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verbal categories.
MOOD:
A verbal category which makes it possible for the speaker to express his/her
attitude toward the factual content of the sentence.
THE INDICATIVEMOOD:
Sebastian drives fast.
THE SUBJUNCTIVEMOOD:
Luca insists that Fernando drive faster.
THE IMPERATIVEMOOD:
Drive faster!!!
VOICE:
A verbal category which makes it possible for the speaker to express/viewone
and the same activity in two ways.
The Queen opened the bridge.
The bridge was opened by the Queen
LESS IMPORTANT (old) -----> MORE IMPORTANT (NEW)
TENSE:
A verbal category which makes it possible for the activity denoted by the verb to
be located in time. I.e. TENSE IS A GRAMMATICALIZED LOCATION IN TIME,
expressed by verbal infections.
There are only two verbal inflections for tense in English:
-S and ED
Therefore, THERE ARE ONLY TWO TENSES IN ENGLISH:
THE PRESENT TENSE
THE PAST TENSE
ASPECT:
A verbal category which makes it possible to express the INTERNAL TEMPORAL
STRUCTURE of the state or activity denoted by the verb.
John ate an apple. (FINISHED, complete, no segments)
John was eating an apple when I entered. (NOT-FINISHED, incomplete, many
segments)
ONE ASPECTUAL OPPOSITION IN ENGLISH IS:
PROGRESSIVE vs. NON-PROGRESSIVE
John lived in New York. (FINISHED, complete, no segments)
John has lived in New York since 1999. (NOT-FINISHED, incomplete, still relevant,
continuing duration)
THE OTHER ASPECTUAL OPPOSITION IN ENGLISH IS:
PERFECTIVE vs. NON-PERFECTIVE
MODALITY:
A verbal category which makes it possible to modify the factual meaning of the
verbso that it in addition to its original meaning it also expresses notions such as
ABILITY, PERMISSION, OBLIGATION, POSSIBILITY, DEDUCTION, ASSUMPTION etc.
John canswim. (ABILITY)
John mustpay the utilities. (OBLIGATION)
You may leave now. (PERMISSION)
He musthave done a lot of research for his book. (DEDUCTION)
When we say verb, what we actually mean is a lexical verb, i.e. a verb with full
meaning (e.g. catch, buy, sell, etc.), and not a verb such as must, be(as in am
running), etc.
Verbs such as must, be(as in am running), etc. are said to have no meaning:
instead they have grammatical function
In other words, verbs in English can be classified into:
LEXICAL/FULL VERBS catch, vanish, burn, publish
AUXILIARY VERBS be, have, do, can, may, must
AUXILIARY VERBS
They CANNOT function as HEADS of VPs:
They must have been tortured in Guantanamo Bay.
They are musting something.
HOWEVER:
Her children are beingnaughty.
They DO NOT HAVE 3rdperson s, inflected forms, nonfinite forms and tense
distinctions:
He must have been tortured in Guantanamo Bay.
He musts have been tortured something.
I want you to must be there.
HOWEVER:
Her children are being naughty.
To be or not to be that is the question.
I think, therefore I am.
Obviously, verbs such as BE, do not behave syntactically in the same way as
MUST, although they are all classified as AUXILIARIES :
This means that there are at least TWO subtypes of AUXILIARIES:
PRIMARY AUXILIARIES be, have, do
MODAL AUXILIARIES can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, must,
ought to, used to
MARGINAL MODAL AUXILIARIES dare, need
BASE FORM
BASE FORM is used to form:
INFINITIVE (sing to sing)
PRESENT TENSE all persons except 3rdperson singular (sing I/you/we/they
sing a tune.)
IMPERATIVE (sing Sing a tune.)
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE (sing I recommend that he sing in a choir)
FORMATION: The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word.
3pspt FORM
3PSPT FORM is used to form:
3rdperson present-tense form (sing He singsa song.)
FORMATION: the suffix -sis added to the stem of the infinitive form, e.g. RUN+
-S= RUNS
If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, //, /t / that is not preceded by a
silent E, the suffix is written as -es:buzz > buzzes; catch > catches
If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the ychanges to iwhen esis added: cry
> cries
Verbs ending in -otypically add -es: veto > vetoes
FORMATION: the suffix ing is added to the stem of the infinitive form, e.g. GO+
-ING= GOING
If the base ends in silent E, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe >
believing
FORMATION:
If
the base form ends in a single consonant; AND
a single vowel precedes that consonant; AND
the last syllable of the base form is stressed
the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing: set > setting; occur
> occurring.
In British English, as an exception, the final -lis subject to the doubling rule:
yodel > yodelling(American English yodeling).
If the final consonant of a word subject to the doubling rule is -c, that consonant
is doubled as -ck: panic > panicking
WHAT ABOUT e.g. Do you like chocolate? and She didnt see him.:
COMPLEX OR SIMPLE?
If I am asking, probably SIMPLE.
YES! VPs such as these are SIMPLE.
WHY?
We are looking at the POSITIVE & DECLARATIVE (i.e. ASSERTIVE) sentences:
You like chocolate.
She saw him.
IN OTHER WORDS, DO-SUPPORT DOESNT COUNT WHEN WE ANALYZE THE
COMPLEXITYOF VPs
whether the VP can express ALL VERBAL CATEGORIES or just some of them
whether the VP can express THE AGREEMENT/CONCORD IN PERSON AND
NUMBER WITH THE SUBJECT
If we take FINITENESS as the criterion for classification of VPs, we can
distinguish two types of VPs:
FINITE, e.g. John likes Mary. He must have seen it.
NON-FINITE, e.g. John wanted to likeMary. Having seen it, he ran away.
FINITE VPs
FINITE VPs:
CAN EXPRESS ALL VERBAL CATEGORIES (TENSE, ASPECT, MOOD, VOICE,
MODALITY)
THEY ALWAYS EXPRESS AGREEMENT/CONCORD WITH THE SUBJECT(i.e. there is a
subject in the clause)
E.g. He likes chocolate cookies. He is running. He has done that many times
since he joined the company. He might have been delayed in the traffic.
What about Please dont go! or Go away!?
There is no subject in the clause, so they seem to be NON-FINITE.
They are actually FINITE.
Imperative constructions are FINITE, although they have no subject -the subject
is said to be IMPLIED.
NON-FINITE VPs:
CANNOT EXPRESS ALL VERBAL CATEGORIES: THEY CAN ONLY EXPRESS
ASPECT AND VOICE
THEY DO NOT EXPRESS AGREEMENT/CONCORD WITH THE SUBJECT (usually
there is NO subject in the clause containing a non-finite VP)
E.g. To play with hand grenades isa bad idea. (no subject)
He was found sitting in his chair. (no subject)
Having done that many times since he joined the company, he decided to help
them. (no subject)
He entered the arena, followed closely by his bodyguards. (no subject)
For him to do such a thing is truly unbelievable. (overt subject )
Mood is a verbal category which makes it possible for the speaker to express
his/her attitude toward the factual content of the sentence.
MOOD: SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive mood is used to express NON-FACTS.
There are two sub-types of the subjunctive mood: present subjunctive and past
subjunctive.
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
FORMS: the present subjunctive has the same form as the base of the verb: it
has a - (ZERO) suffix
I.e. the subjunctive paradigm of the verbs to be and to have looks like this:
NON-MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Used in SUBORDINATE CLAUSES OF CONDITION, CONCESSION AND PURPOSE:
CONDITION: If that be necessary, we will deny everything.
CONCESSION: Even if that be the case, we can still do it.
PUPROSE: He must do it, lest he get fired.
FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE
Used in SET EXPRESSIONS and PHRASES:
Suffice it to say; perish the though, come what may, God save the Queen.
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
The PAST SUBJUNCTIVE is often called WERE SUBJUNCTIVE.
It refers only to the verb to be where it takes the form WERE and has a
subjunctive meaning (hence the other name)
SUBJUNCTIVE MEANING: non-factual and/or hypothetical meaning
PASSIVIZATION the VP
The passive VP is constructed using the following formula:
PASSIVE AUXILIARY + PAST PARTICIPLE
e.g. is loved
e.g. is being loved
e.g. had been loved
The passive auxiliary is normally the verb BE.
The passive auxiliary can also be the verb GET
GET-PASSIVE
The GET-passive is restricted to constructions WITHOUT AN EXPRESSED
ANIMATE AGENT:
The boy got hurt on his way from work.
*The boy got given a violin by his father.
The GET-passive IS AVOIDED in FORMALstyle.
Even in informal English, the GET-passive is far less frequent than the BEpassive.
VOICE CONSTRAINTS
Although it is the general rule that TRANSITIVE VERB SENTENCEScan be EITHER
ACTIVE or PASSIVE, there are a number of exceptions where there is no simple
paraphrase restrictions.
Such exceptions are called voice constraints.
There are FOUR(4) types of voice constraints:
Voice constraints associated with THE VERB
Voice constraints associated with THE OBJECT
Voice constraints associated with MEANING
Voice constraints associated with FREQUENCY OF USE
The room holds50 people. *50 people are heldby the room.
The dress becomesher. *She is becomeby the dress.
The coat does not fit you. *You are not fittedby the coat.
VERBS THAT BEHAVE IN THIS WAY ARE USUALLY STATIVE OR EXISTENTIAL
TRANSITIVE VERBS.
Prepositional verbs can occur in the passive when they have ABSTRACT
PASSIVE SUBJECTS:
The problem wasvery carefully gone intoby the engineers.
The expected resultwas arrived at.
When prepositional verbs have CONCRETE PASSIVE SUBJECTS, they CANNOT
OCCUR in the passive :
*The tunnel wasvery carefully gone intoby the engineers.
*The splendid stadium was arrived at.
However, although most prepositional verbs follow this pattern (go into,
arrive at, look into, care for, call for, look at, hope for, talk about, wonder at,
believe in, etc.), there are some exceptions:
John agreed with Mary. *Mary was agreed with.
John lived with Mary. *Mary was lived with.
Finite clause objects that are introduced by THAT, WHETHER, or IF, normally take
passives with IT-SUBJECT and so-called EXTRAPOSITION.
In other words, the object finite clause remains behind the verb in the passive
sentence, but the passive sentence is introduced by IT:
You could hardly expect that Ruth would be on time.
It could hardly be expected (that) Ruth would be on time.
THAT is obligatory in that-clauses occurring initially as subjects, without
anticipatory IT:
You could hardly expect that Ruth would be on time.
?That Ruth would be on time could hardly be expected.
* Ruth would be on time could hardly be expected.
permission,
obligation
ability
volition
EXTRINSIC MODALITYhuman judgment of what is or isnt likely to happen:
possibility
necessity
prediction
Modal auxiliares are usually called CENTRAL MODALS,as they are TYPICALLY
used to express modality.
CENTRAL MODALS ARE:
can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would and must
FORMS:
NONNEGATIVE
UNCONTRACTED
CONRACTED
NEGATIVE
Must
NEGATIVE
must not
mustn't
PASTUNFULLFILLED OBLIGATION:
He should / ought tohave helped her. (HE DIDNT) / He shouldnt / oughtnt
tohave helped her. (HE DID, BUT THAT WAS A MISTAKE)
STRONG OBLIGATION
You mustphone home at once! (SPEAKERS AUTHORITY) / I have topay my road
tax soon. (EXTERNAL AUTHORITY)
LACK OF OBLIGATION
You neednthurry. (SPEAKERS AUTHORITY) / Tom doesnt have topay his road
tax. (EXTERNAL AUTHORITY)
LACK OF OBLIGATION IN THE PAST
You neednthave watered the flowers, because it is going to rain. (ACTION WAS
PERFORMED) / I didnt have / need totranslate it for him, because he knows the
language. (ACTION NOTPERFORMED)