clay
145.5
Liquid
32.0 97
Black
cottonLimit
clay (%)
Silty clay
97
Plastic
15.0 97
Black
cotton
clay
Silty
clay
194
Plasticity Index (%)
8.0 97
cotton clay
1940.4 97
Narendra et al., 2006 Black
Liquidity
Index Silty clay
Linkoping
clay
HP clay
780.0 70
Sand content
(%)
Linkoping clay
HP clay
78
70
Silt content (%)
0.0
Linkoping clay
HP clay
78
70
Clay content (%)
5.0
Loftabro clay
HP clay
89
66
Organic matter content (%)
0.0
Loftabro clay
HP clay
89
66
Cement content (%)
1.0
Loftabro clay
HP clay
89
66
Water to cement ratio
2.3
Loftabro clay
HP clay
89
66
Ahnberg,2006
Curing time (days)
7.0

23.4 60
23.4 60
23.4 60
23.4 60
23.4 60
23.4 60
23.4 60
57 63
57 63
57 63
57 63
57 63
57 63
57 63
Max
35 62
305.1
35 62
230.0
35 62
72.6
35
157.462
35
3.7 62
24 46
44.0
24 46
82.0
24 46
100.0
23 43
3.0
23 43
60.0
23 43
45.0
23 43
420.0

UCS(kPa)

10356

15

1.3
5
1.3
5
1.3
5
1.3
5
1.3
5
1.3
5
1.3
5
0.8
1
1.2
1
0.8
1
1.2
1
1.2
1
1.6
1
0.8Mean1
1.8 94.2 2
1.8 77.1 2
1.0 32.0 2
2.6 45.1 2
2.6 1.5 2
1.2 10.8 0
1.2
0
41.3
1.2
0
47.2
1.5
0
0.4
1.5
0
17.0
1.5
0
9.2
1.5
0
44.4

1247

61
34
61
34
61
34
61
34
61
34
61
34
61
34
44
55
44
55
44
55
44
55
44
55
44
55
Standard
44
55
Deviation
37 36.9
61
37 26.6
61
37 10.4
61
37 18.7
61
37 0.761
0 12.7
63
0
63
17.8
0
63
20.4
0
72
0.7
0
72
11.9
0
72
5.9
0
72
64.7

1608

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

20 7.4 28 1980
10 14.2
7 578
30 5.1 60 2940
30 5.1
7 1180
20 7.4
7 956
10 14.2 60 969
10 14.2 28 890
10 11
7 513
10 13
7 345
10 11 14 760
10 13 60 600
15
9 120 2169
15 11 60 1213
20
5 60 3188
7 20 56 119
10 15 56 223
10 10 14 630
10 20 56 105
19 10 14 132
10 6.8 360 740
10 6.8
7 372
10 6.8 28 516
10 7.2 360 1025
10 7.2
7 286
10 7.2 90 750
10 7.2 28 543

Model Development and Validation

12000

Software- Neuromat Model

Manager (Sourmail,2004).
100 models with differing
complexity- trained and tested.
9 models in the committee- final
model.
Performed well in the entire
dataset and the validation set.

10000

Predicted UCS(kPa)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0

Models in Committee

0.46

2000

-2000

0.44
0.42

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

10000

12000

Measured UCS(kPa)

12000

Validation Set

10000

0.40

Predicted UCS(kPa)

Combined Test Error

Entire Dataset

0.38
0.36
0.34
0.32

8000
6000
4000
2000
0

0.30
0

10

12

Number of Models

14

16

18

20
-2000

2000

4000

6000

8000

Measured UCS(kPa)

Model Predictions
12000

Brown Earth Indian clay

Water content = 60 %
LL = 60 %, PL = 23 %, PI = 37 %, LI =1
Sand = 20 %, Silt = 34 %, Clay = 46 %

8000

6000

16000
4000

14000
2000

12000

0
5
-2000

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Cement Content(%)

UCS(kPa)

28-day UCS(kPa)

10000

45

10000
50

55

60

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
7

14

28

56

90

120

Age(days)

240

360

420

450

Summary
y Large number of variables in wide range and complex interaction.
y Data collection and collation utilizes the existing data and facilitates

investigation of potential correlations.

y ANNs are feasible alternatives to soil mix technology data mining.

Known trends emulated and reasonable predictions of strength obtained.
Predictions accompanied by error bars which quantify the uncertainty of fitting.
Developed models only valid for conditions found in the dataset (e.g. clay soil type)
y Ongoing work to make database well populated.
y Experimental validation.