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Engineering Thermodynamics
By Dr. Oh Pei Ching
ENERGY AND
ENERGY TRANSFER
1
Learning Outcome
Introduce the concept of energy and define its various
forms.
Discuss the nature of internal energy.
Define the concept of heat and the terminology
associated with energy transfer by heat.
Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Define the concept of work
Discuss the various forms of work: mechanical or nonmechanical
FORMS OF ENERGY
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
A control volume (open system) can also exchange energy via mass
transfer.
FIGURE 2-14
FIGURE 2-15
Q = Amount of heat
transferred (kJ)
FIGURE 2-19
10
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Work done per unit mass:
Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system
are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.
FIGURE 2-22
12
The interior surfaces of the room form the system boundary. Heat is recognized as it
crosses the boundaries. Since the room is well insulated, we have an adiabatic system and
no heat will pass through the boundaries. Therefore, Q = 0 for this process.
Since the potato is the system, the outer surface of the skin of the potato can be
viewed as the system boundary. Part of the energy in the oven will pass through
the skin to the potato. Since the driving force for this energy transfer is a
temperature difference, this is a heat transfer process.
Electrical Work
Electrical work
V = potential difference
N = coulombs of electrical charge
Electrical power
I = current or
number of electrical charges
flowing per unit time
FIGURE 2-27
15
FIGURE 2-28
For quasi-equilibrium
process
17
Where
P = initial pressure
dV = volume change
P is the absolute pressure and is always positive.
When dV is positive, Wb is positive for expansion
When dV is negative, Wb is negative for compression
dA = PdV
Total area under the process curve:
P
1
V
P-V diagram for V = Constant
21
P
2
V
P-V diagram for P = Constant
For the constant pressure process shown above, is the boundary work
positive or negative and why?
22
The above equation is the result of applying the ideal gas assumption for
the equation of state. For real gas undergoing an isothermal process, the
integral in the boundary work equation would be done numerically.
23
Process
Exponent n
Constant pressure
Constant volume
k = Cp/Cv
Where
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure;
Cv= specific heat at constant volume
24
Wb PdV
P CV n
C
dV
n
V
1
C n dV
1 V
P2V2 P1V1
1 n
2
V2 n 1 V1 n1
C
n 1
since C = P1V1n =P2V2n
mRT2 T1
Wb
,n 1
1 n
V
V
Wb PdV CV 1dV PV ln 2 mRT ln 2
1
1
V1
V1
2
Isothermal
process
25
Solution:
The boundary work can be determined to be
P0 = 400 kPa
400
m = 5 kg
P = 400 kPa
v1 = 0.53434
v2 = 0.59520
v, m3/kg
or
since V = mv. From the superheated vapor table, the specific volumes are determined to be
v1 = 0.53434 m3/kg at state 1 (400 kPa, 200oC) and v2 = 0.59520 m3/kg at state 2 (400 kPa, 250oC).
Substituting these values yields
Discussion: The positive sign indicates that the work is done by the system. That is, the steam
used 122 kJ of its energy to do this work. The magnitude of this work could also be determined by
calculating the area under the process curve on the P-V diagram, which is simply P0 V for this case.
PV mRT0 C or
C
V
Wb PdV
1
2 dV
V
V
C
dV C
C ln 2 P1V1 ln 2
1 V
V
V1
V1
P1V1 can be replaced by P2V2 or mRT0. Also, V2 / V1 can be replaced by P2 / P1 for this case since
P1V1= P2V2.
Substituting the numerical values yields
0.1 1 kJ
55.5 kJ
Wb (100 kPa)(0.4 m3 ) ln
3
0.4 1 kPa.m
Discussion: The negative sign indicates that this work is done on the system (a work input), which
is always the case for compression processes.
Shaft Work
Often the torque T applied to a rotating shaft is
constant (Force F applied is also constant).
For a specified constant torque, the work done
during n revolutions is determined as follows:
A force F acting through a moment arm r
generates a torque T
Shaft work
Solution:
Spring Work
Substituting and integrating yield
The
displacement
of a linear
spring doubles
when the force
is doubled.
33
Summary
Forms of energy
Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)