Geographic coordinate system

of the length of the midsummer day.[4] Ptolemys 2ndcentury Geography used the same Prime Meridian but
measured latitude from the equator instead. After their
work was translated into Arabic in the 9th century, AlKhwrizm's Book of the Description of the Earth corrected Marinus and Ptolemys errors regarding the length
of the Mediterranean Sea,[n 2] causing medieval Arabic
cartography to use a Prime Meridian around 10 east
of Ptolemys line. Mathematical cartography resumed
in Europe following Maximus Planudes's recovery of
Ptolemys text a little before 1300; the text was translated
into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1406.
In 1884, the United States hosted the International
Meridian Conference and twenty-ve nations attended.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the
Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, as the zeroto the equator.
reference line. The Dominican Republic voted against
[5]
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate sys- the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France
tem that enables every location on the Earth to be spec- adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local deteried by a set of numbers or letters.[n 1] The coordinates minations by the Paris Observatory in 1911.
are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents
vertical position, and two or three of the numbers represent horizontal position. A common choice of coordi- 2 Geographic latitude and longinates is latitude, longitude and elevation.[1]

tude

To specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires

a map projection.[2]

History

Main articles: History of geodesy, history of longitude

and history of prime meridians
The invention of a geographic coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who composed
his now-lost Geography at the Library of Alexandria in
the 3rd century BC.[3] A century later, Hipparchus of
Nicaea improved upon his system by determining latitude from stellar measurements rather than solar altitude
and determining longitude by using simultaneous timing of lunar eclipses, rather than dead reckoning. In the
1st or 2nd century, Marinus of Tyre compiled an extensive gazetteer and mathematically-plotted world map, using coordinates measured east from a Prime Meridian
at the Fortunate Isles of western Africa and measured
north or south of the island of Rhodes o Asia Minor.
Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms

0
Equator
Main articles: Latitude and Longitude
The latitude (abbreviation: Lat., , or phi) of a point
on the Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that
point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.[n 3]
Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on
the surface of the Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator and to each other. The north pole is
90 N; the south pole is 90 S. The 0 parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the fundamental plane of
1

MEASURING HEIGHT USING DATUMS

all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides The Earth is not a sphere, but an irregular shape approxthe globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
imating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has
an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about
0.3% larger than the radius measured through the poles.
The shorter axis approximately coincides with axis of rotation. Though early navigators thought of the sea as a at
surface that could be used as a vertical datum, this is not
actually the case. The Earth has a series of layers of equal
potential energy within its gravitational eld. Height is a
measurement at right angles to this surface, roughly toward the centre of the Earth, but local variations make the
equipotential layers irregular (though roughly ellipsoidal).
The choice of which layer to use for dening height is ar0
bitrary.
Prime Meridian
The longitude (abbreviation: Long., , or lambda) of
a point on the Earths surface is the angle east or west
from a reference meridian to another meridian that passes
through that point. All meridians are halves of great
ellipses (often improperly called great circles), which
converge at the north and south poles. The meridian of
the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, a little east
of London, England, is the international Prime Meridian
although some organizationssuch as the French Institut
Gographique Nationalcontinue to use other meridians
for internal purposes. The Prime Meridian determines
the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although
maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal
meridian of Greenwich is both 180W and 180E. This
is not to be conated with the International Date Line,
which diverges from it in several places for political reasons including between far eastern Russia and the far
western Aleutian Islands.
The combination of these two components species the
position of any location on the surface of the Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid thus
formed by latitude and longitude is known as the graticule. The zero/zero point of this system is located in the
Gulf of Guinea about 625 km (390 mi) south of Tema,
Ghana.

Measuring height using datums

3.2 Common baselines

Common height baselines include [2]
The surface of the datum ellipsoid, resulting in an
ellipsoidal height
The mean sea level as described by the gravity geoid,
yielding the orthometric height[1][6]
A vertical datum, yielding a dynamic height relative
to a known reference height.
Along with the latitude and longitude , the height
h provides the three-dimensional geodetic coordinates or
geographic coordinates for a location.[7]

3.3 Datums
In order to be unambiguous about the direction of vertical and the surface above which they are measuring,
map-makers choose a reference ellipsoid with a given origin and orientation that best ts their need for the area
they are mapping. They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that
ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference systemor geodetic
datum. Datums may be global, meaning that they represent the whole earth, or they may be local, meaning that
they represent a best-t ellipsoid to only a portion of the
earth.

Datums may be global, meaning that they represent the

Main articles: Geodetic datum, Figure of the Earth and whole earth, or they may be local, meaning that they represent a best-t ellipsoid to only a portion of the earth.
Reference ellipsoid
Points on the Earths surface move relative to each other
due to continental plate motion, subsidence, and diurnal
movement caused by the Moon and the tides. The daily
3.1 Complexity of the problem
movement can be as much as a metre. Continental movement can be up to 10 cm a year, or 10 m in a century. A
To completely specify a location of a topographical fea- weather system high-pressure area can cause a sinking of
ture on, in, or above the Earth, one has to also specify the 5 mm. Scandinavia is rising by 1 cm a year as a result
vertical distance from the centre of the Earth, or from the of the melting of the ice sheets of the last ice age, but
neighbouring Scotland is rising by only 0.2 cm. These
surface of the Earth.

4.1

UTM and UPS systems

changes are insignicant if a local datum is used, but are Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and
statistically signicant if a global datum is used.[1]
easting E osets relative to a specied origin. Usually asat which
Examples of global datums include World Geodetic Sys- sociated with a map projection is a natural origin
[11]
the
ellipsoid
and
at
map
surfaces
coincide.
To
ensure
tem (WGS 84), the default datum used for Global Posithat
the
northing
and
easting
coordinates
on
a
map
are
[n 4]
tioning System
and the International Terrestrial Refnot
negative,
map
projections
may
set
up
false
northing
erence Frame (ITRF) used for estimating continental
drift and crustal deformation.[8] The distance to Earths and false easting values that oset the true northing and
centre can be used both for very deep positions and for easting values.
positions in space.[1]
Local datums chosen by a national cartographical organisation include the North American Datum, the European
ED50, and the British OSGB36. Given a location, the
datum provides the latitude and longitude . In the
United Kingdom there are three common latitude, longitude, height systems in use. WGS 84 diers at Greenwich from the one used on published maps OSGB36 by
approximately 112m. The military system ED50, used
by NATO, diers by about 120m to 180m.[1]
The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local
datum may not be the same as on a GPS receiver. Coordinates from the mapping system can sometimes be roughly
changed into another datum using a simple translation.
For example, to convert from ETRF89 (GPS) to the Irish
Grid add 49 metres to the east, and subtract 23.4 metres
from the north.[9] More generally one datum is changed
into any other datum using a process called Helmert transformations. This involves converting the spherical coordinates into Cartesian coordinates and applying a seven
parameter transformation (translation, three-dimensional
rotation), and converting back.[1]
In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a 'Geographic Coordinate System'. For example, data in latitude/longitude
if the datum is the North American Datum of 1983 is
denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'.
Further information: Geographic coordinate conversion

Map projection formulas depend in the geometry of the

projection as well as parameters dependent on the particular location at which the map is projected. The set
of parameters can vary based on type of project and the
conventions chosen for the projection. For the transverse
Mercator projection used in UTM, the parameters associated are the latitude and longitude of the natural origin,
the false northing and false easting, and an overall scale
factor.[11]:9-10 Given the parameters associated with particular location or grin, the projection formulas for the
transverse Mercator are a complex mix of algebraic and
trigonometric functions.[11]:45-54

4.1 UTM and UPS systems

Main articles: Universal Transverse Mercator and
Universal Polar Stereographic
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and Universal
Polar Stereographic (UPS) coordinate systems both use
a metric-based cartesian grid laid out on a conformally
projected surface to locate positions on the surface of the
Earth. The UTM system is not a single map projection
but a series of sixty, each covering 6-degree bands of longitude. The UPS system is used for the polar regions,
which are not covered by the UTM system.

4.2 Stereographic coordinate system

Further information: Stereographic projection

Map projection

Main article: Map projection

To establish the position of a geographic location on a
map, a map projection is used to convert geodetic coordinates to two-dimensional coordinates on a map; it projects
the datum ellipsoidal coordinates and height onto a at
surface of a map. The datum, along with a map projection applied to a grid of reference locations, establishes
a grid system for plotting locations. Common map projections in current use include the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM), the Military grid reference system
(MGRS), the United States National Grid (USNG), the
Global Area Reference System (GARS) and the World
Geographic Reference System (GEOREF).[10]

During medieval times, the stereographic coordinate

system was used for navigation purposes. The stereographic coordinate system was superseded by the
latitude-longitude system.
Although no longer used in navigation, the stereographic coordinate system is still used in modern times
to describe crystallographic orientations in the elds of
crystallography, mineralogy and materials science.

5 Cartesian coordinates
Main article: axes conventions
Every point that is expressed in ellipsoidal coordinates

5 CARTESIAN COORDINATES

can be expressed as an rectilinear x y z (Cartesian) coordinate. Cartesian coordinates simplify many mathematical
calculations. The Cartesian systems of dierent datums
are not equivalent.[2]

5.1

Earth-centered, earth-xed

points height above the ellipsoid. The reverse conversion is harder: given X-Y-Z we can immediately get longitude, but no closed formula for latitude and height exists. See "Geodetic system. Using Bowrings formula in
1976 Survey Review the rst iteration gives latitude correct within 1011 degree as long as the point is within
10000 meters above or 5000 meters below the ellipsoid.

5.2 Local east, north, up (ENU) coordinates

Zecef
North
Up
East

Earth Centered, Earth Fixed coordinates in relation to latitude

and longitude.

Main article: ECEF

Y ecef

X ecef

The earth-centered earth-xed (also known as the ECEF,

ECF, or conventional terrestrial coordinate system) rotates with the Earth and has its origin at the center of the
Earth.
The conventional right-handed coordinate system puts:

Earth Centred Earth Fixed and East, North, Up coordinates.

The origin at the center of mass of the earth, a point

In many targeting and tracking applications the local East,
close to the Earths center of gure
North, Up (ENU) Cartesian coordinate system is far
The Z axis on the line between the north and south more intuitive and practical than ECEF or Geodetic copoles, with positive values increasing northward (but ordinates. The local ENU coordinates are formed from a
does not exactly coincide with the Earths rotational plane tangent to the Earths surface xed to a specic location and hence it is sometimes known as a Local Tanaxis[12] )
gent or local geodetic plane. By convention the east
The X and Y axes in the plane of the equator
axis is labeled x , the north y and the up z .
The X axis passing through extending from 180 degrees longitude at the equator (negative) to 0 degrees
longitude (prime meridian) at the equator (positive)
The X axis passing through extending from 90 de- 5.3 Local north, east, down (NED) coordinates
grees west longitude at the equator (negative) to 90
degrees east longitude at the equator (positive)
In an airplane, most objects of interest are below the airAn example is the NGS data for a brass disk near Donner craft, so it is sensible to dene down as a positive number.
Summit, in California. Given the dimensions of the ellip- The North, East, Down (NED) coordinates allow this as
soid, the conversion from lat/lon/height-above-ellipsoid an alternative to the ENU local tangent plane. By concoordinates to X-Y-Z is straightforwardcalculate the vention, the north axis is labeled x , the east y and the
X-Y-Z for the given lat-lon on the surface of the el- down z . To avoid confusion between x and x , etc. in
lipsoid and add the X-Y-Z vector that is perpendicu- this web page we will restrict the local coordinate frame
lar to the ellipsoid there and has length equal to the to ENU.

Expressing latitude and longitude as linear units

where Earths equatorial radius a equals 6,378,137 m and

b
tan = a
tan ; for the GRS80 and WGS84 spheroids, b/a
calculates to be 0.99664719. ( is known as the reduced
(or parametric) latitude). Aside from rounding, this is
Main articles: Length of a degree of latitude and Length the exact distance along a parallel of latitude; getting the
of a degree of longitude
distance along the shortest route will be more work, but
those two distances are always within 0.6 meter of each
On the GRS80 or WGS84 spheroid at sea level at the other if the two points are one degree of longitude apart.
equator, one latitudinal second measures 30.715 metres,
one latitudinal minute is 1843 metres and one latitudinal degree is 110.6 kilometres. The circles of longitude, 7 Geostationary coordinates
meridians, meet at the geographical poles, with the westeast width of a second naturally decreasing as latitude in- Geostationary satellites (e.g., television satellites) are over
creases. On the equator at sea level, one longitudinal sec- the equator at a specic point on Earth, so their position
ond measures 30.92 metres, a longitudinal minute is 1855 related to Earth is expressed in longitude degrees only.
metres and a longitudinal degree is 111.3 kilometres. At Their latitude is always zero, that is, over the equator.
30 a longitudinal second is 26.76 metres, at Greenwich
(51 28' 38 N) 19.22 metres, and at 60 it is 15.42 metres.
On the WGS84 spheroid, the length in meters of a degree 8 On other celestial bodies
of latitude at latitude (that is, the distance along a northsouth line from latitude ( - 0.5) degrees to ( + 0.5) Similar coordinate systems are dened for other celestial
degrees) is about
bodies such as:
111132.92
559.82 cos 2+
1.175 cos 4
0.0023 cos 6
[13]

Similarly, the length in meters of a degree of longitude

can be calculated as

A similarly well-dened system based on the reference ellipsoid for Mars.

Selenographic coordinates for the Moon

9 See also
Decimal degrees

111412.84 cos
93.5 cos 3
0.118 cos 5
[13]

(Those coecients can be improved, but as they stand the

distance they give is correct within a centimeter.)
An alternative method to estimate the length of a longitudinal degree at latitude is to assume a spherical Earth
(to get the width per minute and second, divide by 60 and
3600, respectively):

Geodetic datum
Geographic coordinate conversion
Geographic information system
Geographical distance
Linear referencing
Map projection

10 Notes

Mr cos
180
where Earths average meridional radius Mr is 6,367,449
m. Since the Earth is not spherical that result can be o
by several tenths of a percent; a better approximation of
a longitudinal degree at latitude is

a cos
180

[1] In specialized works, geographic coordinates are distinguished from other similar coordinate systems, such as
geocentric coordinates and geodetic coordinates. See, for
example, Sean E. Urban and P. Kenneth Seidelmann, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd.
ed., (Mill Valley CA: University Science Books, 2013) p.
2023.
[2] The pair had accurate absolute distances within the
Mediterranean but underestimated the circumference of
the earth, causing their degree measurements to overstate
its length west from Rhodes or Alexandria, respectively.

11

[3] Alternative versions of latitude and longitude include geocentric coordinates, which measure with respect to the
center of the earth, geodetic coordinates, which model the
Earth as an ellipsoid, and geographic coordinates, which
measure with respect to a plumb line at the location for
which coordinates are given.
[4] WGS 84 is the default datum used in most GPS equipment, but other datums can be selected.

11

References

[1] A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain (PDF),

D00659 v2.3, Ordnance Survey, Mar 2015, retrieved
2015-06-22
[2] Taylor, Chuck. Locating a Point On the Earth. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
[3] McPhail, Cameron (2011), Reconstructing Eratosthenes
Map of the World (PDF), Dunedin: University of Otago,
pp. 2024.
[4] Evans, James (1998), The History and Practice of Ancient
Astronomy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 102
103, ISBN 9780199874453.
[5] Greenwich 2000 Limited (9 June 2011). The International Meridian Conference. Wwp.millenniumdome.com. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
[6] DMA Technical Report Geodesy for the Layman, The
Defense Mapping Agency, 1983
[7] Kwok, Geodetic Survey Section Lands Department Hong
Kong. Geodetic Datum Transformation, p.24 (PDF).
Geodetic Survey Section Lands Department Hong Kong.
Retrieved 4 March 2014.
[8] Bolstad, Paul. GIS Fundamentals, 4th Edition (PDF). Atlas books. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-9717647-3-6.
[9] Making maps compatible with GPS. Government of
Ireland 1999. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
Retrieved 15 April 2008.
[10] Grids and Reference Systems. National GeospatialIntelligence Agenc. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
[11] Geomatics Guidance Note Number 7, part 2 Coordinate Conversions and Transformations including Formulas (PDF). International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP). p. 9-10. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
[12] Note on the BIRD ACS Reference Frames
[13] Geographic Information Systems - Stackexchange

Portions of this article are from Jason Harris Astroinfo which is distributed with KStars, a desktop
planetarium for Linux/KDE. See The KDE Education
Project - KStars

REFERENCES

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Geographic coordinate system Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system?oldid=675952647 Contributors:

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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20-36.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/This_is_a_basic_photo_showing_that_latitude_
lines_are_horizontal_and_longitude_lines_are_vertical-_2014-07-25_20-36.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http:
//www.fedstats.gov/kids/mapstats/concepts_latlg.html Original artist: Unknown
File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad

12.3

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