In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of

an electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space (usually air),
with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. It is defined in "Standard Definitions of
Terms for Antennas", IEEE Std 145-1983, as "The loss between two isotropic radiators in free space,
expressed as a power ratio." Usually it is expressed in dB, although the IEEE standard does not say
that. So it assumes that the antenna gain is a power ratio of 1.0, or 0 dB. It does not include any loss
associated with hardware imperfections, or the effects of any antennas gain. A discussion of these
losses may be found in the article on link budget. The FSPL is rarely used standalone, but rather as
a part of the Friis transmission equation, which includes the gain of antennas.

Free-space path loss formula[edit]

Free-space path loss is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and
receiver, and also proportional to the square of the frequency of the radio signal.
The equation for FSPL is

where:

is the signal wavelength (in metres),

is the signal frequency (in hertz),

is the distance from the transmitter (in metres),

is the speed of light in a vacuum, 2.99792458 108 metres per second.

This equation is only accurate in the far field where spherical spreading can be assumed; it does
not hold close to the transmitter.

Free-space path loss in decibels[edit]

A convenient way to express FSPL is in terms of dB:

where the units are as before.

For typical radio applications, it is common to find

measured in units of GHz and

in km,

in which case the FSPL equation becomes

For

in meters and kilohertz, respectively, the constant becomes

For

in meters and megahertz, respectively, the constant becomes

For

in kilometers and megahertz, respectively, the constant becomes

.
.
.

Physical explanation[edit]
The FSPL expression above often leads to the erroneous belief that free
space attenuates an electromagnetic wave according to its frequency. This is not the
case, as there is no physical mechanism that could cause this. The expression for FSPL
actually encapsulates two effects.

The free space path loss, FSPL, is used in many areas for predicting radio signal strengths that may
be expected in a radio system.
Although the free space path loss does not hold for most terrestrial situations because of other
effects from the ground, objects in the path and the like, there are still very many situations in which
it can be used. It is also useful as the basis for understanding many real life radio propagation
situations.
Accordingly, the free space path loss, FSPL, is an essential basic parameter for many RF
calculations. It can often be used as a first approximation for many short range calculations.
Alternatively it can be used as a first approximation for a number of areas where there are few
obstructions. As such it is a valuable tool for many people dealing with radio communications
systems.

Free space path loss

In addition to this, these free space path loss, FSPL, calculations can be used in wireless survey
tools where the free space loss is calculated and other scenarios added to provide an overall view of
the signal strength at a given point. With the growing requirements to be able to analyse wireless or
radio coverage, wireless survey tools are being used increasingly to enable coverage to be predicted
at the early stages of design. Accordingly these wireless survey tools are being used increasingly in
the development and installation of radio and wireless systems.

Free space path loss basics

The free space path loss, also known as FSPL is the loss in signal strength that occurs when an
electromagnetic wave travels over a line of sight path in free space. In these circumstances there
are no obstacles that might cause the signal to be reflected refracted, or that might cause additional
attenuation.
The free space path loss calculations only look at the loss of the path itself and do not contain any
factors relating to the transmitter power, antenna gains or the receiver sensitivity levels. These
factors are normally address when calculating a link budget and these will also be used within radio
and wireless survey tools and software.
To understand the reasons for the free space path loss, it is possible to imagine a signal spreading
out from a transmitter. It will move away from the source spreading out in the form of a sphere. As it
does so, the surface area of the sphere increases. As this will follow the law of the conservation of
energy, as the surface area of the sphere increases, so the intensity of the signal must decrease.
As a result of this it is found that the signal decreases in a way that is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source of the radio signal in free space.

Whilst the free space path loss is taken to be inversely proportional to the square of the distance, in
most terrestrial (non-free space) cases this basic formula has to be altered because of the effects of
the earth and obstacles including trees, hills, buildings, etc.. In these cases the exponent value is
typically in the range of 2 to 4. In some environments, such as buildings, stadiums and other indoor
environments, the path loss exponent can reach values in the range of 4 to 6. In other words for the
very worst case scenarios the signal may fall as the distance to the power six.

Tunnels which can act as a form of waveguide can result in a path loss exponent values of less than
2.
As an example many cellular operators base their calculations for terrestrial signal reduction around
the inverse of the distance to the power 4.

Free space path loss formula

The free space path loss formula or free space path loss equation is quite simple to use. Not only is
the path loss proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver, but the
signal level is also proportional to the square of the frequency in use for other reasons explained in a
section below.

Where:
FSPL is
the
Free
the
distance
of
the
receiver
is
the
signal
f is
the
signal
c is the speed of light in a vacuum (metres per second)
d is

space
path
from
the
transmitter
wavelength
frequency

loss
(metres)
(metres)
(Hertz)

The speed of light is 2.99792458 x 10^8 metres per second, although for most practical purposes,
this is taken to be 3 x 10^8 metres per second.
The free space path loss formula is applicable to situations where only the electromagnetic wave is
present, i.e. for far field situations. It does not hold true for near field situations.

Free space loss formula frequency dependency

Although the free space loss equation given above seems to indicate that the loss is frequency
dependent. The attenuation provided by the distance travelled in space is not dependent upon the
frequency. This is constant.
The reason for the frequency dependence is that the equation contains two effects:

1. The first results from the spreading out of the energy as the sphere over which the energy is
spread increases in area. This is described by the inverse square law.

2. The second effect results from the antenna aperture change. This affects the way in which
any antenna can pick up signals and this term is frequency dependent.

As one constituent of the path loss equation is frequency dependent, this means that there is a
frequency dependency within the complete equation.

Decibel version of free space path loss equation

Most RF comparisons and measurements are performed in decibels. This gives an easy and
consistent method to compare the signal levels present at various points. Accordingly it is very
convenient to express the free space path loss formula, FSPL, in terms of decibels. It is easy to take
the basic free space path loss equation and manipulate into a form that can be expressed in a
logarithmic format.

Where:
d is
the
distance
f is the signal frequency (MHz)

of

the

receiver

from

the

transmitter

(km)

Effect of antenna gain on path loss equation

The free space path loss equation above does not include any component for antenna gains. It is
assumed that the antenna gain is unity for both the transmitter. In reality, though, all antennas will
have a certain amount of gain and this will affect the overall signal level. Any antenna gain will
reduce the "loss" when compared to a unity gain system. The figures for antenna gain are relative to
an isotropic source, i.e. an antenna that radiates equally in all directions.

Path loss parameters

Where:
Gtx is the gain of the transmitter antenna relative to an isotropic
Grx is the gain of the receiver antenna relative to an isotropic source (dBi)

source

(dBi)

Normally the transmitter and receiver gain levels will incorporate any feeder losses which are
subtracted from the antenna gain. In this way performance between the transmitter and receiver
interfaces are provided.
The path loss equation or formula given above, is an essential tool that is required when making
calculations for radio and wireless systems either manually or within applications such as wireless
survey tools, etc. By using the path loss equation, it is possible to determine the signal strengths that
may be expected in many scenarios. While the path loss formula is not fully applicable where there
are other interactions, e.g. reflection, refraction, etc as are present in most real life applications, the
equation can nevertheless be used to give an indication of what may be expected. It is obviously
fully applicable to satellite systems where the paths conform closely to the totally free space
scenarios. .......