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METHODOLOGY FOR
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SOLAR
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER GENERATION
SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS IN INDIA
June 2013
Acknowledgements:
Authors:
Jyotirmay Mathur, MNIT Jaipur
Research Team
Kamlesh Jagratwal, MNIT Jaipur
Sumit Sharma, MNIT Jaipur
Dharmendra Kr Kumawat, MNIT Jaipur
METHODOLOGY FOR
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER
GENERATION SYSTEM IN
BUILDINGS IN INDIA
June 2013
Contents
1.
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.4
2.
3.
Methodology ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1
4.
5.
6.
6.3
7.
8.
9.
Standards ........................................................................................................... 26
10.
11.
References: ........................................................................................................ 30
List of Figures
Figure 1: Standalone SPV System .................................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: Grid connected SPV System ........................................................................................... 3
Figure 3:Best-in-class commercial module efficiencies, 19992008, compiled from module
survey data ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4: The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell................................ 16
Figure 5: PV capacity factors varying by insulation and use of tracking systems ....................... 28
ii
List of Tables
Table 1: Solar Cell Failure .............................................................................................................. 6
Table 2: SPV module degradation rate ......................................................................................... 7
Table 3: Battery Standards ............................................................................................................ 10
Table 4: Expected Life of SPV system components..................................................................... 11
Table 5: Criteria for Evolving Methodology ................................................................................ 12
Table 6: Tilt Angle of Fixed Type SPV module for Max power generation ................................ 15
Table 7: General Information of SPV System ............................................................................. 18
Table 8: Solar Photovoltaic Module Detail .................................................................................. 19
Table 9: Battery bank detail .......................................................................................................... 20
Table 10: Power conditioning Unit Detail .................................................................................... 21
Table 11: SPV System maintenance practices detail ................................................................... 22
Table 12: Historical Data collection Format ................................................................................. 23
Table 13: Measuring Equipments ................................................................................................ 24
Table 14: Performance Parameters Measuring Methods .............................................................. 25
iii
1. Introduction
The buildings sector is one of the major consumers of energy. A country's per capita energy
consumption is an indicator of its economic status. The energy consumption growth rate is thus
high in developing country like India compared to developed country like US.
India has taken many favorable initiatives to harness the renewable energy sources for
supplementing its growing energy requirements and amongst these the foremost is extensive
deployment of solar photo voltaic for catering to localized requirements as well as establishment
of large SPV power plants for wider distribution of this green energy. The availability of solar
energy for more than 300 days in most parts of the country has also aided in an endeavor for
popularizing the use of SPV systems.
The use of SPV systems; both grid connected and independent systems have increased in the
past decades specially as the commercial tariffs are increasing year by year and also due to an
inclination to use green energy in the facilities. As solar generation system doesnt have any
moving part thus the required maintenance is comparatively less cumbersome. But for getting the
optimum output of SPV system, its regular maintenance and performances analysis is required.
An accurate evaluation of photovoltaic (PV) system performance is important for optimizing its
output. The performance evaluation helps in ensuring the quality of the yield and to identify
future needs. To meet this requirements the International Electro-Technical Commission (IEC)
has developed standard performance parameters for photovoltaic system performance monitoring
and analysis as per IEC standard 61724 [1].
The SPV based systems are now being deployed in large numbers in buildings and the
performance evaluation of the existing systems is to be undertaken for identifying the gaps
between the actual performance and an ideal installation. The gaps identified thus can help the
existing and the potential users to maintain their systems in a better way. Therefore with this
intent this report has been prepared for in field assessment of the SPV systems in buildings in
India. It briefly touches upon the various configurations of SPV systems based on the prevalent
technology and also covers the various sub elements of the SPV system such as power condition
1
unit, Batteries etc. The different national and international standards as applicable have been
referred.
In standalone systems (Fig 1) usually small capacity discreet units, the DC power generated from
SPV panels is used to charge the Battery using charge controller. If connected load is DC then
power directly can be drawn from battery. For meeting the AC load requirements, first the DC
power is converted into AC using Power conditioning unit (PCU) and then supplied.
The grid connected system (Fig 2) is similar to Stand alone system but it has additional facility to
take grid power in case of absence of solar power to meet the load requirements.
Grid interactive system is same as grid connected system but it is connected to grid in both ways.
(Export & Import).The DC power generated from SPV panels is converted to AC power using
power conditioning unit and is fed to the grid either of 11 KV three phase line or of 220 V single
phase line depending on the system configuration .During day time solar PV power is utilized
and the excess power feeds to the grid. During the night time (or in the absence of solar or
cloudy weather) the required electric power is supplied by grid.Net metering is used in this
system. But in India net metering facility is not available.
1.3.1
Solar PV modules:
This is the basic component of SPV system which converts solar energy into Electrical energy by
Photovoltaic effect. The Photovoltaic are also called solar cells. These solar Cells are grouped
together to form a PV modules and modules are joined together to form an array.
Solar PV cells technology: PV cell technologies are usually classified into three categories
based on basic semiconductor material used in fabrication.
a. First-generation (Crystalline silicon)
b. Second-generation (Thin film)
c. The third-generation PV (Dye-sensitized and organic PV cells)
(a) First-generation PV cells: Crystalline silicon cells are classified into three main types
depending on
1 Mono crystalline (Mono c-Si)
3. EFG ribbon silicon and silicon sheet-defined film growth (EFG ribbon-sheet c-Si).
Modules made from Crystalline cells are the most efficient of the mainstream PV technologies
and accounts for about 84% of PV produced in 2008 (Bartlett et al. 2009).Mono crystalline cell
are more efficient then poly crystalline but are more expensive.
(b) Second-generation PV cells: The thin film category PV cells made of very thin layer of
semiconductor material falls in second generation SPV cells. Multifunction PV cells also come
in this category. Thin Film can be packaged into flexible and lightweight structure which makes
it suitable to integration into building
The following type thin film modules are commercially available in market.
o Amorphous silicon (a-Si),
o Copper indium diselenide (CIS),
o Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS)
o Cadmium telluride (CdTe).
(c) The third-generation PV Cell: Concentrating PV (CPV) and organic PV cells belongs to
this category. Limited installations of this type are presently deployed.
4
PV Module Efficiency: PV modules are made of series and parallel combination of cells. The
efficiency of PV modules is lower than the efficiency of the cells from which they are made.
Figure-3 depicts best-in-class module efficiencies from 1999 to 2008, with the best crystalline
silicon efficiencies at 17%19% and the best thin-film efficiencies at 7%11% in 2008.
Figure 3:Best-in-class commercial module efficiencies, 19992008, compiled from module survey data
(Source : Kreutzmann 2008, Photon International 19992008)
Degradation: Degradation mechanisms may involve either a gradual reduction in the output
power of a PV module over time or an overall reduction in power due to failure of an individual
solar cell in the module.
1. Solar Cell Degradation 2. Solar Cell Failure
Decreases in RSH (Shunt Resistance) due to metal migration through the p-n junction; or
Antireflection coating deterioration.
S.No
Failure
Remark
Common failure of thin film cells
Short-Circuited Cells
Open-Circuited Cells
Interconnect Open-Circuits
Module Open-Circuits
Module De lamination
Hot-Spot Failures:
damage
(Source: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/degradation-and-failure-modes)
A detailed literature review had been sought for different degradation factors .Results shows that
information of degradation of PV module collected since 1970s.
Testing time
/Observation
Time
PV Module Type
Factors for
Degradation
C.Radue,
E.E.vanDyk [2]
Amorphous silicon
modules manufactured by
monolithic integration
14 Months
45% of intial
max.Power
D.L.King,M.A.
et.al.[3]
Multi crystalline PV
Module
Exposed to UV
radiation
10 years
4% of intial
performance
NREL[4]
1 year
0.7% of intial
performance
Edson L. Meyer
and E. Ernest van
Dyk[5]
Copper Indium
Diselenide (CIS),
single and triple junction
amorphous silicon
(a-Si and a-SiGe)
Cracked cell
Mismatch due to
crack cells
Crystalline silicon
2 years
Reis et al.[7]
Mono-Si
11 years
Osterwald et al.[8]
Monocrystalline and
multicrystalline
oxygen contamination
in the bulk of the Si
junction
ultraviolet exposure
Adelstein and
Sekulic[9]
Amorphous silicon
modules
6 years
1.13% yearly
Marion et al.[10]
CdTe system
Climatic conditions
5.5 years
06%/year
Authors
Jorge Coello[6]
UV exposure
reaches
130kWh/m2
Note: Standards: PERFORMANCE 90% for initial 10 years and 80% for next 25 years
Degradation 1% for initial and 0.5 % annually thereafter
Degradation
50% degradation
1.3.2
The power generate by PV modules varies with solar radiation and module temperature thus
there is mismatch between characteristic curve of a PV and characteristic curve of the load. The
power conditioning units (PCU) are used to provide a match between the specific characteristics
of the PV generator and the connected balance of system (BOS) components. The power
conditioning unit effects a transformation of the loads voltage and current in such a way, that
the PV generator is operated at its optimum operation voltage VMPP (Voltage at maximum power
point) even under changing boundary conditions. (11)
1.3.3
Battery Bank
A battery bank is used to store energy produced by SPV system. This stored energy can be
utilized in night time or in the absence of sun. Battery bank also provides the facility to store the
excess solar generated energy which can be utilized later. There are many types of batteries
available, and each type is designed for specific applications. Lead-acid batteries are more
popular for residential use because of their low maintenance requirements and cost.
De-Rating Factors of Battery
Batteries efficiency decrease with the time. If SPV module generates power efficiently but the
battery bank not working efficiently thus complete system efficiency decrease. Battery de-rating
factors given below:
Depth of discharge
Deep discharge
Charging system
Stratification
8
Corrosion
Sulfation
Specific Gravity
9. Maintain the same charge in all the batteries. Although the entire series of batteries may
have an overall charge of 24 volts, some cells may have more or less voltage than
neighbouring batteries
10. Inspect your batteries often. Some things to look for are leakage (build up on the outside of
the battery), appropriate fluid levels (for flooded batteries), and equal voltage. Your battery
manufacturer may have additional recommendations.
11. Place batteries in a well-ventilated, temperature-moderated area because batteries give off
gases that could accumulate to form an explosive mixture. Batteries should be kept in an
uncluttered, dry area of a shed or garage or placed in a vented box with a strong lock for
easy but safe access
Standards for battery: The Table 3 below gives the details of the various standards applicable
for batteries (commonly used with SPV systems)
S.
No.
Standards
Name
Remarks
IEEE937-1987
(R1993)(USA)
IEEE1013-1990(USA)
10
1.3.4
Mounting structures:
PV modules mounted on a fixed or moveable (in case of solar track) structures. The mounting
structure must be suitable to mount the SPV modules on the roof top or on the ground in
accordance with the latitude of the place of installation & should be able to withstand the speed
for the wind zone of the location. In case of Earth quark zone ,flexible structure is preferable.
1.3.5
Power Cable
Cable is used to transfer the PV generated power from generation place to load. The losses in DC
wiring is more as compare to AC therefore DC wiring should be minimized. The cable should be
in general conforming to IS-1554 P+1 & other relevant standards.
S.No
Item
Life
Modules
Inverters
Structure
Cabling
30 years
Battery
11
2. Study Objectives
The objective the study is Assessment of the existing SPV systems deployed in buildings in India
to identify the gaps, which can result in system optimization.
3. Methodology
The following criteria given in Table 5 have been used for evolving the methodology for
assessment of SPV system:
S.No
Criteria
Outcome
Reference
Matrix of parameters to be
monitored during onsite
study
International standards
NREL,MNRE, Research
Papers
Matrix of maintenance
parameters to be reviewed
during on-site study
The parameters have been selected so that the performance evaluation of SPV system as a whole
can be carried out and in addition to this all the sub systems are also evaluated for their
performance.
12
These SPV performance parameters are developed on the basis of following considerations:
SPV system power generation output depends on System size, geographic location,
weather condition. Therefore to compare various PV systems, the performance
parameters should be able to provide a single base for comparing such PV systems.
Parameters should have capacity to detect operational problems and provide information
regarding losses in system.
The parameters should be able to validate models developed for system performance
estimation during the design phase.[13]
ii.
Maintenance practices
The maintenance practices would be evaluated based on the structured format to summarily
bring forth any deviations which are existing from the recommended operational practices.
iii.
The previous operational data (typically 12 months duration) would be collected for assessment
of operational practices and for assessing the gaps therein.
iv.
The operational data and in field collected data would be simulated using standard simulation
packages such as PVsyst , eQUEST etc. The output would be compared to the actual
performance data.
With above key considerations the detailed data recording formats have been evolved as under:
Format A -Collection of Installation Data
Format B - Performance Monitoring of SPV System
Format C - Assessment of maintenance practices
Format D - Collection of historical data
13
4. Study Area
Initially the following sites have been shortlisted for performance evaluation of SPV system
1. MNIT Administrative Block (2kWp)
2. Bosch Pvt Ltd (40 kWp), Jaipur
3. OTS (25 kWp), Jaipur
4. OTS (10 kWp), Jaipur
5. REIL (2 kWp), Jaipur
6. Women Ajmer Engineering College (25 kWp * 2), Ajmer
7. Bayer, Greater Noida
8. Rajasthan Vidhan Sabha, JAipur
9. Kala Dera, Jaipur 25 kWp
10. ICAT 50kWp (Manesar )
11. RL Saharia Government PG College Kaladera (25kWp)
12. Veer Sarvarkar Stadium, Ahmadabad
13. Vidhut Bhavan , Jaipur
14. BOB, Jaipur
14
Latitude Site
Tilt Angle
0-15
15
15-25
Same as Latitude
25-30
30-35
35-40
40 +
Table 6: Tilt Angle of Fixed Type SPV module for Max power generation
15
Type of tracking: SPV system generates maximum power when PV modules remain normal to
the sun. This can be done by tracking but it increase system cost and makes its a little
complicated. Two types of sun tracer are available in market, N-S tracking (Daily) & E-W
Tracking (Seasonal)
Inverter efficiency: Inverter is a device, which converts solar generated DC electric power into
AC power. The average maximum efficiency of inverters was 95.5% in 2008, up from 94.7% in
2005 [16].
Battery performance: Batteries are used as a Energy storage device in SPV System. Battery
first convert solar generated DC power into chemical energy and stores it. When power is drawn
from battery then it again converts the stored energy in to Electrical power.
Wiring losses: Solar Generate power transmitted from Module to load by wires. Losses in DC
wire are more as compare to AC. Therefore, DC wiring should be minimized and Cable / wire
standards should be follows.
High cell temperatures: Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor,
thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material parameters (Fig.4). (As increasing the
energy of the electrons in the material) Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In
the bond model of a semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band
gap. Therefore increasing the temperature reduces the band gap. The impact of increasing
temperature is shown in the figure below. [17]
16
Voltage is indirectly proportional to the temperature of SPV Cell temperature. As increasing the
temperature of Cell, voltage goes down hence power generation decrease.
Dirt and other materials obscuring sun-collecting surfaces: Dirt reduce the effective solar
insolation on SPV module which trends to reduce the output current of the modules hence
reduces the power generation .SPV Generated current is directly proportional to solar insolation.
Weather conditions: Weather condition also influences the efficiency, which depends nonlinearly on the irradiation level and temperature. For example, a cloud passing over a portion of
solar cells or a sub-module will reduce the total output power of solar PV arrays. Under certain
cloud conditions, the changes can be dramatic and fast. A method is required to assess the cost of
such fluctuations and their effect on other systems to which a solar array may be connected e.g.
utility [8][9][18] [19]
17
Parameter
Description
18
Description
Manufacturer
Technology
(Mono-crystalline/ Poly Crystalline / Thin Film/others)
Mounting Deposition
(Flat roof/Faade or tilt roof/Ground Base)
Ventilation Properly
(Free standing/Ventilated/No ventilation)
Total no of modules
Rated Capacity of Modules ( Pmax) W
Open Circuit voltage Voc
Short Circuit Current ISC
Voltage at maximum power Vmp
Current at maximum power Imp
Fill Factor
Size
Tilt angle of Solar panel
Direction of Panel
Connection of Modules
Cell spacing ( in mm)
Active Area
Collector Plan Area
Position of shadow on modules
Module temperature
Structure detail
Table 8: Solar Photovoltaic Module Detail
19
Description
Manufacturer
Model
Battery Bank is available or not
Capacity of Battery bank
Capacity of single Battery
Quantity of Batteries
Make of Battery
Types of Battery
20
Description
Type (Central/String)
Make
Capacity
SPV voltage on PCU
SPV current on PCU
Battery voltage on PCU
Output voltage on PCU
Output current on PCU
Load on PCU
Communication Interface facility
Connected load (kW)
Table 10: Power conditioning Unit Detail
21
Description
22
Description
23
7. Measuring Instruments
The parameters identified above would be measured with the help of highly precise and accurate
measuring instruments. Details of identified parameters and the corresponding required
measuring instruments and their specification are furnished in Table 13 below:
Identified
Parameter
Measuring
location
Instrument
Name
Specification
Voltage
PV modules
Customize specification
Current
PV modules
Customize specification
Power/Energy
PCU output
Energy meter
/Power analyzer
Customize specification
Temperature
PV modules
Infrared
Thermometer
-50.0 to 550C
Direction
PV Module
Compass
Inclination Angle
Dimensions
PV Module
Digital Protractor
Measuring Tape,
Scale
5 meter
Specific Gravity
Battery
Solar Insulation
PV Module
IV curve
PV Module
Solar Module
Analyzer
Battery
Battery AH Tester
Battery Capacity
Hydrometer
24
Voltage : 0 to 60 V ,
Current : 0 to 12 A
Resistance : 4m to 400
Voltage : 6V ,60 V
Current : 600 A
8. Monitoring method
The measured parameters and array characteristics are defined in IEC 61194, Table 14 [1]
Measuring
Method
Parameters
Equipment
Solar irradiance
Module
temperature
Ambient air
Temperature
Wind speed
Voltage and
current
By Clamping
The voltage and current parameters
may be either dc or ac
Electrical power
Location
Weather Data
Position(Module
Facing)
Direction
Compass
Tilt Angle
Digital Protector
Pyranometers,
Solarimeter
IEC 60904-2 or
IEC 60904-6
IEC 61829
Ultrasonic
Temp.gun
25
Remark
Accuracy : better
than 1 % of the
reading
9. Standards
The quality of equipment should meet the guidelines for engineering design included in the
standards and codes listed in the relevant ISI and other standards,
o IEEE 928: Recommended Criteria for terrestrial PV power systems.
o IEEE 929 Recommended practice for utility interface of residential and intermediate PV
system.
o IEEE 519 Guide for harmonic control and reactive compensation of static power controls.
o National Electrical NFPA 70-1990 (USA) or equipment national standard.
o National Electrical safety Code ANSI C2 ( USA) or equipment national standards.
o IEC : 61215 (2005)- Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules Design
qualification and type approval
o IEC: 61730 -1,-2 photovoltaic (PV) modules safety qualificat ion part 2: Requirements
for testing
o IEC: 60904-1 (2006) Photovoltaic Devices- part-I: Measurement of photovoltaic currentVoltage Characteristic.
o IS 9000 Basic environment testing procedure for Electronic and electrical items.
26
Rated)
called the Final yield (YF). The rated power is provided under standard test conditions (STC)
which is referred as 1000W/m2 irradiance, 25 0 C ambient temperatures and air mass1.5g.
YF =
Ppv,rated
2. Reference yield (YR): Reference yield is the ratio of total in plane solar insolation (Ht) (kW
h/m2) to the reference irradiance (G) (1kW/m2). This parameter represents equal number of hours
at the reference irradiance and is given as:
3. Performance ratio (PR): Performance ratio is the ratio of the final yield (YF) to the reference
yield(YR). This normalizes performance parameter with respect to the incident solar radiation
and is a dimensionless quantity. It provides important information about the overall effect of
losses. This parameter is used to evaluate the long term changes in the performance. The
decreasing year wise PR values are indicative of loss in the performance.
PR=
The performance ratio (PR) depends on the kind of installation. The mean annual performance
ratio shows an upward trend from 0.64 in 1991 to 0.74 in 2005.
27
It is recommended to use either site-specific PR values or a default value of 75 % for rooftop and
80% for ground-mount latitude optimal installations [20]. (International Standard IEC 61724 for
definition of performance ratio.) The others important parameter are given blow
Capacity factor (CF): The capacity factor (CF) is defined as the ratio of the actual annual
energy output (, ) of the PV system to the amount of energy the PV system would generate
fit operates at full rated power (PPV, rated) for 24h per day for year and is given as
CF=
EAC,a
PPV,rated
8760
A system ran at its full capacity for an entire year, the capacity factor would be 100% during that
year. Solar PV generates power only when the sun is available; their capacity factors are reduced
because of evening, cloudy, and other low-light periods. The capacity factor of PV systems is
also reduced by any necessary downtime (e.g., for maintenance), which is also the case for other
generation technologies.
Variations in the sun's angle that are due to the season and time of day reduce the capacity factor
of fixed-orientation PV systems. (Electricity generation is maximized when the modules are
normal to the incident sunlight.) This problem can be resolve by incorporating one- or two-axis
solar tracking systems. (Rotate the modules to capture more normal sunlight exposure than is
possible with stationary modules.). Figure 6 shows the effect of insolation and use of tracking
systems on PV capacity factors. Standalone SPV System
28
System efficiency: Monthly system efficiency (sys,m ) is defined as the ratio of the energy
generated (EAC,D ) to the incident irradiance (Ht ) at the module area (Aa ) given as
sys,m =
EAC,D
Aa
Ht
These performance parameters provide the overall system performance with respect to the
energy production, solar resource, and overall effect of system losses.
In addition to the above, simulation based performance analysis would also be carried for past
data and for the data collected during in- field assessment by using standard simulation tools
such as PVsyst, Energy quest etc.
29
11. References:
[1]
[2]
C. Radue and E. E. Van Dyk, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells A comparison of
degradation in three amorphous silicon PV module technologies, Solar Energy Materials
and Solar Cells, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 617622, 2010.
[3]
Quintana, M.A.; King, D.L.; McMahon, T.J.; Osterwald, C.R., "Commonly observed
degradation in field-aged photovoltaic modules," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
2002.Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE , vol., no., pp.1436,1439,19-24 May
2002 doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2002.1190879
[4]
[5]
Meyer, E.L.; Ernest van Dyk, E., "Assessing the reliability and degradation of
photovoltaic module performance parameters," Reliability, IEEE Transactions on , vol.53,
no.1, pp.83,92, March 2004 ,doi: 10.1109/TR.2004.824831
[6]
[7]
Reis, A. M.; Coleman, N. T.; Marshall, M. W.; Lehman, P.A.; Chamberlin, C. E.,
"Comparison of PV module performance before and after 11-years of field
exposure," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Conference Record of the TwentyNinth
IEEE ,
vol.,
no.,
pp.1432,1435,
19-24
May
2002
doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2002.1190878
[8]
[9]
Adelstein, J.; Sekulic, B., "Performance and reliability of a 1-kW amorphous silicon
photovoltaic roofing system," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2005. Conference
Record of the Thirty-first IEEE , vol., no., pp.1627,1630, 3-7 Jan. 2005 ,doi:
10.1109/PVSC.2005.1488457
[10]
B. Marion, J. Cueto, P. Mcnutt, and D. Rose, Performance Summary for the First Solar
CdTe 1-kW System, NREL/CP-520-30942, pp. 14, October , 2001.
30
[11]
[12]
[13]
V. Sharma and S. S. Chandel, Performance and degradation analysis for long term
reliability of solar photovoltaic systems: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 27, pp. 753767, Nov. 2013.
[14]
Z. M. Salameh and F. Dagher, Step-down maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic
systems, Solar Energy ,vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 279282, 1991.
[17]
[18]
[19]
Nguyen, D.D.; Lehman, B., "Modeling and Simulation of Solar PV Arrays under
Changing Illumination Conditions," Computers in Power Electronics, 2006. COMPEL
'06. IEEE Workshops on , vol., no., pp.295,299, 16-19 July 2006
doi: 10.1109/COMPEL.2006.305629
[20]
Mason J. M., Fthenakis V. M., Hansen T. and Kim H. C. Energy Pay-Back and Life
Cycle CO2 Emissions of the BOS in an Optimized 3.5 MW PV Installation. In: Progress
in Photovoltaics Research and Applications, 14, pp. 179-190. (2006)
[21]
Energy efficiency & Renewable energy 2008 Solar Technologies Market Report, 2010
31