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PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

Material Properties
Concrete is the most commonly used building material. It has the advantage of being formed
into any desired shape most conveniently. It is an artificial stone obtained by mixing
aggregates, cement and water and allowing the product to cure for hardening. Its essential
ingredients are cement and water, which react with each other chemically, to form another
material having useful strength. The strength of concrete depends upon the quality of its
ingredients, their relative quantities and the manner in which they are mixed, compacted and
cured. It is possible to produce concrete of different specifications for various purposes by
suitably adjusting the proportions of cement, aggregate and water.
Reinforced concrete is a composite material made of concrete and steel. Plain concrete
possesses high compressive strength but little tensile strength, which makes it weak in
bending, shear and torsion. Reinforcing steel possesses high strength both in tension and
compression. In reinforced concrete, steel provides the tensile strength and the concrete
provides the compressive strength. So, by combining these features of concrete and steel, it
attains high utility and versatility.
Advantages of RC
- It is moldable into any desired shape
- It does not deteriorate with time
- It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant
- It is monolithic
Disadvantage of RC
- Difficult to dismantle
- Formwork is expensive
- Difficult to supervise after pouring
- Due to crack, large portions of section not effectively used.
Important Features of Concrete
Compressive strength:
- Main measure of the structural quality of concrete.
- Test for their property is made either in the cylinder specimen (6 X 12in 150 X 300mm)
ASTM standard or specimen of 150mm cube to obtain cylinder compressive strength fcor
cube compressive strength fcu, respectively. These tests are made generally on the 28th day
of moist cure specimen at 70 50F. The latter measurement, i.e. cube is used in the
Ethiopian standard where concrete is graded as C5, C10, C15, C20, C25, C30, C40, C50,
C60 in which the number indicate the cube strength in MPa.
Stress strain curve.
fc
or fck
0.5fc

Tan - Secant Modulus

Tan - Tangent Modulus

As there is no fixed ratio of fc/ to define the term modulus of elasticity, whenever E is used
without further designation, it is usually meant the secant modulus Ec in MPa.
The characteristic compressive strength is defined as that strength below which 5% of all
possible strength measurements may be expected to fall.
Conversion factors for strength
Size and type of test specimen
Cube (200 mm)
Cylinder (150 mm diameter 300 mm height)

Conversion factor
1.05
1.25

Grades of concrete and characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck

Grades of
Concrete
C15
C20
C25
C30
C40
fck
12
16
20
24
32

C50
40

C60
48

Modulus of Elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity depends not only on the concrete grade but also on the actual
properties of the aggregates used. In the absence of more accurate data,

* Ecm 9.5 f ck 8

* Secant Modulus
Creep:
Another important factor to be considered in stress-strain of concrete is creep: a property
where increase in strain under constant load with time is observed. Factors attributing:loading at an early stage, high water- cement ratio, exposing the concrete to drying condition.
Tensile strength:
- Important in design to resist shear, torsion control crack width.
- Difficult to obtain from test because of handling problems. Based on tests for other property
empirical relations are used to obtain tensile strength. For instance, in Ethiopian standards
fctk= 0.21 fck2/3, where fctk = tensile strength of concrete in MPa fck characteristic
cylindrical compressive strength in MPa.
Reinforcing steel
- High strength high costing material.
- The two materials - concrete steel are best used in combination if the concrete is made to
resist the compression stresses and the steel, the tensile stresses.
- When RC elements are used , sufficient bond b/n the two materials must be developed to
insure that there is no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete.
This bond may be developed by
- chemical adhesion.
- natural roughness.
- closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforced force.

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Reinforcement bars varying in size 6 to 35 mm in size are available in which most are surface
deformed except 6. Some bar size and design areas for design purpose are given below.
Diameter ( mm)
6
8
10
12
14

Area (mm2)
28
50
78.5
113
154

Diameter ( mm)
16
18
20
22
24

Area (mm2)
200
254
314
380
450

Characteristic properties of reinforcement bars is expressed using its yield strength fy(fyk) &
modulus of elasticity Es. fyvarying between 220 to 550 Mpa, with 300 Mpa common in this
country. Es ranges between 200 to 210 Mpa.
Behavior Under Load
Loads
Loads that act on structures can be divided into three broad categories: dead loads, live loads,
and environmental loads.
Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the
lifetime of the structure. Usually the major part of the dead load is the weight of the structure
itself. This can be calculated with good accuracy from the design configuration, dimensions
of the structure, and density of the material. For buildings, floor fill, finish floors, and
plastered ceilings are usually included as dead loads, and an allowance is made for suspended
loads such as piping and lighting fixtures. For bridges, dead loads may include wearing
surfaces, sidewalks, and curbing, and an allowance is made for piping and other suspended
loads.
Live loads consist chiefly of occupancy loads in buildings and traffic loads on bridges. They
may be either fully or partially in place or not present at all, and may also change in location.
Their magnitude and distribution at any given time are uncertain, and even their maximum
intensifies throughout the lifetime of the structure are not known with precision. The
minimum live loads for which the floors and roof of a building should be designed are usually
specified in the building code that governs at the site of construction. Representative values
of minimum live loads to be used in a wide variety of buildings are found in Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures , a portion of which is reprinted in table below. The
table gives uniformly distributed live loads for various types of occupancies; these include
impact provisions where necessary. These loads are expected maxima and considerably
exceed average values.
In addition to these uniformly distributed loads, it is recommended that, as an alternative to
the uniform load, floors be designed to support safely certain concentrated loads if these
produce a greater stress. For example, office floors are to be designed to carry a load of 2000
lb distributed over an area 2.5 ft square, to allow for the weight of a safe or other heavy
equipment, and stair treads must safely support a 300 lb load applied on the canter of the
tread. Certain reductions are often permitted in live loads for members supporting large areas,
on the premise that it is not likely that the entire area would be fully loaded at one time.

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Tabulated live loads cannot always be used. The type of occupancy should be considered and
the probable loads computed as accurately as possible. Warehouses for heavy storage may be
designed for loads as high as 500 psf or more; unusually heavy operations in manufacturing
buildings may require a large increase in the 125 psf value specified in table below; special
provisions must be made for all definitely located heavy concentrated loads.
Minimum uniformly distributed live loads
Occupancy or use

Live load,
psf Occupancy or use

Apartments (see residential)

Manufacturing
Armories and drill rooms
150
Light
Assembly areas and theaters
Heavy
Fixed seats (fastened to floor)
60 Marquees and canopies
Lobbies
100 Office buildings
Movable seats
100
File and computer rooms shall
Platforms (assembly)
100
be designed for heavier loads
Stage floors
150
based on anticipated occupancy
Balconies (exterior)
100
Lobbies
On one- and two-family residences
Offices
only, and not exceeding 100 ft2 60 Penal institutions
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and
Cell blocks
similar recreational areas
75
Corridors
Corridors
Residential
First floor
100
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Other floors same as occupancy
Uninhabitable attics
served except as indicated
without storage
Dance halls and ballrooms
100
Uninhabitable attics
Decks (patio and roof)
with storage
Same as area served, or for the
Habitable attics, sleeping areas
type of occupancy accomodated
All other areas
Dining rooms and restaurants
100
Hotels and multifamily houses
Dwellings (see residential)
Private rooms and corridors
Fire escapes
100
serving them
On single-family dwellings only
40
Public rooms and corridors
Garages (passenger cars only)
50
serving them
#
For trucks and buses use AASHTO
Schools
lane loads (certain additional
Classrooms
requirements for concentrated
Corridors above first floor
loads may control)
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways,
Grandstands (see stadium and arena
and yards, subject to trucking$
bleachers)
Stadium and arena bleachers&
Gymnasiums, main floors, and
Stairs and exit ways
balconies
100
Storage warehouses
Hospitals
Light
Operating rooms, laboratories
60
Heavy
Private rooms
40
Stores
Wards
40
Retail
Corridors above first floor
80
First floor
Hotels (see residential)
Upper floors

Live load,
psfl
125
250
75

100
50
40
100

10
20
30
40
40
100
40
80
250
100
100
125
125
250
100
75

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Libraries
Reading rooms
Stack rooms-not less than*
Corridors above first floor

60
150
50

Wholesale, all floors

Walkways and elevated platforms
(other than exit ways)
Yards and terraces (pedestrians)100

125
60

# American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

*The weights of the book and shelving shall be computed using an assumed density of 65
lb/ft3 (pounds per cubic foot, sometimes abbreviated pcf) and converted to a uniformly
distributed load; this load shall be used if it exceeds 150 psf.
$ AASHTO lane loads should also be considered where appropriate.
& For detailed recommendations, see American National Standard for Assembly Seating,
Tents, and Air-Supported Structures ANSI/NFPA 102.
Service live loads for highway bridges are specified by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in its Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges. For railway bridges, the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) has
published the Manual of Railway Engineering, which specifies traffic loads.
Environmental loads consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake
loads (i.e., inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), soil pressures on subsurface portions
of structures, loads from possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces, and forces caused by
temperature differentials. Like live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain
both in magnitude and distribution.
A minimum roof load of 20 psf is often specified to provide for construction and repair loads
and to ensure reasonable stiffness.
Much progress has been made in recent years in developing rational methods for predicting
horizontal forces on structures due to wind and seismic action. Most building codes specify
design wind pressures per square foot of vertical wall surface. Depending upon locality, these
equivalent static forces vary from about 10 to 50 psf. Factors considered in more up-to-date
standards include probable wind velocity, exposure (urban vs. open terrain, for example),
height of the structure, the importance of the structure (i.e., consequences of failure), and
gust-response factors to account for the fluctuating nature of the wind and its interaction with
the structure.
Seismic forces may be found for a particular structure by elastic or inelastic dynamic analysis,
considering expected ground accelerations and the mass, stiffness, and damping
characteristics of the construction. However, often the design is based on equivalent static
forces calculated from provisions. The base shear is found by considering such factors as
location, type of structure and its occupancy, total dead load, and the particular soil condition.
The total lateral force is distributed to floors over the entire height of the structure in such a
way as to approximate the distribution of forces obtained from a dynamic analysis.

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Behaviour
In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted by
the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the
corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two materials is assumed if the relative
slip is prevented which is achieved by using deformed bars, with their high bond strength at
the steel-concrete interface. To illustrate the stress-strain development for increased loading,
consider the following.

- At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equal to fctk stress-strain relation shown in
fig(a) results.
- At increased load, tensile stress produced larger than fctk (fig.b) cracks developed below
neutral axis, the steel alone carries all tensile force & hence the compressive stress at
extreme fiber is less than fc1/2 (linear stress distribution).
- For further increment of load, the stress distribution is no longer linear as shown in fig(c).
If the structure, say the beam, has reached its maximum carrying capacity, one may conclude
the following on the cause of failure.
1. When the amount of steel is small at some value of the load, the steel reaches its yield
point. In such circumstance, the steel stretches a large amount and tension cracks in the
concrete widens visibly resulting significant deflection of the beam. Compression zone of
concrete increases ending up with crushing of concrete (secondary compression failure).
Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible signs, widening and lengthening of
cracks, marked increase in deflection.
2. When a large amount of steel is used, compressive strength of concrete would be
exhausted before the steel starts yielding, thus, concrete fails by crushing. Compression
failure through crushing of concrete is sudden and occurs without warning.
Thus it is a good practice to dimension sections in such a way that should they be overloaded,
yielding of the steel rather than crushing of concrete would initiate failure.
Basic Concept of Design & Permissible Stresses
The basic aim of structural design is that the structure should be safe, fulfil its intended
purpose during its intended life span, and be economical with regard to its first cost and its
maintenance cost. The design of a structure usually consists of two stages. The first stage
involves the selection of an appropriate type and form of structure and the second stage
consists of detailed design of various components of the chosen structure. The selection of
type and form of structure involves the study of relative cost of different types of structure,

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methods of construction, aesthetic considerations, etc. The detailed design involves
determination of the most economical cross-section and reinforcement detailing of the chosen
structural system consistent with the safety and serviceability requirements. It should insure
safety under worst loading conditions and also the deformations and cracks under the service
load condition should not affect appearance, durability and performance during its intended
life span.
Based on design load determination and the corresponding design strength of materials,
different methods of design have been introduced.
- The Working Stress Design (WSD) Method
- The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method
- The Limit State Design (LSD) Method
The conventional working stress design method is based on the behaviour of the structure, at
working load. It assumes linear stress strain relationship and ensures that the stresses in the
concrete and steel do not exceed the allowable working stresses at service loads. The method
ensures satisfactory behaviour of the structure at working load but gives no indication of the
actual margin of safety against collapse, as the ultimate load carrying capacity cannot be
predicted accurately. Whereas the ultimate strength design method is based on the behaviour
of structure at ultimate load. It provides more realistic assessment of the degree of safety but
may lead to a condition adversely affecting the serviceability of the structure.
Thus the working stress design method ensures satisfactory behaviour at working load and
assumes to possess adequate safety against collapse, whereas the ultimate strength design
method ensure adequate safety against collapse and assumes to behave satisfactorily at
working load. Therefore, neither the working stress design method nor the ultimate strength
design method ensures satisfactory behaviour both at working and at ultimate loads. This
necessitates the development of a rational and practical design method which ensures the
safety of the structure against collapse and serviceability at working loads. Such a design
method aims at guaranteeing adequate safety against the structure being unfit for use. A
structure is unfit for use when it reaches the acceptable limits f or collapse and serviceability
requirements. Such states are known as limit states and the design method that ensures
adequate safety against such limit states is as the limit state design method.
When applying WSD method safety of members for strength requirements due to service
loads is ensured by reducing the allowable stress to a prescribed value. For instance, the
allowable compressive stress in extreme fiber of concrete should not exceed 0.425fck(fc) and
that of tensile stress in steel 0.52fyk, for class I works. These are 0.386fck & 0.5fyk, respectively
for class II works.
Thus the satisfaction of strength requirements can be checked by explicit calculation,
however, deflection control & durability requirements may be satisfied through several
detailing and implicit computation. Deflection limits are assumed to be satisfied when the
minimum effective depth for a particular member is (Ethiopian conditions),
f yk

d 0.4 0.6
400

Le

Where: fyk - Characteristic strength of reinforcement in MPa.

Le effective span (the shorter span in case of two way slab
a - Constant, a function of the restraints as given below.

Table values of a
Member
Simple support
Beams
20
Slabs:
Span ratio 2:1
25
Span ratio 1:1
35

End span
24

Interior span
28

Cantilever
10

30
40

35
45

12
10

Durability and control of crack width is related with finishing and provision of adequate cover
to reinforcement to reinforcement. Nominal cover of structural elements located in the interior
of a building with dry environment and mild condition is 15 mm (e.g. slab; humid
environment with moderate exposure is 25 mm e.g. beam ; severe exposure 50 mm e.g.
footing.