UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE

COURSE CODE: MEC227
YEAR 2- SE MESTER 2
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
1

AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE MEC.227

CONTENT PAGE

WEEK 1
1.1. Introduction
Prime movers.
1.2. The steam engine
1.3. The electric engine
1.4. Internal combustion engine.
1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of internal combustion engine as compared to the steam
and electric powered vehicles.
1.6. Workshop staff and safety

WEEK 2
2.0. THE FUNDAMENTAL CYCLES OF OPERATION OF PETROL, DIESEL INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
2.1. Features of the 4-stroke spark ignition engine,
2.2. Futures of the 4 stroke diesel engine
2.3. The advantages and disadvantages of Spark Ignition over Compression Ignition
Engines and vise- visa

2.4 Features of the day type two stroke engines: (i) piston (ii) three
ports (iii) con-rod

(iv) Crankshaft (v) Crank-case and (vi) Spark plug.

2.5. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the 2- stroke spark ignition to the 2stroke compression ignition.
WEEK 3

3,0 THE COMPONENT PART OF AN ATOMOBILE ENGINE

3.1 Definition of terms.

3.1.1.The component parts of an internal combustion engine
3.2 The main functions of the petrol fuel system components

3.3 The main functions of the diesel fuel system components.

WEEK4.0. ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

4.0.1. Introduction
4.1 Air cooling system
4.2. Water cooling system.

WEEK 5

5.0 LUBRICATION SYSTEM

5.1 Engine Lubricating components and their functions.
5. 2. Engine oil Filtration Methods (Bypass or partial flow and Full flow)
5.3. Engine Lubrication methods
5.4. Common lubricants and their uses

WEEK 6
6.0 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
6.1 Introduction
6.2. Major automobile electrical components.

6.3 The purpose of the battery.

6.4 Constructional details of the alkaline and lead acid batteries.

6.5. Charging and discharging processes of the two types of battery.

6.6. Functions of the alternator/ alternator.
6.7. Simple starting system.
6.8. Coil Ignition System
6.9. The Main Components of the Ignition System and their functions

WEEK 7
7.0 Internal combustion engine fuels and combustion

7.1 Introduction to Operating principles of simple carburetor.

7.2. Fuel injection system

7.3. Petrol engine Fuel line
7.4 Exhaust system.

WEEK 8
8.0.THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
8.1.
Diagram showing component parts of transmission system.
8.2. The automobile clutches.
8.2.1
4

Types of clutches (Single plate multi spring clutch)

8.2.2. Construction
8.5.3 Operation of Clutch

8.3. THE GEARBOX

8.3.1. Speed and load
8.3.2 The Sliding Mesh Four Speed Gearbox
8.3.3 Construction,
8.3.4 Operation,
WEEK 9
9.0 THE DRIVE LINE (PROPELLER SHAFT)
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4.

Function
The universal joints
The final drive.
Axle shaft arrangement.

WEEK 10
10.0.

THE BODY AND CHASSIS

10.1. Chassis and Vehicle Body

(General Objectives)

10.2. Separate chassis-body types.

10.3. Integral type
10.4. Motor vehicle body structure: sub -frame assemblies.
WEEK 11
11.1. Steering System functions.
11.2. The steering System components
11.3. Types of steering gears
1.4. Steering Geometry
11.5. Illustrations camber and castor angles
5

WEEK 12
12.0. Tires and Wheels
12.1 Functions of Tires .

12.2, Types of Tires

12.3. Tyre valve.

12.4. Tire pressure.

12.5 Tire and rim sizes

WEEK 13
13.0. THE BRAKING SYSTEM
13.1 Braking system and their operating principles.
13.2 The main parts and Function of hydraulic braking system.
13.3 The operation of drum and disc brakes
13.4 The Master Cylinder and the servo.

WEEK 14
14.0. SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
14.1. Purpose
14.2. Components parts of suspension system
14.3. Types of springs
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14.4. Torsion bar

14.5. Air spring
14.6. Shock absorbers

WEEK 15
15.0. Features of the modern automobile electronic fuel ignition (EFI) system
Introduction
15.1 Explain the Electronic fuel injector (EFI) system as it replaces the carburetor
15.2. Description: features of the electronic spark ignition as it replaces the contact-breaker unit.
15.3. Fuel injection and air "flow control
15.4. System identification of fuel injection engine.

WEEK 1
1.0 DESCRIBE THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPARATION OF PRIME MOVERS.
1.1. Introduction
The Prime Movers.
The Microsoft Encarta Dictionary of 2008 describes prime mover as follows:(i) Most important cause of something, or something that initiates a process or activity
which is usually an important factor in its continuation.
(ii) A natural or physical energy source, such as wind, solar or electricity that can be
harnessed to power a machine.
(iii) An energy converter: a machine that converts energy from a natural or physical source in
order to power equipment such as a windmill or turbine.
(iv) Power vehicles, such as steam engine, electric engine and internal combustion engines
1.2. The steam engine
The development (1629) of the steam turbine is credited to the Italian engineer Giovanni Branca,
who directed a steam jet against a turbine wheel, which in turn powered a stamp mill. The first
recorded patent for a gas turbine was obtained in 1791 by the British inventor John Barber.

Fig. 1.1.
Early
locomotive
engine.

1.3.
Locomotive
steam
engine
valves.
Engine No. 44, a Baldwin 2-8-0 steam locomotive engine built in 1921, has two wheels on the
leading truck, eight driving wheels, and no trailing truck. The engine works on the Georgetown
Loop Railroad and formerly ran in Central America. Diesel-electric locomotives began to replace
steam locomotives in the 1930s and 1940s.

Fig. 1.2 Locomotive steam engine valves

(1.3) Electric Engine

Fig. 1.3 Electrically driven motor vehicle

Electric Car, automobile propelled by one or more electric motors, drawing power from an
onboard source of electricity. Electric cars are mechanically simpler and more durable than
gasoline-powered cars. They produce less pollution than do gasoline-powered cars.
(1.4) Internal combustion Engine
The internal combustion engine is a prime mover that uses liquid fuel as its source of energy
to cause continuous rotation of a crankshaft. Other types of prime movers are electric
powered and steam engines.

Fig.1.4. Internal combustion engine: indicating engine parts.

1.5. Advantages and disadvantages of internal combustion engine as compared to the steam
and electric powered vehicles.
When these three prime movers are compared to each other the following advantages and
disadvantages are derived.
Table 1.1
S/N

Steam engine

Electric powered

Internal combustion

Cheaper source of energy

No harmful combustion

Fuel burn at control level

product
2

Do not require special sealing

Less initial cost.

Easier control of engine speeds

Good for stationary energy supply

Quitter in operation

Allow for portable engine

design

Easier adoptability to chassis

and drive arrangements

Higher thermal efficiency

ADVANTEGES DERIVED FROM THE THREE PRIME MOVERS AS COMPARED TO EACH OTHER.

Table 1.2
S/N

Steam engine

Electric power

Internal combustion

Bulkiness

Source of energy not quite

Emits carbon monoxide (CO)

reliable

when engine becomes weak.

Constant check on battery

Effective cooling required.

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Engine rev/min. not easily

controlled
3

Noisier in operation

Not suitable for commercial

Leakage of gas , water or

transport e.g. long distant travels

engine oil can lead to engine

to country sides

failure

Higher cost of maintenance re

Requires good precession

DISADVANTAGES DERIVED FROM THE THREE PRIME MOVERS AS COMPARED TO EACH

OTHER.

1.6. Workshop staff and safety

Workshop engineer.

An engineer is a planner, initiator, or supervisor of something, especially

something that is achieved with ingenuity or secretiveness. The automobile
workshop engineer conduct planning and initiate activities in the shop. The
technologist and mechanics carry s out the engineers initiative

A number of accidents occur in workshops on daily basis. These accidents can be

avoided, by following safety rules and regulations in work locations. The workshop
engineer could avert accidents by being alert and conscious of what is happening in the
workshop environment. Below are some points to be considered and be observed by staff
and other users of the automatable engineering workshop:
A tidy workshop can help in reducing a number of accidents.
Tools, components, equipment, and materials must be kept in the appropriate
locations by the technologist in the shop.
Always keep the workshop floor clean and free of grease or oil, and as temporary
measure cover the slippery floor with sawdust.

Basic Points
The basic points of safety in the work shop are easy to understand
a) Learn the safe way of doing each task.
b) If you do not understand - ask for explanation
c) If you are not taught - ask for instruction
d) Use the safe method against careless actions by yourself or others
e) Practice good housekeeping at all times.
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f) Co-operate promptly in the event of an accident or fire.

g) Report all accidents to an instructor.
h) Draw your instructor's attention to any potential hazard

WEEK 2
2.0. THE FUNDAMENTAL CYCLES OF OPERATION OF PETROL, DIESEL INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
Upon completion of this study the students should be able to:i.
Know the features of the 4 stroke petrol engine and describe its cycles of operation.
ii.
Know the features of the 4 stroke diesel engine and describe its cycle of operation
iii. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the spark ignition and the compression
ignition engines.
iv.
Know the features of the 2-stroke petrol engine and describe its cycle of operation.
v.
Know the features of the 2-stroke diesel engine and describe its cycle of operation.
vi.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the 2-stroke spark ignition to compression
ignition engines.
2.1. Features of the 4-stroke spark ignition engine,
Main Components of 4 stroke Internal Combustion Engine (Petrol Engine).

.
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Figure (2.1) shows-an outline of the engine main components

INDUCTION

COMRESSION

POWER

EXHAUST

Fig. 2.2, The four stroke cycle principles of operation for spark ignition
engine

2.2. Futures of the 4 stroke diesel engine

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Fig. 2.3. Compression Ignition Engine circle of operation (Otto cycle)

2.3. The advantages and disadvantages of Spark Ignition over Compression Ignition
Engines and vise- visa
Disadvantages SIE over CIE
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Disadvantages CIE over SIE

1 Higher risk of fire accident

1 Requires starting aids e.g. heater plugs.
2 Higher cost of maintenance as engine service 2 Produces large volume of smoke with
interval is more frequent.
foul odors in some cases prevents clear
visibility of other road udders.
3 Complications in ignition systems
4 In- ability to start the engine without battery 3 Increased weight of parts due to highpressure requirements.
Table 1
Advantages of SIE over CIE
Advantages of CIE over SIE
1 Easier to start in cold conditions
1 Reduced risk of fire accident due to low volatility
2 Quieter in operation.

2 of diesel fuel.

3 Lighter in weight and less initial

3 Long intervals between overhauling and services.

4 cost.

4 Reduced cost of maintenance

Reduced volume in exhaust

5 Less harmful effect of exhaust products.

product emission

6 Engine could run without battery.

More economical as compared to a similar size
7 due to high compression ratio.
8 Higher thermal efficiency.
9 Greater volumetric efficiency
Injection equipments are more reliable and stable
than the electrical ignition system.

Table 2. 2 showing advantages and disadvantages.

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2.4 Features of the day type two stroke engines: (i) piston (ii) three
ports (iii) con-rod
(iv) Crankshaft (v) Crank-case and (vi) Spark plug.

Fig. 2.4. The two stroke cycle: principles of operation

The two stroke engine has no valves but has three ports. The ports are inlet, transfer and the
exhaust. The flow of gas through these ports is controlled by the position. When the piston is at
bdc its skirt closes the inlet port. The piston travels up the bore (see diagram) as it reaches tdc. It
opens the inlet port but closes the transfer and exhaust ports, at the same time compresses the gas
in the combustion chamber. At top dead centre (tdc) the spark plug ignites the mixture of petrol

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and air, burning takes place and expansion occurs, piston moves down the bore on power stroke

Fig. 2.5. The two stroke diesel fueled engine.

2.5. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the 2- stroke spark ignition to the 2stroke compression ignition.
(i) Advantages of two stroke compression ignition engine over the two stroke spark
ignition engine:

The two stroke CIE do not have to compress the charge in the crank case and
discharge through the transfer port to the combustion chamber as occurs with
the petrol engine, instead, a blower is used to force air into the culinders, to
scavenge the spent gasses and replace them with a fresh charge through the
induction poppet valve. Fresh charge can not escape along with the burnt
gasses.

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Unlike the two-stroke petrol engine, the fuel is mot assed to the air until both
inlet and exhaust ports are close, therefore one of the drawbacks of two
strokes engines, of fuel waste is overcome.

Forced induction promotes smoother slow running and a reduction in the
combustion delay period.

Volumetric efficiency is improved which gives a higher power to weight ratio.
(ii) Advantages and disadvantages of two-strokes cycle over the 4 strokes engine.
Advantage:
An important advantage of the two-stroke cycle engine is that it needs approximately
only half the cylinder capacity of the four stroke engine to produce equivalent power
for the same number of revolutions of the crankshaft. This result in a smaller lighter
power unit, capable of developing smooth torque with low bearing loads
Disadvantage
A serious disadvantage of the two-stroke, spark- ignition engine is that it has a low
thermal efficiency. This is due to (a) incomplete scavenging of the exhaust gases and
(b) Un-burnt mixture passing out of the combustion chamber with the exhaust gases

WEEK 3
Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson the students should be able to: List, describe and explain the function of automobile engine component parts
Define some automotive engineering terms.
3,0 THE COMPONENT PART OF AN ATOMOBILE ENGINE.
3.1 Definition of terms.
Top or bottom dead centre: the maximum a piston travels to the top or bottom of the
cylinder
Piston stroke : this is the measure of distance moved by the piston from top of the
cylinder to the bottom or from the bottom to top.
Piston displacement: this is the movement of piston from one point to the other
Cylinder bore. The hole that accommodate the piston in the engine

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Swept volume: this is the space created by the movement of the piston as it moves from
tdc to bdc.
Mean effective pressure: the average net pressure which, acting on the piston over the
full length of its stoke, does the same amount of work as is actually obtained during a
complete engine cycle.
Engine torque: this is the turning moment on the crankshaft. When the piston moves
down in power stroke, it transmits torque to the engine crankshaft. The harder the push
on the piston the greater the torque applied. Thus the higher the combustion pressure, the
greater amount of torque.

Fig. 3.1. explaining the compression ratio of an engine.

19

Engine compression ratio: engine compression ratio is the measure of the amount of the
mixture as compared to the volume of the cylinder bore when the piston is at b.d.c. and
when it has risen to t.d.c.
Indicated brake power: this is known as the actual power developed in the cylinder of an
engine
Brake power: this is the useful power available at the crankshaft of the engine . it is
measured by running the engine against some form of absorption brake (dynamometer)

3.1.1.The component parts of an internal combustion engine

20

Fig.3.2 showing exploded view of an internal combustion engine

3.2 The main functions of the petrol fuel system components .
21

Fig.3.3. this showing petrol fuel supply system parts.

22

Fig 3.4a shows Engine- driven mechanical fuel pump fuel system.
Fig. 3.4b shows Electric pump-feed fuel system
3.3 The main functions of the diesel fuel system components.
The component parts of the diesel fuel system shown below are:i.
Tank, which is used for containing diesel fuel for the vehicle use.
ii.
Fuel pipe and lift pump for lifting fuel from the tank .
iii. Fuel filter: for removing particles from the diesel oil.
iv.
Injection pump: this increases fuel pressure to the injector nozzles.
v.
Injector nozzles: they allow for the introduction of fuel at high pressure to the
combustion chamber.

Fig.3.5. Distributor type fuel injection system

Fig. 3.6. In-line type of fuel injection system, showing list of component parts

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WEEK 4

4.0. ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this study the students should be able to:i.

Describe the operation and identify the component parts of air cooling system

ii.

Describe the operation and identify the component parts of pressurized cooling system

iii.

Draw the flow diagram of pressurized air cooling systems.

Introduction
In any moving equipment, power machine or running engines heat is generated because
of:
Friction,
Power load,
Burning of fuel.
Therefore some form of cooling must be provided to take the heat away, this is necessary
to forestall excessive heat accumulation that leads to over heating, in which to following
could occur.

i. Seizure of working parts due to heat expansion,

ii. Excessive wear - the lubricant oil would be burnt
iv.

Pre-ignition in combustion chamber.

4.1 Air cooling system

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Most motor - cycle engines compressors, are air cooled. The principle is to increase the
area of the hot surface exposed to the flow of cool air. This method of cooling is cheap,
lightweight and is not subject to troubles such as leakage and freezing problems.
Air flow is to be natural or be forced by a fan through ducted passages and over the
finned surfaces (fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1) Air cooling system

4.2. Water cooling system.

(i) Thermosyphon

25

Fig. 4. 2 Thermosyphon cooling system

(ii) Impeller assisted pressurized cooling method.

26

Fig. 4. 3 Pressurized impeller cooling diagram with thermostat and direction of flow.

Fig. 4.4. Radiator pressure cap

(ii) Water pump: This is a small centrifugal pump driven by a belt at the front of the
crankshaft.
(Fig. 4.8).

27

Fig (4.8) Impeller type water pump

28

Fig. 4.9 Water cooled engine thermostat positions in the engine

(iii) Pressurized sealed system.

Toping up of water in pressurized sealed cooling system is only occasionally necessary as
water get exhausted. Rugged pipes and expansion tanks are provided, such that excess water

29

as a result of increased in its temperature is contained in the reservoir an later used for
replenishment when system cools down.

Fig. 4.10 Pressurized sealed cooling system arrangement

WEEK 5
5.0 LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Objectives
Upon completion of this study the students should be able to:i.
Identify and state functions of lubricating components
ii.
Use line diagram to explain the operation of the full flow and bypass oil filtration.
iii.
State common lubricants and their uses.

5.1 Engine Lubricating components and their functions.

Introduction
30

Examination of two metallic components in a machine that has rubbed together for a period of
time, shows that.
(i). Heat is generated - this indicates that a part of energy has been used in overcoming friction.
(ii). Wear or scoring has occurred due to the high spots on the two surfaces.
The extent of these effects is governed by the friction so if energy losses are to be kept to a
minimum, friction should be reduced. Friction may exist in dry or wet. One way to reduce
friction is to lubricate the surfaces.

(iii) Components of the Lubrication System

A good example of a pressurized lubrication system is the lubrication of internal combustion
engine; see diagram for pressurized lubricating system in (fig. 5.1 )

Fig. 5.1. shows oil lubricating parts and oil circulation format.
1) Oil in sump
2) Oil pump
3) Gear sprocket the drive the oil pump.
4) Dip stick
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1- Oil pump:
Internal combustion engine oil pumps are usually driven by the camshaft; the pump forces oil
from the sump to the main oil gallery.
a) Rotor Type:
It is a pump of displacement type fig. (6.8a) with an internal and
external toothed rotors. The inner rotor, has one tooth fewer than
the outer rotor, as the rotor revolves the cavities on the section side
becomes larger. So that the pump draws in oil. On the discharge
side, the cavities become smaller, so that oil forces into the
discharge line, and to oil gallery.
Fig. (5.2a) rotor type oil pump
b) Gear-Type:
It conveys the oil from one half of the pump to the other in the gaps
between the individual gear teeth and the inner wall of the pump.
The gears mesh together to prevent the oil from flowing back. Fig
(5.2b)

Fig. (5.2b) Gear type oil pump

2- Relief Valve
To prevent excessive pressure in the lubricating system, a relief valve opens to release part of the
oil when pressure goes too high (Fig 5.3)

Fig. (5.3) Relief valve operation

3- Oil Filter

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The filter removes solid particles generated due to parts wear deposited in the oil. There is a
bypass relief valve that opens, to allow unfiltered oil to go directly to the engine when the filter
becomes clogged. However the filter is not likely to become clogged if it is replaced regularly
(Fig.5.4)

Fig. (5.4) Oil filter type

4- Oil Galleries
These are oil holes drilled in the cylinder block to carry
oil from the pump to the main bearings fig. (5.5).

Fig. (5.5)

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Fig. 5.6 Internal combustion Engine lubricating block diagram.

Network of drillings called oil galleries is used to transport oil from the sump to the bearings an
the rocker shaft for lubrication.
5- Oil Coolers
Some engine lubricating systems include an oil
cooler to take the excessive heat of the oil. One
type is a small radiator mounted on the side of the
engine block; Fig. (4.14).

Fig. (5.7) oil cooler

6- Oil-level Indicator

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Fig. (5.8) Dipstick

A dipstick is used to measure the level of the oil in the oil pan fig. (5.8).Some engines now' have
a low - oil level indicator light.
5. 2. Engine oil Filtration Methods (Bypass or partial flow and Full flow)
With the partial-flow system (fig. 5.9a) approximately 10% of the total oil delivery passes
through the filter and returns to the sump, while the remainder circulates through the engine
bearings and before it reaches the moving parts . The rate of oil flow through the filter is
comparatively slow, and a very fine filtering medium can be employed so that its efficiency is
high. If a by-pass filter becomes choked, the lubricating oil will no longer be filtered.
Full flow system as shown in (figure 5.9b) is more efficient, it ensures complete and immediate
protection from any foreign matter in the oil. The filter is located in the main oil-supply and
takes the full delivery of oil from the pump before it reaches the moving parts of the engine.
The full-flow filter is fitted with a relief valve to ensure that oil is supplied to the engine when
the filters become chocked.

Fig. 5.9a. Partial flow. Fig.5.9b. Full flow.

5.3. Engine Lubrication methods
1. Boundary Lubrication: this is only a thin film of lubricant, a few molecules in thickness,
which prevents metal to metal contact, with certain parts, the film breaks down, and the surfaces
make occasional contact. Parts such as piston rings and valve trains are subjected to occasional
failure of the oil film, and the properties of oiliness, film strength or load-carrying ability.

35

2. Full fluid film (pressurized) lubrication: full

fluid film lubrication builds up quickly to protect
rotating parts, such as crankshaft and bearing. This is
most frequently used. The system has a pump that
draws the oil from the sump usually through a mesh
strainer, and forces it at high pressure through the oil
lines after passing through a filter in most cases. As
Fig. (5.9) shows.

Fig. 5.10

3. Splash lubrication: When crankshaft and its masses hits the engine during rotation, oil is
splashed to the interior of the engine. This method is used to lubricate parts which do not
require pressure lubrication but just small quantity. Parts such as piston rings and bore requires
just small amount of oil for its lubrication.

In this type some machines components are provided

with small scoops or discs (Fig. 5.11). Which dip
into the oil sump, and scatter the oil throughout the
casing.

Fig.(5.11) Oil
scoop arrangement in
big-end assembly
4. Mix lubrication: this type of lubrication is commonly applied on motor bike and two stroke
engines, where engine oil is mixed with the petrol in the tank.

5.4. Common lubricants and their uses

The common lubricants used on motor vehicle are:i. Engine oil: used for engine lubrication
ii. Gear oil: this is also known as extreme pressure oil, and it is used for lubricating gears in
the gearbox or final drive arrangements.
36

iii.

Grease: grease is for the lubrication of bearings and gears.

WEEK 6
6.0. Know the minor and major electrical components of a vehicle and describe
their functions.
Objectives :Upon completion of this lesson the students should be able to: List the major electrical components of a vehicle
Explain purpose of the battery.
Explain the constructional details of the lead-acid battery
Explain the constructional details of the alkaline battery
Describe the charging and discharging processes of the two types of battery
State the functions of the alternator
Describe a simple starting system.
Draw the component parts of the coil ignition system.
Identify the main components of the coil ignition system.
6.1 Introduction
Electricity and electronics play a vital role in the safe and reliable operation of modern
automotive vehicles. Demand range from a simple door switch and courtesy lamp to an engine
electrical system so complex that a. it logically follows that anyone who expects to successfully
maintain, troubleshoot, and repair todays vehicles must have a through knowledge of the
fundamentals of electricity and electronic.
6.2. Major automobile electrical components.

The simple diagram ( fig. 6.1) shows how the main items of the electrical
equipment are connected. It can be seen that the electrical system can be broadly
divided into three parts.
(i) Generator.
(ii) Storage battery
37

(iii)

Distribution.

Fig. 6.1. Layout of main electrical components.

6.3 The purpose of the battery.
The lead acid battery used on motor vehicle stores electrical energy in the form of chemical
energy to start the engine and for other purposes. When the ignition switch is turned on, the
battery sends current to the starter motor that turns the engines crankshaft. Turning the
crankshaft moves pistons inside the cylinders, compressing fuel vapor for combustion. While the
engine is running, an alternator (electric generator) recharges the battery and supplies power to
other electrical components
6.4. The constructional details of alkaline and the Lead acid batteries.
The lead acid battery is made up of a number of positive and negative plates, sandwiched
together and separated by a corrosion resistant papers, called separators. The unit is refered to
as cell and are immersed in a solution of hydrolyte contained in a re-enforce corrosion resistant
container. The cells are then connected in series and a negative and positive terminals are
produce each, at the upper part of the battery casing.

38

6.2. The constructional details of the lead-acid battery

Constructional details of the alkaline battery
Batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy. In storage batteries, two metal rods,
called electrodes, are connected by a circuit and immersed in a liquid, called an electrolyte. The
rods chemically react with the electrolyte to produce a flow of electrons through the circuit. The
storage batteries of the time were called lead-acid batteries because they had electrodes made of
lead and lead dioxide and an electrolyte made of acid. They were heavy, bulky, difficult to
recharge, and susceptible to rapid corrosion. To reduce corrosion, Edison decided to use an
alkaline solution instead of acid for the electrolyte in his battery. Finding a suitable electrode,
however, proved difficult. Edison finally decided on a combination of nickel flake and nickel
hydrate for the positive electrode and pure iron for the negative electrode. He used an electrolyte
of potassium hydroxide with a small amount of lithium hydroxide

Fig.6.3. Chloralkali Electrolysis

Chloralkali electrolysis is a technique for the industrial production of chlorine and the alkali
known as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) from brine, a solution of common table salt (sodium
chloride) in water. Three processes are in use: the diaphragm-cell process, the membrane-cell
process, and the mercury-cell process. In the diaphragm-cell process, a porous diaphragm divides
the electrolytic cell, which contains brine, into an anode compartment and a cathode
compartment. When an electric current passes through the brine, the salts chlorine ions and
sodium ions move to the electrodes. Chlorine gas is produced at the anode, and sodium ions at
the cathode react with the water, forming caustic soda. Some salt remains in the solution with the
caustic soda and can be removed at a later stage. In the membrane-cell process, the
compartments are separated by a membrane rather than a diaphragm. Brine is pumped into the
anode compartment, and only sodium ions pass into the cathode compartment, which contains
pure water. Thus, the caustic soda produced has very little salt contamination. In the mercury39

cell process, mercury, which flows along the bottom of the electrolytic cell, serves as the
cathode. When an electric current passes through the brine, chlorine is produced at the anode and
sodium dissolves in the mercury, forming an amalgam of sodium and mercury. The amalgam is
then poured into a separate vessel, where it decomposes into sodium and mercury. The sodium
reacts with water in the vessel, producing the purest caustic soda, while the mercury returns to
the electrolytic cell.

6.5. Charging and discharging processes of the two types of battery.

Battery charging methods vary, based on several considerations
(i) Electrical capacity of battery being serviced
(ii) Temperature of the electrolyte.
(iii)Battery state of charge.
(iv) Batter age and condition.
Battery charging methods include high or fast and slow or trickling charging. Fast rate charging
provides high charging rate for a short time and should be limited to 60 amperes for
12v batteries. Battery may be discharged when charging system becomes faulty or constant
operation of the starter for too long a time, probably because of engine fault.

6.6. Functions of the alternator.

The automotive generator or alternator is an electromagnetic device that converts
the mechanical energy supplied by the engine into electrical energy. In operation,
the generator or alternator maintains the storage battery in fully charged condition
and supplies electrical power for the ignition system and accessory equipment.

Fig. 6.4 Alternator charging system circuit

6.7. Simple starting system.

40

The automotive starting motor (fig. 7.5 ) Is an electromagnetic device that comverts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. It is designed specifically for cranking internal combustion
engines at speeds which will permit starting.

Fig. 6.5.

6.8. Coil Ignition System

(i) Ignition System is the arrangement put together to provides the high quality spark needed to
ignite fuel in a gasoline internal-combustion engine. The ignition system produces, distributes,
and regulates electric sparking that ignites fuel vapor in the combustion chambers.

Fig. 6.6 Spark ignition circuit.

41

(ii)Types of Ignition Systems

Electric sparking is the most popular ignition system used in modern gasoline engines, but the
manner of producing and regulating the spark has changed with new technology. Computers
control the ignition systems in modern automobiles, although many older vehicles still rely on
mechanically operated and controlled ignition systems. Two broad categories of ignition systems
are defined by whether or not a battery is used to store electricity for starting the engine. Most
automobile engines have battery-powered ignition systems. Ignition systems without batteries
rely on a generator called a magneto.

The purpose of the ignition system is to ignite the mixture of air and petrol at the correct
timing

Fig. (6.7) ignition system of petrol engine

6.9. The Main Components of the Ignition System and their functions
1- Battery: Battery is used on motor vehicle stores electrical energy in the form of chemical
energy to start the engine and for other purposes. When the ignition switch is turned on, the
battery sends current to the starter motor that turns the engines crankshaft. Turning the
crankshaft moves pistons inside the cylinders, compressing fuel vapor for combustion. While the
engine is running, an alternator (electric generator) recharges the battery and supplies power to
other electrical components.
42

2- Ignition Switch: It allows current to flow from the battery to the coil, it also operates
the starter motor.
3- Distributor: The distributor routes high-voltage pulses to individual cylinders in the correct
sequence and with precise timing. It also houses a mechanical switching system involving
breaker points, that open to interrupt the flow of electric current. A rotating shaft in the
distributor moves the pivot arm, causing the two metal points to contact each other and then
move apart. When the points touch each other, low-voltage current flows through them to a
transformer called the coil. When the points separate, they break the low-voltage circuit to the
coil. In an eight-cylinder engine running at 3000 revolutions per minute (rpm), the breaker points
open and close about 200 times per second. Inside the coil interruptions in the low-voltage circuit
(12 volts, normally) create pulses of 20,000 volts or more.

4- Contact breaker point ( CB ): A mechanically operated device, which breaks the low
tension circuit when the spark is required
5- Condenser or Capacitor: is a device that temporarily stores electric charge. In the ignition
system a capacitor helps produce a sharply defined cutoff of current when the breaker points
open. The capacitor also absorbs the surge of high-voltage electricity as it moves from the coil to
the points. In so doing the capacitor minimizes arcing across the breaker points when they open,
greatly increasing their service life.

6- Spark plug: is made of a material that conducts electricity encased in a ceramic body. Its
threaded base screws into the top of an engine cylinder. Two electrodes on the base of the spark
plug project into the combustion chamber. High-voltage current passes from the top of the spark
plug to electrodes on its base. The current then arcs, or jumps the gap, between the electrodes,
igniting fuel vapor in the combustion chamber.

7- High tension wires: these special wires, connects the distributor to spark with Plug
8. Ignition Coil. When the breaker points opens, the low-voltage current stops and the magnetic
field collapses, inducing a high-voltage surge in the secondary winding.
A wire conductor carries the pulses from the coil to the distributor, which routes them through
other wires to individual spark plugs. .

43

WEEK 7
AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE MEC. 227
7.0 Internal combustion engine fuels and combustion
Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson the students should be able to:i.
. Describe operating principles of a simple carburetor
ii.
List main parts of the fuel injection system
iii. Describe the operating principles of fuel injection engine
iv.
Draw the lay out of petrol fuel line
v.
Identify exhaust system and state its functions
7.1 Introduction:

Operating principles of simple carburetor

Carburetor, is a device that mixes fuel and air for burning in an internal-combustion engine. A
carburetor atomizes (converts into a vapor of tiny droplets) liquid gasoline. An airflow carries
the atomized gasoline to the engines cylinders, where the gas is ignited.

44

Fig. 7.1 Simple carburetor showing its parts

Fig. 7.2 Simple carburetor showing exaggerated venturi.

The basic carburetor is built around a hollow tube called a throat, or barrel. Downward motion of
the engines pistons creates a partial vacuum inside the cylinders that draws air into the
carburetors throat and past a nozzle that sprays fuel. The mixture of air and fuel produced inside
the carburetor is delivered to the cylinders for combustion.

7.2. Fuel injection system

(i) Electronic Ignition
Electronic ignition systems use semiconductors and other solid-state electronic components to
switch current flows on and off in the coil, eliminating the need for breaker points. Automobile
manufacturers began installing electronic ignition systems in the 1970s and 1980s in an effort to
produce cleaner, more efficient engines.
(ii) Computer Electronic Ignition is a devices that detect the position of the crankshaft and
trigger electrical impulses at the correct moments. Some systems integrate ignition coils,
mounted either above each spark plug or to the side of the engine, that produce 40,000 volts or
more. The higher voltage produces a hotter spark with cleaner burning, longer plug life, and
improved fuel economy. Computers monitor and control the entire ignition process, adjusting
ignition timing and fuel delivery for the specific driving conditions, vehicle speed, and strain on
the engine.

45

Fig.7.3. Fuel electronic injection system

1. Ignition key 2. Security control 3.swetch 4.switch body 5. Relay
Unit
7. Plug 8.Injector nozzle. 9.Pump

6. Electroinc Control

This system operates on ectromechanical principles in that injection pump and nozzles are
used in conjuction with the distributor and the plugs. This ignition system in more reliable as
compared to the two known traditional mean of providing fuel and its ignition in the
combustion chambet.

46

7.4 Fuel injection system main parts

The fuel-injection system replaces the carburetor in most new vehicles to provide a more
efficient fuel delivery system. Electronic sensors respond to varying engine speeds and
driving conditions by changing the ratio of fuel to air. The sensors send a fine mist of fuel
from the supply through a fuel-injection nozzle into a combustion chamber, where it is mixed
with air. The mixture of fuel and air triggers ignition.
(iii) Fuel injection principles of operation
In

fuel injection system, the air is directed into the combustion chamber, through the intake

manifold with uniform volume and velocity. The fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber or at intake valve under calibrated pressure. This process ensures precise fuel control
for all conditions of operation, which allow for better handling of leaner mixtures than can be
found in conventional carburetor.
Another feature of fuel injection, is its ability to ram air into the combustion chambers of the
engine.

47

1. Injector nozzle 2. Piston 3. Vaporized atomized fuel

Fig 7.5 Fuel injection system, showing two methods of injecting fuel into combustion chamber.

7.3. Petrol engine Fuel line

The main purpose of fuel system is, to supply fuel to the engine cylinders in a vaporized
form, to ease combustion. Fig. (3.4) shows a simple fuel system used in the motor
vehicles.
Fuel system main components and other purpose are briefly described as follows:
1- Fuel tank: to store fuel
2- Fuel pump: to draw fuel from fuel tank to the carburetor.
3- Fuel filter: to filter the fuel from small foreign particles
4- Carburetor: to meter and mix the fuel at correct air-fuel ratio and to atomize the fuel
into fine particles so as to burn it quickly.
5- Fuel lines (pipes and hoses): to connect components together.

48

Fig. (7.6) fuel injection system components

7.4 Exhaust system.
Each exhaust stroke emits a sound wave composed of higher and lower frequencies of
compression vibration. These frequencies of combustion vibration can be damped down by
passing the gases through an absorption type of silencer in which a perforated steel tube in
surrounded by glass or wire wool. The gases pass through the tube in an unobstructed flow,
while the high frequency sound waves pass through the tube in an unobstructed flow, while the
high frequency sound waves pass through the perforations to be damped down by the wool.
Exhaust system consists of a steel drop pipe connected to the manifold.

49

Fig 7. 7 A silencer muffler showing the internal components..

WEEK 8
8.0.THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
General Objectives:
1. Know the general arrangements and layout of the various types of transmission
system.
2. Understand the constructional details and operations of friction clutches used in
road vehicles.
3. Understand the constructional details and operations of manually-operated gearboxes.
4. Know the components, and describe the constructional details and operation of the
propeller and drive shafts.
Understand the methods of bearing mountings, adjustment and lubrication requirements
of final drive.

8.1. Diagram showing component parts of Transmission system.

Fig. 8.1. Power transmission path

50

5.

8.2 The automobile clutch

The main function of the clutch is to interrupt the transmission of crankshaft torque to the
gearbox. Different trains of gears, providing different combinations of speed and toque,
must be used to suit different driving and load conditions but it is almost impossible to
engage, or release gears when they are transmitted torque. It is also practically impossible
to engage a rotating gear, under torque, with a stationary or slower running gear and it
certainly cannot be done without damage.
The clutch is also designed to absorb the shock of engaging two shafts running at different
speeds, and to absorb small torque irregularities.

Fig.8. 2. Clutch hydraulic system

51

8.2.1 Types of clutches

The most widely used form of clutch is the friction type. This may be:
(a)
The cone clutch, which is now only used in the synchromesh units of gearboxes, and
in overdrives and some epicyclic gearboxes;
(b)
The single-plate clutch (multi spring or diaphragm spring) which is used in most
cars and small commercial vehicles.
(c)
The multi-plate clutch, which is, used in motorcycles and in some racing cars and
tractor, and also in special types of very heavy commercial and civil engineering
vehicles.
The single and multi-plate friction clutches are usually dry types but some wet types are
still in use. In these cork-insert or phosphor-bronze plates are fitted between steel plates, all
the plates being immersed in oil.
Other forms of clutch are coming into wider use and generally form a part of the preselector, two pedal, or fully automatic transmission systems. These are the centrifugal and
magnetic clutches, the fluid flywheel, and the hydraulic torque converter.
8.2.2

52

Single plate multi spring clutch

Construction

Clutch

Bearin
Splined

Input
shaft

Fig. 8.3. Single plate clutch

The single-plate clutch consists of a centre plate which is clamped between two other plates.
These two outer plates are driven by the engine crankshaft, and in turn drive the centre
plate which is mounted upon the splined gearbox input shaft. The rear face of the flywheel
is used as one driving plate and the second, or pressure, plate is mounted inside the clutch
body which is bolted to the flywheel. The pressure plate is forced towards the flywheel by a
set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body. Three levers, or fingers,
are carried on pivots suspended from the case of the body, and are so arranged as to be
able to pries the pressure plate away from the flywheel by the inward movement of a
carbon or ball thrust-release bearing. The bearing is mounted upon a forked shaft and is
moved forward by the depression of the clutch pedal. The connection between the pedal
and the shaft may be made by means of rods, cables, chain, or by a hydraulic system.
8.2.3 Operation of the single plate Clutch
Basically, the clutch consists of three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disk,
and a pressure plate. When the engine is running, the flywheel is rotating. The pressure
plate is attached to the flywheel so the pressure plate also rotates. The friction disk is
located between the two. When the clutch is released, the driver has pushed down on the
clutch pedal. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disk.
There are now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disk, and between the friction
disk and the pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.

53

When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the clutch. Springs in
the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disk. This action clamps the friction
disk tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now, the pressure plate and
friction disk rotate with the flywheel. The friction disk is assembled on a splined shaft that
carries the rotary motion to the transmission. This shaft is called the Clutch shaft, or
transmission input shaft


Fig.8. 4

54

It is located between the engine

THE GEARBOX
8.3.1. Speed and load
The petrol engine can only operate efficiently within a limited range of engine speeds,
usually between 2000 and 4000 crankshaft revolutions per minute. The power produced by
the engine is available at the crankshaft as a combination of speed and torque. This power
will be capable of propelling the vehicle against a certain maximum load or resistance; any
load in excess of this maximum will result in slowing down the engine. It will, therefore,
produce less and less power until it is brought to a standstill or stalled.
The loads imposed upon the engine will vary with the weight being moved the nature of the
road, i.e. the level, uphill or downhill. The greatest amount of power is required when first
moving the vehicle form rest.

Pinion A
Pinion A

C =F x r

2r

F x 2r = 2C
Pinion B

Pinion B
Fig. 8.5 Speed and loading.

As power is the speed multiplied by the torque (p = S x T) it follows that if the speed is
reduced the torque can be increased. By placing a train of gears between the crankshaft
and the driving road wheels the turning power of the wheels can be increased by reducing
their speed. This enables an engine of a given power output to overcome a greater load
55

but at a lower speed. In practice three or four alternative gear trains are used which give a
choice of speeds and torques to suit all conditions of vehicles speed and engine loading.
A neutral position must be available to allow the running of the engine while the vehicle is
stationary and a reversing gear train must also be available. All the various gear trains and
their selector mechanisms are built into a gearbox which is fitted between the clutch and
the final drive mechanism in the rear axle.

8.3.2 The Sliding Mesh Four Speed Gearbox

Fig.8. 6. Transmission gearbox

In construction and arrangement this gearbox is generally similar to the three speed type
but there are a few important differences. These are:
(1)
The incorporation of an extra gear train makes available an extra series of
intermediate torques, which enables the engine to overcome the loads acting against
it without either being overworked or having to operate at excessive speeds.

56

(2)

The reverse idler gear has two sets of teeth, of different diameter, and is engaged by
being moved bodily along its own shaft i.e. it is not permanently engaged with the
lay shaft.

(3)

The reverse idler gear has its own selector shaft and fork, and the gear lever
has five different positions. The reverse gear selector mechanical is so arranged that
reverse cannot be selected by accident. This is usually accomplished by having to
use extra force, or an unusual lifting or side movement of the gear lever.

8.3.3 Construction,
The input and output shafts lie on the same axis and, although the forward end of the
output shaft is supported in a bush fitted inside the input shaft, there is no direct
connection between them. These shafts are supported and located by ball bearings
mounted in the end walls of the gearbox case.
The lay shaft axis is parallel with the other two shafts and lies under or to one side of them,
the largest lay shaft gear wheel, or pinion, being permanently engaged with the integral
pinion of the input shaft. The lay shaft rotates upon plain bushes or needle-roller bearings
which are supported by a non-rotating shaft. End-float is controlled by phosphor bronze
spacer washers.
The lay shaft has four integral pinions which have spur teeth. The output shaft is splined
and carries splined pinions which provide the third, second and first gear ratios. The
movement of the gear lever, acting through the selector shafts and forks, causes the selected
pinion to slide along the output shaft and be meshed with one of the lay shaft pinion.

8.3.4 Operation, Fig.8.6

First or bottom gear: The selector fork moves the double-output pinion (6 and 8) to the
rear to engage (8) with the rear lay shaft pinion (7). The torque is transmitted through
input (1) to lay shaft pinion (2), then lay shaft pinion (7) to output pinion (8). This ratio
proves the greatest forward speed reduction and torque increase.

Second gear: The selector fork moves the double-output pinion (6) and (8) forward to
engage pinion (6) with the third lay shaft gear (5). The torque is transmitted through input
(1) to lay shaft pinion (2), then lay shaft pinion (5) to output pinion (6). This ratio provides
more speed but less torque increase than that of the first gear.

57

Fig.8. 6

Third gear: The selector fork of the third and top-gear selector shaft moves the output
pinion to the rear to engage with the second lay shaft pinion. The torque is transmitted
through input to lay shaft and from lay shaft to output. This ratio proves more speed but
less torque increase than the first and second gear ratios.
Top gear: The selector fork moves the output forward to engage with input pinion (1) by
means of dogs. The input and output shafts now rotate as one shaft and the output speed
and torque are the same as that of the crankshaft.

N.B:
Note that bottom gear provides the greatest forward speed reduction and the greatest
torque increase. As the other ratios are engaged the output speed is increased while the
output torque is reduced until, when top gear is engaged, the input and output speeds and
torques are the same as those of the crankshaft.

Reverse gear: The output remain in the neutral position, that is between lay shaft and
between lay shaft the reverse selector shaft and fork move the double reverse idler pinion
to engage with lay shaft and output at the same time. The torque is now transmitted
through input to lay shaft and from lay shaft (7) to reverse idler . Then from reverse idler
58

to output. In many gearboxes the reverse ratio provides the greatest reduction in speed and
the greatest increase in torque

WEEK 9
9.0 THE DRIVE- LINE (PROPELLER AND SHAFT)
9.1

Function

The propeller shaft is used to connect the output shaft of the gearbox to the pinion shaft of
the final drive mechanism in the rear axle. As the suspension system operates, the rear axle
rises and falls continuously. It also moves backwards and forwards as it rises and falls in an
arc, having as its centre the forward shackle pin of the rear spring. In addition, the pinion
nose itself is forced upward when the engine torque is applied to the pinion, and is forced
down when the brakes are applied. The propeller shaft must be so designed as to transmit
the torque from the gearbox to the final drive smoothly and continuously in spite of all
these different movements.

Arrangement
The propeller shaft is a tubular steel unit with a Hook joint at each end. The joints consists
of two U-shaped steel forgings or yokes which are connected at 90o to each other by a
four-legged cross or spider. Needle roller or rubber bearings may be used to support the
spider legs in the forgings. These U-joints, or universal joints, allow the smooth
transmission of torque even though the gearbox and pinion shafts are never in exact
alignment.

59

Fig.9.1 The main types of propeller shaft.

9.2. UNIVERSAL JOINT

These are used to connect two shafts when their centre lines intersect.

Fig. 9.2 The universal joint (yoke)

Types of universal joints

The three main types of universal joint used in vehicle construction are:
(1)
The cross type such as the Hardy-Spicer
(2)
The ring type such as the Lay rub
(3)
The constant velocity types such as the Tracta and the Rzeppa joints.

60

THE FINAL DRIVE

9.3.

This is generally referred to as the differential but includes the crown wheel and pinion or
gear assembly having the same functions.

Functions
The crown wheel and pinion assembly is used
a) To change the direction of the drive through a right angle, and
b) To increase the available torque by reducing the speed [power =torque times speed].
The ratios used in cars are about 4; 1 while those of commercial vehicles may be as high
as 10; 1.
The differential is a second gear assembly which is bolted to the side of the crown
wheel, or inside a worm-wheel and which rotates with it.
This unit allows the half-shafts to rotate at different speeds but under the same torque,
and only comes into operation when the vehicle is cornering. Its function or purpose is
to reduce the tendency for the tires to be dragged sideways instead of rolling around the
curved path. It also reduces the stresses imposed upon the shafts and bearings and
reduces tire wear. Skidding is also much less liable to occur.

61

Fig 9.3 The deferential units

Construction
Crown wheel and pinion
These are hardened and tempered steel bevel gears which are arranged with their axes at
right angles. The larger is the crown wheel and this carries the differential assembly. The
pinion is the smaller and is integral with a short shaft to which is bolted the propeller shaft.
The complete final drive gear assembly is mounted in a strong steel casting which is bolted
into the rear axle case. A tubular part of the casting, called the pinion nose, supports the
pinion and its integral shaft either in double thrust ball bearings or in opposed taper- roller
bearings. Some designs may use a plain roller bearing at the inner end of the pinion. The
differential case is formed into two arms which carry the bearings used to support and
locate the crown wheel. These bearings may be both ball or tapper-roller types and their
thrust directions are opposed. Provision is made to adjust the meshing of the gears either
by screwed sleeves, shims, or by pre-loading jigs and shims.

62

Figure 9.4. Rear wheel and front wheel drives

9.8.

Differential, Fig

This consists of a case [which may be in two parts] which bolted or riveted to the side of the
crown wheel and rotates with it. Two or four planet wheels are mounted upon a spider
shaft and are fitted inside the case in such a way that the spider shaft is turned end over
end. Also fitted inside the case, and meshing with the plane wheels, are two sun wheels
which are internally splined, and which support and drive the inner ends of the half-shafts.
The gear teeth and the spider shaft are the most highly stressed part of the assembly and
are those most liable to fracture.

63

Fig. 9.5 diagram showing planet and sun gears

Differential principle, Fig. 9.5

This is similar to the simple bar type of brake compensator. In Fig 8.3 the end of the beam
are fitted into slots in the circumference of the discs. If a force is applied to the centre of
64

the beam and at a tangent to the discs [at right angles to their radii], and if each disc offers
the same resistance to being turned, then the reaction forces acting on each disc will rotate
at the same speeds, and two torques or turning moments will be the same. In the practical
differential the discs are the sun wheels on the half-shafts and the beam is the spider shaft
and it planet wheels. When one disc does offer more resistance to being turned than the
other, the beam is forced to pivot about its centre. The disc with the greatest resistance
will hold back while the other is push forward by the pivoting of the beam. Under the of a
continuous tangential force at the centre of the beam one is slower and one faster in
rotation than the tangential force; i.e. the revolution per minute lost by the disc with the
greater resistance are gained by the other. The reaction forces on the discs are the same
because the force available is divided equally by the beam. The radii are the same so the
toque acting on each is the (torque= force * radius) although their speeds are now
different.

.
Operation
Vehicle running straight, Fig. 9.6
The driving torque of the propeller shaft and of the pinion is increased by his speed
reduction between the pinion and the crown wheel. The direction of the drive is turned
bodily through a right angle. T he differential spider is rotated end over end, carrying the
planet wheels with it although they do not rotate on the spider. The road wheels, halfshafts and sun wheels offer the same resistance to being turned and the differential gearing
does not therefore operate.

Fig. 9.6.deferential unit showing operations: Vehicle running straight

65

Vehicle cornering. Fig. 9. 7

During a turn the outer wheel has to move along an arc of greater radius than the inner
wheel, and to do this in the same time it must be speeded up. The inner wheel is slowed
down as the vehicle turns and this increase the resistance of its sun wheel. The spider shaft
is still being turned end over at crown wheel speed, and as the inner sun wheel slows the
planet wheels are forced to rotate on the spider shaft and about the inner sun wheel. In so
doing the speed of the outer sun, and the outer road wheel, is increased by the same
proportion as the speed of the inner sun is reduced.
The torque is still divided equally between the two half-shafts but their speeds are
different. Note. The differential system only operates when there is a difference between
the resistances to turning of the road wheels. When one wheel loses its grip on a poor
surface its resistance is reduce to zero. The planet gear wheels therefore rotate on their
spider and run around the sun of the opposite wheel. This remains stationary and the
slipping wheel is driven by all available torque. Vehicles which, have to operate over poor
ground (e.g. Tractors, civil engineering and military vehicles) are often fitted with a devise
which puts the differential gearing out of operation as required. In effect the two halfshafts joined together so that one wheel can drive when the other slips.

Fig. 9.7.Deferential action: vehicle cornering.

9.4.

66

Axle shaft arrangements

Three main methods are used to support the half-shafts in the rear axle case. In all of them
the inner ends of the shafts are splined into, and supported by, the sun wheels of the
differential assembly (see Fig.). The differences lie in the arrangement of the hub bearings
in relation to both the case and shaft, and in the forces or loads imposed upon the shaft
itself.

Semi-floating, Fig.
The hub and the half-shaft are, in effect, a one-piece unit although they may in be splined
or fitted together by means of a taper, key and lock-nut. The bearing is carried on the
shaft and is located by a nut or a sleeve. The outer track of the bearing is fitted a recess in
the axle case and is located by a retainer plats bolted to the end flange of the axle case.
This retainer usually encloses a spring-loaded oil seal and often in corporate an oil or
grease trap to prevent excess lubricant ruining the brake linings.

Three quarter floating, Fig.9.8

The bearing is mounted on the casing and is held against a shoulder by a lock-nut and tab
washer. The hub is made in two parts, the inner part fitting over the bearing and also
enclosing a spring-loaded oil seal. The outer part may be integral with the half-shaft, be a
splined and interference fit upon it, or be secured to the shaft by a taper, key and lock-nut.
The brake drum may be integral with the hub outer half or secured to it by countersunkheaded set screw. The back-plate mounting flange is nearer to the centre of the axle than
in the semi-floating designs.

67

Fig. 9.8. Diagram showing axle supports

Fully floating, Fig 9.8
This is a design generally used in commercial vehicles. The hub is a heavy forging or
casting of steel and is carried on the axle case by two heavy-duty opposed taper-roller
bearings. The tracks of these bearings are located by shoulders and a lock-nut, and are
adjustable. The hub drive planet is integral with the shaft and is secured to the hub by
radially arranged set bolts, a gasket being fitted between the two. A spring-loaded oil seal
is fitted into the inner side the hub near the back-plate flange.

WEEK 10

10.0. THE BODY AND CHASSIS

Fig.10. 1 Formation BVM

10.1. Chassis and Vehicle Body Technology

General Objectives:
On completion of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Know the reason for the general layout and distinguish between body constructions.

68

2. Appreciate the construction of the vehicle chassis with respect to materials, frame and
methods of reinforcement.
3. Know the essential features of construction and in pressed steel and customized body
work.
4. Know the various types of body construction and body styling.
5. Appreciate the integral construction of a vehicle body and means of mounting its main
components.
6. Appreciate the principle of car body construction and finishing.

10.2. Separate chassis-body types (fig.10 A)

In this form of construction, now confined to the larger and heavier vehicles, the chassis and the
body are each made as a separate unit and then bolted together. Although the body adds to the
weight of the complete assembly it adds very little to its strength.
The shape of the chassis is determined by the location of the power unit, the arrangement of the
suspension system and the loads to be carried. The function of the chassis is to act as the frame
or skeleton of the vehicle, providing a mounting for all the other assemblies and keeping them in
their correct relative positions, in spite of all the varying loads to which they are subject. It must
be strong and rigid, and is usually made from steel pressings which are welded and riveted
together. Reinforcement is provided, where necessary, to add to its rigidity.

Essentially the chassis consists of two long side-members with shorter cross-members. The
assembled shape varies between the different types of vehicle, those for commercial vehicle
being simpler but much stronger and heavier. The side members are usually of channel section
in commercial vehicles and of box section in cars, the latter being deeper in section between the
wheels to provide greater resistance to bending load. The forward and rear ends are upswept to
allow for the movement of the axles, and (in plan view) are made narrow at the forward end to
allow a greater steering lock and therefore a smaller vehicle turning circle.
The cross-members connect the side members and are of channel, box or tubular section. They
are welded, riveted or bolted to the side members. Additional cross-members are sometimes
added to provide extra resistance to engine torque.
When independent types of suspension are used the chassis has to be made much more rigid to
resist the twisting of the chassis members. The upsweep at the forward end is reduced and

69

engine is arranged lower in the chassis. This improves the road-holding of the vehicle and is
only possible because allowance for axle movement is now no longer required (no beam axle).

Fig. 10.2 Car body skeleton(A separate and B integral types)

10.3. Integral body type (fig. 10.2 B)
This the modern form of construction for almost all cars and lighter commercial vehicles. It is
light in weight and, when produce in very large numbers, is relatively cheap. The chassis, floor
and body are assembled by welding from a very large number of mild steel pressings, each being
correctly aligned by using jigs. Although particularly light the assembly is very strong because
all the load acting on it is spread over the whole of it. The chassis becomes a sub-frame in this
form of construction and other sub-frames are usually attached by rubber mountings to reduce
the amount of noise and vibration transmitted to the body shell.
These body assemblies must be well protected from corrosion because of the thin steel
employed. Chemical compounds and special paints have to be applied to the underside of the
vehicle at regular intervals, and all boxed sections should be sprayed internally with anticorrosion solutions. Water drain holes in these sections and in doors must be clear. The
vibration or drumming of the larger panels is a common fault and special compounds are
painted on their inner sides to reduce this. Felt may also be used.

70

10.4. Motor vehicle body structure sub frame assemblies

Fig 10.3. Motor vehicle body structures

WEEK 11 differentiate
General objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:1.
identify automobile steering parts by their correct names
2.
to sketch steering Colum and show major parts
3. differentiate between the rack and pinion steering box from other makes
11.1. The steering System functions
The steering system of the motor vehicle must:
(a)
Enable the driver to control accurately the path taken by the vehicle at all times.
(b)
Be light and easy to operate
(c)
Be self centering
(d)
Be as direct as possible in action
(e)
Not be affected by the action of the suspension and braking systems.

11.2. STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

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The steering system has four major components:

1. The steering wheel and steering shaft that transmit the drivers movement to the

steering gear.

Fig. 11.1. steering ring and colum

2. The steering gear that increases the mechanical advantage while changing the
rotary motion of the steering wheel to linear motion.
3. The steering Colum
4. The steering linkage that carries that carries the linear motion to the steering arms

11.3. TYPES OF STEERING GEARS

Two types of steering gears widely used in automotive
vehicles, are the cam and peg steering gear and the
Rack-and-pinion steering gears are made in manual and
power versions.

Fig 11.2. Rack and pinion steering

Fig.11.3. Cam and peg steering box
CONSTRUCTION:
The complete steering system consists of a steering wheel and gearbox, and a system of
rods, levers, and ball pin joints which transmit the motion of the drop arm of the steering
gearbox to the track arms of the swiveling stub axles. Where a beam axle is used, the drop
72

arm is connected to the track arm of the stub axle by the drag link. The track arm of the
opposite stub axle is connected to the first arm by a track rod. This may be arranged
longitudinally or transversely and is adjustable in length. It may be fitted behind or in
front of the axle, its function being to keep the front wheels parallel with each other when
the vehicle is running straight forward. The drag link may or may not be adjustable, and it
is so arranged that its operation is not affected by the movement of the axle and the
springs.
The various rods and links are connected by ball pin joints which permit movement in
more than one plane. These joints may or may not be adjustable, and are spring loaded to
take up wear and free play. They may be pre-packed with lubricant or require lubricating
at regular intervals. They must be protected from the entry of dirt and water.

Figure 11.4 Rack and pinion steering

11.4. STEERING GEOMETRY

True Rolling Motion
In order to provide effective control of the steering of the vehicle, and to reduce tyre and
bearing wear, it is important that the wheels rotate, under all conditions, with a true rolling
motion i.e. free from side drag (tyre scrub).
When the vehicle is running straight, all the wheels should rotate truly automatically.
When the vehicle has to negotiate a curve or a corner, the steering inner road wheel has to
be swiveled through a larger angle than the outer wheel to maintain true rolling motion.
The difference between the two angles has to vary with the sharpness of the turn, and it
must be provided both accurately and automatically. This is to ensure that each wheel is
aligned at 90o to its own radius of turn, i.e. the line between the centre of the wheel and the
centre of the turn. As near as practicable, these differences is swiveling angles are obtained
by using the Ackerman system.

73

Ackerman principles. the Ackerman system the end of the track man of each stub axle
is secured to the end of a transverse track rod, the rod being of such a length that at each
side one end lies upon the line between the kingpin and a point on, or near, the pinion nose
of the rear axle. The angle formed by these two lines is called the Ackerman angle, and its
size is such that when the track rod is moved it ceases to remain parallel with the axle,
taking up instead a position in which it moves
the two track arms and their respective road
wheels through the require different angles.
The size of the Ackerman angle and the angular
differences at the wheels depends upon the ratio
of
fig. 11.5
the vehicle track divided by the wheel base. In
the Ackerman system the correct differences
are, in fact, only obtained in the straight
forward position and in one position in each
lock. Slight inaccuracies in all other wheel
positions are normally absorbed by slight
deflections of the tires.
While the Ackerman system provides reasonably accurate steering geometry for slowmoving vehicle it has to be modified, by a combination of calculation and experiment, for
faster-moving and lighter vehicles. This is because of the effects upon the steering of lowpressure tires, differences in tyre tread and construction, the distribution of vehicle weight,
the softer suspensions, and the effects of centrifugal force and cross winds.

11.5 principles of camber

Fig.11.6. Camber angle

Fig. Castor angle

WEEK 12
74

12.0. TIRES AND WHEELS

12.1 Functions of tires

Tires have two functions.
First, they are air-filled cushions that absorb most of the shocks caused by road
irregularities. The tires flex as they meet those irregularities. This reduces the effect of
road shocks on the vehicle, passengers, and load.
Second, the tires grip the road to provide good traction. This enables the vehicle to
accelerate, brake, and make turns without skidding.

12.2, TYPES OF TIRES

Fig. 12.1. Tyre thread patterns.

There are two types of tires: tube and tubeless. Tube tires have an inner tube inside the
tire. This is a round rubber container that holds the air which supports the vehicle. Both
the tube and tire mount on the wheel rim. A tire valve is part of the tube and protrudes
through the rim. Compressed air is forced through the valve to inflate the tube. The air
pressure in the tube then causes the tire to hold its shape.
Tubes are used in some truck and motorcycle tires. Tubes are seldom used in passenger
and light-duty vehicles. Most automotive vehicle use tubeless tires. The tire mounts on an
airtight rim so air is retained between the flange and the tire bead.

12.3. TIRE VALVE

75

Air is put into the tire or tube through a spring-loaded tire valve or Schrader valve. On
tube tires, the valve is on the inner tube and sticks out through a hole in the rim. Tubeless
tires use a separate tire valve mounted in a hole in the rim.

12.4 TIRE PRESSURE

The amount of air pressure in the tire depends on the type of tire and how it is used.
Passenger-car tires are inflated from about 22 to 36 psi [152 to 248 kPa]. The maximum
inflation pressure is marked on the tire sidewall. A tire placard or tire information

label.
This label is usually located on a door edge or door jamb, or inside the glove box door.
The label also lists maximum load and tire and tire size (including spare).

Figure 22.2. Tyre and rim sizes

Pneumatic tires are made in a variety of sizes. The size is usually indicated by a code such as
195/60 R 15. 88H. The number 195 is the width of the tire measured in millimeters. The number
60 is the tires height-to-width, or aspect, ratio. This tire has sidewalls that are 88 percent as high
as the tires width. The letter R stands for radial, which is a design type, and 15 means that the
tire will fit a rim 15 inches (38 cm) in diameter.

12.5 Motor vehicle tyre rim

76

Fig. 12.3. Rims

77

Week 13
13.0. Braking system
General objectives: know how hydraulic braking system operates
13.1. Braking system and their operating principles.

The purpose of the brake system is to allow the driver to slow down or stop the vehicle
as required. A braking system provides the means of retarding a motor vehicle by
converting the Kinetic energy it possessed into heat energy through friction.
In order to provide effective retardation a brake unit is fitted to each road wheel of the
vehicle.

The layout of a single line hydraulic braking system.

Fig. (13.1) Single line Brake system

78

13.2 The main part sand functions of hydraulic braking system

The main parts in the brake system and their function are given is Table (2.7.1)
Brake Component

Function

Master cylinder

Enables transferring driver's foot pedal force to each brake unit

through the hydraulic fluid

Servo unit

Assists the drivers effort in applying the brakes

Reservoir

Contains a reserve quantity of hydraulic brake fluid

Steel pipe line

Connect the components in the hydraulic circuit

Flexible pipes

Allows for suspension and steering movement of the wheels.

wheel cylinder

Forces the shoes to expand outwards.

Table (13.2.1) brake system and function

79

Figure 33.2. A comprehensive hydraulic brake futures

13.3. Operation of drum and disc brake assemble.

Fig. 13.3 Brake expander action

A brake drum rotates together with the

wheel. The brake shoes press against
the drum from the inside. This friction
controls the rotation of the wheel. It is
necessary to inspect the brake drum and
brake lining. :
The brake shoes press against the
rotating drum from the inside to get
braking power. When pressed in the
same direction as the drum rotates, the
shoes make inroads into the rotational
direction by the friction with the drum. As
a result, the friction power increases,
which is called self-energizing action.

Wheel cylinder

Brake shoe

Brake lining

Brake drum

Piston

Piston cup

80

13.4. The brake servo.

Brake servo unit: thest units are

used to obtain a more powerful
retardation of the vehicle without
the use of increased pwdal force.
They are fitted into the fluid system
after the master cylinder, and use a
pressyre difference between the two
sides of a vacuum piston to increase
the pressure acting in the wheel
Figure 43.4. Brake servo unit

cylinders.

Fig. 13.3 Brake master cylinder and servo unit: A. brake pedal pivot B. servo unit. C. master
cylinder 1. Hydraulic reservoir 2.check valve 3. Front wheel brake pipe 4. Rear wheel brake
pipe E/G Suction pipe connected to induction manifold.
This pressure must always be directly proportional to the applied pedal force to enable
the driver to feel his braking. Usually the pressure in the cylinders is between one and
therr times that provided by the master cylinder.

81

WEEK 14
14.0. SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

14.1. PURPOSE
The suspension system is located between the wheel axles and the vehicle body or
frame. Its purpose is to;
1. support the weight of the vehicle
2. Cushion bumps and holes in the road.
3. Maintain traction between the tires and the road.
4. Hold the wheels in alignment.

The suspension system allows the vehicle to travel over rough surfaces with a
minimum of up-and down body movement. It also allows the vehicle to corner
with minimum roll or tendency to lose traction between the tires and the road
surface. This provides a cushioning action so road shocks have a minimal effect on
the occupants and load in the vehicle. Road shocks are the actions resulting from
the tires moving up and down as they meet bumps or holes in the road.

14.2. COMPONENTS OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM

The suspension system components include the springs and related parts that
support the weight fo the vehicle body on the axles and wheels. The springs and the
shock absorbers are the two main parts. The springs support the weight fo the
vehicle and its load, and absorb road shocks. The shock absorbers help control or
dampen spring action. Without this control, spring oscillation occurs. The springs
keep the wheels bouncing up and down after they pass bumps or holes. Shock
absorbers allow the basic spring movement, but quickly dampen out the unwanted
bouncing that follows. These ride control componentssprings and shock
absorbermay be mechanically or electronically controlled. Following sections
describe both types.

14.3. TYPES OF SPRINGS

Four types of springs are used in automotive suspension systems. These are coil,
leaf, torsion bar, and air.

14.4.. COIL SPRING

The coil spring is made of a length fo round spring-steel rod wound into a coil. Some
coil springs are made from a tapered rod. This gives the spring a variable spring
rate. As the spring is compressed, its resistance to further compression increases.

14.5. LEAF SPRING

Two types of leaf springs are single-leaf and multileaf springs. These have several
flexible steel plates of graduated length, stacked and held together by clips. In
operation, the spring bends to absorb road shocks. The plates bend and slide on
each other permit this action.

14.6. TORSION BAR

The torsion bar is a straight rod of spring steel, rigidly fastened at one end to the
vehicle frame or body. The other end attaches to an upper or lower control arm. As
the control arm swings up and down in response to wheel movement, the torsion bar
twists to provide spring action.

14.7. AIR SPRING

The air spring is a rubber cylinder or air bag filled with compressed air. A plastic
piston on the lower control arm moves up and down with the lower control arm.
This causes the compressed air to provide spring action. If the load in the vehicle
changes, a valve at the top of the air bah opens to add or release air. An air
compressor connected to the valve keeps the air springs inflated.

14.8. SHOCK ABSORBERS

A shock absorber is a tubular hydraulic device placed near each wheel to control or
dampen spring oscillations. One end of the shock absorber attaches to the vehicle
body or frame. The other end attaches a moving suspension part such as the axle
housing or a control arm. Movement of the spring then causes the shock absorber to
lengthen and shorten.
The purpose of the hydraulic shock absorber is to dampen spring oscillations. It
does not support the weight of the vehicle, nor does it affect vehicle height. Some
shock absorber can perform these functions.

14.9. SHOCK ABSORBER OPERATION

it is basically an oil-filled cylinder or tube in which a piston moves up and down.
This forces the oil or hydraulic fluid in the cylinder to flow through small fluid
passages or orifices in the piston. The resulting fluid friction limits spring bounce.

WEEK 15
15.0. Futures of the modern automobile electronic fuel ignition (EFI) system
Introduction
Fuel injection is one of the ways of getting better control of exhaust emission, which is far better
than conventional carbureted fuel system. It has a better fuel distribution (equally) among all
cylinder!.
15.1 Explain the Electronic fuel injection (EFI) system as it replaces the carburetor

Figure15. 5 Electronic fuel injection system showing the ignition switch,

central processing unit, spark plug, injector nozzle and the injection pump.

The ignition switch is responsible for connecting the ECU to the battery. At the cranking of the
engine the electronic control unit controls the performance of the spark plug, injector nozzle and
the injection pump operation to allow starting and continues running.
15.2. Description: features of the electronic spark ignition as it replaces the contact-breaker
unit.

82

Another feature of fuel injection, is its ability to ram air into the combustion chambers of the
engine. The design of the fuel injection intake manifold takes into consideration the linear
distance of the ram pipes and the air velocity. Sonic wave tune tl1e intake manifold, thereby
providing at a given engine speed, a condition known as dynamic supercharging, which results in
increased
volumetric
efficiency,
and
additional
engine
torque.

Figure15. 6 Fuel injection system engine (fuel line)

15.3. FUEL INJECTION AND AIR FLOW CONTROL

In fuel injection system, the air is directed into the combustion chamber, through the intake
manifold with uniform volume and velocity. The fuel is injected directly it1tO the combustion
chamber or at intake valve under calibrated pressure. This process ensures precise fuel control
for all condition:; 0f operation, which allow for better handling of leaner mixtures than can be
found in conventional carburetor.

83

15.4. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION OF FUEL INJECTION ENGINE.

Figure 15.3
Fig. 15.3fuel system
identification

Figure 15.4 Futures of electronic spark ignition system

BB00 battery
C001 central socket connector
CA00 ignition switch
V13000engine diagnosis warning lamp
1135 ignition coil
1211 fuel pump
1215 purge canister solenoid valve
1220 coolant thermistor
1226 idle regulation motor and idle switch
1240 inlet air thermistor
1269 mixture heating relay.
1270 thermal heating insert
1304 injection multi-function double relay.

on engine parts.

84

1313 engine speed and position sensor

1316 throttle potentiometer.
1320 ignition injection control unit.
1330 injector
1350 oxygen sensor
1620 vehicle speed sensor
A the fuel pressure regulator
B canister reservoir.
C fuel filter.
D fuel tank

Table
15.1
Identi
ficatio
n of
fuel
injecti