by James Phillips

What started as a slow drip a decade ago has turned into something more like a tidal
wave. Im not talking about a leaky faucet or a failing dam; I am referring to arc-flash
hazard calculation studies. Years ago, only a few mostly larger companies performed
these complex studies. Then little by little, the drip of studies turned into a steady
stream and today, the arc-flash hazard calculation study (AFHCS) has become an
integral part of many electrical safety
programs.
It was ten years ago that IEEE 1584,
known as IEEE Guide for Performing Arc
Flash Hazard Calculations, was first
introduced. This landmark document
defines equations and methods that
have become key components of the
AFHCS.
Although the drip might have started in
the United States, the tidal wave has now washed across the entire globe and arcflash studies are becoming more common in other countries as well.

Arc-Flash Hazard Calculation Study

Figure 1. A simple line diagram can be used to define different operating scenarios

When you first attempt to perform the arc-flash study, it can seem quite intimidating.
Even with the help of commercially available computer programs, knowing what data
to use, how to model the system and how to interpret the results can leave you
scratching your head.

The concept of the study is really quite simple. At each piece of electrical equipment
that is part of the study, calculations are performed to determine the prospective
incident energy that could be available to a worker during an arc flash. The magnitude
of incident energy, given in terms of calories per square centimeter (cal/cm2), is used
to define the severity of the arc flash as well as to determine which protective clothing
and personal protective equipment (PPE) to use.
In addition to the incident energy calculations, a distance known as the arc-flash
boundary (AFB) must also be determined. The AFB defines the distance from a
prospective arc source where the incident energy drops to 1.2 cal/cm2. This level of
incident energy can produce the onset of a second degree burn which is also called a
just curable burn and is the threshold where protection is required. NFPA 70E
requires the use of properly rated protective clothing and PPE when people are
working within this boundary and an arc-flash hazard is present.

IEEE 1584 Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations

IEEE 1584 is the most commonly used method for calculating incident energy and the
arc-flash boundary. The IEEE equations were empirically derived from hundreds of arcflash tests and are valid for systems operating from 208 volts up through 15 kV with
short-circuit currents ranging from 700 amps up through 106,000 amps.
Even though many arc-flash events begin with contact from only one phase to ground
or one phase to another phase, it is possible that the conducting plasma that develops
from the arc could quickly engulf the other phases and escalate into a larger threephase arc flash. As a result, to be conservative, the IEEE equations assume the arc flash
involves all three phases.

Where to Begin?
Although the arc-flash hazard calculation study can appear to be overwhelming, it can
be more easily managed if the entire process is broken down into smaller simpler
steps. Attempting to look at the entire study process all at once, especially if this is
your first one, can bring on a feeling of panic. Take it one step at a time!
Step One Data Collection

Figure 2. Time-current curves help define the arc flash duration

To accurately model the power system under study, a significant amount of data is
required. Depending on the systems size, age, and complexity, as well as what data is
readily available from previous studies and documents, this effort could require a
significant amount of manpower.
Data requirements typically include information about the utility companys available
short-circuit current as well as their protective devices. Also required is impedance
data from components such as conductors and transformers as well as from other
sources of short-circuit current such as motors and generators. Protective device data,
the type of equipment such as whether it is a panel, switchgear or switchboard, as well
as other information such as working distances and gap distances, give you an idea of
how much effort will be required.
Step Two Single-Line Diagram and System Modeling
An up-to-date single-line diagram is also necessary to document and organize the data.
If a single line already exists, it must be verified and updated with any changes that

may have occurred over time. Where a single-line diagram does not already exist, one
will need to be created.
Many power systems can be operated under different configurations such as a bus tie
open or closed, or operating under normal source conditions or from an emergency
generator. This can result in a different level of incident energy depending on how the
system is configured at the time. The single-line diagram can be used to assist in
defining different operating scenarios as shown in figure 1. In addition to the normal
configuration, what if scenarios may also be necessary to determine whether any of
the alternate configurations could produce results worse than the base case.
Step Three Arcing Short-Circuit Current
IEEE 1584 provides equations for calculating the arcing short-circuit current based on
using a known bolted short-circuit current obtained from a traditional short-circuit
study. The bolted condition means that no additional impedance is at the point of the
fault. It acts as if there is a bolted or welded connection. The arcing current results
when the short-circuit current jumps across an air gap, typically created from a
conductor or conducting object either melting or being blown back. The additional
impedance of the air gap means the arcing short-circuit current will always be less
than the bolted value.
Step Four Arc Flash Duration

Figure 3. Table of arc flash study results

Incident energy is not only dependent on the arcing short-circuit current, it is directly
dependent on the duration of the arc flash. The longer the arc flash lasts, the greater
the total incident energy exposure. Normally, the duration is defined by how long it
takes a protective device upstream from the arc flash to operate. For this evaluation,
time current curves such as illustrated in figure 2 are used. The calculated arcing shortcircuit current is located on the horizontal axis of the graph. Drawing a vertical line, the
point at which the current value intersects the protective devices time current curve
defines the duration in seconds.
Step Five Incident Energy

Incident energy calculations are used to determine how much energy can reach a
person located at a specific distance, known as the working distance, from the source
of the arc. The specific working distance used depends on the type of equipment and
is typically defined as either 18, 24 or 36 inches, although other distances may also be
used.
The total incident energy available during an arc flash is a direct function of the shortcircuit current flowing through the air gap and the time it takes an upstream protective
device to clear the fault. In general, the greater the short-circuit current, the greater
the incident energy. However, this is not always the case.
It is a common belief that the greater the available short-circuit current is at a
particular location, the more damage can occur. When it comes to evaluating a
protective devices interrupting and withstand capability, this is a correct statement.
However, in the case of an arc flash, it is quite possible that a lower short-circuit
current could cause the upstream protective device to take longer to operate and
actually increase the overall incident energy exposure.

Figure 4. The arc flash warning label contains very important information

The incident energy is also dependent on whether the arc flash occurs in open air or in
a box type of environment such as an equipment enclosure. When an arc occurs in
open air, energy can radiate spherically in all directions, and less incident energy is
concentrated towards the worker. However, when an arc occurs in a box, the energy is
focused out of the opening towards the worker, resulting in much higher incident
energy.
Step Six Arc-Flash Boundary
The arc-flash boundary is considered to be the minimum distance from a potential
source of an arc flash where the incident energy falls to 1.2 cal/cm2. Since this energy

level is the threshold of a second degree burn, it is the minimum distance that people
not wearing appropriate PPE should be located when an arc-flash hazard exists.
The results of an arc-flash calculation study will often yield many different AFBs. This is
based on each piece of equipments location and unique characteristics as illustrated
in the results shown in figure 3. With so many different boundaries there is a potential
of causing confusion.
Although the individual calculated values are often used, a simpler approach to reduce
the confusion is to adopt a more standardized AFB. This requires reviewing the various
AFB results and adopting the largest boundary within reason. Reviewing the results of
the AFHCS shown in figure 3 indicates the largest AFB is 6.65 feet at the main
switchgear. Rounding this value up to 7 or 8 feet could provide the basis for a
standardized boundary that can be used at all locations. Remember the AFB does not
directly affect the person performing the work. It only affects the person that is not
performing the work, i.e., defining how far they need to be from the potential arc flash
source.
The term within reason is used because it is possible to have an unusually large AFB
that may not be realistic. The existing IEEE 1584 equations use a protective devices
clearing time as one of the many input variables. If the arcing short-circuit current is
low, a protective devices time current characteristic may indicate an unusually long
clearing time, perhaps tens of seconds resulting in an unusually large AFB calculation.
Step Seven PPE Selection
Arc-rated (AR) clothing and PPE are designed to protect the worker against the thermal
energy exposure from an arc flash. To properly select protective clothing and
equipment, the arc rating of the protection must be sufficient for the calculated
incident energy.
Similar to the situation where a study has many different arc flash boundaries, each
piece of equipment will have its own calculated incident energy. The simplest approach
for selecting the protective clothing and equipment is to determine the largest incident
energy value within reason and select a standard arc rating based on this value. For
the study results in figure 3, 12 cal/cm2 would be sufficient based on the largest
incident energy value of 10.6 cal/cm2 at Panel 1A. Sometimes there may be a few
locations where the incident energy is greater than the arc rating that was selected. In
those cases, protection with a higher arc rating can be necessary.
Step Eight Arc Flash Warning Labels
Presently there are only minimal requirements regarding the content and format of
arc flash warning labels. ANSI Z535 provides guidance about signal words such as
Caution, Warning and Danger as well as the appropriate colors to use. The National
Electrical Code and NFPA 70E both require the use of labels to warn about the
potential arc flash hazard. The 2012 edition of NFPA 70E takes it further and requires
specific information to be listed on the label. According to NFPA 70E 130.5(C), the label
must contain at least one of the following:

Available incident energy and the corresponding working distance

Minimum arc rating of the clothing

Required level of PPE

Highest hazard/risk category (HRC) for theequipment

In addition, the nominal system voltage and arc-flash boundary must also be listed on
the label. This information is critical so the qualified person performing the work can
properly address the hazards. The earlier 2009 edition of NFPA 70E had fewer
requirements for arc-flash labels so the new 2012 edition allows an exception for
labels created prior to September 30, 2011, as long as they have the available incident
energy or level of PPE listed.
Many different label formats have evolved with some preferring to use only the
minimum information required while others prefer to include additional data.
Although not officially required, the additional information may include items such as
the limited, restricted and prohibited approach boundaries found in NFPA 70E as well
as other information illustrated in figure 4.
Step Nine Report and Recommendations to Reduce Incident Energy
After the arc-flash hazard calculations have been completed, a formal report should be
developed that documents as a minimum, the data used, study assumptions,
calculation results, PPE recommendations, single-line drawing, a description of the
study procedure, as well as recommendations on how to further reduce incident
energy exposure.
Recommended solutions for reducing incident energy can be divided into two
categories depending on the cost and ease of implementation. The first category could
contain low-cost or no-cost solutions, such as changing overcurrent device settings.
The second category could contain changes requiring some level of expenditure in
order of priority based on their costs and benefits.
Electrically Safe The Best Step
As complex as an arc-flash study could be, breaking it down into smaller steps can go a
long way towards making it more manageable. However, the best step that can be
taken to protect the worker against electrical hazards is to only permit work on
equipment that is placed into an electrically safe condition. This means it has been deenergized, locked out, tested for the absence of voltage and safety grounds installed if
necessary. Only then is the system truly safe to work on.
Copyright 2012 Brainfiller, Inc.
Fig. 1. Connectors and terminations for conductors more finely stranded than Class B and
Class C stranding must be identified for the conductor class.

Per UL Standard 486 A-B, a terminal/lug/connector must be listed and marked for use with
conductors stranded in other than Class B. With no marking or factory instructions to the
contrary, terminals may be used only with Class B stranded conductors.

Arc flash
As part of the 2011 Code change process, the requirements for arc flash warning markings
have been increased again, and the title of 110.16 has been revised. This section doesnt
provide any protection as the previous title (flash protection) implied. Instead, it provides
for a warning against the hazards associated with an arc flash.
Electrical equipment (in other than dwelling units) must be field-marked to warn qualified
persons of the danger associated with an arc flash from short circuits or ground faults. The
field-marking must be clearly visible to qualified persons before they inspect or work on the
equipment (Fig. 2). NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, provides
assistance in determining the severity of potential exposure, planning safe work practices,
and selecting personal
protective equipment.

<b>Fig. 2.</b> Electrical equipment (in other than dwelling units) must be field-marked to warn qualified
persons of the danger associated with an arc flash from short circuits or ground faults.

Fig. 2. Electrical equipment (in other than dwelling units) must be field-marked to warn
qualified persons of the danger associated with an arc flash from short circuits or ground
faults.
The 2008 NEC used the term other than dwelling occupancies in this section.
Consequently, the warnings required by this section didnt apply to multifamily dwellings,
even though such dwellings might have remarkably larger services than some nondwelling
occupancies. To address that issue, the Code now requires the marking on multifamily
dwellings (but not the individual dwellings of a multifamily dwelling unit building).

Available fault current

A new section requires some equipment to be marked with the available fault current and
requires updating of that marking if modifications of the electrical system occur [110.24].
Field Marking. Service equipment in other than dwelling units must be legibly field-marked
with the maximum available fault current, including the date the fault current calculation
was performed, and be of sufficient durability to withstand the environment involved (Fig.
3).

<b>Fig. 3.</b> Pay close attention to what the field marking must list, including the date the fault current
calculation was performed, and make sure its durable enough to withstand the environment around it.

Fig. 3. Pay close attention to what the field marking must list, including the date the fault
current calculation was performed, and make sure it's durable enough to withstand the
environment around it.
Modifications. When modifications to the electrical installation affect the maximum available
fault current at the service, the maximum available fault current must be recalculated to
ensure the service equipment ratings are sufficient for the maximum available fault current
at the line terminals of the equipment. The required field marking(s) in 110.24(A) must be
adjusted to reflect the new level of maximum available fault current.
Exception: Field markings arent required for industrial installations where conditions of
maintenance and supervision ensure that only qualified persons service the equipment.
All equipment must have an interrupting rating or SCCR thats at least equal to the
available fault current [110.9 and 110.10]. As wiring systems age, electric utilities may
change transformers in an effort to become more efficient or to increase capacity. This can
easily cause an increase in the available fault current, often with a noncompliant (and
dangerous) wiring system. The intention of this new provision is that owners re-evaluate the
ratings of equipment when they install on-site generation or when anyone changes the
supply transformers.
Opponents of this change argue that often the ratings of equipment are based on worstcase scenarios. While this is suitable for designing a system, it isnt suitable for performing
the calculations required to establish the proper personal protective equipment (PPE) for
working on the equipment. Using artificially high values of fault current for equipment
ratings often produces a lower PPE rating.

Working space height

The 2011 NEC revises 110.26(A)(3) to include all of the height requirements found in
110.26 and adds a new exception for meters in meter sockets.
The height of the working space in front of equipment cant be less than 6 ft, measured
from the grade, floor, platform, or the equipment height (whichever is greater), as shown in
Fig. 4. You can install raceways, cables, or similar equipment above or below electrical
equipment, but it cant extend more than 6 in. into the working space of that equipment.

<b>Fig. 4.</b> The height of the working space in front of equipment is of the utmost importance.

Fig. 4. The height of the working space in front of equipment is of the utmost importance.
Two exceptions:
The minimum headroom requirement doesnt apply to service equipment or panelboards
rated 200A or less in an existing dwelling unit.
Meters can extend beyond the other equipment.
In previous Code editions, height requirements were in 110.26(A)(3) and 110.26(E).
Because theres no reason to have two subsections giving similar provisions, 110.26(E)
was deleted, and the text was incorporated into 110.26(A)(3).
Meters are obviously installed inside the working space discussed in this section.
Previously, the NEC allowed meters to protrude up to 6 in. into the work space. Now meters
can extend more than 6 in. into the work space.

Illumination
The illumination for indoor service equipment, switchboards, panelboards, and motor
control centers must not be controlled only by automatic means [110.26(D)]. Previously, this
requirement applied only to electrical rooms. But equipment addressed by this rule is often
installed in spaces that arent electrical rooms. If you install panels, then provide a manual
means of controlling the lighting for them.
Now that weve shed some light on important aspects of Art. 110, you can see why its
beneficial to periodically read through this Article. Because Art. 110 applies to all
installations, time spent understanding it pays off with every installation.
SIDEBAR: What are Conductor Classes?

Class B stranding (Standard) features 16 strands of wire in an 18 AWG conductor,

26 strands in 16 AWG, 7 strands in sizes 14 AWG to 2 AWG, 19 strands in sizes 1 AWG to
4/0 AWG, and 37 strands in sizes 250kcmil to 500kcmil.

Class C stranding features 19 strands of wire in sizes 14 AWG to 2 AWG, 37

strands in sizes 1 AWG to 4/0 AWG, and 61 strands in sizes 250kcmil to 500kcmil.